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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_L._Borgman
Christine L. Borgman
["1 Partial bibliography","2 References","3 External links"]
American Information Studies professor This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "Christine L. Borgman" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (December 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article's lead section may be too long. Please read the length guidelines and help move details into the article's body. (April 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Christine L. BorgmanNationalityAmericanAlma materStanford University, University of Pittsburgh, Michigan State UniversityKnown forWork on scholarly communication, scientific information, and bibliometricsAwardsAmerican Association for the Advancement for Science Fellow, Best Information Science book of the year award from the American Society for Information Science and TechnologyScientific careerFieldsInformation scienceInstitutionsUniversity of California, Los Angeles Christine L. Borgman is a distinguished Professor and Presidential Chair in Information Studies at UCLA. She is the author of more than 200 publications in the fields of information studies, computer science, and communication. Two of her sole-authored monographs, Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet (MIT Press, 2007) and From Gutenberg to the Global Information Infrastructure: Access to Information in a Networked World (MIT Press, 2000), have won the Best Information Science Book of the Year award from the American Society for Information Science and Technology. She is a lead investigator for the Center for Embedded Networked Sensing (CENS), a National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center, where she conducts data practices research. She chaired the Task Force on Cyberlearning for the NSF, whose report, Fostering Learning in the Networked World, was released in July 2008. Prof. Borgman is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), a Legacy Laureate of the University of Pittsburgh, and is the 2011 recipient of the Paul Evan Peters Award from the Coalition for Networked Information, Association for Research Libraries, and EDUCAUSE. The award recognizes notable, lasting achievements in the creation and innovative use of information resources and services that advance scholarship and intellectual productivity through communication networks. She is also the 2011 recipient of the Research in Information Science Award from the American Association of Information Science and Technology. In 2013, she became a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery. Borgman leads the Center for Knowledge Infrastructures (CKI) located in the UCLA Department of Information Studies. CKI conducts research on scientific data practices and policy, scholarly communication, and sociotechnical systems. She is a member of the U.S. National Academies’ Board on Research Data and Information and the U.S. National CODATA (Committee on Data for Science and Technology), the Strategic Advisory Board to Thomson-Reuters Scholarly Research, the advisory board to the Electronic Privacy Information Center, and Member-at-Large for Section T (Information, Computing, and Communication) of the AAAS. At UCLA, she chairs the Information Technology Planning Board. Her previous services include, chairing Section T of the AAAS, and membership on the Science Advisory Board to Microsoft Corporation, the Board of Directors of the Council on Library and Information Resources, and the advisory board to the Computer & Information Science & Engineering Directorate of the National Science Foundation, and the Association for Computing Machinery Public Policy Council. Borgman is a frequent speaker at conferences and university events. Recent keynotes and plenary presentations include the Oxford Internet Institute's 10th anniversary conference, A Decade in Internet Time, the International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries, Coalition for Networked Information, Santa Fe Institute, Digital Humanities Conference, Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, 40th Anniversary Conference of the Open University, Marschak Lecture (UCLA), Kanazawa Institute International Seminar on Libraries (Japan), and invited talks to Oxford University, Harvard University, Columbia University, University of Pittsburgh, and Michigan State University. She is a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, Journal of Digital Information, International Journal of Digital Curation, ASInformation Research, Policy and Internet, and the Journal of Library & Information Science Research. Previous editorial board service includes The Information Society, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Journal of Communication Research, Journal of Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, and the Journal of Documentation. She was Program Chair for the First Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (ACM and IEEE) and serves on program committees for the International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries, the Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, the European Conference on Digital Libraries, American Society for Information Science and Technology, and Conceptions of Library and Information Science (COLIS) conferences. Borgman's international activities include posts as a visiting scholar at the Oxford Internet Institute, a Fulbright Visiting Professor at the University of Economic Sciences (now Corvinus University of Budapest) and at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, Hungary, a visiting professor in the Department of Information Science at Loughborough University, and a Scholar-in-Residence at the Rockefeller Foundation Study and Conference Center in Bellagio, Italy. She holds the Ph.D. in Communication from Stanford University, M.L.S. from the University of Pittsburgh, and B.A. in Mathematics from Michigan State University. Partial bibliography Effective online searching : a basic text (M. Dekker, 1984) Scholarly communication and bibliometrics (Sage, 1990) From Gutenberg to the global information infrastructure : access to information in the networked world (MIT Press, 2000) Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet (MIT Press, 2007) Big Data, Little Data, No Data: Scholarship in the Networked World (MIT Press, 2015) References ^ "Christine Borgman, Distinguished Research Professor". ucla.edu. UCLA. n.d. Retrieved 2021-01-26. ^ ACM Names Fellows for Computing Advances that Are Transforming Science and Society Archived 2014-07-22 at the Wayback Machine, Association for Computing Machinery, accessed 2013-12-10. External links Borgman's Website Borgman's Faculty Web Page Borgman's Faculty Website (Previous) UCLA Department of Information Studies UCLA Center for Knowledge Knowledge Infrastructures Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Catalonia Germany Israel Belgium United States Sweden Latvia Japan Czech Republic Australia Korea Croatia Netherlands Poland Portugal Academics Association for Computing Machinery CiNii DBLP Google Scholar ORCID People Trove Other IdRef
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Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rockefeller_Foundation_Study_and_Conference_Center&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bellagio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellagio,_Lombardy"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph.D."},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"M.L.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.L.S."},{"link_name":"B.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts"}],"text":"Christine L. Borgman is a distinguished Professor and Presidential Chair in Information Studies at UCLA.[1] She is the author of more than 200 publications in the fields of information studies, computer science, and communication. Two of her sole-authored monographs, Scholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet (MIT Press, 2007) and From Gutenberg to the Global Information Infrastructure: Access to Information in a Networked World (MIT Press, 2000), have won the Best Information Science Book of the Year award from the American Society for Information Science and Technology. She is a lead investigator for the Center for Embedded Networked Sensing (CENS), a National Science Foundation Science and Technology Center, where she conducts data practices research. She chaired the Task Force on Cyberlearning for the NSF, whose report, Fostering Learning in the Networked World, was released in July 2008. Prof. Borgman is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), a Legacy Laureate of the University of Pittsburgh, and is the 2011 recipient of the Paul Evan Peters Award from the Coalition for Networked Information, Association for Research Libraries, and EDUCAUSE. The award recognizes notable, lasting achievements in the creation and innovative use of information resources and services that advance scholarship and intellectual productivity through communication networks. She is also the 2011 recipient of the Research in Information Science Award from the American Association of Information Science and Technology. In 2013, she became a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.[2]Borgman leads the Center for Knowledge Infrastructures (CKI) located in the UCLA Department of Information Studies. CKI conducts research on scientific data practices and policy, scholarly communication, and sociotechnical systems.She is a member of the U.S. National Academies’ Board on Research Data and Information and the U.S. National CODATA (Committee on Data for Science and Technology), the Strategic Advisory Board to Thomson-Reuters Scholarly Research, the advisory board to the Electronic Privacy Information Center, and Member-at-Large for Section T (Information, Computing, and Communication) of the AAAS. At UCLA, she chairs the Information Technology Planning Board. Her previous services include, chairing Section T of the AAAS, and membership on the Science Advisory Board to Microsoft Corporation, the Board of Directors of the Council on Library and Information Resources, and the advisory board to the Computer & Information Science & Engineering Directorate of the National Science Foundation, and the Association for Computing Machinery Public Policy Council.Borgman is a frequent speaker at conferences and university events. Recent keynotes and plenary presentations include the Oxford Internet Institute's 10th anniversary conference, A Decade in Internet Time, the International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries, Coalition for Networked Information, Santa Fe Institute, Digital Humanities Conference, Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, 40th Anniversary Conference of the Open University, Marschak Lecture (UCLA), Kanazawa Institute International Seminar on Libraries (Japan), and invited talks to Oxford University, Harvard University, Columbia University, University of Pittsburgh, and Michigan State University.She is a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, Journal of Digital Information, International Journal of Digital Curation, ASInformation Research, Policy and Internet, and the Journal of Library & Information Science Research. Previous editorial board service includes The Information Society, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, Journal of Communication Research, Journal of Computer-Supported Cooperative Work, and the Journal of Documentation. She was Program Chair for the First Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (ACM and IEEE) and serves on program committees for the International Conference on Asian Digital Libraries, the Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, the European Conference on Digital Libraries, American Society for Information Science and Technology, and Conceptions of Library and Information Science (COLIS) conferences.Borgman's international activities include posts as a visiting scholar at the Oxford Internet Institute, a Fulbright Visiting Professor at the University of Economic Sciences (now Corvinus University of Budapest) and at Eötvös Loránd University in Budapest, Hungary, a visiting professor in the Department of Information Science at Loughborough University, and a Scholar-in-Residence at the Rockefeller Foundation Study and Conference Center in Bellagio, Italy.She holds the Ph.D. in Communication from Stanford University, M.L.S. from the University of Pittsburgh, and B.A. in Mathematics from Michigan State University.","title":"Christine L. Borgman"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Effective online searching : a basic text (M. Dekker, 1984)\nScholarly communication and bibliometrics (Sage, 1990)\nFrom Gutenberg to the global information infrastructure : access to information in the networked world (MIT Press, 2000)\nScholarship in the Digital Age: Information, Infrastructure, and the Internet (MIT Press, 2007)\nBig Data, Little Data, No Data: Scholarship in the Networked World (MIT Press, 2015)","title":"Partial bibliography"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magdalena_Skipper
Magdalena Skipper
["1 Education","2 Career and research","3 References","4 External links"]
Editor-in-Chief of Nature Magdalena SkipperSkipper speaking at Congreso Futuro in 2019Alma materUniversity of Nottingham (BSc)University of Cambridge (PhD)Scientific careerInstitutionsNatureSpringer NatureLaboratory of Molecular BiologyUniversity of CambridgeImperial Cancer Research FundThesisPrimary sex determination mechanisms in Caenorhabditis elegans (1998)Academic advisorsJonathan Hodgkin Magdalena Skipper is a British geneticist and the editor-in-chief of the journal Nature. She previously served as an editor of Nature Reviews Genetics and the open access journal Nature Communications. Education Skipper obtained a bachelor's degree in genetics at the University of Nottingham. She completed her PhD in 1998 at the University of Cambridge, where she worked in Jonathan Hodgkin's lab investigating sex-determination systems in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans. She is a member of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Career and research After completing her PhD she joined the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) at the University of Cambridge. She briefly worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, working on the notch signaling pathway of zebrafish in gut development. Skipper joined Nature in 2001 as an associate editor for Nature Reviews Genetics. During her editorship she interviewed several high-profile scientists including Anne McLaren, Mario Capecchi and Oliver Smithies. In 2002 she was appointed chief editor of Nature Reviews Genetics, and was promoted to associate publisher in 2008. She serves on the advisory board of the Centre for Personalised Medicine at the University of Oxford. Skipper worked briefly as Director for Scientific Communications at the Altius Institute for Biomedical Sciences in Seattle. In 2018 she worked with Nature and Estée Lauder Companies to launch a global award for women in science. She became the first woman editor-in-chief of Nature in its 150-year history in May 2018, when she succeeded Philip Campbell. She has stated that she intends to ensure that science is reproducible and robust, as well as doing more to support early-career researchers. References ^ a b Skipper, Magdalena (1998). Primary sex determination mechanisms in Caenorhabditis elegans. lib.cam.ac.uk (PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. OCLC 894603337. EThOS uk.bl.ethos.624901. ^ a b Skipper, Magdalena (2018). "A welcome from the new Nature editor". Nature. 559 (7712): 6. Bibcode:2018Natur.559....6S. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05606-y. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 29968844. ^ Skipper, Magdalena (2015). "The peopling of Britain". Nature Reviews Genetics. 16 (5): 256–257. doi:10.1038/nrg3938. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 25824870. S2CID 30674163. ^ Skipper, Magdalena (2015). "Strength in numbers in the low-frequency spectrum". Nature Reviews Genetics. 16 (11): 623. doi:10.1038/nrg4024. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 26442638. ^ a b Magda Skipper's ORCID 0000-0001-8707-8369 ^ Skipper, Magdalena (7 November 2016). "Magdalena Skipper". force11.org. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ a b c d Anon (2018). "Dr Magdalena Skipper appointed editor-in-chief at Nature". thebookseller.com. The Bookseller. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ a b "Magdalena Skipper - Careers in Science 2017: Academia and beyond Symposium". Careers in Science 2017: Academia and beyond Symposium. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ Skipper, M.; Milne, C. A.; Hodgkin, J. (1999). "Genetic and molecular analysis of fox-1, a numerator element involved in Caenorhabditis elegans primary sex determination". Genetics. 151 (2): 617–631. doi:10.1093/genetics/151.2.617. PMC 1460491. PMID 9927456. ^ Codrops. "Prof. Magdalena Skipper". igmc-cegmr.org. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ Skipper, Magda (2007). "An Interview with Anne McLaren". Nature Reviews Genetics. 8 (6): 412. doi:10.1038/nrg2123. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 17571324. ^ Skipper, Magda (2005). "An Interview With Mario Capecchi". Nature Reviews Genetics. 6 (6): 434. doi:10.1038/nrg1647. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 15934189. S2CID 31781543. ^ Skipper, Magda (2005). "An Interview With Oliver Smithies". Nature Reviews Genetics. 6 (5): 350. doi:10.1038/nrg1627. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 15880879. ^ "ENCODE Project Telebriefing Participant Bios". National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ NCCR Chemical Biology (25 January 2018), Career discovery: Science publishing (Magdalena Skipper), retrieved 3 May 2018 ^ "People - Centre for Personalised Medicine". www.well.ox.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ "Spotlight on women in science with 2 global awards". saudigazette.com.sa. 19 April 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ "Nature Research and The Estée Lauder Companies launch global awards to celebrate inspirations for women in science". springernature.com. Springer Nature. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ a b Else, Holly (2018). "Nature announces new editor-in-chief". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05060-w. ISSN 0028-0836. ^ "Glamour's New EIC Makes New Hires | People on the Move - Folio". Folio. 2 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018. External links Magdalena Skipper on X Media related to Magdalena Skipper at Wikimedia Commons Preceded byPhilip Campbell Editor in Chief of Nature 2018–present Incumbent Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National United States Academics ORCID
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"geneticist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticist"},{"link_name":"editor-in-chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editor-in-chief"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Skipper2018-2"},{"link_name":"Nature Reviews Genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"open access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access"},{"link_name":"Nature Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Communications"}],"text":"Magdalena Skipper is a British geneticist and the editor-in-chief of the journal Nature.[2] She previously served as an editor of Nature Reviews Genetics[3][4] and the open access journal Nature Communications.","title":"Magdalena Skipper"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Nottingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nottingham"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-orcid-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Hodgkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Hodgkin"},{"link_name":"sex-determination systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex-determination_system"},{"link_name":"Caenorhabditis elegans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenorhabditis_elegans"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-phd-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"Corpus Christi College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Christi_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-8"}],"text":"Skipper obtained a bachelor's degree in genetics at the University of Nottingham.[5][6] She completed her PhD in 1998 at the University of Cambridge, where she worked in Jonathan Hodgkin's lab investigating sex-determination systems in the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans.[1][7] She is a member of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.[8]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Medical Research Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Laboratory of Molecular Biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_of_Molecular_Biology"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"postdoctoral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoctoral"},{"link_name":"fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow"},{"link_name":"Imperial Cancer Research Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Cancer_Research_Fund"},{"link_name":"notch signaling pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notch_signaling_pathway"},{"link_name":"zebrafish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafish"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Nature Reviews Genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"},{"link_name":"Anne McLaren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_McLaren"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anne-11"},{"link_name":"Mario Capecchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Capecchi"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Capecchi2005-12"},{"link_name":"Oliver Smithies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Smithies"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smithies-13"},{"link_name":"Nature Reviews Genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"University of Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-orcid-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-8"},{"link_name":"Estée Lauder Companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Est%C3%A9e_Lauder_Companies"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Philip Campbell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Campbell_(scientist)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pressrelease-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Skipper2018-2"},{"link_name":"reproducible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducibility"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pressrelease-19"}],"text":"After completing her PhD she joined the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) at the University of Cambridge.[9][7] She briefly worked as a postdoctoral fellow at the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, working on the notch signaling pathway of zebrafish in gut development.[7][10]Skipper joined Nature in 2001 as an associate editor for Nature Reviews Genetics.[7] During her editorship she interviewed several high-profile scientists including Anne McLaren,[11] Mario Capecchi[12] and Oliver Smithies.[13] In 2002 she was appointed chief editor of Nature Reviews Genetics, and was promoted to associate publisher in 2008.[14][15] She serves on the advisory board of the Centre for Personalised Medicine at the University of Oxford.[16] Skipper worked briefly as Director for Scientific Communications at the Altius Institute for Biomedical Sciences in Seattle.[5][8]In 2018 she worked with Nature and Estée Lauder Companies to launch a global award for women in science.[17][18] She became the first woman editor-in-chief of Nature in its 150-year history in May 2018, when she succeeded Philip Campbell.[19][20][2] She has stated that she intends to ensure that science is reproducible and robust, as well as doing more to support early-career researchers.[19]","title":"Career and research"}]
[]
null
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PMID 29968844.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-05606-y","url_text":"\"A welcome from the new Nature editor\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.559....6S","url_text":"2018Natur.559....6S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-05606-y","url_text":"10.1038/d41586-018-05606-y"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-0836","url_text":"0028-0836"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29968844","url_text":"29968844"}]},{"reference":"Skipper, Magdalena (2015). \"The peopling of Britain\". Nature Reviews Genetics. 16 (5): 256–257. doi:10.1038/nrg3938. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 25824870. 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PMID 26442638.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg4024","url_text":"\"Strength in numbers in the low-frequency spectrum\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg4024","url_text":"10.1038/nrg4024"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1471-0056","url_text":"1471-0056"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26442638","url_text":"26442638"}]},{"reference":"Skipper, Magdalena (7 November 2016). \"Magdalena Skipper\". force11.org. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190331023611/https://www.force11.org/users/magdalena-skipper","url_text":"\"Magdalena Skipper\""},{"url":"https://www.force11.org/users/magdalena-skipper","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Anon (2018). \"Dr Magdalena Skipper appointed editor-in-chief at Nature\". thebookseller.com. The Bookseller. Retrieved 3 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebookseller.com/news/dr-magdalena-skipper-appointed-editor-chief-nature-780681","url_text":"\"Dr Magdalena Skipper appointed editor-in-chief at Nature\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bookseller","url_text":"The Bookseller"}]},{"reference":"\"Magdalena Skipper - Careers in Science 2017: Academia and beyond Symposium\". Careers in Science 2017: Academia and beyond Symposium. 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PMID 9927456.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1460491","url_text":"\"Genetic and molecular analysis of fox-1, a numerator element involved in Caenorhabditis elegans primary sex determination\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F151.2.617","url_text":"10.1093/genetics/151.2.617"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1460491","url_text":"1460491"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9927456","url_text":"9927456"}]},{"reference":"Codrops. \"Prof. Magdalena Skipper\". igmc-cegmr.org. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 3 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180504091705/http://igmc-cegmr.org/Magdalena%20Skipper.aspx","url_text":"\"Prof. Magdalena Skipper\""},{"url":"http://igmc-cegmr.org/Magdalena%20Skipper.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Skipper, Magda (2007). \"An Interview with Anne McLaren\". Nature Reviews Genetics. 8 (6): 412. doi:10.1038/nrg2123. ISSN 1471-0056. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiajie
Zhangjiajie
["1 History","2 Origin of the name","3 Administrative subdivisions","4 Climate","5 Government","6 Transportation","6.1 Rail","6.2 Roads","7 International relations","7.1 Twin towns — Sister cities","8 References","9 External links"]
Coordinates: 29°07′01″N 110°28′44″E / 29.117°N 110.479°E / 29.117; 110.479City in Hunan, China Prefecture-level city in Hunan, People's Republic of ChinaZhangjiajie 张家界市ZanxjiaxgaifTayungPrefecture-level cityWulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest AreaNickname: DayongLocation of Zhangjiajie City jurisdiction in HunanZhangjiajieLocation of Zhangjiajie City centre in HunanShow map of HunanZhangjiajieLocation of Zhangjiajie City centre in ChinaShow map of ChinaCoordinates (Zhangjiajie municipal government): 29°07′01″N 110°28′44″E / 29.117°N 110.479°E / 29.117; 110.479CountryPeople's Republic of ChinaProvinceHunanArea • Prefecture-level city9,518 km2 (3,675 sq mi) • Urban (2017)55.20 km2 (21.31 sq mi) • Districts2,571.3 km2 (992.8 sq mi)Population (2010) • Prefecture-level city1,476,521 • Density160/km2 (400/sq mi) • Urban (2017)225,700 • Districts584,000GDP • Prefecture-level cityCN¥ 44.8 billionUS$ 7.2 billion • Per capitaCN¥ 29,425US$ 4,724Time zoneUTC+8 (China Standard)ISO 3166 codeCN-HN-08Websitewww.zjj.gov.cn Zhangjiajie"Zhangjiajie" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese charactersSimplified Chinese张家界Traditional Chinese張家界PostalChangkiakaiTayung (until 1994)TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinZhāngjiājièWade–GilesChang1-chia1-chieh4IPA DayongChinese大庸PostalTayungTranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinDàyōngWade–GilesTa4-yung1 Zhangjiajie (simplified Chinese: 张家界; traditional Chinese: 張家界; pinyin: Zhāngjiājiè; Tujia: Zanxjiaxgaif /tsán tɕá kǎi/), is a prefecture-level city in the northwestern part of Hunan Province, China. It comprises the district of Yongding, Wulingyuan and counties of Cili and Sangzhi. It contains the Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, part of the Wulingyuan Scenic Area which was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. History Map including Zhangjiajie (labeled as TA-YUNG (YUNG-TING) 大庸) (AMS, 1953) The city itself was previously named Dayong (大庸) and has a recorded history dating back to 221 BC. People lived here along both banks of the Lishui River (the mother river in Zhangjiajie), now within the boundaries of Zhangjiajie City, very early during the Stone Age. Human settlement in this region dates back 100,000 years, rivaling famous sites such as Xi'an, Beijing and others. In 1986, the Academy of Chinese Social Science discovered Stone Age relics in Cili County, unearthing 108 articles of stoneware; mostly tapered-form, hacked-tamped and plate-shaped works. Shortly thereafter, in 1988, the Archaeological Institute of the Hunan Province found other relics in Sangzhi County, including three pieces of stoneware that were estimated to have been fashioned over around the same time period. Ten thousand years ago, those who lived within the boundaries of what is now Zhangjiajie City employed fire to bake pottery. Archaeologists have found more than 20 relics of this kind in the Cili County. While in Sangzhi County, a black clay pot adorned with a unique design was unearthed dating back ten thousand years. During that period, this pottery-firing technique was the most advanced in China. These technological advancements in the fashioning of stone tools and pottery would seem to indicate a highly developed culture in this region. However, the society which developed only endured briefly before waning and being superseded by other regional powers. This seems understandable in view of Zhangjiajie's remote geographical position, its undeveloped land and river transportation and its mountainous terrain making cultivation difficult. For these reasons, Zhangjiajie has been labeled "the Land of the Savage Southern Minority" since the earliest recorded history. Additional name descriptors have been the "Wuling Rude People" and "Tujia Rude People", indicative of discriminatory views held against the regional culture. Origin of the name Wulingyuan The Tianmenshan Temple at Tianmen Mountain The new name of Zhangjiajie City was adopted in 1994, after the National Forest Park in the Wulingyuan Scenic Area in order to give it more prominence and after this site had been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. The National Forest Park had been given the name of Zhangjiajie after the name of a small village located within its bounds and now a popular tourist attraction within the park. The three-character name (张家界) can be interpreted as follows: "Zhang" (张) is a common surname in China; "jia" (家) can be translated as "family" and "jie" (界) can be translated as "homeland", giving the completed translation of "Zhang family homeland." It has been reported that at least one tourist guide has said that the name may have been chosen to convey the idea or impression of "Open the family door to welcome the world" (张开家门引进世界), but this is not the locally accepted and directly-translated meaning of the name. The official version of its name is linked to a Han general and advisor, Zhang Liang, who resettled in the area after a suspicious Liu Bang, the founder of Han dynasty, started to persecute his staffs and generals who had contributed to his becoming emperor. It was so named to signify that the Zhang family had set up home there. "jie" in the city has two meanings: one refers to the boundary of ownership, the other refers to high mountains. The Daoguang edition of the Qing Dynasty "Annals of Yongding County" contained: "Wudong Stream originated in Zhangjiajie." Republic of China edition of "Cili County records" contained: "Suoxi from Zhangjiajie." Here Zhangjiajie, refers to the Zhangjiajie National Forest Park area. Zhangjiajie's name, the earliest in the Ming Chongzhen four years (1631) "Zhang Genealogy" preface. The preface was written by Zhang Zaichang, the sixth grandson of Zhang Wancong, commander of Yongding Wei Dayong Office. During the reign of Hongzhi of the Ming Dynasty (1488–1506), the imperial court, seeing Zhang Wancong's meritorious service in guarding the town, awarded him the "mountain land" around the Zhangjiajie National Forest Park as a fief. He then moved his family up the mountain to maintain the business. Ming Chongzhen three years (1630), the sixth generation of Zhang Wancong's grandson Zhang Zaihong was given a regiment officer, and set up a government office here. This area became the hereditary territory of the Zhang family, called "Zhangjiajie". Administrative subdivisions Zhangjiajie administers two districts and two counties. Yongding District (永定区) (which contains the central, built-up area of Zhangjiajie city) Wulingyuan District (武陵源区) Cili County (慈利县) Sangzhi County (桑植县) Map Yongding Wulingyuan CiliCounty SangzhiCounty Climate Climate data for Zhangjiajie (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1981–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 21.8(71.2) 29.4(84.9) 33.9(93.0) 38.2(100.8) 37.0(98.6) 38.8(101.8) 40.8(105.4) 41.2(106.2) 38.6(101.5) 35.5(95.9) 30.0(86.0) 23.9(75.0) 41.2(106.2) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 9.5(49.1) 12.2(54.0) 17.0(62.6) 23.4(74.1) 27.4(81.3) 30.5(86.9) 33.5(92.3) 33.6(92.5) 29.4(84.9) 23.3(73.9) 17.9(64.2) 12.2(54.0) 22.5(72.5) Daily mean °C (°F) 5.6(42.1) 7.9(46.2) 12.0(53.6) 17.7(63.9) 22.0(71.6) 25.5(77.9) 28.2(82.8) 28.0(82.4) 24.0(75.2) 18.4(65.1) 13.0(55.4) 7.9(46.2) 17.5(63.5) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.9(37.2) 4.9(40.8) 8.5(47.3) 13.8(56.8) 18.2(64.8) 21.9(71.4) 24.4(75.9) 24.2(75.6) 20.4(68.7) 15.1(59.2) 9.7(49.5) 4.9(40.8) 14.1(57.3) Record low °C (°F) −4.5(23.9) −3.4(25.9) −1.3(29.7) 3.1(37.6) 8.7(47.7) 11.9(53.4) 18.3(64.9) 15.8(60.4) 12.5(54.5) 4.1(39.4) −0.9(30.4) −3.6(25.5) −4.5(23.9) Average precipitation mm (inches) 46.2(1.82) 58.3(2.30) 88.4(3.48) 125.5(4.94) 192.7(7.59) 219.8(8.65) 226.9(8.93) 114.9(4.52) 100.6(3.96) 94.5(3.72) 64.2(2.53) 26.9(1.06) 1,358.9(53.5) Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 11.1 11.2 13.9 14.4 16.3 15.2 13.8 11.0 9.1 12.6 10.4 8.6 147.6 Average snowy days 5.0 2.6 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 1.7 10.2 Average relative humidity (%) 74 73 74 74 76 78 76 73 72 75 76 72 74 Mean monthly sunshine hours 57.7 57.9 84.0 110.2 123.0 124.9 180.4 189.4 132.6 104.2 91.1 74.6 1,330 Percent possible sunshine 18 18 22 28 29 30 42 47 36 30 29 23 29 Source: China Meteorological Administration Government Main article: Politics of Zhangjiajie The current CPC Party Secretary (chief) of Zhangjiajie is Guo Zhenggui and the current Mayor is Liu Ge'an. Transportation The Zhangjiajie Hehua International Airport services scheduled service to major airports in China. It is about 5 km (3.1 mi) away from the downtown and 30 km (19 mi) away from Wulingyuan Scenic Area. There are domestic flights available between Zhangjiajie and other cities, such as Changsha, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, etc. Flights between Zhangjiajie and Seoul and Busan are also available. The Zhangjiajie Glass Bridge in Zhangjiajie National Forest Park. Rail Zhangjaijie is served by two railway stations. Zhangjiajie railway station is on the Jiaozuo–Liuzhou railway. Zhangjiajie West railway station opened in 2019 on the Qianjiang–Changde railway. Roads Due to tourism, the G5513 Changsha–Zhangjiajie Expressway links provincial capital Changsha and Zhangjiajie. International relations See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in China Twin towns — Sister cities Zhangjiajie is twinned with: Hadong County, South Gyeongsang, South Korea (2006) Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States (2009) Naruto, Tokushima, Japan (2011) Arouca, Metropolitan Area of Porto, Portugal (2017) References ^ a b c d Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, ed. (2019). China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2017. Beijing: China Statistics Press. p. 68. Retrieved 11 January 2020. ^ "2022年湖南省各市州地区生产总值（三季度". ^ "AAAAA Scenic Areas". China National Tourism Administration. 16 November 2008. Archived from the original on April 4, 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2011. ^ "Zhangjiajie History, Zhangjiajie History Timeline, History of Ancient Zhangjiajie China". www.zhangjiajietourguide.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11. ^ a b "History of Zhangjiajie - Zhangjiajie Tour Guide, China". www.zhangjiajietourguide.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11. ^ "Tujia language". Zhangjiajie Municipal Government. 23 November 2010. Retrieved 10 July 2014. ^ "The Origin of Zhangjiajie Name". Zhangjiajie Municipal Government. 20 November 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2014. ^ 中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 11 June 2023. ^ "Experience Template" 中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 28 May 2023. ^ "Zhangjiajie Travel Guide" ChinaTour.Net Accessed 2015-1-21 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zhangjiajie. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Zhangjiajie. Zhangjiajie tourism information website Zhangjiajie city government Web site vteHunan topicsChangsha (capital)General History Politics Economy Geography Cities Greater Changsha Yangtze River Xiang River Zi River Yuanjiang River Lishui River Wuling Mountains Xuefeng Mountains Nanling Mountains Luoxiao Mountains Lake Dongting Education Hunan University Hunan University of Arts and Science Hunan Normal University Hunan Agricultural University Culture Culture of Hunan Hunanese people Xiang dialect Xiangnan Tuhua Nü shu writing system Xiang embroidery Huaguxi Yuelu Academy Xiang Army Miao people Tujia people Cuisine Hunan cuisine Stinky tofu Dong'an chicken Hongshao rou Lei cha Visitor attractions Shaoshan Village Avatar Hallelujah Mountain Mount Heng Zhangjiajie Wulingyuan Fenghuang County Category Commons vteCounty-level divisions of Hunan ProvinceChangsha (capital)Prefecture-level citiesChangsha Furong District Kaifu District Tianxin District Wangcheng District Yuelu District Yuhua District Changsha County Liuyang city Ningxiang city Zhuzhou Hetang District Lukou District Lusong District Shifeng District Tianyuan District Liling city Chaling County Yanling County You County Xiangtan Yuetang District Yuhu District Shaoshan city Xiangxiang city Xiangtan County Hengyang Nanyue District Shigu District Yanfeng District Zhengxiang District Zhuhui District Changning city Leiyang city Hengdong County Hengnan County Hengshan County Hengyang County Qidong County Shaoyang Beita District Daxiang District Shuangqing District Shaodong city Wugang city Chengbu County Dongkou County Longhui County Shaoyang County Suining County Xinning County Xinshao County Yueyang Junshan District Yueyanglou District Yunxi District Linxiang city Miluo city Quyuan Mgmt Dist Huarong County Pingjiang County Xiangyin County Yueyang County Changde Dingcheng District Wuling District Jinshi city Anxiang County Hanshou County Li County Linli County Shimen County Taoyuan County Zhangjiajie Wulingyuan District Yongding District Cili County Sangzhi County Yiyang Heshan District Ziyang District Yuanjiang city Anhua County Nan County Taojiang County Chenzhou Beihu District Suxian District Zixing City Anren County Guidong County Guiyang County Jiahe County Linwu County Rucheng County Yizhang County Yongxing County Yongzhou Lengshuitan District Lingling District Qiyang city Dao County Dong'an County Jianghua County Jiangyong County Lanshan County Ningyuan County Shuangpai County Xintian County Huaihua Hecheng District Hongjiang city Hongjiang Mgmt Dist Chenxi County Huitong County Jingzhou County Mayang County Tongdao County Xinhuang County Xupu County Yuanling County Zhijiang County Zhongfang County Loudi Louxing District Lengshuijiang city Lianyuan city Shuangfeng County Xinhua County Autonomous prefectureXiangxi Jishou city Baojing County Fenghuang County Guzhang County Huayuan County Longshan County Luxi County Yongshun County Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany Czech Republic Geographic MusicBrainz area
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Human settlement in this region dates back 100,000 years, rivaling famous sites such as Xi'an, Beijing and others. In 1986, the Academy of Chinese Social Science discovered Stone Age relics in Cili County, unearthing 108 articles of stoneware; mostly tapered-form, hacked-tamped and plate-shaped works. Shortly thereafter, in 1988, the Archaeological Institute of the Hunan Province found other relics in Sangzhi County, including three pieces of stoneware that were estimated to have been fashioned over around the same time period.[5]Ten thousand years ago, those who lived within the boundaries of what is now Zhangjiajie City employed fire to bake pottery.[5] Archaeologists have found more than 20 relics of this kind in the Cili County. While in Sangzhi County, a black clay pot adorned with a unique design was unearthed dating back ten thousand years. During that period, this pottery-firing technique was the most advanced in China. These technological advancements in the fashioning of stone tools and pottery would seem to indicate a highly developed culture in this region. However, the society which developed only endured briefly before waning and being superseded by other regional powers. This seems understandable in view of Zhangjiajie's remote geographical position, its undeveloped land and river transportation and its mountainous terrain making cultivation difficult. For these reasons, Zhangjiajie has been labeled \"the Land of the Savage Southern Minority\" since the earliest recorded history. Additional name descriptors have been the \"Wuling Rude People\" and \"Tujia Rude People\", indicative of discriminatory views held against the regional culture.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wulingyuan_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wulingyuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulingyuan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tianmen_Mountain_temple_I_(30000795430).jpg"},{"link_name":"Tianmenshan Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianmenshan_Temple"},{"link_name":"Tianmen Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianmen_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Wulingyuan Scenic Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulingyuan"},{"link_name":"Zhang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_(surname)"},{"link_name":"张","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BC%A0#Simplified_Chinese"},{"link_name":"家","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%AE%B6#Chinese"},{"link_name":"界","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%95%8C#Chinese"},{"link_name":"Zhang Liang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhang_Liang_(Western_Han)"},{"link_name":"Liu Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu_Bang"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"WulingyuanThe Tianmenshan Temple at Tianmen MountainThe new name of Zhangjiajie City was adopted in 1994, after the National Forest Park in the Wulingyuan Scenic Area in order to give it more prominence and after this site had been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992. The National Forest Park had been given the name of Zhangjiajie after the name of a small village located within its bounds and now a popular tourist attraction within the park. The three-character name (张家界) can be interpreted as follows: \"Zhang\" (张) is a common surname in China; \"jia\" (家) can be translated as \"family\" and \"jie\" (界) can be translated as \"homeland\", giving the completed translation of \"Zhang family homeland.\" It has been reported that at least one tourist guide has said that the name may have been chosen to convey the idea or impression of \"Open the family door to welcome the world\" (张开家门引进世界), but this is not the locally accepted and directly-translated meaning of the name. The official version of its name is linked to a Han general and advisor, Zhang Liang, who resettled in the area after a suspicious Liu Bang, the founder of Han dynasty, started to persecute his staffs and generals who had contributed to his becoming emperor. It was so named to signify that the Zhang family had set up home there.[7]\"jie\" in the city has two meanings: one refers to the boundary of ownership, the other refers to high mountains. The Daoguang edition of the Qing Dynasty \"Annals of Yongding County\" contained: \"Wudong Stream originated in Zhangjiajie.\" Republic of China edition of \"Cili County records\" contained: \"Suoxi from Zhangjiajie.\" Here Zhangjiajie, refers to the Zhangjiajie National Forest Park area. Zhangjiajie's name, the earliest in the Ming Chongzhen four years (1631) \"Zhang Genealogy\" preface. The preface was written by Zhang Zaichang, the sixth grandson of Zhang Wancong, commander of Yongding Wei Dayong Office. During the reign of Hongzhi of the Ming Dynasty (1488–1506), the imperial court, seeing Zhang Wancong's meritorious service in guarding the town, awarded him the \"mountain land\" around the Zhangjiajie National Forest Park as a fief. He then moved his family up the mountain to maintain the business. Ming Chongzhen three years (1630), the sixth generation of Zhang Wancong's grandson Zhang Zaihong was given a regiment officer, and set up a government office here. This area became the hereditary territory of the Zhang family, called \"Zhangjiajie\".","title":"Origin of the name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_(China)"},{"link_name":"counties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_China"},{"link_name":"Yongding District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yongding_District,_Zhangjiajie"},{"link_name":"Wulingyuan District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulingyuan_District"},{"link_name":"Cili County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cili_County"},{"link_name":"Sangzhi County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangzhi_County"}],"text":"Zhangjiajie administers two districts and two counties.Yongding District (永定区) (which contains the central, built-up area of Zhangjiajie city)\nWulingyuan District (武陵源区)\nCili County (慈利县)\nSangzhi County (桑植县)","title":"Administrative subdivisions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"relative humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_humidity"},{"link_name":"sunshine hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine_duration"},{"link_name":"possible sunshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine_duration"},{"link_name":"China Meteorological Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Meteorological_Administration"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cma_graphical-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Climate data for Zhangjiajie (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1981–2010)\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nRecord high °C (°F)\n\n21.8(71.2)\n\n29.4(84.9)\n\n33.9(93.0)\n\n38.2(100.8)\n\n37.0(98.6)\n\n38.8(101.8)\n\n40.8(105.4)\n\n41.2(106.2)\n\n38.6(101.5)\n\n35.5(95.9)\n\n30.0(86.0)\n\n23.9(75.0)\n\n41.2(106.2)\n\n\nMean daily maximum °C (°F)\n\n9.5(49.1)\n\n12.2(54.0)\n\n17.0(62.6)\n\n23.4(74.1)\n\n27.4(81.3)\n\n30.5(86.9)\n\n33.5(92.3)\n\n33.6(92.5)\n\n29.4(84.9)\n\n23.3(73.9)\n\n17.9(64.2)\n\n12.2(54.0)\n\n22.5(72.5)\n\n\nDaily mean °C (°F)\n\n5.6(42.1)\n\n7.9(46.2)\n\n12.0(53.6)\n\n17.7(63.9)\n\n22.0(71.6)\n\n25.5(77.9)\n\n28.2(82.8)\n\n28.0(82.4)\n\n24.0(75.2)\n\n18.4(65.1)\n\n13.0(55.4)\n\n7.9(46.2)\n\n17.5(63.5)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °C (°F)\n\n2.9(37.2)\n\n4.9(40.8)\n\n8.5(47.3)\n\n13.8(56.8)\n\n18.2(64.8)\n\n21.9(71.4)\n\n24.4(75.9)\n\n24.2(75.6)\n\n20.4(68.7)\n\n15.1(59.2)\n\n9.7(49.5)\n\n4.9(40.8)\n\n14.1(57.3)\n\n\nRecord low °C (°F)\n\n−4.5(23.9)\n\n−3.4(25.9)\n\n−1.3(29.7)\n\n3.1(37.6)\n\n8.7(47.7)\n\n11.9(53.4)\n\n18.3(64.9)\n\n15.8(60.4)\n\n12.5(54.5)\n\n4.1(39.4)\n\n−0.9(30.4)\n\n−3.6(25.5)\n\n−4.5(23.9)\n\n\nAverage precipitation mm (inches)\n\n46.2(1.82)\n\n58.3(2.30)\n\n88.4(3.48)\n\n125.5(4.94)\n\n192.7(7.59)\n\n219.8(8.65)\n\n226.9(8.93)\n\n114.9(4.52)\n\n100.6(3.96)\n\n94.5(3.72)\n\n64.2(2.53)\n\n26.9(1.06)\n\n1,358.9(53.5)\n\n\nAverage precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)\n\n11.1\n\n11.2\n\n13.9\n\n14.4\n\n16.3\n\n15.2\n\n13.8\n\n11.0\n\n9.1\n\n12.6\n\n10.4\n\n8.6\n\n147.6\n\n\nAverage snowy days\n\n5.0\n\n2.6\n\n0.8\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0.1\n\n1.7\n\n10.2\n\n\nAverage relative humidity (%)\n\n74\n\n73\n\n74\n\n74\n\n76\n\n78\n\n76\n\n73\n\n72\n\n75\n\n76\n\n72\n\n74\n\n\nMean monthly sunshine hours\n\n57.7\n\n57.9\n\n84.0\n\n110.2\n\n123.0\n\n124.9\n\n180.4\n\n189.4\n\n132.6\n\n104.2\n\n91.1\n\n74.6\n\n1,330\n\n\nPercent possible sunshine\n\n18\n\n18\n\n22\n\n28\n\n29\n\n30\n\n42\n\n47\n\n36\n\n30\n\n29\n\n23\n\n29\n\n\nSource: China Meteorological Administration[8][9]","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party"}],"text":"The current CPC Party Secretary (chief) of Zhangjiajie is Guo Zhenggui and the current Mayor is Liu Ge'an.","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zhangjiajie Hehua International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiajie_Hehua_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Wulingyuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulingyuan"},{"link_name":"Changsha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changsha"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zhangjiajie-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZhangjiajieGlassByHighestBridges.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZhangjiajieGlassByHighestBridges.jpg"},{"link_name":"Zhangjiajie Glass Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiajie_Glass_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Zhangjiajie National Forest Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiajie_National_Forest_Park"}],"text":"The Zhangjiajie Hehua International Airport services scheduled service to major airports in China. It is about 5 km (3.1 mi) away from the downtown and 30 km (19 mi) away from Wulingyuan Scenic Area. There are domestic flights available between Zhangjiajie and other cities, such as Changsha, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, etc. Flights between Zhangjiajie and Seoul and Busan are also available.[10]The Zhangjiajie Glass Bridge in Zhangjiajie National Forest Park.","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zhangjiajie railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhangjiajie_railway_station&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jiaozuo–Liuzhou railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiaozuo%E2%80%93Liuzhou_railway"},{"link_name":"Zhangjiajie West railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiajie_West_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Qianjiang–Changde railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qianjiang%E2%80%93Changde_railway"}],"sub_title":"Rail","text":"Zhangjaijie is served by two railway stations. Zhangjiajie railway station is on the Jiaozuo–Liuzhou railway. Zhangjiajie West railway station opened in 2019 on the Qianjiang–Changde railway.","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"G5513 Changsha–Zhangjiajie Expressway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G5513_Changsha%E2%80%93Zhangjiajie_Expressway"},{"link_name":"Changsha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changsha"}],"sub_title":"Roads","text":"Due to tourism, the G5513 Changsha–Zhangjiajie Expressway links provincial capital Changsha and Zhangjiajie.","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of twin towns and sister cities in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_China"}],"text":"See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in China","title":"International relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin_towns_and_sister_cities"},{"link_name":"Hadong County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadong_County"},{"link_name":"South Gyeongsang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Gyeongsang"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Naruto, Tokushima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naruto,_Tokushima"},{"link_name":"Arouca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arouca,_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Area of Porto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Area_of_Porto"}],"sub_title":"Twin towns — Sister cities","text":"Zhangjiajie is twinned with:Hadong County, South Gyeongsang, South Korea (2006)\n Santa Fe, New Mexico, United States (2009)\n Naruto, Tokushima, Japan (2011)\n Arouca, Metropolitan Area of Porto, Portugal (2017)","title":"International relations"}]
[{"image_text":"Map including Zhangjiajie (labeled as TA-YUNG (YUNG-TING) 大庸) (AMS, 1953)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Txu-oclc-10552568-nh49-10.jpg/220px-Txu-oclc-10552568-nh49-10.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wulingyuan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Wulingyuan_3.jpg/220px-Wulingyuan_3.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Tianmenshan Temple at Tianmen Mountain","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Tianmen_Mountain_temple_I_%2830000795430%29.jpg/220px-Tianmen_Mountain_temple_I_%2830000795430%29.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, ed. (2019). China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2017. Beijing: China Statistics Press. p. 68. Retrieved 11 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Housing_and_Urban-Rural_Development","url_text":"Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development"},{"url":"http://www.mohurd.gov.cn/xytj/tjzljsxytjgb/jstjnj/w02019012421874448287322500.xls","url_text":"China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2017"}]},{"reference":"\"2022年湖南省各市州地区生产总值（三季度\".","urls":[{"url":"https://tjj.hunan.gov.cn/hntj/m/tjsj_1/202211/t20221114_29125379.html","url_text":"\"2022年湖南省各市州地区生产总值（三季度\""}]},{"reference":"\"AAAAA Scenic Areas\". China National Tourism Administration. 16 November 2008. Archived from the original on April 4, 2014. Retrieved 9 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140404043021/http://en.cnta.gov.cn/html/2008-11/2008-11-16-10-27-72978.html","url_text":"\"AAAAA Scenic Areas\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Tourism_Administration","url_text":"China National Tourism Administration"},{"url":"http://en.cnta.gov.cn/html/2008-11/2008-11-16-10-27-72978.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Zhangjiajie History, Zhangjiajie History Timeline, History of Ancient Zhangjiajie China\". www.zhangjiajietourguide.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zhangjiajietourguide.com/article-p152-zhangjiajie-history-timeline.html","url_text":"\"Zhangjiajie History, Zhangjiajie History Timeline, History of Ancient Zhangjiajie China\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of Zhangjiajie - Zhangjiajie Tour Guide, China\". www.zhangjiajietourguide.com. Retrieved 2022-06-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zhangjiajietourguide.com/article-p264-history-of-zhangjiajie.html","url_text":"\"History of Zhangjiajie - Zhangjiajie Tour Guide, China\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tujia language\". Zhangjiajie Municipal Government. 23 November 2010. Retrieved 10 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cn-zhangjiajie.com/view-1-48.html","url_text":"\"Tujia language\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Origin of Zhangjiajie Name\". Zhangjiajie Municipal Government. 20 November 2013. Retrieved 10 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cn-zhangjiajie.com/view-1-3375.html","url_text":"\"The Origin of Zhangjiajie Name\""}]},{"reference":"中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 11 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://data.cma.cn/data/weatherBk.html","url_text":"中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Meteorological_Administration","url_text":"China Meteorological Administration"}]},{"reference":"\"Experience Template\" 中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 28 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://experience.arcgis.com/template/e724038fda394e9d9b7921f10fd1aa55/page/%E7%BA%AF%E8%A1%A8%E6%A0%BC%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1-(%E5%AF%B9%E6%AF%948110%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96)/?org=UQmaps","url_text":"\"Experience Template\" 中国气象数据网"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Meteorological_Administration","url_text":"China Meteorological Administration"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergentism
Emergentism
["1 Forms","2 Relationship to vitalism","3 See also","4 Notes","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
Philosophical belief in emergence Emergentism is the belief in emergence, particularly as it involves consciousness and the philosophy of mind. A property of a system is said to be emergent if it is a new outcome of some other properties of the system and their interaction, while it is itself different from them. Within the philosophy of science, emergentism is analyzed both as it contrasts with and parallels reductionism. Forms Emergentism can be compatible with physicalism, the theory that the universe is composed exclusively of physical entities, and in particular with the evidence relating changes in the brain with changes in mental functioning. Some varieties of emergentism are not specifically concerned with the mind–body problem but constitute a theory of the nature of the universe comparable to pantheism. They suggest a hierarchical or layered view of the whole of nature, with the layers arranged in terms of increasing complexity with each requiring its own special science. Relationship to vitalism Main article: Vitalism Emmeche et al. (1998) state that "there is a very important difference between the vitalists and the emergentists: the vitalist's creative forces were relevant only in organic substances, not in inorganic matter. Emergence hence is creation of new properties regardless of the substance involved." "The assumption of an extra-physical vitalis (vital force, entelechy, élan vital, etc.), as formulated in most forms (old or new) of vitalism, is usually without any genuine explanatory power. It has served altogether too often as an intellectual tranquilizer or verbal sedative—stifling scientific inquiry rather than encouraging it to proceed in new directions." See also Anomalous monism Clinamen Complex systems Elisionism Emergence Holism Reduction (philosophy) Special sciences Supervenience Synergetics (Fuller) Synergetics (Haken) Notes ^ a b O'Connor, Timothy and Wong, Hong Yu, "Emergent Properties", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/properties-emergent/>. ^ Kistler, Max (2006). "New Perspectives on Reduction and Emergence in Physics, Biology and Psychology". Synthese. 151 (3): 311–312. doi:10.1007/s11229-006-9014-3. ISSN 0039-7857. JSTOR 20118808. S2CID 36301964. Retrieved 3 September 2021. ^ Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems, Jason Winning & William Bechtel In Sophie Gibb, Robin Hendry & Tom Lancaster (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Emergence. London: pp. 134-144 (2019) ^ Franklin, James (2019). "Emergentism as an option in the philosophy of religion: Between materialist atheism and pantheism" (PDF). Suri: Journal of the Philosophical Association of the Philippines. 8 (2): 1–22. Retrieved 30 June 2021. ^ Dictionary of the History of Ideas Archived 2011-05-11 at the Wayback Machine Further reading Beckermann, Ansgar, Hans Flohr, and Jaegwon Kim, eds., Emergence Or Reduction? Essays on the Prospects of Nonreductive Physicalism (1992). Cahoone, Lawrence, The Orders of Nature (2013). Clayton, Philip and Paul Davies, eds., The Re-emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion. Oxford University Press (2008). Gregersen Niels H., eds., From Complexity to Life: On Emergence of Life and Meaning. Oxford University Press (2013). Jones, Richard H., Analysis & the Fullness of Reality: An Introduction to Reductionism & Emergence. Jackson Square Books (2013). Laughlin, Robert B., A Different Universe (2005). MacDonald, Graham and Cynthia, Emergence in Mind. Oxford University Press (2010). McCarthy, Evan, "The Emergentist Theory of Truth" (2015). Morowitz, Harold J., The Emergence of Everything: How the World Became Complex. Oxford University Press (2002). External links Emergent Properties in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Emergentism in the Dictionary of Philosophy of Mind, 2007. Reduction and Emergence in Chemistry, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. vtePhilosophy of mindPhilosophers G. E. M. Anscombe Aristotle Armstrong Thomas Aquinas J. L. Austin Alexander Bain George Berkeley Henri Bergson Ned Block Franz Brentano C. D. Broad Tyler Burge David Chalmers Patricia Churchland Paul Churchland Andy Clark Dharmakirti Donald Davidson Daniel Dennett René Descartes Fred Dretske Fodor Goldman Martin Heidegger David Hume Edmund Husserl William James Frank Cameron Jackson Immanuel Kant David Lewis (philosopher) John Locke Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Maurice Merleau-Ponty Marvin Minsky Thomas Nagel Alva Noë Derek Parfit Plato Hilary Putnam Richard Rorty Gilbert Ryle John Searle Wilfrid Sellars Baruch Spinoza Alan Turing Michael Tye Vasubandhu Ludwig Wittgenstein Stephen Yablo Zhuangzi more... Theories Behaviorism Biological naturalism Dualism Eliminative materialism Emergent materialism Epiphenomenalism Functionalism Interactionism Naïve realism Neurophenomenology Neutral monism New mysterianism Nondualism Occasionalism Parallelism Phenomenalism Phenomenology Physicalism Type physicalism Property dualism Representational Solipsism Substance dualism Concepts Abstract object Artificial intelligence Chinese room Creativity Cognition Cognitive closure Concept Consciousness Hard problem of consciousness Hypostatic abstraction Idea Identity Intelligence Intentionality Introspection Intuition Language of thought Mental event Mental image Mental process Mental property Mental representation Mind Mind–body problem Pain Problem of other minds Propositional attitude Qualia Tabula rasa Understanding Zombie Related Metaphysics Philosophy of artificial intelligence / information / perception / self Category Philosophers category Project Task Force Authority control databases National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Other IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"emergence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergence"},{"link_name":"consciousness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness"},{"link_name":"philosophy of mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind"},{"link_name":"system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stanford-1"},{"link_name":"philosophy of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science"},{"link_name":"reductionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductionism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stanford-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Emergentism is the belief in emergence, particularly as it involves consciousness and the philosophy of mind. A property of a system is said to be emergent if it is a new outcome of some other properties of the system and their interaction, while it is itself different from them.[1] Within the philosophy of science, emergentism is analyzed both as it contrasts with and parallels reductionism.[1][2]","title":"Emergentism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physicalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicalism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"mind–body problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem"},{"link_name":"pantheism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheism"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"hierarchical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy"},{"link_name":"complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity"},{"link_name":"special science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_science"}],"text":"Emergentism can be compatible with physicalism,[3] the theory that the universe is composed exclusively of physical entities, and in particular with the evidence relating changes in the brain with changes in mental functioning.Some varieties of emergentism are not specifically concerned with the mind–body problem but constitute a theory of the nature of the universe comparable to pantheism.[4] They suggest a hierarchical or layered view of the whole of nature, with the layers arranged in terms of increasing complexity with each requiring its own special science.","title":"Forms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"entelechy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entelechy"},{"link_name":"élan vital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lan_vital"},{"link_name":"intellectual tranquilizer or verbal sedative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought-terminating_clich%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Emmeche et al. (1998) state that \"there is a very important difference between the vitalists and the emergentists: the vitalist's creative forces were relevant only in organic substances, not in inorganic matter. Emergence hence is creation of new properties regardless of the substance involved.\" \"The assumption of an extra-physical vitalis (vital force, entelechy, élan vital, etc.), as formulated in most forms (old or new) of vitalism, is usually without any genuine explanatory power. It has served altogether too often as an intellectual tranquilizer or verbal sedative—stifling scientific inquiry rather than encouraging it to proceed in new directions.\"[5]","title":"Relationship to vitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-stanford_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-stanford_1-1"},{"link_name":"http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/properties-emergent/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/properties-emergent/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"New Perspectives on Reduction and Emergence in Physics, Biology and Psychology\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.jstor.org/stable/20118808"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/s11229-006-9014-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-006-9014-3"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0039-7857","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0039-7857"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"20118808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/20118808"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"36301964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36301964"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//philpapers.org/rec/WINBEV"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Franklin, James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Franklin_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"\"Emergentism as an option in the philosophy of religion: Between materialist atheism and pantheism\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//suri.pap73.org/issue12/Franklin_SURI_2019-20.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Dictionary of the History of Ideas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhicontrib2.cgi?id=dv3-69"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110511191629/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhicontrib2.cgi?id=dv3-69"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"}],"text":"^ a b O'Connor, Timothy and Wong, Hong Yu, \"Emergent Properties\", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2015/entries/properties-emergent/>.\n\n^ Kistler, Max (2006). \"New Perspectives on Reduction and Emergence in Physics, Biology and Psychology\". Synthese. 151 (3): 311–312. doi:10.1007/s11229-006-9014-3. ISSN 0039-7857. JSTOR 20118808. S2CID 36301964. Retrieved 3 September 2021.\n\n^ Being Emergence vs. Pattern Emergence: Complexity, Control, and Goal-Directedness in Biological Systems,\nJason Winning & William Bechtel\nIn Sophie Gibb, Robin Hendry & Tom Lancaster (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Emergence. London: pp. 134-144 (2019)\n\n^ Franklin, James (2019). \"Emergentism as an option in the philosophy of religion: Between materialist atheism and pantheism\" (PDF). Suri: Journal of the Philosophical Association of the Philippines. 8 (2): 1–22. Retrieved 30 June 2021.\n\n^ Dictionary of the History of Ideas Archived 2011-05-11 at the Wayback Machine","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A Different Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe"}],"text":"Beckermann, Ansgar, Hans Flohr, and Jaegwon Kim, eds., Emergence Or Reduction? Essays on the Prospects of Nonreductive Physicalism (1992).\nCahoone, Lawrence, The Orders of Nature (2013).\nClayton, Philip and Paul Davies, eds., The Re-emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion. Oxford University Press (2008).\nGregersen Niels H., eds., From Complexity to Life: On Emergence of Life and Meaning. Oxford University Press (2013).\nJones, Richard H., Analysis & the Fullness of Reality: An Introduction to Reductionism & Emergence. Jackson Square Books (2013).\nLaughlin, Robert B., A Different Universe (2005).\nMacDonald, Graham and Cynthia, Emergence in Mind. Oxford University Press (2010).\nMcCarthy, Evan, \"The Emergentist Theory of Truth\" (2015).\nMorowitz, Harold J., The Emergence of Everything: How the World Became Complex. Oxford University Press (2002).","title":"Further reading"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Acquisition_and_Sustainment
Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment
["1 Overview","2 History","3 Organization","4 Office of the Under Secretary","5 Office holders","5.1 Under Secretary","5.2 Deputy Under Secretary","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and SustainmentSeal of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and SustainmentFlag of an Under Secretary of DefenseIncumbentWilliam A. LaPlantesince 15 April 2022Office of the Secretary of DefenseStyleMr. Under SecretaryReports toSecretary of DefenseDeputy Secretary of DefenseAppointerThe Presidentwith Senate advice and consentTerm lengthNo fixed termFormation2018Succession5th in SecDef successionDeputyDeputy Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and SustainmentSalaryExecutive Schedule, Level IIIWebsitewww.acq.osd.mil The Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment, or USD (A&S), is the Principal Staff Assistant (PSA) and advisor to the Secretary of Defense for all matters relating to acquisition and sustainment in the Department of Defense. This includes the DoD Acquisition System; system design and development; production; logistics and distribution; installation maintenance, management, and resilience; military construction; procurement of goods and services; material readiness; maintenance; environment and energy resilience (including renewable energy); utilities; business management modernization; International Armaments Cooperation, Cooperative Acquisition and International Agreements, Promoting exportability of military components to allies and partners; nuclear, chemical and biological defense programs; and nuclear command, control, and communications. Ellen Lord became the first Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment on 1 February 2018, after serving as the final Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics. The Under Secretary is appointed from civilian life by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve at the pleasure of the President. Overview The mission of the OUSD(A&S) is Enable the Delivery and Sustainment of Secure and Resilient Capabilities to the Warfighter and International Partners Quickly and Cost Effectively. The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment (OUSD(A&S)) is focused on forming an acquisition system that moves at the speed of relevance, and to do that, has been shaped into an organization that provides a defense-wide adaptive acquisition framework from need identification to disposal. Using data-driven analysis linked with the National Defense Strategy, OUSD(A&S) scales to enable new product and process development and supports a culture of innovation, critical thinking, and creative compliance. There are multiple organizations that fall under OUSD(A&S) that also work towards this goal. The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Acquisition (OASD(A)) delivers capability at the point of need through a Defense Acquisition System that is flexible, tailorable, and enables speed. ASD(A) is focused on moving defense acquisition away from being expensive, slow, and burdensome by reducing timelines, lowering costs, and improving quality while rapidly introducing new technology to enhance capability. The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment (OASD(Sustainment)) works with logistics and materiel readiness in the Department of Defense (DoD) and is the principal logistics official within the senior management of the DoD. In this capacity, the ASD(S) prescribes policies and procedures for the conduct of logistics, maintenance, materiel readiness, strategic mobility, and sustainment support in the DoD, to include, supply, maintenance, and transportation. The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical & Biological Defense Programs (OASD(CNB)) leads DoD efforts in preparing for, deterring, and mitigating current and future weapons of mass destruction (WMD) threats. They aim to sustain and modernize the U.S. nuclear deterrent; develop capabilities to detect, protect against and respond to WMD threats; ensure DoD compliance with nuclear, chemical, and biological treaties and agreements; continue to work with allies and partners to strengthen our collective countering weapons of mass destruction (CWMD) capabilities; and advance the United States nonproliferation goals. The Industrial Policy office supports the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment by providing detailed analyses and in-depth understanding of the increasingly global, commercial, and financially complex industrial supply chain essential to our national defense. The Executive Director for Special Access Program Central Office facilitates and maintains MOAs and memorandums of understanding for foreign involvement with DoD SAPs and coordinates with appropriate oversight authorities. International Cooperation (IC) Office is to strengthen key international partnerships through cooperative Acquisition & Sustainment initiatives to improve interoperability and sharpen the warfighter’s technological edge. IC prioritizes enabling a lethal, secure, and networked constellation of allies and partners. History The Military Retirement Reform Act of 1986 created the position of Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition (USD(A)), which was implemented with the issuance of Department of Defense Directive 5134.1 in February 1987. As part of this act, the position of Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (USD(R&E)) was redesignated as the Director of Defense Research and Engineering (DDR&E), a lower-ranking position which reported to the new USD(A). The title of USD(A) was changed to Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology (USD(A&T)) by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994, and the position was later redesignated as the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics (USD(AT&L)) by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2000. The USD(AT&L) served as the principal assistant to the Secretary of Defense for research and development, production, procurement, logistics, and military construction. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 removed the position of USD(AT&L), and in its place it created the position of USD(R&E) once again, as well as the new position of USD(A&S). These changes took effect on 1 February 2018. As part of the reorganization, the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Logistics and Materiel Readiness (ASD(L&MR)) and Assistant Secretary of Defense for Energy, Installations, and Environment (ASD(EI&E)) positions were combined into a new Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment. Organization Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment Office of the Chief of Staff Commander's Action Group Deputy Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment Office of Business Operations Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Acquisition Defense Acquisition University Defense Contract Management Agency Joint Rapid Acquisition Cell Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment Office of Local Defense Community Cooperation Defense Logistics Agency Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Energy, Installations, and Environment Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Real Property (RP) Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Construction (Con) Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Housing (H) Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Environment & Energy Resilience (E&ER) Office of the Director for Local Defense Community Cooperation Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Industrial Base Policy Office of the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Defense Programs Defense Threat Reduction Agency Office of International Cooperation Office of Special Programs Office of Human Capital Initiatives Office of the Under Secretary This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment (OUSD(A&S)), a unit of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, supervises all Department of Defense acquisitions, including procurement of goods and services, research and development, developmental testing, and contract administration, for all elements of the Department. Led by the Under Secretary, OUSD(A&S) oversees logistics, maintenance, and sustainment support for all elements of the Department and establishes policies for the maintenance of the defense industrial base of the United States. The work of OUSD(A&S) is conducted through its several staff directorates, including: Human Capital Initiatives Directorate – responsible for executing all workforce responsibilities identified by the Secretary of Defense Acquisition Resources and Analyses Directorate – integrates the diverse aspects of Defense acquisition into a balanced and coherent program that supports the National Strategy and makes the most effective use of resources provided International Cooperation Directorate – supports the Under Secretary in all aspects of international cooperation, develops policy for international cooperative armaments programs, and provides the Under Secretary a single, integrated picture of international cooperative activities Special Programs Directorate – manages the DoD Special Access Program (SAP) management and control structures Small Business Programs Directorate – advises the Secretary of Defense on all matters related to small business and is committed to maximizing the contributions of small business in DoD acquisitions Administration Directorate – serves as the central focal point for all OUSD(A&S) civilian and military personnel programs, organizational management, space, facilities, supply management, security, information management, travel, budgeting, and training Defense Procurement & Acquisition Policy Directorate – responsible for all acquisition and procurement policy matters in the Department, including serving as the principal advisor to the Under Secretary on acquisition/procurement strategies for all major weapon systems programs, major automated information systems programs, and services acquisitions Joint Rapid Acquisition Cell – provides a single point of contact in the Office of the Secretary of Defense for tracking the timeliness of immediate warfighter need actions for the senior leadership and facilitating coordination with other government agencies Defense Science Board – provides senior Department leadership independent advice and recommendations on scientific, technical, manufacturing, acquisition process, and other matters of special interest to the Department Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Industrial Policy – responsible for ensuring that Department policies, procedures, and actions: stimulate and support vigorous competition and innovation in the industrial base supporting defense establish and sustain cost-effective industrial and technological capabilities that assure military readiness and superiority Office holders Under Secretary Portrait Name Tenure SecDef(s) Served Under President(s) Served Under Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition Richard P. Godwin 30 September 1986 – 30 September 1987 Caspar W. Weinberger Ronald Reagan Robert B. Costello 18 December 1987 – 12 May 1989 Frank C. Carlucci III William Howard Taft IV (Acting) Richard B. Cheney Ronald Reagan George H. W. Bush John A. Betti 11 August 1989 – 31 December 1990 Richard B. Cheney George H. W. Bush Donald J. Yockey 1 January 1991 – 20 June 1991 (Acting) 20 June 1991 – 20 January 1993 Richard B. Cheney George H. W. Bush Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology John M. Deutch 2 April 1993 – 11 March 1994 Leslie Aspin, Jr. William J. Perry Bill Clinton Paul G. Kaminski 3 October 1994 – 16 May 1997 William J. Perry William S. Cohen Bill Clinton Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics Jacques S. Gansler 10 November 1997 – 5 January 2001 William S. Cohen Bill Clinton Edward C. Aldridge, Jr. 10 May 2001 – 23 May 2003 Donald H. Rumsfeld George W. Bush Michael W. Wynne (Acting) 23 May 2003 – 6 June 2005 Donald H. Rumsfeld George W. Bush Kenneth J. Krieg 6 June 2005 – 20 July 2007 Donald H. Rumsfeld Robert M. Gates George W. Bush John J. Young, Jr. 20 July 2007 – 21 November 2007 (Acting) 21 November 2007 – 27 April 2009 Robert M. Gates George W. Bush Barack Obama Ashton Carter 27 April 2009 – 5 October 2011 Robert M. Gates Leon Panetta Barack Obama Frank Kendall III 6 October 2011 – 20 January 2017 Leon Panetta Chuck Hagel Ash Carter Barack Obama Jimmy MacStravic 20 January 2017 – 7 August 2017 (Performing the Duties of) James Mattis Donald Trump Ellen Lord 7 August 2017 – 1 February 2018 James Mattis Donald Trump Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment Ellen Lord 1 February 2018 – 20 January 2021 James MattisPatrick M. Shanahan (acting)Mark Esper (acting)Richard V. Spencer (acting)Mark Esper Donald Trump Stacy Cummings 20 January 2021 – 2 August 2021 (Performing the Duties of) David L. Norquist (acting)Lloyd Austin Joe Biden Gregory M. Kausner 2 August 2021 – 7 February 2022 (Performing the Duties of) Lloyd Austin Joe Biden Andrew P. Hunter 7 February 2022 – 15 April 2022 (Performing the Duties of) Lloyd Austin Joe Biden William A. LaPlante 15 April 2022 – present Lloyd Austin Joe Biden Deputy Under Secretary Principal Deputy Under Secretaries of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics Name Tenure USD(s) Served Under SecDef(s) Served Under President(s) Served Under Milton Lohr 3 October 1988 – 12 May 1989 Robert B. Costello Richard B. Cheney George H. W. Bush Donald J. Yockey 12 March 1990 – 20 January 1991 John A. Betti Richard B. Cheney George H. W. Bush Donald C. Fraser 4 December 1991 – 13 January 1993 Donald J. Yockey Richard B. Cheney George H. W. Bush Noel Longuemare, Jr. 18 November 1993 – 21 November 1997 John M. Deutch Paul G. Kaminski Jacques S. Gansler Leslie Aspin, Jr. William J. Perry William S. Cohen Bill Clinton David Oliver 1 June 1998 – 14 July 2001 Jacques S. Gansler Edward C. Aldridge, Jr. William S. Cohen Donald H. Rumsfeld Bill Clinton George W. Bush Michael W. Wynne 17 July 2001 – 2005 Edward C. Aldridge, Jr. Donald H. Rumsfeld George W. Bush Frank Kendall III 8 March 2010 – 5 October 2011 Ashton Carter Robert M. Gates Leon Panetta Barack Obama Alan Estevez 6 October 2011 – 20 January 2017 Frank Kendall III Leon PanettaChuck HagelAsh Carter Barack Obama Vacant 20 January 2017 – 1 February 2018 Ellen Lord James Mattis Donald Trump See also The Technical Cooperation Program (TTCP) – An international defense science and technology collaboration between Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. References  This article incorporates public domain material from Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics. United States Department of Defense. ^ a b Joe Gould Defense News (11 Sep 2022) Where do you buy a quarter-million artillery rounds? | Defense News Conference 2022 7:13 Purchase of 250,000 rounds of 155mm howitzer shells, with immediate delivery to DoD ^ "OUSD A&S - Assistant Secretary of Defense for Acquisition". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 8 April 2021. ^ "Welcome to OASD(Sustainment)". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 8 April 2021. ^ "OASD(NCB)". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 8 April 2021. ^ "Home". www.businessdefense.gov. Retrieved 8 April 2021. ^ "Office of the Executive Director for Special Access Program Central Office". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 8 April 2021. ^ "OUSD A&S - International Cooperation". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 8 April 2021. ^ a b "Department of Defense Key Officials" (PDF). Historical Office, OSD. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011. ^ Mehta, Aaron (2 February 2018). "The Pentagon's acquisition office is gone. Here's what the next 120 days bring". Defense News. Retrieved 22 February 2018. ^ "Report to Congress: Restructuring the Department of Defense Acquisition, Technology and Logistics Organization and Chief Management Officer Organization" (PDF). 1 August 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2018. ^ "Ken Krieg - Former Under Secretary of Defense (AT&L)". Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2011. ^ "Release". www.defense.gov. ^ "Pentagon's acquisition chief resigns". USA Today. 6 June 2007. ^ "Young, John J. - Former USD (AT&L)". Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2011. ^ "DoD News: DoD Names Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics". www.globalsecurity.org. ^ a b "Biographies". U.S. Department of Defense. ^ Beny, Alan. "OUSD(AT&L) > About AT&L > Leadership > Biography of Frank Kendall, USD(AT&L)". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 27 February 2017. ^ "Ellen M. Lord > U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE > Biography". www.defense.gov. Retrieved 15 July 2020. ^ McLeary, Paul; O'Brien, Connor (16 July 2021). "Top Pentagon weapons office faces vacancies as the military rushes to focus on China". POLITICO. Retrieved 16 July 2021. ^ a b Dille, Grace (4 August 2021). "DoD Names Kausner Head of Acquisition". Retrieved 8 February 2021. ^ "Gregory M. Kausner". www.acq.osd.mil. Archived from the original on 8 February 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2022. ^ "Acquisition and Sustainment Leadership Transition". U.S. Department of Defense. 7 February 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2021. ^ "Acquisition and Sustainment Leadership Transition". U.S. Department of Defense. 15 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2021. External links Proposed and finalized federal regulations from the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics vteSenior officials in the United States Department of Defense Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin Deputy Secretary of Defense Kathleen Hicks Secretaries of the Military Departments Secretary of the Army: Christine Wormuth Secretary of the Navy: Carlos Del Toro Secretary of the Air Force: Frank Kendall III Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen Charles Q. Brown Jr., USAF Under Secretaries of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment: William A. LaPlante Research and Engineering: Heidi Shyu Policy: Amanda J. Dory (acting) Comptroller/Chief Financial Officer: Michael J. McCord Personnel and Readiness: Ashish Vazirani (acting) Intelligence: Milancy Harris (acting) Under Secretaries of the Military Departments Under Secretary of the Army: Gabe Camarillo Under Secretary of the Navy: Erik Raven Under Secretary of the Air Force: Melissa Dalton Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff ADM Christopher W. Grady, USN Chiefs of the Military Services Chief of Staff of the Army: GEN Randy A. George Commandant of the Marine Corps: Gen Eric M. Smith Chief of Naval Operations: ADM Lisa M. Franchetti Chief of Staff of the Air Force: Gen David W. Allvin Chief of Space Operations: Gen B. Chance Saltzman Chief of the National Guard Bureau GEN Daniel R. Hokanson, USA Unified Combatant Command Commanders Africa: Gen Michael E. Langley, USMC Central: GEN Michael E. Kurilla, USA Cyber: Gen Timothy D. Haugh, USAF European: GEN Christopher G. Cavoli, USA Indo-Pacific: ADM Samuel J. Paparo Jr., USN Northern: Gen Gregory M. Guillot, USAF Southern: GEN Laura J. Richardson, USA Space: Gen Stephen N. Whiting, USSF Special Operations: GEN Bryan P. Fenton, USA Strategic: Gen Anthony J. Cotton, USAF Transportation: Gen Jacqueline Van Ovost, USAF a - Acting vteUnited States Department of Defense Headquarters: The Pentagon Lloyd Austin, Secretary of Defense Kathleen Hicks, Deputy Secretary of Defense Office of the Secretary of Defense(including Defense Agencies and DoD Field Activities)Deputy Secretary of Defense Deputy's Advisory Working Group Office of Net Assessment Special Access Program Oversight Committee Under Secretary of Defensefor Acquisition and Sustainment Defense Contract Management Agency Defense Logistics Agency Defense Threat Reduction Agency Office of Economic Adjustment Defense Acquisition University Defense Acquisition Board Defense Microelectronics Activity Under Secretary of Defensefor Research and Engineering Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Defense Innovation Unit Defense Technical Information Center Department of Defense Test Resource Management Center Missile Defense Agency Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Defense Security Cooperation Agency Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller) Defense Contract Audit Agency Defense Finance and Accounting Service Under Secretary of Defensefor Personnel and Readiness Defense Commissary Agency Department of Defense Education Activity Defense Human Resources Activity Defense Activity for Non-Traditional Education Support Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute Defense Travel Management Office Defense Civilian Personnel Advisory Service Defense Health Agency Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences Under Secretary of Defensefor Intelligence Defense Intelligence Agency Defense Counterintelligence and Security Agency Defense Information Systems Agency (White House Communications Agency) National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency National Reconnaissance Office National Security Agency/Central Security Service (Director/Chief) Assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs Defense Media Activity (American Forces Press Service, American Forces Radio and Television Service, Stars and Stripes, The Pentagon Channel) General Counsel of the Department of Defense Defense Legal Services Agency (Office of Military Commissions) Chief Management Officer of the Department of Defense Pentagon Force Protection Agency Washington Headquarters Services (White House Military Office) Military DepartmentsDepartment of the Army Secretary of the Army The Secretariat: Under Secretary of the Army Assistant Secretary for Acquisition, Logistics, and Technology Assistant Secretary for Civil Works Assistant Secretary (Financial Management and Comptroller) Assistant Secretary of the Army for Installations, Energy and Environment Assistant Secretary of the Army for Manpower and Reserve Affairs General Counsel of the Army The Administrative Assistant The Army Staff: Chief of Staff of the Army Vice Chief of Staff of the Army Sergeant Major of the Army Deputy Chief of Staff G-8 Chief of Chaplains Judge Advocate General Provost Marshal General Surgeon General U.S. Army field organizations: see Structure of the United States Army Department of the Navy Secretary of the Navy The Secretariat: Under Secretary of the Navy Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Financial Management and Comptroller) Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Installations and Environment) Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Manpower and Reserve Affairs) Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development and Acquisitions) General Counsel of the Navy Judge Advocate General Naval Criminal Investigative Service Naval Inspector General Headquarters Marine Corps: Commandant of the Marine Corps Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps Chaplain U.S. Marine Corps field organizations: see Organization of the United States Marine Corps Office of the Chief of Naval Operations: Chief of Naval Operations Vice Chief of Naval Operations Master Chief Petty Officer of the Navy Director of Naval Reactors Chief of Chaplains Chief of Naval Personnel Surgeon General United States Navy field organizations: see Structure of the United States Navy Department of the Air Force Secretary of the Air Force The Secretariat: Under Secretary of the Air Force Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Acquisition) Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Financial Management & Comptroller) Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Installations, Environment & Logistics) Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Manpower & Reserve Affairs) General Counsel of the Department of the Air Force Air Force Office of Special Investigations The Air Staff: Chief of Staff of the Air Force Vice Chief of Staff of the Air Force Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force Chief of Chaplains Chief of Safety Chief Scientist Judge Advocate General Surgeon General U.S. Air Force field organizations: Major Commands Direct Reporting Units Field Operating AgenciesSpace Staff: Chief of Space Operations United States Space Force field organizations Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Senior Enlisted Advisor to the Chairman Joint Requirements Oversight Council Director of the Joint Staff Joint Staff National Military Command Center Alternate National Military Command Center National Defense University Joint Personnel Recovery Agency Combatant Commands Africa Command Central Command European Command Northern Command Indo-Pacific Command Southern Command Space Command Cyber Command Special Operations Command Strategic Command Transportation Command National Guard Bureau Chief of the National Guard Bureau Air National Guard Army National Guard Office of the Inspector General Defense Criminal Investigative Service
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Ellen Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Lord"},{"link_name":"President","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"}],"text":"The Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment, or USD (A&S), is the Principal Staff Assistant (PSA) and advisor to the Secretary of Defense for all matters relating to acquisition and sustainment in the Department of Defense. This includes the DoD Acquisition System; system design and development; production; logistics and distribution; installation maintenance, management, and resilience; military construction; procurement of goods and services; material readiness; maintenance; environment and energy resilience (including renewable energy); utilities; business management modernization; International Armaments Cooperation, Cooperative Acquisition and International Agreements, Promoting exportability of military components to allies and partners; nuclear, chemical and biological defense programs; and nuclear command, control, and communications.Ellen Lord became the first Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment on 1 February 2018, after serving as the final Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics.The Under Secretary is appointed from civilian life by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve at the pleasure of the President.","title":"Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OUSD(A&S)-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OUSD(A&S)-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oasdA-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oasdS-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ousdCnb-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ousdIp-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ousdSapc-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ousdIc-7"}],"text":"The mission of the OUSD(A&S) is Enable the Delivery and Sustainment of Secure and Resilient Capabilities to the Warfighter and International Partners Quickly and Cost Effectively.[1]The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment (OUSD(A&S)) is focused on forming an acquisition system that moves at the speed of relevance, and to do that, has been shaped into an organization that provides a defense-wide adaptive acquisition framework from need identification to disposal. Using data-driven analysis linked with the National Defense Strategy, OUSD(A&S) scales to enable new product and process development and supports a culture of innovation, critical thinking, and creative compliance. There are multiple organizations that fall under OUSD(A&S) that also work towards this goal.[1]The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Acquisition (OASD(A)) [2] delivers capability at the point of need through a Defense Acquisition System that is flexible, tailorable, and enables speed. ASD(A) is focused on moving defense acquisition away from being expensive, slow, and burdensome by reducing timelines, lowering costs, and improving quality while rapidly introducing new technology to enhance capability.The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment (OASD(Sustainment)) [3] works with logistics and materiel readiness in the Department of Defense (DoD) and is the principal logistics official within the senior management of the DoD. In this capacity, the ASD(S) prescribes policies and procedures for the conduct of logistics, maintenance, materiel readiness, strategic mobility, and sustainment support in the DoD, to include, supply, maintenance, and transportation.The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical & Biological Defense Programs (OASD(CNB)) [4] leads DoD efforts in preparing for, deterring, and mitigating current and future weapons of mass destruction (WMD) threats. They aim to sustain and modernize the U.S. nuclear deterrent; develop capabilities to detect, protect against and respond to WMD threats; ensure DoD compliance with nuclear, chemical, and biological treaties and agreements; continue to work with allies and partners to strengthen our collective countering weapons of mass destruction (CWMD) capabilities; and advance the United States nonproliferation goals.The Industrial Policy [5] office supports the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment by providing detailed analyses and in-depth understanding of the increasingly global, commercial, and financially complex industrial supply chain essential to our national defense.The Executive Director for Special Access Program Central Office [6] facilitates and maintains MOAs and memorandums of understanding for foreign involvement with DoD SAPs and coordinates with appropriate oversight authorities.International Cooperation (IC) [7] Office is to strengthen key international partnerships through cooperative Acquisition & Sustainment initiatives to improve interoperability and sharpen the warfighter’s technological edge. IC prioritizes enabling a lethal, secure, and networked constellation of allies and partners.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Research_and_Engineering"},{"link_name":"National Defense Authorization Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_Authorization_Act"},{"link_name":"Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-multiple-8"},{"link_name":"National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_Authorization_Act_for_Fiscal_Year_2017"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary of Defense for Logistics and Materiel Readiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Logistics_and_Materiel_Readiness"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary of Defense for Energy, Installations, and Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Energy,_Installations,_and_Environment"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-10"}],"text":"The Military Retirement Reform Act of 1986 created the position of Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition (USD(A)), which was implemented with the issuance of Department of Defense Directive 5134.1 in February 1987. As part of this act, the position of Under Secretary of Defense for Research and Engineering (USD(R&E)) was redesignated as the Director of Defense Research and Engineering (DDR&E), a lower-ranking position which reported to the new USD(A).The title of USD(A) was changed to Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology (USD(A&T)) by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994, and the position was later redesignated as the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics (USD(AT&L)) by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2000. The USD(AT&L) served as the principal assistant to the Secretary of Defense for research and development, production, procurement, logistics, and military construction.[8]The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 removed the position of USD(AT&L), and in its place it created the position of USD(R&E) once again, as well as the new position of USD(A&S). These changes took effect on 1 February 2018. As part of the reorganization, the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Logistics and Materiel Readiness (ASD(L&MR)) and Assistant Secretary of Defense for Energy, Installations, and Environment (ASD(EI&E)) positions were combined into a new Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment.[9][10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Acquisition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Acquisition"},{"link_name":"Defense Acquisition University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Acquisition_University"},{"link_name":"Defense Contract Management Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Contract_Management_Agency"},{"link_name":"Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Sustainment"},{"link_name":"Office of Local Defense Community Cooperation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Local_Defense_Community_Cooperation"},{"link_name":"Defense Logistics Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Logistics_Agency"},{"link_name":"Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Energy, Installations, and Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Energy,_Installations,_and_Environment"},{"link_name":"Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Industrial Base Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.businessdefense.gov/"},{"link_name":"Office of the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Defense Programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_Defense_for_Nuclear,_Chemical_%26_Biological_Defense_Programs"},{"link_name":"Defense Threat Reduction Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Threat_Reduction_Agency"}],"text":"Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment\nOffice of the Chief of Staff\nCommander's Action Group\nDeputy Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment\nOffice of Business Operations\nOffice of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Acquisition\nDefense Acquisition University\nDefense Contract Management Agency\nJoint Rapid Acquisition Cell\nOffice of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Sustainment\nOffice of Local Defense Community Cooperation\nDefense Logistics Agency\nOffice of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Energy, Installations, and Environment\nOffice of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Real Property (RP)\nOffice of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Construction (Con)\nOffice of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Housing (H)\nOffice of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Environment & Energy Resilience (E&ER)\nOffice of the Director for Local Defense Community Cooperation\nOffice of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Industrial Base Policy\nOffice of the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Defense Programs\nDefense Threat Reduction Agency\nOffice of International Cooperation\nOffice of Special Programs\nOffice of Human Capital Initiatives","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Office of the Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Office of the Secretary of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Secretary_of_Defense"}],"text":"The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Sustainment (OUSD(A&S)), a unit of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, supervises all Department of Defense acquisitions, including procurement of goods and services, research and development, developmental testing, and contract administration, for all elements of the Department. Led by the Under Secretary, OUSD(A&S) oversees logistics, maintenance, and sustainment support for all elements of the Department and establishes policies for the maintenance of the defense industrial base of the United States.The work of OUSD(A&S) is conducted through its several staff directorates, including:Human Capital Initiatives Directorate – responsible for executing all workforce responsibilities identified by the Secretary of Defense\nAcquisition Resources and Analyses Directorate – integrates the diverse aspects of Defense acquisition into a balanced and coherent program that supports the National Strategy and makes the most effective use of resources provided\nInternational Cooperation Directorate – supports the Under Secretary in all aspects of international cooperation, develops policy for international cooperative armaments programs, and provides the Under Secretary a single, integrated picture of international cooperative activities\nSpecial Programs Directorate – manages the DoD Special Access Program (SAP) management and control structures\nSmall Business Programs Directorate – advises the Secretary of Defense on all matters related to small business and is committed to maximizing the contributions of small business in DoD acquisitions\nAdministration Directorate – serves as the central focal point for all OUSD(A&S) civilian and military personnel programs, organizational management, space, facilities, supply management, security, information management, travel, budgeting, and training\nDefense Procurement & Acquisition Policy Directorate – responsible for all acquisition and procurement policy matters in the Department, including serving as the principal advisor to the Under Secretary on acquisition/procurement strategies for all major weapon systems programs, major automated information systems programs, and services acquisitions\nJoint Rapid Acquisition Cell – provides a single point of contact in the Office of the Secretary of Defense for tracking the timeliness of immediate warfighter need actions for the senior leadership and facilitating coordination with other government agencies\nDefense Science Board – provides senior Department leadership independent advice and recommendations on scientific, technical, manufacturing, acquisition process, and other matters of special interest to the Department\nOffice of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Industrial Policy – responsible for ensuring that Department policies, procedures, and actions:\nstimulate and support vigorous competition and innovation in the industrial base supporting defense\nestablish and sustain cost-effective industrial and technological capabilities that assure military readiness and superiority","title":"Office of the Under Secretary"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Office holders"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Under Secretary","title":"Office holders"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Deputy Under Secretary","title":"Office holders"}]
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[{"title":"The Technical Cooperation Program (TTCP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Technical_Cooperation_Program_(TTCP)"}]
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Retrieved 8 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.acq.osd.mil/sapco/index.html","url_text":"\"Office of the Executive Director for Special Access Program Central Office\""}]},{"reference":"\"OUSD A&S - International Cooperation\". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 8 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.acq.osd.mil/ic/index.html","url_text":"\"OUSD A&S - International Cooperation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Department of Defense Key Officials\" (PDF). Historical Office, OSD. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110721034250/http://osdhistory.defense.gov/docs/DOD%20Key%20Officials%201947-2004.pdf","url_text":"\"Department of Defense Key Officials\""},{"url":"http://osdhistory.defense.gov/docs/DOD%20Key%20Officials%201947-2004.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mehta, Aaron (2 February 2018). \"The Pentagon's acquisition office is gone. Here's what the next 120 days bring\". Defense News. Retrieved 22 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defensenews.com/pentagon/2018/02/01/the-pentagons-acquisition-office-is-gone-heres-what-the-next-120-days-bring/","url_text":"\"The Pentagon's acquisition office is gone. Here's what the next 120 days bring\""}]},{"reference":"\"Report to Congress: Restructuring the Department of Defense Acquisition, Technology and Logistics Organization and Chief Management Officer Organization\" (PDF). 1 August 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.acq.osd.mil/fo/docs/Section-901-FY-2017-NDAA-Report.pdf","url_text":"\"Report to Congress: Restructuring the Department of Defense Acquisition, Technology and Logistics Organization and Chief Management Officer Organization\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ken Krieg - Former Under Secretary of Defense (AT&L)\". Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110629024107/https://acc.dau.mil/CommunityBrowser.aspx?id=24690","url_text":"\"Ken Krieg - Former Under Secretary of Defense (AT&L)\""},{"url":"https://acc.dau.mil/CommunityBrowser.aspx?id=24690","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Release\". www.defense.gov.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/","url_text":"\"Release\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pentagon's acquisition chief resigns\". USA Today. 6 June 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2007-06-06-pentagon-resignation_N.htm?csp=34","url_text":"\"Pentagon's acquisition chief resigns\""}]},{"reference":"\"Young, John J. - Former USD (AT&L)\". Archived from the original on 29 February 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120229190919/https://acc.dau.mil/CommunityBrowser.aspx?id=167951","url_text":"\"Young, John J. - Former USD (AT&L)\""},{"url":"https://acc.dau.mil/CommunityBrowser.aspx?id=167951","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"DoD News: DoD Names Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics\". www.globalsecurity.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2007/11/mil-071121-dod01.htm","url_text":"\"DoD News: DoD Names Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Biographies\". U.S. Department of Defense.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defense.gov/Our-Story/Biographies/","url_text":"\"Biographies\""}]},{"reference":"Beny, Alan. \"OUSD(AT&L) > About AT&L > Leadership > Biography of Frank Kendall, USD(AT&L)\". www.acq.osd.mil. Retrieved 27 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.acq.osd.mil/bio_macstravic.html","url_text":"\"OUSD(AT&L) > About AT&L > Leadership > Biography of Frank Kendall, USD(AT&L)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ellen M. Lord > U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE > Biography\". www.defense.gov. Retrieved 15 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defense.gov/Our-Story/Biographies/Biography/Article/1281505/ellen-m-lord/","url_text":"\"Ellen M. Lord > U.S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE > Biography\""}]},{"reference":"McLeary, Paul; O'Brien, Connor (16 July 2021). \"Top Pentagon weapons office faces vacancies as the military rushes to focus on China\". POLITICO. Retrieved 16 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.politico.com/news/2021/07/16/pentagon-weapons-vacancies-china-499838","url_text":"\"Top Pentagon weapons office faces vacancies as the military rushes to focus on China\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POLITICO","url_text":"POLITICO"}]},{"reference":"Dille, Grace (4 August 2021). \"DoD Names Kausner Head of Acquisition\". Retrieved 8 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.meritalk.com/articles/dod-names-kausner-head-of-acquisition/","url_text":"\"DoD Names Kausner Head of Acquisition\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gregory M. Kausner\". www.acq.osd.mil. Archived from the original on 8 February 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220208132922/https://www.acq.osd.mil/leadership/as/gregory-kausner.html","url_text":"\"Gregory M. Kausner\""},{"url":"https://www.acq.osd.mil/leadership/as/gregory-kausner.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Acquisition and Sustainment Leadership Transition\". U.S. Department of Defense. 7 February 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2926336/acquisition-and-sustainment-leadership-transition/","url_text":"\"Acquisition and Sustainment Leadership Transition\""}]},{"reference":"\"Acquisition and Sustainment Leadership Transition\". U.S. Department of Defense. 15 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/3000957/acquisition-and-sustainment-leadership-transition/","url_text":"\"Acquisition and Sustainment Leadership Transition\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Photos
Photos (Windows)
["1 Photo management","2 Photo editing","3 Video Editor","4 Photo and video import","5 History","6 References","7 External links"]
Not to be confused with Google Photos or Photos (Apple).Built-in image viewer for Windows 8 and later Parts of this article (those related to Screenshot, icon, the face recognition feature) need to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (December 2019) PhotosPhotos in Windows 11 in dark modeDeveloper(s)MicrosoftInitial releaseOctober 26, 2012; 11 years ago (2012-10-26)Stable release(s)Windows 112024.11020.21001.0 / February 24, 2024; 3 months ago (2024-02-24) Operating systemWindows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows 10, Windows 11, Xbox system softwarePredecessorWindows Photo Viewer, Windows Photo Gallery, Windows Movie MakerSuccessorClipchamp (for video editing)Available in65 languagesList of languages English (United States) English (United Kingdom) Afrikaans Albanian Amharic Arabic Azerbaijani Bangla (Bangladesh) Basque Belarusian Bulgarian Catalan Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Traditional) Croatian Czech Danish Dutch Estonian Filipino Finnish French French (Canada) Galician German Greek Hausa (Latin) Hebrew Hindi Hungarian Icelandic Indonesian Italian Japanese Kannada Kazakh Khmer Kiswahili Korean Lao Latvian Lithuanian Macedonian Malay Malayalam Norwegian (Bokmål) Persian Polish Portuguese (Brazil) Portuguese (Portuga) Romanian Russian Serbian (Latin, Serbia) Slovak Slovenian (Slovenia) Spanish (Mexico) Spanish (Spain) Swedish Tamil Telugu Thai Turkish Ukrainian Uzbek Vietnamese TypeImage viewer, image organizer, video editor, video player, raster graphics editorLicenseFreemium – Free base app, with in-app purchasesWebsitemicrosoft.com/store/productId/9wzdncrfjbh4 Photos is an image viewer and image organizer developed by Microsoft. It was first included in Windows 8 as a functional replacement for Windows Photo Viewer and Windows Photo Gallery. Photo management Photos is a single-instance app that can organize digital photos in its gallery into albums. The default view is Collection, which is sorted by date. Users can also view items by Album or Folder. The album view shows both auto-generated and user-generated albums. The folder view displays files based on their location in the file system or on OneDrive. Users can choose what folders are displayed and which files are placed in albums. Photo editing Photos provides the following basic raster graphics editor functions: Crop and rotate Correct exposure or colors Reduce image noise Users can edit with a sidebar similar to the one in Google Photos, which allows them to adjust the photo's shadows, highlights, sharpness, and filters. Further, Photos also allows users to trim, slow down, and save photos from videos. Unlike Photo Gallery, which autosaves edits, Photos only saves when a user clicks the Save or Save As button. Photos allows users to compare the original file to the file with unsaved changes, and to save the photo with a different name and location. Video Editor The video editor was removed from the Windows 11 version of Photos, being replaced by the separate app Clipchamp. Video Editor (formerly Story Remix) is a video editing feature built into the Photos app. Intended to replace the older Windows Movie Maker, this feature was added to Microsoft Photos with the Fall Creators Update to Windows 10. Video Editor uses AI and to organize and transform photos and videos into stories. Video Editor allowed users to create videos from pictures and songs. It also contained features to add 3D effects, soundtracks, 3D animations, and styles to the videos. Photo and video import The Photos app's photo and video import tool provides the ability to view and select photos that are automatically grouped by date taken and choose where the files are saved. The Photos app can show individual pictures, display all pictures in a folder as a slide show, reorient them in 90° increments or through a granular control, print them either directly or via an online print service, send them in e-mail or save them to a folder or disc. It supports images in Animated GIF, BMP, JPEG, JPEG XR (formerly HD Photo), PNG, ICO, RAW, PANO, and TIFF file formats. It can also view HEIF images with the HEIF Image Extensions app from the Microsoft Store. History Photos is built from a separate code base from those of Photo Gallery and Windows Photo Viewer. It was first included in Windows 8.0 and had a customizable background and a Facebook photo viewer, both of which were removed in the Windows 8.1 update to the app. It also introduced the ability to view immersive photo PANO files and set a photo as the app's live tile or the Windows lock screen. Like most other apps designed for Windows 8, the controls were hidden until the user right-clicks on the screen. A screenshot of Microsoft Photos Legacy running on Windows 10. In Windows 10, Photos originally used a hamburger menu for the photo management interface and to make basic controls visible to users. Unlike most Microsoft apps designed specifically for Windows 10, Photos used round buttons like the ones on Windows 8 for editing. Control categories were listed as buttons on the left side of the app, and specific editing options were listed as buttons on the right side of the app. Folder view and the ability for users to edit albums were added to the app after the initial release on Windows 10 in response to user feedback. Photos includes all features from Windows Photo Viewer except the Burn to Disc feature and may gain more features from Photo Gallery in the future. The original view exclusively featured a dark theme. A major update in October 2016 replaced the hamburger menu with a ribbon, replaced the radial editing tools with an editing sidebar, and added a full-screen view, ink editing for photos and videos, and a light theme. In 2022, a new version of the Photos app was released for Windows 11 with changes in the user interface matching the design of Windows 11. This version has significantly different photo editing features. Many features were removed, including the video editor, face grouping, searching things, and browsing by year. The former Photos app from Windows 10 has been renamed to "Photos Legacy" in Windows 11, and can be redownloaded on the Microsoft Store. References ^ Srivatsa, Mala (12 April 2024). "Windows Photos gets Generative erase, and recent AI editing features now available on Arm64 devices and Windows 10". Retrieved 22 February 2024. ^ "Microsoft Photos". Windows Store. Microsoft. ^ "How to use the Windows 10 Photos app". TechRadar. Future US. 12 February 2016. ^ Giret, Laurent (19 April 2016). "Microsoft Photos app gets updated – save still photos from videos and more". WinBeta. ^ a b Purewal, Sarah (3 August 2015). "Exploring the new Photos app in Windows 10". CNET. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 7 August 2016. ^ Huculak, Mauro (18 October 2022). "How to get started with new Photos app on Windows 11". Windows Central. Retrieved 27 February 2023. ^ a b Warren, Tom (9 March 2022). "Clipchamp is Microsoft's new video editing app for Windows 11". The Verge. Retrieved 27 February 2023. ^ "Hands on with Windows 10's Story Remix, the new tool to make your photos pop". PCWorld. Retrieved 24 April 2018. ^ "Get Microsoft Photos Legacy from the Microsoft Store". apps.microsoft.com. Retrieved 7 January 2023. ^ Devine, Richard (24 August 2015). "How to transfer your iPhone and iPad photos to Windows 10". Windows Central. Mobile Nations. Retrieved 7 August 2016. ^ Surur (24 June 2015). "Windows 10 Mobile Photos app finally supports GIFs". MSPowerUser. ^ Sarkar, Dona (7 October 2016). "Announcing Windows 10 Insider Preview Build 14942 for PC". Windows Blog. Microsoft. ^ "Microsoft Photos Legacy - Microsoft Store Apps". Microsoft. External links Microsoft Photos on Microsoft Store Photos Add-on on Microsoft Store Microsoft Photos Legacy on Microsoft Store Photos help – Windows Help vteMicrosoft Windows components APIs Architecture 9x NT Booting process Games Managementtools App Installer Command Prompt Control Panel Device Manager Disk Cleanup Drive Optimizer Driver Verifier DirectX Diagnostic Tool Event Viewer IExpress Management Console Netsh Performance Monitor Recovery Console Resource Monitor Settings Sysprep System Configuration System File Checker System Information System Policy Editor System Restore Task Manager Windows Error Reporting Windows Ink Windows Installer PowerShell Windows Update Windows Insider WinRE WMI Apps 3D Viewer Clock Calculator Calendar Camera Character Map Clipchamp Cortana Edge Fax and Scan Feedback Hub Get Help Magnifier Mail Maps Messaging Media Player 2022 Movies & TV Mobility Center Money Narrator Notepad OneDrive OneNote Paint Paint 3D People Phone Link Photos Quick Assist Remote Desktop Connection Snipping Tool Speech Recognition Skype Sports Start Sticky Notes Store Tips Voice Recorder Weather WordPad Xbox Shell Action Center Aero AutoPlay AutoRun ClearType Explorer Search Indexing Service IFilter Saved search Namespace Special folder Start menu Taskbar Task View Windows Spotlight Windows XP visual styles Services Service Control Manager BITS CLFS Multimedia Class Scheduler Shadow Copy Task Scheduler Error Reporting Wireless Zero Configuration File systems CDFS DFS exFAT IFS FAT NTFS Hard link links Mount Point Reparse point TxF EFS ReFS UDF Server Active Directory Domains DNS Group Policy Roaming user profiles Folder redirection Distributed Transaction Coordinator MSMQ Windows Media Services Active DRM Services IIS WSUS SharePoint Network Access Protection PWS DFS Replication Print Services for UNIX Remote Desktop Services Remote Differential Compression Remote Installation Services Windows Deployment Services System Resource Manager Hyper-V Server Core Architecture Boot Manager Console CSRSS Desktop Window Manager Portable Executable EXE DLL Enhanced Write Filter Graphics Device Interface Hardware Abstraction Layer I/O request packet Imaging Format Kernel Transaction Manager Library files Logical Disk Manager LSASS MinWin NTLDR Ntoskrnl.exe Object Manager Open XML Paper Specification Registry Resource Protection Security Account Manager Server Message Block Shadow Copy SMSS System Idle Process USER WHEA Winlogon WinUSB Security Security and Maintenance AppLocker BitLocker Credential Guard Data Execution Prevention Defender Family features Kernel Patch Protection Mandatory Integrity Control Protected Media Path User Account Control User Interface Privilege Isolation Windows Firewall Compatibility COMMAND.COM Windows Subsystem for Linux WoW64 API Active Scripting WSH VBScript JScript COM ActiveX ActiveX Document COM Structured storage DCOM OLE OLE Automation Transaction Server DirectX Native .NET Universal Windows Platform WinAPI Windows Mixed Reality Windows Runtime WinUSB Games Solitaire Collection Surf DiscontinuedGames 3D Pinball Chess Titans FreeCell Hearts InkBall Hold 'Em Purble Place Spider Solitaire Solitaire Tinker Apps ActiveMovie Anytime Upgrade Address Book Backup and Restore Cardfile CardSpace CD Player Chat Contacts Desktop Gadgets Diagnostics DriveSpace DVD Maker Easy Transfer Fax Food & Drink Groove Music Help and Support Center Health & Fitness HyperTerminal Imaging Internet Explorer Journal Make Compatible Media Center Meeting Space Messaging Messenger Mobile Device Center Movie Maker MSN Dial-up NetMeeting NTBackup Outlook Express Pay Phone Companion Photo Gallery Photo Viewer Program Manager Steps Recorder Syskey Travel WinHelp Write Others Games for Windows ScanDisk File Protection Media Control Interface MS-DOS 7 Next-Generation Secure Computing Base POSIX subsystem HPFS Interix Video for Windows Virtual DOS machine Windows on Windows Windows SideShow Windows Services for UNIX Windows System Assessment Tool Windows To Go WinFS Spun off toMicrosoft Store DVD Player File Manager Hover! Mahjong Minesweeper  Category  List vteMedia player softwareFree softwareWindows Media Player Classic MediaPortal Mpxplay Linuxactive cmus JuK Kaffeine Music on Console Noise Parole Rhythmbox GNOME Videos Xine inactive Muine Ogle DVD Player XMMS XMMS2 Guayadeque Baudline Helix Cross-platformactive Amarok Audacious DeaDBeeF Exaile ffplay Kodi Mpg123 MPlayer/mpv (IINA, SMPlayer) Music Player Daemon MusikCube qmmp Quod Libet VLC inactive Banshee Miro Songbird Zinf Clementine FreewareWindows AIMP Dell MediaDirect GOM Player Groove Music (discontinued) jetAudio KMPlayer MediaMonkey Media Go (discontinued) Microsoft Movies & TV Microsoft Photos Mod4Win MusicBee MusikCube InterActual Player PotPlayer QuickTime (discontinued) Winamp Cross-platform DivX Player foobar2000 iTunes Plex QuickTime RealPlayer Commercial (proprietary)Windows CD Player Connect Player DVD Player JRiver Media Center PowerDVD ArcSoft TotalMedia Theatre WinDVD Windows Media Player macOS DVD Player Peel Mobile Core Pocket Media Player doubleTwist Music (Xperia) Musicolet RealPlayer Winamp Lists Video players Audio players Free software audio players Portable media players Personal video recorders
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It was first included in Windows 8 as a functional replacement for Windows Photo Viewer and Windows Photo Gallery.[3][4]","title":"Photos (Windows)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"OneDrive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OneDrive"}],"text":"Photos is a single-instance app that can organize digital photos in its gallery into albums. The default view is Collection, which is sorted by date. Users can also view items by Album or Folder. The album view shows both auto-generated and user-generated albums. The folder view displays files based on their location in the file system or on OneDrive. Users can choose what folders are displayed and which files are placed in albums.","title":"Photo management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"raster graphics editor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics_editor"},{"link_name":"Google Photos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Photos"},{"link_name":"shadows, highlights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_and_highlight_enhancement"},{"link_name":"sharpness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharpness_(visual)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNET-5"}],"text":"Photos provides the following basic raster graphics editor functions:Crop and rotate\nCorrect exposure or colors\nReduce image noiseUsers can edit with a sidebar similar to the one in Google Photos, which allows them to adjust the photo's shadows, highlights, sharpness, and filters.[5] Further, Photos also allows users to trim, slow down, and save photos from videos.Unlike Photo Gallery, which autosaves edits, Photos only saves when a user clicks the Save or Save As button. Photos allows users to compare the original file to the file with unsaved changes, and to save the photo with a different name and location.","title":"Photo editing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Clipchamp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipchamp"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"video editing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_editing_software"},{"link_name":"Windows Movie Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Movie_Maker"},{"link_name":"Fall Creators Update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_Creators_Update"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"}],"text":"The video editor was removed from the Windows 11 version of Photos, being replaced by the separate app Clipchamp.[6][7]\nVideo Editor (formerly Story Remix)[8] is a video editing feature built into the Photos app. Intended to replace the older Windows Movie Maker, this feature was added to Microsoft Photos with the Fall Creators Update to Windows 10.[9] Video Editor uses AI and to organize and transform photos and videos into stories. Video Editor allowed users to create videos from pictures and songs. It also contained features to add 3D effects, soundtracks, 3D animations, and styles to the videos.","title":"Video Editor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"slide show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_show"},{"link_name":"save","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_authoring"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNET-5"},{"link_name":"Animated GIF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animated_GIF"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"BMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMP_file_format"},{"link_name":"JPEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG"},{"link_name":"JPEG XR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG_XR"},{"link_name":"PNG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics"},{"link_name":"ICO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICO_(file_format)"},{"link_name":"RAW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_image_format"},{"link_name":"TIFF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tag_Image_File_Format"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"HEIF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEIF"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Store"}],"text":"The Photos app's photo and video import tool provides the ability to view and select photos that are automatically grouped by date taken and choose where the files are saved.[10]The Photos app can show individual pictures, display all pictures in a folder as a slide show, reorient them in 90° increments or through a granular control, print them either directly or via an online print service, send them in e-mail or save them to a folder or disc.[5] It supports images in Animated GIF,[11] BMP, JPEG, JPEG XR (formerly HD Photo), PNG, ICO, RAW, PANO, and TIFF file formats.[citation needed] It can also view HEIF images with the HEIF Image Extensions app from the Microsoft Store.","title":"Photo and video import"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows 8.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_8.1"},{"link_name":"immersive photo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immersive_photo"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photos_Legacy_Windows_10.png"},{"link_name":"Windows 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_10"},{"link_name":"hamburger menu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburger_menu"},{"link_name":"dark theme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_theme"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-7"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Store"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Photos is built from a separate code base from those of Photo Gallery and Windows Photo Viewer. It was first included in Windows 8.0 and had a customizable background and a Facebook photo viewer, both of which were removed in the Windows 8.1 update to the app. It also introduced the ability to view immersive photo PANO files and set a photo as the app's live tile or the Windows lock screen. Like most other apps designed for Windows 8, the controls were hidden until the user right-clicks on the screen.A screenshot of Microsoft Photos Legacy running on Windows 10.In Windows 10, Photos originally used a hamburger menu for the photo management interface and to make basic controls visible to users. Unlike most Microsoft apps designed specifically for Windows 10, Photos used round buttons like the ones on Windows 8 for editing. Control categories were listed as buttons on the left side of the app, and specific editing options were listed as buttons on the right side of the app. Folder view and the ability for users to edit albums were added to the app after the initial release on Windows 10 in response to user feedback. Photos includes all features from Windows Photo Viewer except the Burn to Disc feature and may gain more features from Photo Gallery in the future. The original view exclusively featured a dark theme.A major update in October 2016 replaced the hamburger menu with a ribbon, replaced the radial editing tools with an editing sidebar, and added a full-screen view, ink editing for photos and videos, and a light theme.[12]In 2022, a new version of the Photos app was released for Windows 11 with changes in the user interface matching the design of Windows 11. This version has significantly different photo editing features. Many features were removed, including the video editor, face grouping, searching things, and browsing by year.[7] The former Photos app from Windows 10 has been renamed to \"Photos Legacy\" in Windows 11, and can be redownloaded on the Microsoft Store.[13]","title":"History"}]
[{"image_text":"A screenshot of Microsoft Photos Legacy running on Windows 10.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/ca/Photos_Legacy_Windows_10.png/237px-Photos_Legacy_Windows_10.png"}]
null
[{"reference":"Srivatsa, Mala (12 April 2024). \"Windows Photos gets Generative erase, and recent AI editing features now available on Arm64 devices and Windows 10\". Retrieved 22 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.windows.com/windows-insider/2024/02/22/windows-photos-gets-generative-erase-and-recent-ai-editing-features-now-available-on-arm64-devices-and-windows-10/","url_text":"\"Windows Photos gets Generative erase, and recent AI editing features now available on Arm64 devices and Windows 10\""}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Photos\". Windows Store. Microsoft.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/store/p/microsoft-photos/9wzdncrfjbh4","url_text":"\"Microsoft Photos\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Store","url_text":"Windows Store"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"\"How to use the Windows 10 Photos app\". TechRadar. Future US. 12 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techradar.com/us/how-to/computing/how-to-use-the-windows-10-photos-app-1314866","url_text":"\"How to use the Windows 10 Photos app\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechRadar","url_text":"TechRadar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_US","url_text":"Future US"}]},{"reference":"Giret, Laurent (19 April 2016). \"Microsoft Photos app gets updated – save still photos from videos and more\". WinBeta.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.winbeta.org/news/microsoft-photos-app-gets-updated-save-still-photos-videos","url_text":"\"Microsoft Photos app gets updated – save still photos from videos and more\""}]},{"reference":"Purewal, Sarah (3 August 2015). \"Exploring the new Photos app in Windows 10\". CNET. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 7 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnet.com/how-to/exploring-the-new-photos-app-in-windows-10/","url_text":"\"Exploring the new Photos app in Windows 10\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET","url_text":"CNET"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Interactive","url_text":"CBS Interactive"}]},{"reference":"Huculak, Mauro (18 October 2022). \"How to get started with new Photos app on Windows 11\". Windows Central. Retrieved 27 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.windowscentral.com/software-apps/windows-11/how-to-get-started-with-new-photos-app-on-windows-11","url_text":"\"How to get started with new Photos app on Windows 11\""}]},{"reference":"Warren, Tom (9 March 2022). \"Clipchamp is Microsoft's new video editing app for Windows 11\". The Verge. Retrieved 27 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/9/22969250/clipchamp-windows-11-microsoft-video-editing-app","url_text":"\"Clipchamp is Microsoft's new video editing app for Windows 11\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hands on with Windows 10's Story Remix, the new tool to make your photos pop\". PCWorld. Retrieved 24 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcworld.com/article/3196464/windows/hands-on-with-microsofts-story-remix-the-new-tool-to-make-your-photos-pop.html","url_text":"\"Hands on with Windows 10's Story Remix, the new tool to make your photos pop\""}]},{"reference":"\"Get Microsoft Photos Legacy from the Microsoft Store\". apps.microsoft.com. Retrieved 7 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.microsoft.com/store/detail/microsoft-photos-legacy/9NV2L4XVMCXM?hl=en-hk&gl=hk&rtc=1","url_text":"\"Get Microsoft Photos Legacy from the Microsoft Store\""}]},{"reference":"Devine, Richard (24 August 2015). \"How to transfer your iPhone and iPad photos to Windows 10\". Windows Central. Mobile Nations. Retrieved 7 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.windowscentral.com/how-transfer-your-iphone-and-ipad-photos-windows-10","url_text":"\"How to transfer your iPhone and iPad photos to Windows 10\""}]},{"reference":"Surur (24 June 2015). \"Windows 10 Mobile Photos app finally supports GIFs\". MSPowerUser.","urls":[{"url":"https://mspoweruser.com/windows-10-mobile-photos-app-finally-supports-giifs/","url_text":"\"Windows 10 Mobile Photos app finally supports GIFs\""}]},{"reference":"Sarkar, Dona (7 October 2016). \"Announcing Windows 10 Insider Preview Build 14942 for PC\". Windows Blog. Microsoft.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.windows.com/windowsexperience/2016/10/07/announcing-windows-10-insider-preview-build-14942-for-pc/","url_text":"\"Announcing Windows 10 Insider Preview Build 14942 for PC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft Photos Legacy - Microsoft Store Apps\". Microsoft.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.microsoft.com/store/detail/microsoft-photos-legacy/9NV2L4XVMCXM","url_text":"\"Microsoft Photos Legacy - Microsoft Store Apps\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranch_house
Ranch-style house
["1 History and development","1.1 Era of popularity","2 Features","3 Disadvantages","3.1 Yards are smaller","3.2 Lesser privacy","3.3 Expensive to build with add-ons","4 Variations","4.1 Two-story versions","4.2 Commercial versions","4.3 Decline","4.4 Revival of interest","5 Gallery","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links","9.1 House plans"]
American domestic architectural style Large custom ranch house built in 1966 in Bakersfield, California. This house exhibits most of the features of the style, such as long low profile and large windows. Smaller ranch-style house in West Jordan, Utah, with brick exterior and side drop gable roof Ranch (also known as American ranch, California ranch, rambler, or rancher) is a domestic architectural style that originated in the United States. The ranch-style house is noted for its long, close-to-the-ground profile, and wide open layout. The style fused modernist ideas and styles with notions of the American Western period of wide open spaces to create a very informal and casual living style. While the original ranch style was informal and basic in design, ranch-style houses built in the United States (particularly in the Sun Belt region) from around the early 1960s increasingly had more dramatic features such as varying roof lines, cathedral ceilings, sunken living rooms, and extensive landscaping and grounds. First appearing as a residential style in the 1920s, the ranch was extremely popular with the booming post-war middle class of the 1940s to the 1970s. The style is often associated with tract housing built at this time, particularly in the southwest United States, which experienced a population explosion during this period, with a corresponding demand for housing. The style was soon exported to other nations and became popular worldwide. Its popularity waned in the late 20th century as neo-eclectic house styles featuring historical and traditional decoration became more popular. Preservationist movements have begun in some ranch house neighborhoods, reinforced by an interest in the style from a younger generation who did not grow up in such homes. This revival has been compared to that which other house styles such as the bungalow and Queen Anne experienced in the 20th century. History and development The 20th-century ranch house style has its roots in North American Spanish colonial architecture of the 17th to 19th century. These buildings used single-story floor plans and native materials in a simple style to meet the needs of their inhabitants. Walls were often built of adobe brick and covered with plaster, or more simply used board and batten wood siding. Roofs were low and simple, and usually had wide eaves to help shade the windows from the Southwestern heat. Buildings often had interior courtyards which were surrounded by a U-shaped floor plan. Large front porches were also common. These low slung, thick-walled, rustic working ranches were common in what would become the southwestern United States. Era of popularity 1950s ranch house with dovecote By the 1950s, the California ranch house, by now often called simply the ranch house or "rambler house", accounted for nine out of every ten new houses. The seemingly endless ability of the style to accommodate the individual needs of the owner/occupant, combined with the very modern inclusion of the latest in building developments and simplicity of the design, satisfied the needs of the time. Ranch houses were built throughout America and were often given regional facelifts to suit regional tastes. The "Colonial Ranch" of the Midwest and Northeast is one such noted variant, adding American Colonial features to the facade of the California ranch house. Ranch houses of the 1940s and 1950s are typically more deliberately themed in nature than those of the 1960s and 1970s, with features such as dovecotes, Swiss board edging on trim, and generally western and even fantasy trim styling. From the mid-1960s onward, the ranch house echoed the national trend towards sleekness in design, with the homes becoming even simpler and more generic as this trend continued. Features This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (October 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message)Wide eaves of a typical ranch house, this one built in 1966 in California Prominent features are of the original ranch house style include: Single story Long, low-pitch roofline Asymmetrical rectangular, L-shaped, or U-shaped design Simple, open floor plans Living areas separate from the bedroom(s) area Attached garage Sliding glass doors opening onto a patio Windows with a large glass area, sometimes decorated with non-functional shutters Vaulted ceilings with exposed beams often in combination with tongue and groove roof decking Mixed material exteriors of stucco and brick, wood or stone Deep overhanging eaves Cross-gabled, side-gabled or hip roof Disadvantages Yards are smaller Having a single-story ranch home may result in reduced outdoor space, as the construction requires more land. This could pose a challenge if you need to accommodate your ranch-style residence on a smaller plot. Lesser privacy Homes with two stories offer greater privacy compared to single-story ranch-style homes. Placing your bedroom on the upper level ensures more privacy compared to having it on the lower level. Expensive to build with add-ons Constructing a one-story ranch-style house requires a larger space and significant formwork, including foundation, roofing, windows, and various materials. In contrast, a two-story ranch home will save space, allowing for more square feet of living space on the same footprint. Variations Former supermarket in ranch style Two-story versions The raised ranch is a two-story house in which a finished basement serves as an additional floor. It may be built into a slope to utilize the terrain or minimize its appearance. For a house to be classified by realtors as a raised ranch, there must be a flight of steps to get to the main living floor – which distinguishes it from a split-level house. Commercial versions The ranch house style was adapted for commercial use during the time of the style's popularity. As the concept of a "drive-in" shopping center was being created and popularized, the ranch style was a perfect style to fit into the large tracts of ranch homes being built. Commercial ranch buildings, such as supermarkets and strip malls, typically follow the residential style with simple rustic trim, stucco or board and batten siding, exposed brick and shake roofs, and large windows. Decline American tastes in architecture began to change in the late 1960s, a move away from Googie and Modernism and ranch houses towards more formal and traditional styles. Builders of ranch houses also began to simplify and cheapen construction of the houses to cut costs, eventually reducing the style down to a very bland and uninteresting house, with little of the charm and drama of the early versions. By the late 1970s, the ranch house was no longer the house of choice, and had been eclipsed by the neo-eclectic styles of the late 20th century. Very late custom ranch houses of the later 1970s begin to exhibit features of the neo-eclectics, such as dramatically elevated rooflines, grand entryways, and traditional detailing. These neo-eclectic houses typically continue many of the lifestyle interior features of the ranch house, such as open floor plans, attached garages, eat-in kitchens, and built-in patios, though their exterior styling typically owes more to northern Europe or Italy or 18th and 19th century house styles than the ranch house. Neo-eclectic houses also have a significant level of formality in their design, both externally and internally, the exact opposite of the typical ranch-style house. Additionally, the increase in land prices has meant a corresponding increase in the number of two-story houses being built, and a shrinking of the size of the average lot; both trends inhibit the traditional ranch house style. Ranch style houses are occasionally still built today, but mainly in the Western states and, usually, as individual custom. Revival of interest Beginning in the late 1990s, a revival of interest in the ranch style house occurred in United States. The renewed interest in the design is mainly focused on existing houses and neighborhoods, not new construction. Younger house buyers find that ranch houses are affordable entry level homes in many markets, and the single story living of the house attracts older buyers looking for a house they can navigate easily as they age. The houses' uniquely American heritage, being an indigenous design, has furthered interest as well. The houses' simplicity and unpretentious nature, in marked contrast to the more dramatic and formal nature of neo-eclectic houses, makes them appealing for some buyers. The more distinctive ranch houses, such as modernist Palmer and Krisel, Joseph Eichler and Cliff May designs, as well as custom houses with a full complement of the style's features, are in particular demand in many markets. Many ranch-style neighborhoods are now well-established, with large trees, and the houses often have owner modifications that add individual character to the fairly uniform style. As these houses were mostly built between 1945 and 1970, they have modern infrastructure and their heating/cooling systems, wiring, plumbing, windows, doors, and other systems can all be easily repaired and upgraded. Small-scale tract building of ranch houses ended in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Those still built today have usually been individual custom houses. One exception is a tract of ranch-style houses built on and adjacent to Butte Court in Shafter, California, in 2007/08. These houses borrowed their style cues from the 1950s Western-styled ranch houses, with board and batten siding, dovecotes, large eaves, and extensive porches. Notably, all houses in this tract were on 1/4-acre lots, and had their front garages turned sideways so that the garage doors were not dominating the front of the house. Breaking Bad creator Vince Gilligan specified that Walter White's house in the television series be a Rancher. In an early draft of the script for the series' pilot episode, he described the house as "a three-bedroom RANCHER in a modest neighborhood. Weekend trips to Home Depot keep it looking tidy, but it'll never make the cover of 'Architectural Digest'." The real house used to film exteriors in the series is located in Northeast Albuquerque, New Mexico, and was originally built in 1972. It has since become a popular tourist attraction. Gallery Houses under construction in Butte Court, Shafter, California Ranch-style house in Shafter, California Ranch-style house in Shafter, California Modern revival Ranch-style house design featuring Neo-eclectic architecture elements in Denver, Colorado Traditional ranch-style house in Toledo, Ohio, in about 1965 See also Splanch Edward H. Fickett American Craftsman Minimal Traditional Mission Revival Style architecture Mar del Plata style References ^ a b Salant, Katherine (December 30, 2006). "The Ranch, an Architectural Archetype Forged on the Frontier". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 22, 2010. ^ "Nrb Suburbs Part 3: Historic Residential Suburbs: Guidelines for Evaluation and Documentation for the National Register of Historic Places". ^ Rybczynski, Witold (April 17, 2007). "How America fell in and out of love with the ranch house". Slate Magazine. ^ Sawantt, Saili (February 12, 2023). "20 Best Ranch Style Homes with an Ultimate Guide to Know!". Architectures Ideas. Retrieved December 28, 2023. ^ Image:SIMPLERANCH1.JPG ^ Timberg, Scott (October 20, 2005). "The once and future ranch". Los Angeles Times. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). filmschoolrejects.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 11, 2018. Retrieved March 14, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "3828 Piermont Dr Ne, Albuquerque, NM 87111 - realtor.com®". realtor.com®. ^ "'Breaking Bad' Bummer: Why You'd Hate Owning Walter White's House". Real Estate News and Advice | Realtor.com®. October 12, 2017. Further reading Allen, B. L. (February 1996). "The Ranch-style House in America: A Cultural and Environmental Discourse". Journal of Architectural Education. 49 (3): 156–165. doi:10.1080/10464883.1996.10734678. Bricker, David (1983). Built For Sale: Cliff May and the Low Cost California Ranch House (M.A. thesis). University of California, Santa Barbara. OCLC 12187474. Bricker, David. "Ranch Houses Are Not All the Same" (PDF). National Park Service Cultural Resources. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Clouser, Roger A. (1984). The Ranch House in America (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Kansas. OCLC 753784439. Gregory, Daniel P., (2008) Cliff May and the Modern Ranch House, New York, Rizzoli, ISBN 978-0-8478-3047-3 Hess, Alan (2005). The Ranch House. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-4346-8. Hunter, Christine (1999). Ranches, Rowhouses, and Railroad Flats-- American Homes: How They Shape Our Landscape and Neighborhoods. New York: W.W.Norton. ISBN 0-393-73186-3. May, Cliff (1958). Western Ranch Houses. Santa Monica: Hennessey & Ingalls. McAlester, Virginia & Lee (1997). A Field Guide to American Houses. New York: Knopf. pp. 479–480. ISBN 0-394-73969-8. McCoy, Esther & Evelyn Hitchcock (1983). "The Ranch House". In Moore, Charles W.; et al. (eds.). Home Sweet Home. Rizzoli. pp. 84–89. ISBN 9780847805204. Peterson, Gary G. (1989). "Home Off the Range: The Origins and Evolution of Ranch Style Architecture in the United States". Design Methods and Theories. 23 (3): 1040–59. Sullivan, Patrick, Reed, Mary Beth and Fedor, Tracey (2010). "The Ranch House in Georgia: Guidelines for Evaluation" (PDF). New South Associates. Archived from the original on August 10, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) Samon, Katherine Ann (2003). Ranch House Style. New York: Clarkson Potter. ISBN 0-609-60628-X. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ranch-style architecture. Atomic Ranch Magazine How America fell in and out of love with the ranch house The Ranch House Lives On• House plans Sunset Western Ranch Houses, Editorial staff of Sunset Magazine in collaboration with Cliff May. San Francisco: Lane Publishing, 1946 - features many plans and photographs of ranch homes by California architects, along with extensive discussion of the style's history, design, construction, landscaping, and furnishing. Smaller ranch homes engineered for maximum efficiency, National Plan Service, 1950. 64 low cost homes, including special ranch home section, Home Planners, Inc., 1951. Build-it-yourself ranch-type house, by Tom Riley, Popular Mechanics Press, 1951 - with many details of construction and materials Modern ranch homes designed for town or country, National Plan Service, 1951. Newest plans of ranch houses, farm buildings, motels, Authentic Publications, 1952. 72 low cost suburban-ranch homes, HomOgraf Company, 1952. Book of rambler and ranch-type homes: designs and floor plans for 31 practical homes, 3rd ed. Home Plan Book Co., 1953. 92 low cost ranch homes, by Richard B. Pollman, Home Planners, Inc., 1955. Ranch homes for today, by Alwin Cassens, Jr., Archway Press, 1956. New modern ranch homes for town or country living, National Plan Service, 1956. 300 Homes, by Richard B. Pollman, Home Planners, Inc., 1956. 67 homes for town and country, Home Planners, Inc., 1959. Town and country ranch homes, National Plan Service, 1962. vteArchitecture of the United StatesNative and indigenous Mound Builders Pueblo Colonial and post-colonial Creole First Period Colonial Georgian Dutch Colonial French Colonial German Colonial Spanish Colonial Territorial Early Republic Adam Federal Jeffersonian Neoclassical Antebellum Mid-19th century Greek Revival Italianate Gothic Revival Victorian Richardsonian Romanesque Second Empire American Renaissance Folk Stick style Queen Anne Shingle Late-19th tomid-20th century Art Deco (Streamline Moderne) Pre-war American Craftsman American Foursquare Beaux-Arts California bungalow Chicago School Colonial Revival Dutch Colonial Revival Googie International style Mayan Revival Mediterranean Revival Mission Revival Pueblo Revival Deco Prairie School PWA Moderne Sarasota School of Architecture Rustic Spanish Colonial Revival Territorial Revival Tudor Revival Post–World War II Blobitecture Brutalist Deconstructivism Dingbat Earthship High-tech Mid-century modern Modern Neo-eclectic Neo-futurism Neomodern New Classical architecture Postmodern Ranch Shed style Tiny-house Usonian Building types and vernacular Adobe Barabara Cape Cod Central-passage house Chickee Corn crib Cowboy church Critical regionalism Dogtrot house Earth lodge Hogan Hall and parlor house I-house Igloo Jacal Kiva Log cabin Longhouses Moki steps Plank house Platform mound Qargi Quiggly hole Ramada Saltbox Shotgun house Sipapu Skyscraper Sod house Sweat lodge Temples Tipi Town square Tupiq Wigwam Cities Atlanta Boston Buffalo Chicago Columbus Detroit Houston Jacksonville Kansas City Las Vegas Los Angeles Miami New Orleans New York City Omaha Philadelphia Portland San Antonio San Francisco Seattle Spokane St. Louis Washington, D.C. States Hawaii Texas Portals: Architecture Housing
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HouseII2007.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RamblerHouse.JPG"},{"link_name":"West Jordan, Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Jordan,_Utah"},{"link_name":"gable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gable"},{"link_name":"architectural style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_style"},{"link_name":"Sun Belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Belt"},{"link_name":"booming post-war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post%E2%80%93World_War_II_economic_expansion"},{"link_name":"tract housing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tract_housing"},{"link_name":"neo-eclectic house styles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-eclectic_architecture"},{"link_name":"bungalow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bungalow"},{"link_name":"Queen Anne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Anne_style_architecture_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-1"}],"text":"Large custom ranch house built in 1966 in Bakersfield, California. This house exhibits most of the features of the style, such as long low profile and large windows.Smaller ranch-style house in West Jordan, Utah, with brick exterior and side drop gable roofRanch (also known as American ranch, California ranch, rambler, or rancher) is a domestic architectural style that originated in the United States. The ranch-style house is noted for its long, close-to-the-ground profile, and wide open layout. The style fused modernist ideas and styles with notions of the American Western period of wide open spaces to create a very informal and casual living style. While the original ranch style was informal and basic in design, ranch-style houses built in the United States (particularly in the Sun Belt region) from around the early 1960s increasingly had more dramatic features such as varying roof lines, cathedral ceilings, sunken living rooms, and extensive landscaping and grounds.First appearing as a residential style in the 1920s, the ranch was extremely popular with the booming post-war middle class of the 1940s to the 1970s. The style is often associated with tract housing built at this time, particularly in the southwest United States, which experienced a population explosion during this period, with a corresponding demand for housing. The style was soon exported to other nations and became popular worldwide. Its popularity waned in the late 20th century as neo-eclectic house styles featuring historical and traditional decoration became more popular.Preservationist movements have begun in some ranch house neighborhoods, reinforced by an interest in the style from a younger generation who did not grow up in such homes. This revival has been compared to that which other house styles such as the bungalow and Queen Anne experienced in the 20th century.[1]","title":"Ranch-style house"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spanish colonial architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_style"},{"link_name":"board and batten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_and_batten"},{"link_name":"eaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eaves"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"southwestern United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Southwest"}],"text":"The 20th-century ranch house style has its roots in North American Spanish colonial architecture of the 17th to 19th century. These buildings used single-story floor plans and native materials in a simple style to meet the needs of their inhabitants. Walls were often built of adobe brick and covered with plaster, or more simply used board and batten wood siding. Roofs were low and simple, and usually had wide eaves to help shade the windows from the Southwestern heat. Buildings often had interior courtyards which were surrounded by a U-shaped floor plan. Large front porches were also common.[2] These low slung, thick-walled, rustic working ranches were common in what would become the southwestern United States.","title":"History and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1950s_Ranch-style_House_California.jpg"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"dovecotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dovecote"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Era of popularity","text":"1950s ranch house with dovecoteBy the 1950s, the California ranch house, by now often called simply the ranch house or \"rambler house\", accounted for nine out of every ten new houses.[3] The seemingly endless ability of the style to accommodate the individual needs of the owner/occupant, combined with the very modern inclusion of the latest in building developments and simplicity of the design, satisfied the needs of the time. Ranch houses were built throughout America and were often given regional facelifts to suit regional tastes. The \"Colonial Ranch\" of the Midwest and Northeast is one such noted variant, adding American Colonial features to the facade of the California ranch house. Ranch houses of the 1940s and 1950s are typically more deliberately themed in nature than those of the 1960s and 1970s, with features such as dovecotes, Swiss board edging on trim, and generally western and even fantasy trim styling. From the mid-1960s onward, the ranch house echoed the national trend towards sleekness in design, with the homes becoming even simpler and more generic as this trend continued.[citation needed]","title":"History and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wideeaves.JPG"},{"link_name":"Asymmetrical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetrical"},{"link_name":"floor plans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_plan"},{"link_name":"Sliding glass doors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sliding_glass_door"},{"link_name":"patio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patio"},{"link_name":"Vaulted ceilings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaulted_ceiling"},{"link_name":"stucco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stucco"},{"link_name":"eaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eaves"},{"link_name":"hip roof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_roof"}],"text":"Wide eaves of a typical ranch house, this one built in 1966 in CaliforniaProminent features are of the original ranch house style include:Single story\nLong, low-pitch roofline\nAsymmetrical rectangular, L-shaped, or U-shaped design\nSimple, open floor plans\nLiving areas separate from the bedroom(s) area\nAttached garage\nSliding glass doors opening onto a patio\nWindows with a large glass area, sometimes decorated with non-functional shutters\nVaulted ceilings with exposed beams often in combination with tongue and groove roof decking\nMixed material exteriors of stucco and brick, wood or stone\nDeep overhanging eaves\nCross-gabled, side-gabled or hip roof","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Yards are smaller","text":"Having a single-story ranch home may result in reduced outdoor space, as the construction requires more land. This could pose a challenge if you need to accommodate your ranch-style residence on a smaller plot.","title":"Disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Lesser privacy","text":"Homes with two stories offer greater privacy compared to single-story ranch-style homes. Placing your bedroom on the upper level ensures more privacy compared to having it on the lower level.[4]","title":"Disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Expensive to build with add-ons","text":"Constructing a one-story ranch-style house requires a larger space and significant formwork, including foundation, roofing, windows, and various materials. In contrast, a two-story ranch home will save space, allowing for more square feet of living space on the same footprint.","title":"Disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ranchsupermarket.JPG"}],"text":"Former supermarket in ranch style","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"split-level house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-level_home"}],"sub_title":"Two-story versions","text":"The raised ranch is a two-story house in which a finished basement serves as an additional floor. It may be built into a slope to utilize the terrain or minimize its appearance. For a house to be classified by realtors as a raised ranch, there must be a flight of steps to get to the main living floor – which distinguishes it from a split-level house.","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Commercial versions","text":"The ranch house style was adapted for commercial use during the time of the style's popularity. As the concept of a \"drive-in\" shopping center was being created and popularized, the ranch style was a perfect style to fit into the large tracts of ranch homes being built. Commercial ranch buildings, such as supermarkets and strip malls, typically follow the residential style with simple rustic trim, stucco or board and batten siding, exposed brick and shake roofs, and large windows.","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Googie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googie_architecture"},{"link_name":"Modernism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"neo-eclectic styles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-eclectic_architecture"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Decline","text":"American tastes in architecture began to change in the late 1960s, a move away from Googie and Modernism and ranch houses towards more formal and traditional styles. Builders of ranch houses also began to simplify and cheapen construction of the houses to cut costs, eventually reducing the style down to a very bland and uninteresting house, with little of the charm and drama of the early versions.[5] By the late 1970s, the ranch house was no longer the house of choice, and had been eclipsed by the neo-eclectic styles of the late 20th century. Very late custom ranch houses of the later 1970s begin to exhibit features of the neo-eclectics, such as dramatically elevated rooflines, grand entryways, and traditional detailing. These neo-eclectic houses typically continue many of the lifestyle interior features of the ranch house, such as open floor plans, attached garages, eat-in kitchens, and built-in patios, though their exterior styling typically owes more to northern Europe or Italy or 18th and 19th century house styles than the ranch house. Neo-eclectic houses also have a significant level of formality in their design, both externally and internally, the exact opposite of the typical ranch-style house. Additionally, the increase in land prices has meant a corresponding increase in the number of two-story houses being built, and a shrinking of the size of the average lot; both trends inhibit the traditional ranch house style.[6] Ranch style houses are occasionally still built today, but mainly in the Western states and, usually, as individual custom.","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-1"},{"link_name":"Krisel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Krisel"},{"link_name":"Joseph Eichler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Eichler"},{"link_name":"Cliff May","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cliff_May"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Breaking Bad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breaking_Bad"},{"link_name":"Vince Gilligan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vince_Gilligan"},{"link_name":"Walter White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_White_(Breaking_Bad)"},{"link_name":"pilot episode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_(Breaking_Bad)"},{"link_name":"Architectural Digest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_Digest"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Northeast Albuquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeast_Albuquerque"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Revival of interest","text":"Beginning in the late 1990s, a revival of interest in the ranch style house occurred in United States. The renewed interest in the design is mainly focused on existing houses and neighborhoods, not new construction. Younger house buyers find that ranch houses are affordable entry level homes in many markets, and the single story living of the house attracts older buyers looking for a house they can navigate easily as they age. The houses' uniquely American heritage, being an indigenous design, has furthered interest as well.[1] The houses' simplicity and unpretentious nature, in marked contrast to the more dramatic and formal nature of neo-eclectic houses, makes them appealing for some buyers. The more distinctive ranch houses, such as modernist Palmer and Krisel, Joseph Eichler and Cliff May designs, as well as custom houses with a full complement of the style's features, are in particular demand in many markets. Many ranch-style neighborhoods are now well-established, with large trees, and the houses often have owner modifications that add individual character to the fairly uniform style. As these houses were mostly built between 1945 and 1970, they have modern infrastructure and their heating/cooling systems, wiring, plumbing, windows, doors, and other systems can all be easily repaired and upgraded.[citation needed]Small-scale tract building of ranch houses ended in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Those still built today have usually been individual custom houses. One exception is a tract of ranch-style houses built on and adjacent to Butte Court in Shafter, California, in 2007/08. These houses borrowed their style cues from the 1950s Western-styled ranch houses, with board and batten siding, dovecotes, large eaves, and extensive porches. Notably, all houses in this tract were on 1/4-acre lots, and had their front garages turned sideways so that the garage doors were not dominating the front of the house.Breaking Bad creator Vince Gilligan specified that Walter White's house in the television series be a Rancher. In an early draft of the script for the series' pilot episode, he described the house as \"a three-bedroom RANCHER in a modest neighborhood. Weekend trips to Home Depot keep it looking tidy, but it'll never make the cover of 'Architectural Digest'.\"[7] The real house used to film exteriors in the series is located in Northeast Albuquerque, New Mexico, and was originally built in 1972.[8] It has since become a popular tourist attraction.[9]","title":"Variations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEWRANCHTRACT.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEWRANCHWHITE.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NEWRANCHYELLOW.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neo-eclectic_ranch_revival_design.png"},{"link_name":"Neo-eclectic architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-eclectic_architecture"},{"link_name":"Denver, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver,_Colorado"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Block_Card_10_Carol_Lane_-_DPLA_-_451f54f6f227aa823eecf35c84cf03b8.jpg"},{"link_name":"Toledo, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Ohio"}],"text":"Houses under construction in Butte Court, Shafter, California\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRanch-style house in Shafter, California\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRanch-style house in Shafter, California\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tModern revival Ranch-style house design featuring Neo-eclectic architecture elements in Denver, Colorado\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTraditional ranch-style house in Toledo, Ohio, in about 1965","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/10464883.1996.10734678","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F10464883.1996.10734678"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12187474","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/12187474"},{"link_name":"\"Ranch Houses Are Not All the Same\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cr.nps.gov/nr/publications/bulletins/suburbs/Bricker.pdf"},{"link_name":"cite journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"753784439","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/753784439"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8478-3047-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8478-3047-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-8109-4346-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-4346-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-393-73186-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-73186-3"},{"link_name":"A Field Guide to American Houses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/fieldguidetoamer00mcal"},{"link_name":"479–480","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/fieldguidetoamer00mcal/page/479"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-394-73969-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-73969-8"},{"link_name":"Home Sweet Home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/homesweethomeame00moor"},{"link_name":"84–89","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/homesweethomeame00moor/page/84"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780847805204","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780847805204"},{"link_name":"\"The Ranch House in Georgia: Guidelines for Evaluation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140810122947/http://georgiashpo.org/sites/uploads/hpd/pdf/Ranch_House_Evaluation_revSept2010.pdf"},{"link_name":"cite journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-609-60628-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-609-60628-X"}],"text":"Allen, B. L. (February 1996). \"The Ranch-style House in America: A Cultural and Environmental Discourse\". Journal of Architectural Education. 49 (3): 156–165. doi:10.1080/10464883.1996.10734678.\nBricker, David (1983). Built For Sale: Cliff May and the Low Cost California Ranch House (M.A. thesis). University of California, Santa Barbara. OCLC 12187474.\nBricker, David. \"Ranch Houses Are Not All the Same\" (PDF). National Park Service Cultural Resources. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)\nClouser, Roger A. (1984). The Ranch House in America (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Kansas. OCLC 753784439.\nGregory, Daniel P., (2008) Cliff May and the Modern Ranch House, New York, Rizzoli, ISBN 978-0-8478-3047-3\nHess, Alan (2005). The Ranch House. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-4346-8.\nHunter, Christine (1999). Ranches, Rowhouses, and Railroad Flats-- American Homes: How They Shape Our Landscape and Neighborhoods. New York: W.W.Norton. ISBN 0-393-73186-3.\nMay, Cliff (1958). Western Ranch Houses. Santa Monica: Hennessey & Ingalls.\nMcAlester, Virginia & Lee (1997). A Field Guide to American Houses. New York: Knopf. pp. 479–480. ISBN 0-394-73969-8.\nMcCoy, Esther & Evelyn Hitchcock (1983). \"The Ranch House\". In Moore, Charles W.; et al. (eds.). Home Sweet Home. Rizzoli. pp. 84–89. ISBN 9780847805204.\nPeterson, Gary G. (1989). \"Home Off the Range: The Origins and Evolution of Ranch Style Architecture in the United States\". Design Methods and Theories. 23 (3): 1040–59.\nSullivan, Patrick, Reed, Mary Beth and Fedor, Tracey (2010). \"The Ranch House in Georgia: Guidelines for Evaluation\" (PDF). New South Associates. Archived from the original on August 10, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)\nSamon, Katherine Ann (2003). Ranch House Style. New York: Clarkson Potter. ISBN 0-609-60628-X.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Large custom ranch house built in 1966 in Bakersfield, California. This house exhibits most of the features of the style, such as long low profile and large windows.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/HouseII2007.jpg/220px-HouseII2007.jpg"},{"image_text":"Smaller ranch-style house in West Jordan, Utah, with brick exterior and side drop gable roof","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/RamblerHouse.JPG/220px-RamblerHouse.JPG"},{"image_text":"1950s ranch house with dovecote","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/1950s_Ranch-style_House_California.jpg/220px-1950s_Ranch-style_House_California.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wide eaves of a typical ranch house, this one built in 1966 in California","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Wideeaves.JPG/220px-Wideeaves.JPG"},{"image_text":"Former supermarket in ranch style","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ranchsupermarket.JPG/220px-Ranchsupermarket.JPG"}]
[{"title":"Splanch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splanch"},{"title":"Edward H. Fickett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_H._Fickett"},{"title":"American Craftsman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Craftsman"},{"title":"Minimal Traditional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_Traditional"},{"title":"Mission Revival Style architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_Revival_Style_architecture"},{"title":"Mar del Plata style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar_del_Plata_style"}]
[{"reference":"Salant, Katherine (December 30, 2006). \"The Ranch, an Architectural Archetype Forged on the Frontier\". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 22, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Salant","url_text":"Salant, Katherine"},{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/29/AR2006122900624.html","url_text":"\"The Ranch, an Architectural Archetype Forged on the Frontier\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nrb Suburbs Part 3: Historic Residential Suburbs: Guidelines for Evaluation and Documentation for the National Register of Historic Places\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/publications/bulletins/suburbs/part3.htm","url_text":"\"Nrb Suburbs Part 3: Historic Residential Suburbs: Guidelines for Evaluation and Documentation for the National Register of Historic Places\""}]},{"reference":"Rybczynski, Witold (April 17, 2007). \"How America fell in and out of love with the ranch house\". Slate Magazine.","urls":[{"url":"https://slate.com/culture/2007/04/how-america-fell-in-and-out-of-love-with-the-ranch-house.html","url_text":"\"How America fell in and out of love with the ranch house\""}]},{"reference":"Sawantt, Saili (February 12, 2023). \"20 Best Ranch Style Homes with an Ultimate Guide to Know!\". Architectures Ideas. Retrieved December 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://architecturesideas.com/ranch-style-homes/","url_text":"\"20 Best Ranch Style Homes with an Ultimate Guide to Know!\""}]},{"reference":"Timberg, Scott (October 20, 2005). \"The once and future ranch\". Los Angeles Times.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-hm-ranch20oct20,1,1806218.story","url_text":"\"The once and future ranch\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). filmschoolrejects.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 11, 2018. Retrieved March 14, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180711144755/https://filmschoolrejects.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Screenplay-Breaking_Bad-Pilot.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://filmschoolrejects.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Screenplay-Breaking_Bad-Pilot.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"3828 Piermont Dr Ne, Albuquerque, NM 87111 - realtor.com®\". realtor.com®.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.realtor.com/realestateandhomes-detail/3828-Piermont-Dr-NE_Albuquerque_NM_87111_M29013-24533","url_text":"\"3828 Piermont Dr Ne, Albuquerque, NM 87111 - realtor.com®\""}]},{"reference":"\"'Breaking Bad' Bummer: Why You'd Hate Owning Walter White's House\". Real Estate News and Advice | Realtor.com®. October 12, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.realtor.com/news/trends/breaking-bad-house/","url_text":"\"'Breaking Bad' Bummer: Why You'd Hate Owning Walter White's House\""}]},{"reference":"Allen, B. L. (February 1996). \"The Ranch-style House in America: A Cultural and Environmental Discourse\". Journal of Architectural Education. 49 (3): 156–165. doi:10.1080/10464883.1996.10734678.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10464883.1996.10734678","url_text":"10.1080/10464883.1996.10734678"}]},{"reference":"Bricker, David (1983). Built For Sale: Cliff May and the Low Cost California Ranch House (M.A. thesis). University of California, Santa Barbara. OCLC 12187474.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12187474","url_text":"12187474"}]},{"reference":"Bricker, David. \"Ranch Houses Are Not All the Same\" (PDF). National Park Service Cultural Resources.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/publications/bulletins/suburbs/Bricker.pdf","url_text":"\"Ranch Houses Are Not All the Same\""}]},{"reference":"Clouser, Roger A. (1984). The Ranch House in America (Ph.D. dissertation). University of Kansas. OCLC 753784439.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/753784439","url_text":"753784439"}]},{"reference":"Hess, Alan (2005). The Ranch House. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-4346-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8109-4346-8","url_text":"0-8109-4346-8"}]},{"reference":"Hunter, Christine (1999). Ranches, Rowhouses, and Railroad Flats-- American Homes: How They Shape Our Landscape and Neighborhoods. New York: W.W.Norton. ISBN 0-393-73186-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-393-73186-3","url_text":"0-393-73186-3"}]},{"reference":"May, Cliff (1958). Western Ranch Houses. Santa Monica: Hennessey & Ingalls.","urls":[]},{"reference":"McAlester, Virginia & Lee (1997). A Field Guide to American Houses. New York: Knopf. pp. 479–480. ISBN 0-394-73969-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoamer00mcal","url_text":"A Field Guide to American Houses"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetoamer00mcal/page/479","url_text":"479–480"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-73969-8","url_text":"0-394-73969-8"}]},{"reference":"McCoy, Esther & Evelyn Hitchcock (1983). \"The Ranch House\". In Moore, Charles W.; et al. (eds.). Home Sweet Home. Rizzoli. pp. 84–89. ISBN 9780847805204.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/homesweethomeame00moor","url_text":"Home Sweet Home"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/homesweethomeame00moor/page/84","url_text":"84–89"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780847805204","url_text":"9780847805204"}]},{"reference":"Peterson, Gary G. (1989). \"Home Off the Range: The Origins and Evolution of Ranch Style Architecture in the United States\". Design Methods and Theories. 23 (3): 1040–59.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sullivan, Patrick, Reed, Mary Beth and Fedor, Tracey (2010). \"The Ranch House in Georgia: Guidelines for Evaluation\" (PDF). New South Associates. Archived from the original on August 10, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140810122947/http://georgiashpo.org/sites/uploads/hpd/pdf/Ranch_House_Evaluation_revSept2010.pdf","url_text":"\"The Ranch House in Georgia: Guidelines for Evaluation\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-earth
Middle-earth
["1 Context: Tolkien's legendarium","2 Etymology","2.1 Use by Tolkien","2.2 Extended usage","2.3 In other works","3 Geography","3.1 Maps","3.2 Cosmology","3.3 Correspondence with the geography of Earth","4 History","5 Peoples and their languages","5.1 Ainur","5.2 Elves","5.3 Men","5.4 Dwarves","5.5 Hobbits","5.6 Other humanoid peoples","5.7 Dragons","5.8 Sapient animals","6 Adaptations","6.1 Motion pictures","6.2 Games","7 See also","8 References","8.1 Primary","8.2 Secondary","8.3 Sources","9 Further reading"]
Continent in Tolkien's legendarium For other uses, see Middle-earth (disambiguation). Middle-earthThe Lord of the Rings locationA detail of Middle-earth in one of Peter Jackson's film setsCreated byJ. R. R. TolkienGenreFantasyIn-universe informationTypeCentral continent of fantasy world; also used as a short-hand for the whole legendarium Middle-earth is the setting of much of the English writer J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy. The term is equivalent to the Miðgarðr of Norse mythology and Middangeard in Old English works, including Beowulf. Middle-earth is the oecumene (i.e. the human-inhabited world, or the central continent of Earth), in Tolkien's imagined mythological past. Tolkien's most widely read works, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, are set entirely in Middle-earth. "Middle-earth" has also become a short-hand term for Tolkien's legendarium, his large body of fantasy writings, and for the entirety of his fictional world. Middle-earth is the main continent of Earth (Arda) in an imaginary period of the Earth's past, ending with Tolkien's Third Age, about 6,000 years ago. Tolkien's tales of Middle-earth mostly focus on the north-west of the continent. This part of Middle-earth is suggestive of Europe, the north-west of the Old World, with the environs of the Shire reminiscent of England, but, more specifically, the West Midlands, with the town at its centre, Hobbiton, at the same latitude as Oxford. Tolkien's Middle-earth is peopled not only by Men, but by Elves, Dwarves, Ents, and Hobbits, and by monsters including Dragons, Trolls, and Orcs. Through the imagined history, the peoples other than Men dwindle, leave or fade, until, after the period described in the books, only Men are left on the planet. Context: Tolkien's legendarium Further information: Tolkien's legendarium Arda began as a symmetrical flat disc, and was repeatedly transformed through cataclysmic interventions by the Valar and by the creator, Eru Ilúvatar. Tolkien's stories chronicle the struggle to control the world (called Arda) and the continent of Middle-earth between, on one side, the angelic Valar, the Elves and their allies among Men; and, on the other, the demonic Melkor or Morgoth (a Vala fallen into evil), his followers, and their subjects, mostly Orcs, Dragons and enslaved Men. In later ages, after Morgoth's defeat and expulsion from Arda, his place is taken by his lieutenant Sauron, a Maia. The Valar withdrew from direct involvement in the affairs of Middle-earth after the defeat of Morgoth, but in later years they sent the wizards or Istari to help in the struggle against Sauron. The most important wizards were Gandalf the Grey and Saruman the White. Gandalf remained true to his mission and proved crucial in the fight against Sauron. Saruman, however, became corrupted and sought to establish himself as a rival to Sauron for absolute power in Middle-earth. Other races involved in the struggle against evil were Dwarves, Ents and most famously Hobbits. The early stages of the conflict are chronicled in The Silmarillion, while the final stages of the struggle to defeat Sauron are told in The Hobbit and in The Lord of the Rings. Conflict over the possession and control of precious or magical objects is a recurring theme in the stories. The First Age is dominated by the doomed quest of the elf Fëanor and most of his Noldorin clan to recover three precious jewels called the Silmarils that Morgoth stole from them (hence the title The Silmarillion). The Second and Third Age are dominated by the forging of the Rings of Power, and the fate of the One Ring forged by Sauron, which gives its wearer the power to control or influence those wearing the other Rings of Power. Image map with clickable links of the north-west of Middle-earth at the end of the Third Age, showing Eriador (left) and Rhovanion (right). At extreme left are Lindon and the Blue Mountains, all that remains of Beleriand after the War of Wrath. Etymology Medieval Christian cosmology: heaven above, earth in the middle, hell below. Vank Cathedral, Isfahan. In ancient Germanic mythology, the world of Men is known by several names. The Old English middangeard descends from an earlier Germanic word and so has cognates such as the Old Norse Miðgarðr from Norse mythology, transliterated to modern English as Midgard. The original meaning of the second element, from proto-Germanic gardaz, was "enclosure", cognate with English "yard"; middangeard was assimilated by folk etymology to "middle earth". Middle-earth was at the centre of nine worlds in Norse mythology, and of three worlds (with heaven above, hell below) in the later Christian version. Use by Tolkien Tolkien's first encounter with the term middangeard, as he stated in a letter, was in an Old English fragment he studied in 1913-14: Éala éarendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended. Hail Earendel, brightest of angels / above the middle-earth sent unto men. This is from the Crist poems by Cynewulf. The name Éarendel was the inspiration for Tolkien's mariner Eärendil, who set sail from the lands of Middle-earth to ask for aid from the angelic powers, the Valar. Tolkien's earliest poem about Eärendil, from 1914, the same year he read the Crist poems, refers to "the mid-world's rim". Tolkien considered middangeard to be "the abiding place of men", the physical world in which Man lives out his life and destiny, as opposed to the unseen worlds above and below it, namely Heaven and Hell. He states that it is "my own mother-earth for place", but in an imaginary past time, not some other planet. He began to use the term "Middle-earth" in the late 1930s, in place of the earlier terms "Great Lands", "Outer Lands", and "Hither Lands". The first published appearance of the word "Middle-earth" in Tolkien's works is in the prologue to The Lord of the Rings: "Hobbits had, in fact, lived quietly in Middle-earth for many long years before other folk even became aware of them". Extended usage Arda versus "Middle-earth": Middle-earth is in geographic terms the name of the continent inhabited by Elves, Dwarves and Men, excluding the home of the Valar on Aman, while Arda is the name of the world. However, "Middle-earth" is widely used for the whole of Tolkien's legendarium. (Depicted: Arda in the Years of the Trees) The term Middle-earth has come to be applied as a short-hand for the entirety of Tolkien's legendarium, instead of the technically more appropriate, but lesser known terms "Arda" for the physical world and "Eä" for the physical reality of creation as a whole. In careful geographical terms, Middle-earth is a continent on Arda, excluding regions such as Aman and the isle of Númenor. The alternative wider use is reflected in book titles such as The Complete Guide to Middle-earth, The Road to Middle-earth, The Atlas of Middle-earth, and Christopher Tolkien's 12-volume series The History of Middle-earth. In other works Tolkien's biographer Humphrey Carpenter states that Tolkien's Middle-earth is the known world, "recalling the Norse Midgard and the equivalent words in early English", noting that Tolkien made it clear that this was "our world ... in a purely imaginary ... period of antiquity". Tolkien explained in a letter to his publisher that it "is just a use of Middle English middle-erde (or erthe), altered from Old English Middangeard: the name for the inhabited lands of men 'between the seas'." There are allusions to a similarly- or identically-named world in the work of other writers both before and after him. William Morris's 1870 translation of the Volsung Saga calls the world "Midgard". Margaret Widdemer's 1918 poem "The Gray Magician" contains the lines: "I was living very merrily on Middle Earth / As merry as a maid may be / Till the Gray Magician came down along the road / And flung his cobweb cloak on me..." C. S. Lewis's 1938–1945 Space Trilogy calls the home planet "Middle-earth" and specifically references Tolkien's unpublished legendarium; both men were members of the Inklings literary discussion group. Geography Main article: Geography of Middle-earth Within the overall context of his legendarium, Tolkien's Middle-earth was part of his created world of Arda (which includes the Undying Lands of Aman and Eressëa, removed from the rest of the physical world), which itself was part of the wider creation he called Eä. Aman and Middle-earth are separated from each other by the Great Sea Belegaer, though they make contact in the far north at the Grinding Ice or Helcaraxë. The western continent, Aman, was the home of the Valar, and the Elves called the Eldar. On the eastern side of Middle-earth was the Eastern Sea. Most of the events in Tolkien's stories take place in the north-west of Middle-earth. In the First Age, further to the north-west was the subcontinent Beleriand; it was engulfed by the ocean at the end of the First Age. Maps "A Map of Middle-earth" by Pauline Baynes, 1970. This map depicts only the north-west of the continent of Middle-earth. Main article: Tolkien's maps Tolkien prepared several maps of Middle-earth. Some were published in his lifetime. The main maps are those published in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales, and appear as foldouts or illustrations. Tolkien insisted that maps be included in the book for the benefit of readers, despite the expense involved. The definitive and iconic map of Middle-earth was published in The Lord of the Rings. It was refined with Tolkien's approval by the illustrator Pauline Baynes, using Tolkien's detailed annotations, with vignette images and larger paintings at top and bottom, into a stand-alone poster, "A Map of Middle-earth". Cosmology Main article: Cosmology of Tolkien's legendarium The Downfall of Númenor and the Changing of the World. The intervention of Eru Ilúvatar cataclysmically reshaped Arda into a sphere. In Tolkien's conception, Arda was created specifically as "the Habitation" (Imbar or Ambar) for the Children of Ilúvatar (Elves and Men). It is envisaged in a flat Earth cosmology, with the stars, and later also the sun and moon, revolving around it. Tolkien's sketches show a disc-like face for the world which looked up to the stars. However, Tolkien's legendarium addresses the spherical Earth paradigm by depicting a catastrophic transition from a flat to a spherical world, known as the Akallabeth, in which Aman became inaccessible to mortal Men. Correspondence with the geography of Earth Tolkien described the region in which the Hobbits lived as "the North-West of the Old World, east of the Sea", and the north-west of the Old World is essentially Europe, especially Britain. However, as he noted in private letters, the geographies do not match, and he did not consciously make them match when he was writing: As for the shape of the world of the Third Age, I am afraid that was devised 'dramatically' rather than geologically, or paleontologically. I am historically minded. Middle-earth is not an imaginary world. ... The theatre of my tale is this earth, the one in which we now live, but the historical period is imaginary. The essentials of that abiding place are all there (at any rate for inhabitants of N.W. Europe), so naturally it feels familiar, even if a little glorified by enchantment of distance in time. ...if it were 'history', it would be difficult to fit the lands and events (or 'cultures') into such evidence as we possess, archaeological or geological, concerning the nearer or remoter part of what is now called Europe; though the Shire, for instance, is expressly stated to have been in this region...I hope the, evidently long but undefined gap in time between the Fall of Barad-dûr and our Days is sufficient for 'literary credibility', even for readers acquainted with what is known as 'pre-history'. I have, I suppose, constructed an imaginary time, but kept my feet on my own mother-earth for place. I prefer that to the contemporary mode of seeking remote globes in 'space'. In another letter, Tolkien made correspondences in latitude between Europe and Middle-earth: The action of the story takes place in the North-west of 'Middle-earth', equivalent in latitude to the coastlands of Europe and the north shores of the Mediterranean. ... If Hobbiton and Rivendell are taken (as intended) to be at about the latitude of Oxford, then Minas Tirith, 600 miles south, is at about the latitude of Florence. The Mouths of Anduin and the ancient city of Pelargir are at about the latitude of ancient Troy. In another letter he stated: ...Thank you very much for your letter. ... It came while I was away, in Gondor (sc. Venice), as a change from the North Kingdom, or I would have answered before. He did confirm, however, that the Shire, the land of his Hobbit heroes, was based on England, in particular the West Midlands of his childhood. In the Prologue to The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien writes: "Those days, the Third Age of Middle-earth, are now long past, and the shape of all lands has been changed..." The Appendices make several references in both history and etymology of topics "now" (in modern English languages) and "then" (ancient languages); The year no doubt was of the same length,¹ for long ago as those times are now reckoned in years and lives of men, they were not very remote according to the memory of the Earth. Both the Appendices and The Silmarillion mention constellations, stars and planets that correspond to those seen in the northern hemisphere of Earth, including the Sun, the Moon, Orion (and his belt), Ursa Major and Mars. A map annotated by Tolkien places Hobbiton on the same latitude as Oxford, and Minas Tirith at the latitude of Ravenna, Italy. He used Belgrade, Cyprus, and Jerusalem as further reference points. History Main article: History of Arda Tolkien imagined Arda as the Earth in the distant past. With the loss of all its peoples except Man, and the reshaping of the continents, all that is left of Middle-earth is a dim memory in folklore, legend, and old words. The outlines of the continents are purely schematic. The history of Middle-earth, as described in The Silmarillion, began when the Ainur entered Arda, following the creation events in the Ainulindalë and long ages of labour throughout Eä, the fictional universe. Time from that point was measured using Valian Years, though the subsequent history of Arda was divided into three time periods using different years, known as the Years of the Lamps, the Years of the Trees and the Years of the Sun. A separate, overlapping chronology divides the history into 'Ages of the Children of Ilúvatar'. The first such Age began with the Awakening of the Elves during the Years of the Trees (by which time the Ainur had already long inhabited Arda) and continued for the first six centuries of the Years of the Sun. All the subsequent Ages took place during the Years of the Sun. Arda is, as critics have noted, "our own green and solid Earth at some quite remote epoch in the past." As such, it has not only an immediate story but a history, and the whole thing is an "imagined prehistory" of the Earth as it is now. Peoples and their languages Main articles: Middle-earth peoples and Languages of Middle-earth Ainur Main article: Ainur in Middle-earth The Ainur were angelic beings created by the one god of Eä, Eru Ilúvatar. The cosmological myth called the Ainulindalë, or "Music of the Ainur", describes how the Ainur sang for Ilúvatar, who then created Eä to give material form to their music. Many of the Ainur entered Eä, and the greatest of these were called the Valar. Melkor, the chief agent of evil in Eä, and later called Morgoth, was initially one of the Valar. With the Valar came lesser spirits of the Ainur, called the Maiar. Melian, the wife of the Elven King Thingol in the First Age, was a Maia. There were also evil Maiar, including the Balrogs and the second Dark Lord, Sauron. Sauron devised the Black Speech (Burzum) for his slaves (such as Orcs) to speak. In the Third Age, five of the Maiar were embodied and sent to Middle-earth to help the free peoples to overthrow Sauron. These are the Istari or Wizards, including Gandalf, Saruman, and Radagast. Elves Main article: Elves in Middle-earth The Elves are known as "the Firstborn" of Ilúvatar: intelligent beings created by Ilúvatar alone, with many different clans. Originally Elves all spoke the same Common Eldarin ancestral tongue, but over thousands of years it diverged into different languages. The two main Elven languages were Quenya, spoken by the Light Elves, and Sindarin, spoken by the Dark Elves. Physically the Elves resemble humans; indeed, they can marry and have children with them, as shown by the few Half-elven in the legendarium. The Elves are agile and quick footed, being able to walk a tightrope unaided. Their eyesight is keen. Elves are immortal, unless killed in battle. They are re-embodied in Valinor if killed. Men Main article: Men in Middle-earth Men were "the Secondborn" of the Children of Ilúvatar: they awoke in Middle-earth much later than the Elves. Men (and Hobbits) were the last humanoid race to appear in Middle-earth: Dwarves, Ents and Orcs also preceded them. The capitalized term "Man" (plural "Men") is used as a gender-neutral racial description, to distinguish humans from the other human-like races of Middle-earth. In appearance they are much like Elves, but on average less beautiful. Unlike Elves, Men are mortal, ageing and dying quickly, usually living 40–80 years. However the Númenóreans could live several centuries, and their descendants the Dúnedain also tended to live longer than regular humans. This tendency was weakened both by time and by intermingling with lesser peoples. Dwarves Main article: Dwarves in Middle-earth The Dwarves are a race of humanoids who are shorter than Men but larger than Hobbits. The Dwarves were created by the Vala Aulë, before the Firstborn awoke due to his impatience for the arrival of the children of Ilúvatar to teach and to cherish. When confronted and shamed for his presumption by Ilúvatar, Eru took pity on Aulë and gave his creation the gift of life but under the condition that they be taken and put to sleep in widely separated locations in Middle Earth and not to awaken until after the Firstborn were upon the Earth. They are mortal like Men, but live much longer, usually several hundred years. A peculiarity of Dwarves is that both males and females are bearded, and thus appear identical to outsiders. The language spoken by Dwarves is called Khuzdul, and was kept largely as a secret language for their own use. Like Hobbits, Dwarves live exclusively in Middle-earth. They generally reside under mountains, where they are specialists in mining and metalwork. Hobbits Main article: Hobbit Tolkien identified Hobbits as an offshoot of the race of Men. Another name for Hobbit is 'Halfling', as they were generally only half the size of Men. In their lifestyle and habits they closely resemble Men, and in particular Englishmen, except for their preference for living in holes underground. By the time of The Hobbit, most of them lived in the Shire, a region of the northwest of Middle-earth, having migrated there from further east. Other humanoid peoples Further information: Tolkien's moral dilemma The Ents were treelike shepherds of trees, their name coming from an Old English word for giant. Orcs and Trolls (made of stone) were evil creatures bred by Morgoth. They were not original creations but rather "mockeries" of the Children of Ilúvatar and Ents, since only Ilúvatar has the ability to give conscious life to things. The precise origins of Orcs and Trolls are unclear, as Tolkien considered various possibilities and sometimes changed his mind, leaving several inconsistent accounts. Late in the Third Age, the Uruks or Uruk-hai appeared: a race of Orcs of great size and strength that tolerate sunlight better than ordinary Orcs. Tolkien also mentions "Men-orcs" and "Orc-men"; or "half-orcs" or "goblin-men". They share some characteristics with Orcs (like "slanty eyes") but look more like men. Tolkien, a Catholic, realised he had created a dilemma for himself, as if these beings were sentient and had a sense of right and wrong, then they must have souls and could not have been created wholly evil. Dragons Main article: Dragons in Middle-earth Dragons (or "worms") appear in several varieties, distinguished by whether they have wings and whether they breathe fire (cold-drakes versus fire-drakes). The first of the fire-drakes (Urulóki in Quenya) was Glaurung the Golden, bred by Morgoth in Angband, and called "The Great Worm", "The Worm of Morgoth", and "The Father of Dragons". Sapient animals Middle-earth contains sapient animals including the Eagles, Huan the Great Hound from Valinor and the wolf-like Wargs. In general the origins and nature of these animals are unclear. Giant spiders such as Shelob descended from Ungoliant, of unknown origin. Other sapient species include the Crebain, evil crows who become spies for Saruman, and the Ravens of Erebor, who brought news to the Dwarves. The horse-line of the Mearas of Rohan, especially Gandalf's mount, Shadowfax, also appear to be intelligent and understand human speech. The bear-man Beorn had a number of animal friends about his house. Adaptations See also: Adaptations of The Lord of the Rings and Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien Motion pictures Main article: Middle-earth in motion pictures The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, both set in Middle-earth, have been the subject of a variety of film adaptations. There were many early failed attempts to bring the fictional universe to life on screen, some even rejected by the author himself, who was skeptical of the prospects of an adaptation. While animated and live-action shorts were made of Tolkien's books in 1967 and 1971, the first commercial depiction of The Hobbit onscreen was the Rankin/Bass animated TV special in 1977. In 1978 the first big screen adaptation of the fictional setting was introduced in Ralph Bakshi's animated The Lord of the Rings. New Line Cinema released the first part of director Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film series in 2001 as part of a trilogy; it was followed by a prequel trilogy in The Hobbit film series with several of the same actors playing their old roles. In 2003, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King received 11 Academy Award nominations and won all of them, matching the totals awarded to Ben-Hur and Titanic. Two well-made fan films of Middle-earth, The Hunt for Gollum and Born of Hope, were uploaded to YouTube on 8 May 2009 and 11 December 2009 respectively. Games Main article: Middle-earth in video games See also: List of Middle-earth role-playing games Numerous computer and video games have been inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien's works set in Middle-earth. Titles have been produced by studios such as Electronic Arts, Vivendi Games, Melbourne House, and Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. Aside from officially licensed games, many Tolkien-inspired mods, custom maps and total conversions have been made for many games, such as Warcraft III, Minecraft, Rome: Total War, Medieval II: Total War, The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion and The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim. In addition, there are many text-based MMORPGs (known as MU*s) based on Middle-earth. The oldest of these dates back to 1991, and was known as Middle-earth MUD, run by using LPMUD. After the Middle-earth MUD ended in 1992, it was followed by Elendor and MUME. See also J.R.R. Tolkien bibliography Middle-earth canon Outline of Middle-earth References Primary ^ Carpenter 2023, #211 to Rhona Beare, 14 October 1958, last footnote ^ Tolkien 1977, Ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor" ^ a b c Tolkien 1977, "Of the Rings of Power and the Third Age" ^ a b Carpenter 2023, #165 to the Houghton Mifflin Co., 30 June 1955 ^ a b Carpenter 2023, #297 draft for a letter to a 'Mr Rang', August 1967 ^ Carpenter 2023, #151 to Hugh Brogan, 18 September 1954; #183, Notes on W. H. Auden's review of The Return of the King, 1956; and #283 to Benjamin P. Indick, 7 January 1966 ^ a b Carpenter 2023, #211 to Rhona Beare, 14 October 1958 ^ a b Tolkien 1954a, "Prologue" ^ Tolkien 1977, ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor" ^ Carpenter 2023, #137 to Rayner Unwin, 11 April 1953; #139 to Rayner Unwin, 8 August 1953; #141 to Allen & Unwin, 9 October 1953; #144 to Naomi Mitchison, 25 April 1954; #160 to Rayner Unwin, 6 March 1955; #161 to Rayner Unwin, 18 April 1955 ^ Tolkien 1954, foldout map in first edition ^ a b Carpenter 2023, #169 to Hugh Brogan, 11 September 1955 ^ Carpenter 2023, #183 notes on W. H. Auden's review of The Return of the King, 1956 ^ Carpenter 2023, #294 to Charlotte and Denis Plimmer, 8 February 1967 ^ Carpenter 2023, #190 to Rayner Unwin, 3 July 1956 ^ Tolkien 1954a, "Prologue" ^ Tolkien 1955, Appendix D, "Calendars" ^ Tolkien 1977, p. 44 "Menelmacar with his shining belt" ^ Tolkien 1977, p. 45 "And high in the north as a challenge to Melkor she set the crown of seven mighty stars to swing, Valacirca, the Sickle of the Valar..." ^ Tolkien 1954a, book 1, ch. 8 "Strider" "The Sickle was swinging bright above the shoulders of Bree-hill." ^ Tolkien 1977, "Ainulindalë" ^ Tolkien 1977, ch. 1 "Of the Beginning of Days" ^ Tolkien 1977, ch. 3 "Of the Coming of the Elves and the Captivity of Melkor" ^ Tolkien 1980, p. 388 ^ Tolkien 1954, Book 3, ch. 3 "The Uruk-Hai" ^ Tolkien 1955, book 6 ch. 8 "The Scouring of the Shire" ^ Tolkien 1977, index entry Urulóki ^ Tolkien 1977, ch. 24 "Of the Voyage of Eärendil" ^ Tolkien 1954a, "The Council of Elrond" ^ Tolkien 1954, book 4, chapter 9: "Shelob's Lair." Secondary ^ a b Christopher, Joe R. (2012). "The Journeys To and From Purgatory Island: A Dantean Allusion at the End of C. S. Lewis's 'The Nameless Isle'". In Khoddam, Salwa; Hall, Mark R.; Fisher, Jason (eds.). C. S. Lewis and the Inklings: Discovering Hidden Truth. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 206. ISBN 978-1-4438-4431-4. ^ Harper, Douglas. "Midgard". Online Etymological Dictionary; etymonline.com. Retrieved 12 March 2010. ^ a b Gilliver, Peter; Marshall, Jeremy; Weiner, Edmund (2006). The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-19-861069-4. ^ a b Bratman, David (2013) . "History of Middle-earth: Overview". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. ^ a b Harvey, Greg (2011). The Origins of Tolkien's Middle-earth For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 1: The Worlds of Middle-earth. ISBN 978-1-118-06898-4. ^ Carpenter 1977, p. 98. ^ Morris, William (2015). Delphi Complete Works of William Morris (Illustrated). Delphi Classics. p. 5104. ISBN 978-1-910630-92-1. ^ "The Old Road to Paradise by Margaret Widdemer". ^ Ford, G. L. (17 January 2020). "Christopher Tolkien, 1924-2020 Keeper of Middle-earth's Legacy". Book and Film Globe. Retrieved 26 July 2020. Lewis's Space Trilogy drew on Tolkien's Middle-earth lore at several points, where he used it to deepen the mythology underlying his action. ^ a b Hammond, Wayne G.; Anderson, Douglas A. (1993). J.R.R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography. St. Paul's Bibliographies. p. 376. ISBN 978-1-873040-11-9. ^ a b Shippey 2005, pp. 324–328. ^ Bolintineanu, Alexandra (2013). "Arda". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. ^ Carpenter 2023, #168 to Richard Jeffery, 7 September 1966 ^ Flood, Alison (23 October 2015). "Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings". The Guardian. ^ a b Kocher, Paul (1974) . Master of Middle-earth: The Achievement of J.R.R. Tolkien. Penguin Books. pp. 8–11. ISBN 0140038779. ^ Lee, Stuart D.; Solopova, Elizabeth (2005). The Keys of Middle-earth: Discovering Medieval Literature Through the Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien. Palgrave. pp. 256–257. ISBN 978-1403946713. ^ West, Richard C. (2006). "'And All the Days of Her Life Are Forgotten': 'The Lord of the Rings' as Mythic Prehistory". In Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (eds.). The Lord of the Rings, 1954-2004: Scholarship in Honor of Richard E. Blackwelder. Marquette University Press. pp. 67–100. ISBN 978-0-87462-018-4. OCLC 298788493. ^ Eden, Bradford Lee (2013) . "Elves". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 150–152. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. ^ Dickerson, Matthew (2013) . "Elves: Kindreds and Migrations". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. ^ Straubhaar, Sandra Ballif (2013) . "Men, Middle-earth". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-1-135-88034-7. ^ Evans, Jonathan (2013) . "Dwarves". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. ^ Stanton, Michael N. (2013) . "Hobbits". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 280–282. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. ^ Shippey 2005, p. 149. ^ Shippey 2005, p. 159. ^ Tally, Robert T. Jr. (2010). "Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures". Mythlore. 29 (1). article 3. ^ Shippey 2005, pp. 362, 438 (chapter 5, note 14). ^ Evans, Jonathan. "Monsters". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment. p. 433. ^ Burns, Marjorie (2013) . "Old Norse Literature". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 473–474. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. Echoes of these Norse battle animals appear throughout Tolkien's literature; in one way or another, all are associated with Gandalf or his cause. ... raven ... Eagles ... wolves ... horses ... Saruman is the one most closely associated with Odin's ravaging wolves and carrion birds ^ O'Connor, John J. (25 November 1977). "TV Weekend: "The Hobbit"". The New York Times. ^ Gaslin, Glenn (21 November 2001). "Ralph Bakshi's unfairly maligned Lord of the Rings". Slate. Retrieved 28 December 2020. ^ Timmons, Daniel (2013) . "Jackson, Peter". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 303–310. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. ^ "Here Are The Biggest Academy Award Milestones In Oscars History". Hollywood.Com. 3 February 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2021. ^ Sydell, Laura (30 April 2009). "High-Def 'Hunt For Gollum' New Lord of the Fanvids". All Things Considered. National Public Radio. Retrieved 1 May 2009. ^ Martin, Nicole (27 October 2008). "Orcs are back in Lord of the Rings-inspired Born of Hope". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 31 January 2010. ^ Takahashi, Dean (15 June 2017). "Warner Bros. games are coming out of the shadow of its movies". GamesBeat. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017. ^ Gardner, Eriq (3 July 2017). "Warner Bros., Tolkien Estate Settle $80 Million 'Hobbit' Lawsuit". Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017. ^ Bauer, Manuel (10 September 2015). "Minecraft: Spieler haben das komplette Auenland nachgebaut". Computer Bild. Retrieved 9 February 2016. ^ Groups.google.com, rec.games.mud.lp Newsgroup, 1 June 1994 ^ Davis, Erik (1 October 2001). "The Fellowship of the Ring". Wired. ^ For a (rather long) list of all the Tolkien inspired MU*s go to The Mud Connector Archived 26 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine and run a search for 'tolkien'. Sources Carpenter, Humphrey (1977). J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography. G. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-928037-3. OCLC 3046822. Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) . The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4. Shippey, Tom (2005) . The Road to Middle-earth (3nd ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261102750. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Silmarillion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-25730-2. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954a). The Fellowship of the Ring. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 9552942. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1955). The Return of the King. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 519647821. Tolkien, J. R. R. (1980). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). Unfinished Tales. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-29917-3. Further reading Fonstad, Karen Wynn (1981). The Atlas of Middle-earth (1st ed.). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-28665-4. Garth, John (2020). The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien: The Places that Inspired Middle-earth. London: Frances Lincoln Publishers. ISBN 978-0-71124-127-5. Foster, Robert (2001) . The Complete Guide to Middle-earth. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-44976-2. Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2004) . J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-261-10322-9. Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2005). The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion (1st ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-720907-X. vteMiddle-earth J. R. R. Tolkien Bibliography Canon Legendarium Outline WorksIn Tolkien'slifetime 1937 The Hobbit 1954-55 The Lord of the Rings The Fellowship of the Ring "The Shadow of the Past" "The Council of Elrond" The Two Towers The Return of the King "The Scouring of the Shire" "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" 1962 The Adventures of Tom Bombadil Posthumous 1977 The Silmarillion "Ainulindalë" 1980 Unfinished Tales 1981 The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien 1990 Bilbo's Last Song The three "Great Tales" 2007 The Children of Húrin 2017 Beren and Lúthien 2018 The Fall of Gondolin 2022 The Fall of Númenor History ofcompositionHistory ofMiddle-earth 1983–84 The Book of Lost Tales Ælfwine 1985 The Lays of Beleriand 1986 The Shaping of Middle-earth 1987 The Lost Road and Other Writings The Etymologies Lhammas 1988–92 The History of The Lord of the Rings The Notion Club Papers 1993 Morgoth's Ring 1994 The War of the Jewels 1996 The Peoples of Middle-earth Others John D. Rateliff 2007 The History of The Hobbit Carl F. Hostetter 2021 The Nature of Middle-earth FictionaluniversePeoples,monsters Ainur Maiar Balrogs Wizards Valar Dragons Ancalagon Smaug Dwarves Eagles Elves Half-elven Noldor Sundering Ents Hobbits Men Beornings Drúedain Dúnedain Orcs Trolls Characters First and Second Ages Celebrimbor Eärendil and Elwing Elendil Fëanor Fingolfin Finwë and Míriel Gil-galad Húrin Isildur Lúthien and Beren Melian Morgoth Thingol Tuor and Idril Túrin Turambar Ungoliant Third Age Elrond Galadriel Gandalf Glorfindel Goldberry Gollum Saruman Sauron Tom Bombadil Places First and Second Ages Beleriand Númenor Valinor Third Age Bree Esgaroth Gondor Harad Isengard Lonely Mountain Lothlórien Mirkwood Mordor Moria Rivendell Rohan The Shire Bag End Objects Mithril Palantír Red Book of Westmarch Rings of Power One Ring Silmarils Two Trees of Valinor List of weapons and armour AnalysisElements Artwork Family trees Heraldry Languages Adûnaic Black Speech Elvish Quenya Sindarin Khuzdul Maps Poetry Scripts Cirth Sarati Tengwar Themes Anachronism Ancestry as guide to character Architecture Christianity Cosmology Round World version Death and immortality Decline and fall Economy England Environmentalism First World War Forests Frame stories Heroism Light Luck and fate Magic Mental illness Modernism Moral dilemma Music Naming of weapons Northern courage Old Straight Road Paganism Plants Psychological journeys Quests Sound and language Time Trees Literary Tolkien's impact on fantasy Influences Beowulf Celtic Classical world Finnish language and literature Medieval Modern Norse Philology Shakespeare Prose style Ambiguity A mythology for England Geographic The Atlas of Middle-earth Journeys of Frodo A Map of Middle-earth Adaptations,legacyArtists Pauline Baynes Cor Blok Anke Eißmann Brothers Hildebrandt Jenny Dolfen Mary Fairburn Donato Giancola John Howe Tove Jansson Alexander Korotich Alan Lee Tom Loback Margrethe II of Denmark Ted Nasmith Composers Bo Hansson Johan de Meij Symphony No. 1 The Lord of the Rings Howard Shore Music of The Lord of the Rings film series Music of The Hobbit film series Music of The Rings of Power TV series Blind Guardian Nightfall in Middle-Earth Settings Donald Swann The Road Goes Ever On Poems and Songs of Middle Earth The Tolkien Ensemble An Evening in Rivendell A Night in Rivendell At Dawn in Rivendell Leaving Rivendell Other media Middle-earth Enterprises Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien Film Tolkien Calendars Video games Things named after Tolkien and his works Literarycriticism The Complete Guide to Middle-earth A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien Master of Middle-Earth Picturing Tolkien J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century The J. R. R. Tolkien Companion and Guide The J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion Perilous Realms The Road to Middle-Earth Splintered Light Tolkien's Art: 'A Mythology for England' Tolkien: A Look Behind The Lord of the Rings A Tolkien Compass Tolkien: Maker of Middle-earth Tolkien, Race and Cultural History Tolkien's Legendarium Tolkien and the Great War The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary vteThe Hobbit J. R. R. Tolkien Hobbit (word) Legendarium frame stories Middle-earth artwork Beowulf maps naming of weapons psychological journeys Editions English-language editions The Annotated Hobbit Translations Characters Bilbo Baggins Wizards Gandalf Radagast Dwarves Thorin Oakenshield Balin Goblins Trolls Gollum Eagles Beorn Elves Elrond the Elvenking Smaug Bard the Bowman The Necromancer Wargs Places Eriador The Shire Rivendell Rhovanion Mirkwood Esgaroth Lonely Mountain Related works The History of The Hobbit Bilbo's Last Song The Hobbit pinball machine AdaptationsRadio The Hobbit (1968) Film Gene Deitch's The Hobbit (1967) Rankin/Bass's The Hobbit (1977) Soviet The Hobbit (1985) Peter Jackson's series An Unexpected Journey (2012) The Desolation of Smaug (2013) The Battle of the Five Armies (2014) original characters music Video games The Hobbit (1982) The Hobbit (2003) Lego The Hobbit (2014) Category vteThe Lord of the Rings J. R. R. Tolkien About Volumes The Fellowship of the Ring The Two Towers The Return of the King Stories "The Shadow of the Past" "The Council of Elrond" "The Scouring of the Shire" "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" Translating List of translations Russian Swedish Reception Literary Fandom Oxonmoot Tolkienmoot Works inspired Tolkien's impact on fantasy AnalysisElements Artwork Family trees Heraldry Languages Black Speech Elvish Quenya Sindarin Khuzdul Maps Poetry A Elbereth Gilthoniel Namárië Song of Eärendil The Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late The Road Goes Ever On A Walking Song Proverbs Themes Addiction to power Ancestry as guide to character Architecture Christianity Death and immortality Decline and fall Economy England Environmentalism Forests Heroism Luck and fate Magic Mental illness Moral dilemma Music Naming of weapons Northern courage Paganism Plants Psychological journeys Quests Race Sexuality Sound and language Time Trees Women Influences Antiquarianism Beowulf Celtic Classical world First World War Norse Medieval Modern sources Modernism A mythology for England Philology Shakespeare Techniques Anachronism Character pairing Editorial framing Frame stories Pseudotranslation Impression of depth Narrative structure Interlacing Prose style Ambiguity Epic Pooh PeoplesMaiar Balrogs Sauron Wizards Gandalf Radagast Saruman Freepeoples Dwarves Balin Gimli Elves Galadriel Glorfindel Half-elven Arwen Elrond Legolas Thranduil Ents Treebeard Hobbits Bilbo Frodo Merry Pippin Sam Men Beornings Drúedain Dúnedain Aragorn of Gondor Boromir Denethor Faramir of Rohan Éomer Éowyn Théoden Wormtongue Monsters Barrow-wight Gollum Nazgûl Witch-king of Angmar Old Man Willow Orcs Shelob Trolls Wargs Watcher in the Water Other Eagles Goldberry Tom Bombadil WorldGeography Eriador Bree Old Forest Rivendell The Shire Bag End Gondor Harad Lothlórien Mirkwood Moria Mordor Rohan Isengard Battles Helm's Deep Pelennor Fields Morannon Objects Mithril Palantírs Phial of Galadriel Rings of Power One Ring List of weapons and armour Relatedworks The Hobbit The Adventures of Tom Bombadil Errantry Fastitocalon The Sea-Bell The Road Goes Ever On Bilbo's Last Song The Silmarillion Unfinished Tales The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien The History of Middle-earth The Children of Húrin The History of The Hobbit Beren and Lúthien The Fall of Gondolin The Nature of Middle-earth Adaptations and derivative worksBooks Bored of the Rings (1969) The Last Ringbearer (1999) Muddle Earth (2003) Illustrations A Map of Middle-earth Pauline Baynes Barbara Remington John Howe Alan Lee Margrethe II of Denmark Ted Nasmith Theatre Fellowship! (2005) Lord of the Rings (2006) Music Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings (1972) Symphony No. 1 The Lord of the Rings (1988) Led Zeppelin "Ramble On" (1969) "Misty Mountain Hop" (1971) "The Battle of Evermore" (1971) Radio The Lord of the Rings (BBC, 1955) The Lord of the Rings (NPR, 1979) Hordes of the Things (1980) The Lord of the Rings (BBC, 1981) Der Herr der Ringe (1992) FilmAnimated The Lord of the Rings (Bakshi, 1978) The Return of the King (Rankin/Bass, 1980) The War of the Rohirrim (2024) Peter Jacksonseries The Fellowship of the Ring (2001) The Two Towers (2002) The Return of the King (2003) Music "Concerning Hobbits" "Into the West" "May It Be" Approach Production Peter Jackson's interpretation Picturing Tolkien Other Sagan om ringen (1971) Khraniteli (1991) Hobitit (1993) The Rings of Power (2022) music Fan-made The Hunt for Gollum (2009) Born of Hope (2009) Video games Journey to Rivendell Game One Game Two: Shadows of Mordor War in Middle Earth Vol. I (1990) Vol. I (SNES) Riders of Rohan Elendor Vol. II: The Two Towers The Fellowship of the Ring The Two Towers The Return of the King War of the Ring The Third Age Game Boy Advance The Battle for Middle-earth Tactics The Battle for Middle-earth II The Rise of the Witch-king Conquest Aragorn's Quest War in the North Lego The Lord of the Rings Guardians of Middle-earth Shadow of Mordor Shadow of War Gollum Return to Moria The Lord of the Rings Online Mines of Moria Siege of Mirkwood Rise of Isengard Riders of Rohan Helm's Deep Mordor Minas Morgul War of Three Peaks Fate of Gundabad Before the Shadow Tabletop role-playing games Middle-earth Role Playing The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game The One Ring Roleplaying Game Adventures in Middle-earth Board games Middle Earth War of the Ring Gondor: The Siege of Minas Tirith Sauron Lord of the Rings War of the Ring Card games Middle-earth Collectible Card Game The Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game The Lord of the Rings: The Card Game Other games Middle-earth Strategy Battle Game Lego The Lord of the Rings Authority control databases International FAST National France BnF data Germany Israel United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle-earth (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-earth_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"setting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setting_(narrative)"},{"link_name":"J. R. R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Miðgarðr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midgard"},{"link_name":"Norse mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_mythology"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"Beowulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beowulf"},{"link_name":"oecumene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oecumene"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"mythological past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythopoeia"},{"link_name":"The Hobbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hobbit"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"a short-hand term","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonym"},{"link_name":"Tolkien's legendarium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_legendarium"},{"link_name":"Earth (Arda)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arda_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Third Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Age"},{"link_name":"[T 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letter211-1"},{"link_name":"Old World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World"},{"link_name":"the Shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"reminiscent of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"West Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_(region)"},{"link_name":"Hobbiton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbiton"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford"},{"link_name":"Middle-earth is peopled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-earth_peoples"},{"link_name":"Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Elves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elves_(Middle-Earth)"},{"link_name":"Dwarves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarves_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Ents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ent"},{"link_name":"Hobbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbits"},{"link_name":"Trolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troll_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Orcs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orc"}],"text":"Continent in Tolkien's legendariumFor other uses, see Middle-earth (disambiguation).Middle-earth is the setting of much of the English writer J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy. The term is equivalent to the Miðgarðr of Norse mythology and Middangeard in Old English works, including Beowulf. Middle-earth is the oecumene (i.e. the human-inhabited world, or the central continent of Earth), in Tolkien's imagined mythological past. Tolkien's most widely read works, The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, are set entirely in Middle-earth. \"Middle-earth\" has also become a short-hand term for Tolkien's legendarium, his large body of fantasy writings, and for the entirety of his fictional world.Middle-earth is the main continent of Earth (Arda) in an imaginary period of the Earth's past, ending with Tolkien's Third Age, about 6,000 years ago.[T 1] Tolkien's tales of Middle-earth mostly focus on the north-west of the continent. This part of Middle-earth is suggestive of Europe, the north-west of the Old World, with the environs of the Shire reminiscent of England, but, more specifically, the West Midlands, with the town at its centre, Hobbiton, at the same latitude as Oxford.Tolkien's Middle-earth is peopled not only by Men, but by Elves, Dwarves, Ents, and Hobbits, and by monsters including Dragons, Trolls, and Orcs. Through the imagined history, the peoples other than Men dwindle, leave or fade, until, after the period described in the books, only Men are left on the planet.","title":"Middle-earth"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tolkien's legendarium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_legendarium"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arda_in_the_Ages_of_the_Lamps.svg"},{"link_name":"Valar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valar"},{"link_name":"Eru Ilúvatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eru_Il%C3%BAvatar"},{"link_name":"Arda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arda_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Valar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vala_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Elves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elf_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Melkor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkor"},{"link_name":"Orcs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orc_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Dragons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"[T 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Sauron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauron"},{"link_name":"Maia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiar"},{"link_name":"[T 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Of_the_Rings_of_Power-3"},{"link_name":"Istari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istari"},{"link_name":"Gandalf the Grey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandalf"},{"link_name":"Saruman the White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saruman"},{"link_name":"Dwarves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarf_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Ents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ent"},{"link_name":"Hobbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbit"},{"link_name":"The Silmarillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Silmarillion"},{"link_name":"The Hobbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hobbit"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"[T 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Of_the_Rings_of_Power-3"},{"link_name":"First Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Age"},{"link_name":"Fëanor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ABanor"},{"link_name":"Noldorin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noldor"},{"link_name":"Silmarils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silmaril"},{"link_name":"Second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Age"},{"link_name":"Third Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Age"},{"link_name":"Rings of Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Power"},{"link_name":"One Ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Ring"},{"link_name":"[T 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Of_the_Rings_of_Power-3"},{"link_name":"Image map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_map"},{"link_name":"Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Third Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Age"},{"link_name":"Rhovanion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhovanion"},{"link_name":"Beleriand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beleriand"},{"link_name":"War of Wrath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_Wrath"}],"text":"Further information: Tolkien's legendariumArda began as a symmetrical flat disc, and was repeatedly transformed through cataclysmic interventions by the Valar and by the creator, Eru Ilúvatar.Tolkien's stories chronicle the struggle to control the world (called Arda) and the continent of Middle-earth between, on one side, the angelic Valar, the Elves and their allies among Men; and, on the other, the demonic Melkor or Morgoth (a Vala fallen into evil), his followers, and their subjects, mostly Orcs, Dragons and enslaved Men.[T 2] In later ages, after Morgoth's defeat and expulsion from Arda, his place is taken by his lieutenant Sauron, a Maia.[T 3]The Valar withdrew from direct involvement in the affairs of Middle-earth after the defeat of Morgoth, but in later years they sent the wizards or Istari to help in the struggle against Sauron. The most important wizards were Gandalf the Grey and Saruman the White. Gandalf remained true to his mission and proved crucial in the fight against Sauron. Saruman, however, became corrupted and sought to establish himself as a rival to Sauron for absolute power in Middle-earth. Other races involved in the struggle against evil were Dwarves, Ents and most famously Hobbits. The early stages of the conflict are chronicled in The Silmarillion, while the final stages of the struggle to defeat Sauron are told in The Hobbit and in The Lord of the Rings.[T 3]Conflict over the possession and control of precious or magical objects is a recurring theme in the stories. The First Age is dominated by the doomed quest of the elf Fëanor and most of his Noldorin clan to recover three precious jewels called the Silmarils that Morgoth stole from them (hence the title The Silmarillion). The Second and Third Age are dominated by the forging of the Rings of Power, and the fate of the One Ring forged by Sauron, which gives its wearer the power to control or influence those wearing the other Rings of Power.[T 3]Image map with clickable links of the north-west of Middle-earth at the end of the Third Age, showing Eriador (left) and Rhovanion (right). At extreme left are Lindon and the Blue Mountains, all that remains of Beleriand after the War of Wrath.","title":"Context: Tolkien's legendarium"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vank_Cathedral,_Isfahan_-_Heaven,_Earth,_Hell.jpg"},{"link_name":"Christian cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_cosmology"},{"link_name":"heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven"},{"link_name":"hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Khoddam_Fisher_2012-4"},{"link_name":"Vank Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vank_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Germanic mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_mythology"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_language"},{"link_name":"Germanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages"},{"link_name":"cognates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate"},{"link_name":"Old Norse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norse_language"},{"link_name":"Norse mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norse_mythology"},{"link_name":"Midgard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midgard"},{"link_name":"[T 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Letter_165-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-etymonline-6"},{"link_name":"heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven"},{"link_name":"hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell"},{"link_name":"Christian version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Khoddam_Fisher_2012-4"}],"text":"Medieval Christian cosmology: heaven above, earth in the middle, hell below.[1] Vank Cathedral, Isfahan.In ancient Germanic mythology, the world of Men is known by several names. The Old English middangeard descends from an earlier Germanic word and so has cognates such as the Old Norse Miðgarðr from Norse mythology, transliterated to modern English as Midgard. The original meaning of the second element, from proto-Germanic gardaz, was \"enclosure\", cognate with English \"yard\"; middangeard was assimilated by folk etymology to \"middle earth\".[T 4][2] Middle-earth was at the centre of nine worlds in Norse mythology, and of three worlds (with heaven above, hell below) in the later Christian version.[1]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[T 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Letter_297-7"},{"link_name":"Crist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_I"},{"link_name":"Cynewulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynewulf"},{"link_name":"Eärendil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%A4rendil"},{"link_name":"[T 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Letter_297-7"},{"link_name":"Valar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vala_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RingofWords164-8"},{"link_name":"[T 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Heaven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heaven"},{"link_name":"Hell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hell"},{"link_name":"[T 7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolkien-10"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RingofWords164-8"},{"link_name":"[T 8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LOTR2-11"}],"sub_title":"Use by Tolkien","text":"Tolkien's first encounter with the term middangeard, as he stated in a letter, was in an Old English fragment he studied in 1913-14:[T 5]Éala éarendel engla beorhtast / ofer middangeard monnum sended.\nHail Earendel, brightest of angels / above the middle-earth sent unto men.This is from the Crist poems by Cynewulf. The name Éarendel was the inspiration for Tolkien's mariner Eärendil,[T 5] who set sail from the lands of Middle-earth to ask for aid from the angelic powers, the Valar. Tolkien's earliest poem about Eärendil, from 1914, the same year he read the Crist poems, refers to \"the mid-world's rim\".[3] Tolkien considered middangeard to be \"the abiding place of men\",[T 6] the physical world in which Man lives out his life and destiny, as opposed to the unseen worlds above and below it, namely Heaven and Hell. He states that it is \"my own mother-earth for place\", but in an imaginary past time, not some other planet.[T 7] He began to use the term \"Middle-earth\" in the late 1930s, in place of the earlier terms \"Great Lands\", \"Outer Lands\", and \"Hither Lands\".[3] The first published appearance of the word \"Middle-earth\" in Tolkien's works is in the prologue to The Lord of the Rings: \"Hobbits had, in fact, lived quietly in Middle-earth for many long years before other folk even became aware of them\".[T 8]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arda_in_the_Years_of_the_Trees.svg"},{"link_name":"Arda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arda_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Valar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valar"},{"link_name":"Aman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aman_(J._R._R._Tolkien)"},{"link_name":"Tolkien's legendarium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_legendarium"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bratman_2013-12"},{"link_name":"Years of the Trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Years_of_the_Trees"},{"link_name":"Eä","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%A4"},{"link_name":"The Complete Guide to Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"The Road to Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_to_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"The Atlas of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlas_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Christopher Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Tolkien"},{"link_name":"The History of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bratman_2013-12"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harvey_2011-13"}],"sub_title":"Extended usage","text":"Arda versus \"Middle-earth\": Middle-earth is in geographic terms the name of the continent inhabited by Elves, Dwarves and Men, excluding the home of the Valar on Aman, while Arda is the name of the world. However, \"Middle-earth\" is widely used for the whole of Tolkien's legendarium.[4] (Depicted: Arda in the Years of the Trees)The term Middle-earth has come to be applied as a short-hand for the entirety of Tolkien's legendarium, instead of the technically more appropriate, but lesser known terms \"Arda\" for the physical world and \"Eä\" for the physical reality of creation as a whole. In careful geographical terms, Middle-earth is a continent on Arda, excluding regions such as Aman and the isle of Númenor. The alternative wider use is reflected in book titles such as The Complete Guide to Middle-earth, The Road to Middle-earth, The Atlas of Middle-earth, and Christopher Tolkien's 12-volume series The History of Middle-earth.[4][5]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Humphrey Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarpenter197798-14"},{"link_name":"[T 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Letter_165-5"},{"link_name":"William Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morris"},{"link_name":"Volsung Saga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volsung_Saga"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morris2015-15"},{"link_name":"Margaret Widdemer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Widdemer"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"C. S. Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._S._Lewis"},{"link_name":"Space Trilogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Trilogy"},{"link_name":"the Inklings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Inklings"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"In other works","text":"Tolkien's biographer Humphrey Carpenter states that Tolkien's Middle-earth is the known world, \"recalling the Norse Midgard and the equivalent words in early English\", noting that Tolkien made it clear that this was \"our world ... in a purely imaginary ... period of antiquity\".[6] Tolkien explained in a letter to his publisher that it \"is just a use of Middle English middle-erde (or erthe), altered from Old English Middangeard: the name for the inhabited lands of men 'between the seas'.\"[T 4] There are allusions to a similarly- or identically-named world in the work of other writers both before and after him. William Morris's 1870 translation of the Volsung Saga calls the world \"Midgard\".[7] Margaret Widdemer's 1918 poem \"The Gray Magician\" contains the lines: \"I was living very merrily on Middle Earth / As merry as a maid may be / Till the Gray Magician came down along the road / And flung his cobweb cloak on me...\"[8] C. S. Lewis's 1938–1945 Space Trilogy calls the home planet \"Middle-earth\" and specifically references Tolkien's unpublished legendarium; both men were members of the Inklings literary discussion group.[9]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"legendarium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendarium"},{"link_name":"Undying Lands of Aman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aman_(Tolkien)"},{"link_name":"Eressëa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eress%C3%ABa"},{"link_name":"Belegaer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belegaer"},{"link_name":"Valar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vala_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Eldar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldali%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"[T 9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"First Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Age"},{"link_name":"Beleriand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beleriand"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harvey_2011-13"}],"text":"Within the overall context of his legendarium, Tolkien's Middle-earth was part of his created world of Arda (which includes the Undying Lands of Aman and Eressëa, removed from the rest of the physical world), which itself was part of the wider creation he called Eä. Aman and Middle-earth are separated from each other by the Great Sea Belegaer, though they make contact in the far north at the Grinding Ice or Helcaraxë. The western continent, Aman, was the home of the Valar, and the Elves called the Eldar.[T 9]\nOn the eastern side of Middle-earth was the Eastern Sea. Most of the events in Tolkien's stories take place in the north-west of Middle-earth. In the First Age, further to the north-west was the subcontinent Beleriand; it was engulfed by the ocean at the end of the First Age.[5]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baynes-Map_of_Middle-earth.jpg"},{"link_name":"A Map of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Map_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Pauline Baynes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Baynes"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hammond_Anderson_1993-19"},{"link_name":"several maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_maps"},{"link_name":"The Hobbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hobbit"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"The Silmarillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Silmarillion"},{"link_name":"Unfinished Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfinished_Tales"},{"link_name":"[T 10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[T 11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Pauline Baynes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline_Baynes"},{"link_name":"A Map of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Map_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hammond_Anderson_1993-19"}],"sub_title":"Maps","text":"\"A Map of Middle-earth\" by Pauline Baynes, 1970. This map depicts only the north-west of the continent of Middle-earth.[10]Tolkien prepared several maps of Middle-earth. Some were published in his lifetime. The main maps are those published in The Hobbit, The Lord of the Rings, The Silmarillion, and Unfinished Tales, and appear as foldouts or illustrations. Tolkien insisted that maps be included in the book for the benefit of readers, despite the expense involved.[T 10] The definitive and iconic map of Middle-earth was published in The Lord of the Rings.[T 11] It was refined with Tolkien's approval by the illustrator Pauline Baynes, using Tolkien's detailed annotations, with vignette images and larger paintings at top and bottom, into a stand-alone poster, \"A Map of Middle-earth\".[10]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Downfall_of_N%C3%BAmenor.svg"},{"link_name":"Númenor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAmenor"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippey2005324%E2%80%93328-22"},{"link_name":"Children of Ilúvatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_of_Il%C3%BAvatar"},{"link_name":"Elves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elf_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"flat Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_Earth"},{"link_name":"spherical Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_Earth"},{"link_name":"Aman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aman_(Tolkien)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippey2005324%E2%80%93328-22"}],"sub_title":"Cosmology","text":"The Downfall of Númenor and the Changing of the World. The intervention of Eru Ilúvatar cataclysmically reshaped Arda into a sphere.[11]In Tolkien's conception, Arda was created specifically as \"the Habitation\" (Imbar or Ambar) for the Children of Ilúvatar (Elves and Men).[12] It is envisaged in a flat Earth cosmology, with the stars, and later also the sun and moon, revolving around it. Tolkien's sketches show a disc-like face for the world which looked up to the stars. However, Tolkien's legendarium addresses the spherical Earth paradigm by depicting a catastrophic transition from a flat to a spherical world, known as the Akallabeth, in which Aman became inaccessible to mortal Men.[11]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hobbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbit"},{"link_name":"[T 8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LOTR2-11"},{"link_name":"Old World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_World"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"[T 12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Letter_169-24"},{"link_name":"Third Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Age"},{"link_name":"geologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geology"},{"link_name":"paleontologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology"},{"link_name":"[T 12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Letter_169-24"},{"link_name":"[T 13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"the Shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Barad-dûr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barad-d%C3%BBr"},{"link_name":"[T 7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tolkien-10"},{"link_name":"latitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude"},{"link_name":"Hobbiton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbiton"},{"link_name":"Rivendell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivendell"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford"},{"link_name":"Minas Tirith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minas_Tirith"},{"link_name":"Florence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence"},{"link_name":"Anduin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Geography"},{"link_name":"Pelargir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelargir"},{"link_name":"Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troy"},{"link_name":"[T 14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letters294-26"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letters168_group=T-27"},{"link_name":"the Shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Hobbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbit"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"[T 15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Letter_190-28"},{"link_name":"[T 16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[T 17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Orion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"[T 18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Ursa Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursa_Major"},{"link_name":"[T 19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[T 20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford"},{"link_name":"Ravenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravenna"},{"link_name":"Belgrade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade"},{"link_name":"Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Correspondence with the geography of Earth","text":"Tolkien described the region in which the Hobbits lived as \"the North-West of the Old World, east of the Sea\",[T 8] and the north-west of the Old World is essentially Europe, especially Britain. However, as he noted in private letters, the geographies do not match, and he did not consciously make them match when he was writing:[T 12]As for the shape of the world of the Third Age, I am afraid that was devised 'dramatically' rather than geologically, or paleontologically.[T 12]I am historically minded. Middle-earth is not an imaginary world. ... The theatre of my tale is this earth, the one in which we now live, but the historical period is imaginary. The essentials of that abiding place are all there (at any rate for inhabitants of N.W. Europe), so naturally it feels familiar, even if a little glorified by enchantment of distance in time.[T 13]...if it were 'history', it would be difficult to fit the lands and events (or 'cultures') into such evidence as we possess, archaeological or geological, concerning the nearer or remoter part of what is now called Europe; though the Shire, for instance, is expressly stated to have been in this region...I hope the, evidently long but undefined gap in time between the Fall of Barad-dûr and our Days is sufficient for 'literary credibility', even for readers acquainted with what is known as 'pre-history'. I have, I suppose, constructed an imaginary time, but kept my feet on my own mother-earth for place. I prefer that to the contemporary mode of seeking remote globes in 'space'.[T 7]In another letter, Tolkien made correspondences in latitude between Europe and Middle-earth:The action of the story takes place in the North-west of 'Middle-earth', equivalent in latitude to the coastlands of Europe and the north shores of the Mediterranean. ... If Hobbiton and Rivendell are taken (as intended) to be at about the latitude of Oxford, then Minas Tirith, 600 miles south, is at about the latitude of Florence. The Mouths of Anduin and the ancient city of Pelargir are at about the latitude of ancient Troy.[T 14]In another letter he stated:...Thank you very much for your letter. ... It came while I was away, in Gondor (sc. Venice), as a change from the North Kingdom, or I would have answered before.[13]He did confirm, however, that the Shire, the land of his Hobbit heroes, was based on England, in particular the West Midlands of his childhood.[T 15] In the Prologue to The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien writes: \"Those days, the Third Age of Middle-earth, are now long past, and the shape of all lands has been changed...\"[T 16] The Appendices make several references in both history and etymology of topics \"now\" (in modern English languages) and \"then\" (ancient languages);The year no doubt was of the same length,¹ [the footnote here reads: 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 46 seconds.] for long ago as those times are now reckoned in years and lives of men, they were not very remote according to the memory of the Earth.[T 17]Both the Appendices and The Silmarillion mention constellations, stars and planets that correspond to those seen in the northern hemisphere of Earth, including the Sun, the Moon, Orion (and his belt),[T 18] Ursa Major[T 19][T 20] and Mars. A map annotated by Tolkien places Hobbiton on the same latitude as Oxford, and Minas Tirith at the latitude of Ravenna, Italy. He used Belgrade, Cyprus, and Jerusalem as further reference points.[14]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolkien%27s_Imagined_Prehistory.svg"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kocher_1974-35"},{"link_name":"loss of all its peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decline_and_fall_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"folklore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore"},{"link_name":"legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend"},{"link_name":"old words","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lee_Solopova_2005-36"},{"link_name":"Ainur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainu_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Ainulindalë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainulindal%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Eä","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%A4"},{"link_name":"fictional universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fictional_universe"},{"link_name":"[T 21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ainulindal%C3%AB-37"},{"link_name":"Valian Years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valian_Years"},{"link_name":"Years of the Lamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Years_of_the_Lamps"},{"link_name":"Years of the Trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Years_of_the_Trees"},{"link_name":"Years of the Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Years_of_the_Sun"},{"link_name":"[T 22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Beginning-38"},{"link_name":"[T 23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Coming_of_the_Elves-39"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kocher_1974-35"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rateliff_2006-40"}],"text":"Tolkien imagined Arda as the Earth in the distant past.[15] With the loss of all its peoples except Man, and the reshaping of the continents, all that is left of Middle-earth is a dim memory in folklore, legend, and old words.[16] The outlines of the continents are purely schematic.The history of Middle-earth, as described in The Silmarillion, began when the Ainur entered Arda, following the creation events in the Ainulindalë and long ages of labour throughout Eä, the fictional universe.[T 21] Time from that point was measured using Valian Years, though the subsequent history of Arda was divided into three time periods using different years, known as the Years of the Lamps, the Years of the Trees and the Years of the Sun.[T 22] A separate, overlapping chronology divides the history into 'Ages of the Children of Ilúvatar'. The first such Age began with the Awakening of the Elves during the Years of the Trees (by which time the Ainur had already long inhabited Arda) and continued for the first six centuries of the Years of the Sun. All the subsequent Ages took place during the Years of the Sun.[T 23]Arda is, as critics have noted, \"our own green and solid Earth at some quite remote epoch in the past.\"[15] As such, it has not only an immediate story but a history, and the whole thing is an \"imagined prehistory\" of the Earth as it is now.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eru Ilúvatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eru_Il%C3%BAvatar"},{"link_name":"Ainulindalë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainulindal%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Eä","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%A4"},{"link_name":"Valar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vala_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Melkor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melkor"},{"link_name":"Maiar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maia_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"First Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Age"},{"link_name":"Balrogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balrog"},{"link_name":"Sauron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauron"},{"link_name":"Black Speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Speech"},{"link_name":"Orcs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orc_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Third Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Age"},{"link_name":"Wizards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizard_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Gandalf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandalf"},{"link_name":"Saruman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saruman"},{"link_name":"Radagast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radagast_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"[T 24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Ainur","text":"The Ainur were angelic beings created by the one god of Eä, Eru Ilúvatar. The cosmological myth called the Ainulindalë, or \"Music of the Ainur\", describes how the Ainur sang for Ilúvatar, who then created Eä to give material form to their music. Many of the Ainur entered Eä, and the greatest of these were called the Valar. Melkor, the chief agent of evil in Eä, and later called Morgoth, was initially one of the Valar. \nWith the Valar came lesser spirits of the Ainur, called the Maiar. Melian, the wife of the Elven King Thingol in the First Age, was a Maia. There were also evil Maiar, including the Balrogs and the second Dark Lord, Sauron. Sauron devised the Black Speech (Burzum) for his slaves (such as Orcs) to speak. In the Third Age, five of the Maiar were embodied and sent to Middle-earth to help the free peoples to overthrow Sauron. These are the Istari or Wizards, including Gandalf, Saruman, and Radagast.[T 24]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"with many different clans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundering_of_the_Elves"},{"link_name":"Common Eldarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Eldarin"},{"link_name":"Quenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quenya"},{"link_name":"Sindarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindarin"},{"link_name":"Half-elven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-elven"},{"link_name":"tightrope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tightrope"},{"link_name":"Valinor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valinor"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Eden_2013-42"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dickerson_2013-43"}],"sub_title":"Elves","text":"The Elves are known as \"the Firstborn\" of Ilúvatar: intelligent beings created by Ilúvatar alone, with many different clans. \nOriginally Elves all spoke the same Common Eldarin ancestral tongue, but over thousands of years it diverged into different languages. The two main Elven languages were Quenya, spoken by the Light Elves, and Sindarin, spoken by the Dark Elves.\nPhysically the Elves resemble humans; indeed, they can marry and have children with them, as shown by the few Half-elven in the legendarium.\nThe Elves are agile and quick footed, being able to walk a tightrope unaided. Their eyesight is keen. Elves are immortal, unless killed in battle. They are re-embodied in Valinor if killed.[18][19]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Númenóreans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAmen%C3%B3reans"},{"link_name":"Dúnedain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BAnedain"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Straubhaar_2013-44"}],"sub_title":"Men","text":"Men were \"the Secondborn\" of the Children of Ilúvatar: they awoke in Middle-earth much later than the Elves. Men (and Hobbits) were the last humanoid race to appear in Middle-earth: Dwarves, Ents and Orcs also preceded them. The capitalized term \"Man\" (plural \"Men\") is used as a gender-neutral racial description, to distinguish humans from the other human-like races of Middle-earth. \nIn appearance they are much like Elves, but on average less beautiful. Unlike Elves, Men are mortal, ageing and dying quickly, usually living 40–80 years. However the Númenóreans could live several centuries, and their descendants the Dúnedain also tended to live longer than regular humans. This tendency was weakened both by time and by intermingling with lesser peoples.[20]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Khuzdul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuzdul"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans_2013_(Drout)-45"}],"sub_title":"Dwarves","text":"The Dwarves are a race of humanoids who are shorter than Men but larger than Hobbits. The Dwarves were created by the Vala Aulë, before the Firstborn awoke due to his impatience for the arrival of the children of Ilúvatar to teach and to cherish. When confronted and shamed for his presumption by Ilúvatar, Eru took pity on Aulë and gave his creation the gift of life but under the condition that they be taken and put to sleep in widely separated locations in Middle Earth and not to awaken until after the Firstborn were upon the Earth. They are mortal like Men, but live much longer, usually several hundred years. A peculiarity of Dwarves is that both males and females are bearded, and thus appear identical to outsiders. The language spoken by Dwarves is called Khuzdul, and was kept largely as a secret language for their own use. Like Hobbits, Dwarves live exclusively in Middle-earth. They generally reside under mountains, where they are specialists in mining and metalwork.[21]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the Shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shire"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanton_2013-46"}],"sub_title":"Hobbits","text":"Tolkien identified Hobbits as an offshoot of the race of Men. Another name for Hobbit is 'Halfling', as they were generally only half the size of Men. In their lifestyle and habits they closely resemble Men, and in particular Englishmen, except for their preference for living in holes underground. By the time of The Hobbit, most of them lived in the Shire, a region of the northwest of Middle-earth, having migrated there from further east.[22]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tolkien's moral dilemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_moral_dilemma"},{"link_name":"Ents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ent"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippey2005149-47"},{"link_name":"Orcs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orc"},{"link_name":"Trolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troll_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Morgoth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgoth"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippey2005159-48"},{"link_name":"Uruk-hai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk-hai"},{"link_name":"[T 25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Uruk-Hai-49"},{"link_name":"[T 26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"a dilemma for himself","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_sentience_dilemma"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tally_2010-51"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShippey2005362,_438_(chapter_5,_note_14)-52"}],"sub_title":"Other humanoid peoples","text":"Further information: Tolkien's moral dilemmaThe Ents were treelike shepherds of trees, their name coming from an Old English word for giant.[23] Orcs and Trolls (made of stone) were evil creatures bred by Morgoth. They were not original creations but rather \"mockeries\" of the Children of Ilúvatar and Ents, since only Ilúvatar has the ability to give conscious life to things. The precise origins of Orcs and Trolls are unclear, as Tolkien considered various possibilities and sometimes changed his mind, leaving several inconsistent accounts.[24] Late in the Third Age, the Uruks or Uruk-hai appeared: a race of Orcs of great size and strength that tolerate sunlight better than ordinary Orcs.[T 25] Tolkien also mentions \"Men-orcs\" and \"Orc-men\"; or \"half-orcs\" or \"goblin-men\". They share some characteristics with Orcs (like \"slanty eyes\") but look more like men.[T 26] Tolkien, a Catholic, realised he had created a dilemma for himself, as if these beings were sentient and had a sense of right and wrong, then they must have souls and could not have been created wholly evil.[25][26]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[T 27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Morgoth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgoth"},{"link_name":"Angband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angband_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"[T 28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"sub_title":"Dragons","text":"Dragons (or \"worms\") appear in several varieties, distinguished by whether they have wings and whether they breathe fire (cold-drakes versus fire-drakes). The first of the fire-drakes (Urulóki in Quenya)[T 27] was Glaurung the Golden, bred by Morgoth in Angband, and called \"The Great Worm\", \"The Worm of Morgoth\", and \"The Father of Dragons\".[T 28]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sapient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapience"},{"link_name":"Eagles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"[T 29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Huan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huan_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Valinor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valinor"},{"link_name":"Wargs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warg_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Shelob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelob"},{"link_name":"Ungoliant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungoliant"},{"link_name":"[T 30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shelob's_Lair-57"},{"link_name":"Saruman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saruman"},{"link_name":"Erebor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erebor"},{"link_name":"Beorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beorn"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Burns_2013-58"}],"sub_title":"Sapient animals","text":"Middle-earth contains sapient animals including the Eagles,[T 29] Huan the Great Hound from Valinor and the wolf-like Wargs.[27] In general the origins and nature of these animals are unclear. Giant spiders such as Shelob descended from Ungoliant, of unknown origin.[T 30] Other sapient species include the Crebain, evil crows who become spies for Saruman, and the Ravens of Erebor, who brought news to the Dwarves. The horse-line of the Mearas of Rohan, especially Gandalf's mount, Shadowfax, also appear to be intelligent and understand human speech. The bear-man Beorn had a number of animal friends about his house.[28]","title":"Peoples and their languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adaptations of The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptations_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_inspired_by_J._R._R._Tolkien"}],"text":"See also: Adaptations of The Lord of the Rings and Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"live-action shorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagan_om_ringen_(1971_film)"},{"link_name":"Rankin/Bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankin/Bass"},{"link_name":"animated TV special in 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hobbit_(1977_film)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Ralph Bakshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Bakshi"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(1978_film)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"New Line Cinema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Line_Cinema"},{"link_name":"Peter Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Jackson"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings film series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings_(film_series)"},{"link_name":"The Hobbit film series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hobbit_(film_series)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Timmons_2013-61"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_The_Return_of_the_King"},{"link_name":"Academy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award"},{"link_name":"Ben-Hur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben-Hur_(1959_film)"},{"link_name":"Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic_(1997_film)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"fan films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_film"},{"link_name":"The Hunt for Gollum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hunt_for_Gollum"},{"link_name":"Born of Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_of_Hope"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-npr-63"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"sub_title":"Motion pictures","text":"The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, both set in Middle-earth, have been the subject of a variety of film adaptations. There were many early failed attempts to bring the fictional universe to life on screen, some even rejected by the author himself, who was skeptical of the prospects of an adaptation. While animated and live-action shorts were made of Tolkien's books in 1967 and 1971, the first commercial depiction of The Hobbit onscreen was the Rankin/Bass animated TV special in 1977.[29] In 1978 the first big screen adaptation of the fictional setting was introduced in Ralph Bakshi's animated The Lord of the Rings.[30]New Line Cinema released the first part of director Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings film series in 2001 as part of a trilogy; it was followed by a prequel trilogy in The Hobbit film series with several of the same actors playing their old roles.[31] In 2003, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King received 11 Academy Award nominations and won all of them, matching the totals awarded to Ben-Hur and Titanic.[32]Two well-made fan films of Middle-earth, The Hunt for Gollum and Born of Hope, were uploaded to YouTube on 8 May 2009 and 11 December 2009 respectively.[33][34]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Middle-earth role-playing games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Middle-earth_role-playing_games"},{"link_name":"J. R. R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Electronic Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Arts"},{"link_name":"Vivendi Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivendi_Games"},{"link_name":"Melbourne House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krome_Studios_Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Bros._Interactive_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"mods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod_(computer_gaming)"},{"link_name":"Warcraft III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warcraft_III"},{"link_name":"Minecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minecraft"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Rome: Total War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome:_Total_War"},{"link_name":"Medieval II: Total War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_II:_Total_War"},{"link_name":"The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elder_Scrolls_IV:_Oblivion"},{"link_name":"The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elder_Scrolls_V:_Skyrim"},{"link_name":"MMORPGs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMORPG"},{"link_name":"MU*s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MU*"},{"link_name":"MUD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-user_dungeon"},{"link_name":"LPMUD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LPMUD"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Elendor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elendor"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"MUME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUME"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Games","text":"See also: List of Middle-earth role-playing gamesNumerous computer and video games have been inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien's works set in Middle-earth. Titles have been produced by studios such as Electronic Arts, Vivendi Games, Melbourne House, and Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment.[35][36] Aside from officially licensed games, many Tolkien-inspired mods, custom maps and total conversions have been made for many games, such as Warcraft III, Minecraft,[37] Rome: Total War, Medieval II: Total War, The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion and The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.\nIn addition, there are many text-based MMORPGs (known as MU*s) based on Middle-earth. The oldest of these dates back to 1991, and was known as Middle-earth MUD, run by using LPMUD.[38] After the Middle-earth MUD ended in 1992, it was followed by Elendor[39] and MUME.[40]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fonstad, Karen Wynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wynn_Fonstad"},{"link_name":"The Atlas of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlas_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Houghton Mifflin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-395-28665-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-28665-4"},{"link_name":"Garth, John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Garth_(author)"},{"link_name":"The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien: The Places that Inspired Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Frances Lincoln Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Lincoln_Publishers"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-71124-127-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71124-127-5"},{"link_name":"Foster, Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Foster_(author)"},{"link_name":"The Complete Guide to Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Ballantine Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballantine_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-345-44976-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-44976-2"},{"link_name":"Hammond, Wayne G.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_G._Hammond"},{"link_name":"Scull, Christina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Scull"},{"link_name":"J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien:_Artist_and_Illustrator"},{"link_name":"HarperCollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-261-10322-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-261-10322-9"},{"link_name":"Hammond, Wayne G.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_G._Hammond"},{"link_name":"Scull, Christina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Scull"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_A_Reader%27s_Companion"},{"link_name":"HarperCollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-00-720907-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-720907-X"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"J. R. R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Bibliography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien_bibliography"},{"link_name":"Canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-earth_canon"},{"link_name":"Legendarium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_legendarium"},{"link_name":"Outline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"The Hobbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hobbit"},{"link_name":"The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"The Fellowship of the Ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fellowship_of_the_Ring"},{"link_name":"The Shadow of the Past","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shadow_of_the_Past"},{"link_name":"The Council of Elrond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Council_of_Elrond"},{"link_name":"The Two Towers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Towers"},{"link_name":"The Return of the King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Return_of_the_King"},{"link_name":"The Scouring of the Shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scouring_of_the_Shire"},{"link_name":"The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_Aragorn_and_Arwen"},{"link_name":"The Adventures of Tom Bombadil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Tom_Bombadil"},{"link_name":"The Silmarillion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Silmarillion"},{"link_name":"Ainulindalë","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainulindal%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Unfinished Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfinished_Tales"},{"link_name":"The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letters_of_J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Bilbo's Last Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilbo%27s_Last_Song"},{"link_name":"The Children of Húrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Children_of_H%C3%BArin"},{"link_name":"Beren and Lúthien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beren_and_L%C3%BAthien"},{"link_name":"The Fall of Gondolin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fall_of_Gondolin"},{"link_name":"The Fall of Númenor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fall_of_N%C3%BAmenor"},{"link_name":"History ofMiddle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"The Book of Lost Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Lost_Tales"},{"link_name":"Ælfwine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86lfwine_(Tolkien)"},{"link_name":"The Lays of Beleriand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lays_of_Beleriand"},{"link_name":"The Shaping of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shaping_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"The Lost Road and Other Writings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lost_Road_and_Other_Writings"},{"link_name":"The Etymologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Etymologies_(Tolkien)"},{"link_name":"Lhammas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lhammas"},{"link_name":"The History of The Lord of the Rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"The Notion Club Papers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Notion_Club_Papers"},{"link_name":"Morgoth's Ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgoth%27s_Ring"},{"link_name":"The War of the Jewels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_War_of_the_Jewels"},{"link_name":"The Peoples of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Peoples_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"John D. Rateliff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Rateliff"},{"link_name":"The History of The Hobbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_History_of_The_Hobbit"},{"link_name":"Carl F. Hostetter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_F._Hostetter"},{"link_name":"The Nature of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nature_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Fictionaluniverse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Arda"},{"link_name":"Peoples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-earth_peoples"},{"link_name":"monsters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_monsters"},{"link_name":"Ainur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ainur_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Maiar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiar"},{"link_name":"Balrogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balrog"},{"link_name":"Wizards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Valar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valar"},{"link_name":"Dragons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragons_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Ancalagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancalagon_the_Black"},{"link_name":"Smaug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smaug"},{"link_name":"Dwarves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwarves_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Eagles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagles_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Elves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elves_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Half-elven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-elf"},{"link_name":"Noldor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noldor"},{"link_name":"Sundering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundering_of_the_Elves"},{"link_name":"Ents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ent"},{"link_name":"Hobbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hobbit"},{"link_name":"Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Beornings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beorn"},{"link_name":"Drúedain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C3%BAedain"},{"link_name":"Dúnedain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BAnedain"},{"link_name":"Orcs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orc"},{"link_name":"Trolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolls_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Middle-earth_characters"},{"link_name":"Celebrimbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celebrimbor"},{"link_name":"Eärendil and Elwing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%A4rendil_and_Elwing"},{"link_name":"Elendil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elendil"},{"link_name":"Fëanor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ABanor"},{"link_name":"Fingolfin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingolfin"},{"link_name":"Finwë and Míriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finw%C3%AB_and_M%C3%ADriel"},{"link_name":"Gil-galad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil-galad"},{"link_name":"Húrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BArin"},{"link_name":"Isildur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isildur"},{"link_name":"Lúthien and Beren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BAthien_and_Beren"},{"link_name":"Melian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melian_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Morgoth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgoth"},{"link_name":"Thingol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thingol"},{"link_name":"Tuor and Idril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuor_and_Idril"},{"link_name":"Túrin Turambar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BArin_Turambar"},{"link_name":"Ungoliant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungoliant"},{"link_name":"Elrond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elrond"},{"link_name":"Galadriel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galadriel"},{"link_name":"Gandalf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandalf"},{"link_name":"Glorfindel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorfindel"},{"link_name":"Goldberry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldberry"},{"link_name":"Gollum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gollum"},{"link_name":"Saruman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saruman"},{"link_name":"Sauron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauron"},{"link_name":"Tom Bombadil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Bombadil"},{"link_name":"Places","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Beleriand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beleriand"},{"link_name":"Númenor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAmenor"},{"link_name":"Valinor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valinor"},{"link_name":"Bree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bree_(Middle-earth)"},{"link_name":"Esgaroth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esgaroth"},{"link_name":"Gondor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondor"},{"link_name":"Harad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harad"},{"link_name":"Isengard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isengard"},{"link_name":"Lonely Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonely_Mountain"},{"link_name":"Lothlórien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothl%C3%B3rien"},{"link_name":"Mirkwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirkwood"},{"link_name":"Mordor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mordor"},{"link_name":"Moria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moria,_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Rivendell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivendell"},{"link_name":"Rohan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohan,_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"The Shire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shire"},{"link_name":"Bag End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bag_End"},{"link_name":"Mithril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithril"},{"link_name":"Palantír","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palant%C3%ADr"},{"link_name":"Red Book of Westmarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Book_of_Westmarch"},{"link_name":"Rings of Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rings_of_Power"},{"link_name":"One Ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Ring"},{"link_name":"Silmarils","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silmarils"},{"link_name":"Two Trees of Valinor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_Trees_of_Valinor"},{"link_name":"List of weapons and armour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_weapons_and_armour_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien_and_antiquarianism"},{"link_name":"Artwork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_artwork"},{"link_name":"Family trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_Middle-earth_family_trees"},{"link_name":"Heraldry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraldry_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_constructed_by_J._R._R._Tolkien"},{"link_name":"Adûnaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad%C3%BBnaic"},{"link_name":"Black Speech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Speech"},{"link_name":"Elvish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvish_languages_of_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Quenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quenya"},{"link_name":"Sindarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindarin"},{"link_name":"Khuzdul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khuzdul"},{"link_name":"Maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_maps"},{"link_name":"Poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"Scripts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolkien%27s_scripts"},{"link_name":"Cirth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cirth"},{"link_name":"Sarati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarati"},{"link_name":"Tengwar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengwar"},{"link_name":"Themes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themes_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings"},{"link_name":"Anachronism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anachronism_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Ancestry as guide to character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestry_as_guide_to_character_in_Tolkien%27s_legendarium"},{"link_name":"Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmology_of_Tolkien%27s_legendarium"},{"link_name":"Round World version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_World_Version_of_Tolkien%27s_legendarium"},{"link_name":"Death and immortality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_immortality_in_Middle-earth"},{"link_name":"Decline and 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databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79734#identifiers"},{"link_name":"FAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//id.worldcat.org/fast/1020337/"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13511224f"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13511224f"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4739415-8"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007533878205171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85085022"}],"text":"Fonstad, Karen Wynn (1981). The Atlas of Middle-earth (1st ed.). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-28665-4.\nGarth, John (2020). The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien: The Places that Inspired Middle-earth. London: Frances Lincoln Publishers. ISBN 978-0-71124-127-5.\nFoster, Robert (2001) [1978]. The Complete Guide to Middle-earth. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-44976-2.\nHammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2004) [1995]. J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-261-10322-9.\nHammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2005). The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion (1st ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-720907-X.vteMiddle-earth\nJ. R. R. Tolkien\nBibliography\nCanon\nLegendarium\nOutline\nWorksIn Tolkien'slifetime\n1937 The Hobbit\n1954-55 The Lord of the Rings\nThe Fellowship of the Ring\n\"The Shadow of the Past\"\n\"The Council of Elrond\"\nThe Two Towers\nThe Return of the King\n\"The Scouring of the Shire\"\n\"The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen\"\n1962 The Adventures of Tom Bombadil\nPosthumous\n1977 The Silmarillion\n\"Ainulindalë\"\n1980 Unfinished Tales\n1981 The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien\n1990 Bilbo's Last Song\nThe three \"Great Tales\"\n2007 The Children of Húrin\n2017 Beren and Lúthien\n2018 The Fall of Gondolin\n2022 The Fall of Númenor\nHistory ofcompositionHistory ofMiddle-earth\n[1–2] 1983–84 The Book of Lost Tales\nÆlfwine\n[3] 1985 The Lays of Beleriand\n[4] 1986 The Shaping of Middle-earth\n[5] 1987 The Lost Road and Other Writings\nThe Etymologies\nLhammas\n[6–9] 1988–92 The History of The Lord of the Rings\nThe Notion Club Papers\n[10] 1993 Morgoth's Ring\n[11] 1994 The War of the Jewels\n[12] 1996 The Peoples of Middle-earth\nOthers\nJohn D. Rateliff\n2007 The History of The Hobbit\nCarl F. Hostetter\n2021 The Nature of Middle-earth\nFictionaluniversePeoples,monsters\nAinur\nMaiar\nBalrogs\nWizards\nValar\nDragons\nAncalagon\nSmaug\nDwarves\nEagles\nElves\nHalf-elven\nNoldor\nSundering\nEnts\nHobbits\nMen\nBeornings\nDrúedain\nDúnedain\nOrcs\nTrolls\nCharacters\nFirst and Second Ages\nCelebrimbor\nEärendil and Elwing\nElendil\nFëanor\nFingolfin\nFinwë and Míriel\nGil-galad\nHúrin\nIsildur\nLúthien and Beren\nMelian\nMorgoth\nThingol\nTuor and Idril\nTúrin Turambar\nUngoliant\nThird Age\nElrond\nGaladriel\nGandalf\nGlorfindel\nGoldberry\nGollum\nSaruman\nSauron\nTom Bombadil\nPlaces\nFirst and Second Ages\nBeleriand\nNúmenor\nValinor\nThird Age\nBree\nEsgaroth\nGondor\nHarad\nIsengard\nLonely Mountain\nLothlórien\nMirkwood\nMordor\nMoria\nRivendell\nRohan\nThe Shire\nBag End\nObjects\nMithril\nPalantír\nRed Book of Westmarch\nRings of Power\nOne Ring\nSilmarils\nTwo Trees of Valinor\nList of weapons and armour\nAnalysisElements\nArtwork\nFamily trees\nHeraldry\nLanguages\nAdûnaic\nBlack Speech\nElvish\nQuenya\nSindarin\nKhuzdul\nMaps\nPoetry\nScripts\nCirth\nSarati\nTengwar\nThemes\nAnachronism\nAncestry as guide to character\nArchitecture\nChristianity\nCosmology\nRound World version\nDeath and immortality\nDecline and fall\nEconomy\nEngland\nEnvironmentalism\nFirst World War\nForests\nFrame stories\nHeroism\nLight\nLuck and fate\nMagic\nMental illness\nModernism\nMoral dilemma\nMusic\nNaming of weapons\nNorthern courage\nOld Straight Road\nPaganism\nPlants\nPsychological journeys\nQuests\nSound and language\nTime\nTrees\nLiterary\nTolkien's impact on fantasy\nInfluences\nBeowulf\nCeltic\nClassical world\nFinnish language and literature\nMedieval\nModern\nNorse\nPhilology\nShakespeare\nProse style\nAmbiguity\nA mythology for England\nGeographic\nThe Atlas of Middle-earth\nJourneys of Frodo\nA Map of Middle-earth\nAdaptations,legacyArtists\nPauline Baynes\nCor Blok\nAnke Eißmann\nBrothers Hildebrandt\nJenny Dolfen\nMary Fairburn\nDonato Giancola\nJohn Howe\nTove Jansson\nAlexander Korotich\nAlan Lee\nTom Loback\nMargrethe II of Denmark\nTed Nasmith\nComposers\nBo Hansson\nJohan de Meij\nSymphony No. 1 The Lord of the Rings\nHoward Shore\nMusic of The Lord of the Rings film series\nMusic of The Hobbit film series\nMusic of The Rings of Power TV series\nBlind Guardian\nNightfall in Middle-Earth\nSettings\nDonald Swann\nThe Road Goes Ever On\nPoems and Songs of Middle Earth\nThe Tolkien Ensemble\nAn Evening in Rivendell\nA Night in Rivendell\nAt Dawn in Rivendell\nLeaving Rivendell\nOther media\nMiddle-earth Enterprises\nWorks inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien\nFilm\nTolkien Calendars\nVideo games\nThings named after Tolkien and his works\nLiterarycriticism\nThe Complete Guide to Middle-earth\nA Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien\nMaster of Middle-Earth\nPicturing Tolkien\nJ. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century\nThe J. R. R. Tolkien Companion and Guide\nThe J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\nThe Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion\nPerilous Realms\nThe Road to Middle-Earth\nSplintered Light\nTolkien's Art: 'A Mythology for England'\nTolkien: A Look Behind The Lord of the Rings\nA Tolkien Compass\nTolkien: Maker of Middle-earth\nTolkien, Race and Cultural History\nTolkien's Legendarium\nTolkien and the Great War\nThe Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien\nThe Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English DictionaryvteThe Hobbit\nJ. R. R. Tolkien\nHobbit (word)\nLegendarium\nframe stories\nMiddle-earth\nartwork\nBeowulf\nmaps\nnaming of weapons\npsychological journeys\nEditions\nEnglish-language editions\nThe Annotated Hobbit\nTranslations\nCharacters\nBilbo Baggins\nWizards\nGandalf\nRadagast\nDwarves\nThorin Oakenshield\nBalin\nGoblins\nTrolls\nGollum\nEagles\nBeorn\nElves\nElrond\nthe Elvenking\nSmaug\nBard the Bowman\nThe Necromancer\nWargs\nPlaces\nEriador\nThe Shire\nRivendell\nRhovanion\nMirkwood\nEsgaroth\nLonely Mountain\nRelated works\nThe History of The Hobbit\nBilbo's Last Song\nThe Hobbit pinball machine\nAdaptationsRadio\nThe Hobbit (1968)\nFilm\nGene Deitch's The Hobbit (1967)\nRankin/Bass's The Hobbit (1977)\nSoviet The Hobbit (1985)\nPeter Jackson's series\nAn Unexpected Journey (2012)\nThe Desolation of Smaug (2013)\nThe Battle of the Five Armies (2014)\noriginal characters\nmusic\nVideo games\nThe Hobbit (1982)\nThe Hobbit (2003)\nLego The Hobbit (2014)\n\n CategoryvteThe Lord of the Rings\nJ. R. R. Tolkien\nAbout\nVolumes\nThe Fellowship of the Ring\nThe Two Towers\nThe Return of the King\nStories\n\"The Shadow of the Past\"\n\"The Council of Elrond\"\n\"The Scouring of the Shire\"\n\"The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen\"\nTranslating\nList of translations\nRussian\nSwedish\nReception\nLiterary\nFandom\nOxonmoot\nTolkienmoot\nWorks inspired\nTolkien's impact on fantasy\nAnalysisElements\nArtwork\nFamily trees\nHeraldry\nLanguages\nBlack Speech\nElvish\nQuenya\nSindarin\nKhuzdul\nMaps\nPoetry\nA Elbereth Gilthoniel\nNamárië\nSong of Eärendil\nThe Man in the Moon Stayed Up Too Late\nThe Road Goes Ever On\nA Walking Song\nProverbs\nThemes\nAddiction to power\nAncestry as guide to character\nArchitecture\nChristianity\nDeath and immortality\nDecline and fall\nEconomy\nEngland\nEnvironmentalism\nForests\nHeroism\nLuck and fate\nMagic\nMental illness\nMoral dilemma\nMusic\nNaming of weapons\nNorthern courage\nPaganism\nPlants\nPsychological journeys\nQuests\nRace\nSexuality\nSound and language\nTime\nTrees\nWomen\nInfluences\nAntiquarianism\nBeowulf\nCeltic\nClassical world\nFirst World War\nNorse\nMedieval\nModern sources\nModernism\nA mythology for England\nPhilology\nShakespeare\nTechniques\nAnachronism\nCharacter pairing\nEditorial framing\nFrame stories\nPseudotranslation\nImpression of depth\nNarrative structure\nInterlacing\nProse style\nAmbiguity\nEpic Pooh\nPeoplesMaiar\nBalrogs\nSauron\nWizards\nGandalf\nRadagast\nSaruman\nFreepeoples\nDwarves\nBalin\nGimli\nElves\nGaladriel\nGlorfindel\nHalf-elven\nArwen\nElrond\nLegolas\nThranduil\nEnts\nTreebeard\nHobbits\nBilbo\nFrodo\nMerry\nPippin\nSam\nMen\nBeornings\nDrúedain\nDúnedain\nAragorn\nof Gondor\nBoromir\nDenethor\nFaramir\nof Rohan\nÉomer\nÉowyn\nThéoden\nWormtongue\nMonsters\nBarrow-wight\nGollum\nNazgûl\nWitch-king of Angmar\nOld Man Willow\nOrcs\nShelob\nTrolls\nWargs\nWatcher in the Water\nOther\nEagles\nGoldberry\nTom Bombadil\nWorldGeography\nEriador\nBree\nOld Forest\nRivendell\nThe Shire\nBag End\nGondor\nHarad\nLothlórien\nMirkwood\nMoria\nMordor\nRohan\nIsengard\nBattles\nHelm's Deep\nPelennor Fields\nMorannon\nObjects\nMithril\nPalantírs\nPhial of Galadriel\nRings of Power\nOne Ring\nList of weapons and armour\nRelatedworks\nThe Hobbit\nThe Adventures of Tom Bombadil\nErrantry\nFastitocalon\nThe Sea-Bell\nThe Road Goes Ever On\nBilbo's Last Song\nThe Silmarillion\nUnfinished Tales\nThe Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien\nThe History of Middle-earth\nThe Children of Húrin\nThe History of The Hobbit\nBeren and Lúthien\nThe Fall of Gondolin\nThe Nature of Middle-earth\nAdaptations and derivative worksBooks\nBored of the Rings (1969)\nThe Last Ringbearer (1999)\nMuddle Earth (2003)\nIllustrations\nA Map of Middle-earth\nPauline Baynes\nBarbara Remington\nJohn Howe\nAlan Lee\nMargrethe II of Denmark\nTed Nasmith\nTheatre\nFellowship! (2005)\nLord of the Rings (2006)\nMusic\nMusic Inspired by Lord of the Rings (1972)\nSymphony No. 1 The Lord of the Rings (1988)\nLed Zeppelin\n\"Ramble On\" (1969)\n\"Misty Mountain Hop\" (1971)\n\"The Battle of Evermore\" (1971)\nRadio\nThe Lord of the Rings (BBC, 1955)\nThe Lord of the Rings (NPR, 1979)\nHordes of the Things (1980)\nThe Lord of the Rings (BBC, 1981)\nDer Herr der Ringe (1992)\nFilmAnimated\nThe Lord of the Rings (Bakshi, 1978)\nThe Return of the King (Rankin/Bass, 1980)\nThe War of the Rohirrim (2024)\nPeter Jacksonseries\nThe Fellowship of the Ring (2001)\nThe Two Towers (2002)\nThe Return of the King (2003)\nMusic\n\"Concerning Hobbits\"\n\"Into the West\"\n\"May It Be\"\nApproach\nProduction\nPeter Jackson's interpretation\nPicturing Tolkien\nOther\nSagan om ringen (1971)\nKhraniteli (1991)\nHobitit (1993)\nThe Rings of Power (2022)\nmusic\nFan-made\nThe Hunt for Gollum (2009)\nBorn of Hope (2009)\nVideo games\nJourney to Rivendell\nGame One\nGame Two: Shadows of Mordor\nWar in Middle Earth\nVol. I (1990)\nVol. I (SNES)\nRiders of Rohan\nElendor\nVol. II: The Two Towers\nThe Fellowship of the Ring\nThe Two Towers\nThe Return of the King\nWar of the Ring\nThe Third Age\nGame Boy Advance\nThe Battle for Middle-earth\nTactics\nThe Battle for Middle-earth II\nThe Rise of the Witch-king\nConquest\nAragorn's Quest\nWar in the North\nLego The Lord of the Rings\nGuardians of Middle-earth\nShadow of Mordor\nShadow of War\nGollum\nReturn to Moria\nThe Lord of the Rings Online\nMines of Moria\nSiege of Mirkwood\nRise of Isengard\nRiders of Rohan\nHelm's Deep\nMordor\nMinas Morgul\nWar of Three Peaks\nFate of Gundabad\nBefore the Shadow\n\nTabletop role-playing games\nMiddle-earth Role Playing\nThe Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game\nThe One Ring Roleplaying Game\nAdventures in Middle-earth\nBoard games\nMiddle Earth\nWar of the Ring\nGondor: The Siege of Minas Tirith\nSauron\nLord of the Rings\nWar of the Ring\nCard games\nMiddle-earth Collectible Card Game\nThe Lord of the Rings Trading Card Game\nThe Lord of the Rings: The Card Game\nOther games\nMiddle-earth Strategy Battle Game\nLego The Lord of the RingsAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nNational\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Arda began as a symmetrical flat disc, and was repeatedly transformed through cataclysmic interventions by the Valar and by the creator, Eru Ilúvatar.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Arda_in_the_Ages_of_the_Lamps.svg/300px-Arda_in_the_Ages_of_the_Lamps.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Image map with clickable links of the north-west of Middle-earth at the end of the Third Age, showing Eriador (left) and Rhovanion (right). At extreme left are Lindon and the Blue Mountains, all that remains of Beleriand after the War of Wrath.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Sketch_Map_of_Middle-earth.svg/550px-Sketch_Map_of_Middle-earth.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Medieval Christian cosmology: heaven above, earth in the middle, hell below.[1] Vank Cathedral, Isfahan.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Vank_Cathedral%2C_Isfahan_-_Heaven%2C_Earth%2C_Hell.jpg/170px-Vank_Cathedral%2C_Isfahan_-_Heaven%2C_Earth%2C_Hell.jpg"},{"image_text":"Arda versus \"Middle-earth\": Middle-earth is in geographic terms the name of the continent inhabited by Elves, Dwarves and Men, excluding the home of the Valar on Aman, while Arda is the name of the world. However, \"Middle-earth\" is widely used for the whole of Tolkien's legendarium.[4] (Depicted: Arda in the Years of the Trees)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Arda_in_the_Years_of_the_Trees.svg/300px-Arda_in_the_Years_of_the_Trees.svg.png"},{"image_text":"\"A Map of Middle-earth\" by Pauline Baynes, 1970. This map depicts only the north-west of the continent of Middle-earth.[10]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/18/Baynes-Map_of_Middle-earth.jpg/170px-Baynes-Map_of_Middle-earth.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Downfall of Númenor and the Changing of the World. The intervention of Eru Ilúvatar cataclysmically reshaped Arda into a sphere.[11]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Downfall_of_N%C3%BAmenor.svg/440px-Downfall_of_N%C3%BAmenor.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Tolkien imagined Arda as the Earth in the distant past.[15] With the loss of all its peoples except Man, and the reshaping of the continents, all that is left of Middle-earth is a dim memory in folklore, legend, and old words.[16] The outlines of the continents are purely schematic.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Tolkien%27s_Imagined_Prehistory.svg/240px-Tolkien%27s_Imagined_Prehistory.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"J.R.R. Tolkien bibliography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_bibliography"},{"title":"Middle-earth canon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle-earth_canon"},{"title":"Outline of Middle-earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Middle-earth"}]
[{"reference":"Christopher, Joe R. (2012). \"The Journeys To and From Purgatory Island: A Dantean Allusion at the End of C. S. Lewis's 'The Nameless Isle'\". In Khoddam, Salwa; Hall, Mark R.; Fisher, Jason (eds.). C. S. Lewis and the Inklings: Discovering Hidden Truth. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 206. ISBN 978-1-4438-4431-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QbAwBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA197","url_text":"\"The Journeys To and From Purgatory Island: A Dantean Allusion at the End of C. S. Lewis's 'The Nameless Isle'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason_Fisher","url_text":"Fisher, Jason"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Scholars_Publishing","url_text":"Cambridge Scholars Publishing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-4431-4","url_text":"978-1-4438-4431-4"}]},{"reference":"Harper, Douglas. \"Midgard\". Online Etymological Dictionary; etymonline.com. Retrieved 12 March 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Harper","url_text":"Harper, Douglas"},{"url":"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Midgard","url_text":"\"Midgard\""}]},{"reference":"Gilliver, Peter; Marshall, Jeremy; Weiner, Edmund (2006). The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-0-19-861069-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Gilliver","url_text":"Gilliver, Peter"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ringofwordstolki00gill","url_text":"The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-861069-4","url_text":"978-0-19-861069-4"}]},{"reference":"Bratman, David (2013) [2007]. \"History of Middle-earth: Overview\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bratman","url_text":"Bratman, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"Harvey, Greg (2011). The Origins of Tolkien's Middle-earth For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 1: The Worlds of Middle-earth. ISBN 978-1-118-06898-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MocR5l-N8xIC&pg=PT15","url_text":"The Origins of Tolkien's Middle-earth For Dummies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-06898-4","url_text":"978-1-118-06898-4"}]},{"reference":"Morris, William (2015). Delphi Complete Works of William Morris (Illustrated). Delphi Classics. p. 5104. ISBN 978-1-910630-92-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Morris","url_text":"Morris, William"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dgHgCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5104","url_text":"Delphi Complete Works of William Morris (Illustrated)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-910630-92-1","url_text":"978-1-910630-92-1"}]},{"reference":"\"The Old Road to Paradise by Margaret Widdemer\".","urls":[{"url":"http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/widdemer/paradise/paradise.html#p21","url_text":"\"The Old Road to Paradise by Margaret Widdemer\""}]},{"reference":"Ford, G. L. (17 January 2020). \"Christopher Tolkien, 1924-2020 Keeper of Middle-earth's Legacy\". Book and Film Globe. Retrieved 26 July 2020. Lewis's Space Trilogy drew on Tolkien's Middle-earth lore at several points, where he used it to deepen the mythology underlying his action.","urls":[{"url":"https://bookandfilmglobe.com/creators/christopher-tolkien-1924-2020/","url_text":"\"Christopher Tolkien, 1924-2020 Keeper of Middle-earth's Legacy\""}]},{"reference":"Hammond, Wayne G.; Anderson, Douglas A. (1993). J.R.R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography. St. Paul's Bibliographies. p. 376. ISBN 978-1-873040-11-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_G._Hammond","url_text":"Hammond, Wayne G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_A._Anderson","url_text":"Anderson, Douglas A."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/jrrtolkiendescri0000hamm/page/376","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-873040-11-9","url_text":"978-1-873040-11-9"}]},{"reference":"Bolintineanu, Alexandra (2013). \"Arda\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"Flood, Alison (23 October 2015). \"Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings\". The Guardian.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/jrr-tolkien-middle-earth-annotated-map-blackwells-lord-of-the-rings?","url_text":"\"Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Kocher, Paul (1974) [1972]. Master of Middle-earth: The Achievement of J.R.R. Tolkien. Penguin Books. pp. 8–11. ISBN 0140038779.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_H._Kocher","url_text":"Kocher, Paul"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Middle-earth","url_text":"Master of Middle-earth: The Achievement of J.R.R. Tolkien"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Books","url_text":"Penguin Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140038779","url_text":"0140038779"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Stuart D.; Solopova, Elizabeth (2005). The Keys of Middle-earth: Discovering Medieval Literature Through the Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien. Palgrave. pp. 256–257. ISBN 978-1403946713.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_D._Lee","url_text":"Lee, Stuart D."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Solopova","url_text":"Solopova, Elizabeth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Keys_of_Middle-earth","url_text":"The Keys of Middle-earth: Discovering Medieval Literature Through the Fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan","url_text":"Palgrave"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1403946713","url_text":"978-1403946713"}]},{"reference":"West, Richard C. (2006). \"'And All the Days of Her Life Are Forgotten': 'The Lord of the Rings' as Mythic Prehistory\". In Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (eds.). The Lord of the Rings, 1954-2004: Scholarship in Honor of Richard E. Blackwelder. Marquette University Press. pp. 67–100. ISBN 978-0-87462-018-4. OCLC 298788493.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._West","url_text":"West, Richard C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_G._Hammond","url_text":"Hammond, Wayne G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Scull","url_text":"Scull, Christina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquette_University_Press","url_text":"Marquette University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87462-018-4","url_text":"978-0-87462-018-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/298788493","url_text":"298788493"}]},{"reference":"Eden, Bradford Lee (2013) [2007]. \"Elves\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 150–152. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford_Lee_Eden","url_text":"Eden, Bradford Lee"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"Dickerson, Matthew (2013) [2007]. \"Elves: Kindreds and Migrations\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 152–154. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Dickerson","url_text":"Dickerson, Matthew"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"Straubhaar, Sandra Ballif (2013) [2007]. \"Men, Middle-earth\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 414–417. ISBN 978-1-135-88034-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandra_Ballif_Straubhaar","url_text":"Straubhaar, Sandra Ballif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-88034-7","url_text":"978-1-135-88034-7"}]},{"reference":"Evans, Jonathan (2013) [2007]. \"Dwarves\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 134–135. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Evans_(scholar)","url_text":"Evans, Jonathan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"Stanton, Michael N. (2013) [2007]. \"Hobbits\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 280–282. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"Tally, Robert T. Jr. (2010). \"Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures\". Mythlore. 29 (1). article 3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Tally","url_text":"Tally, Robert T. Jr."},{"url":"https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol29/iss1/3","url_text":"\"Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythlore","url_text":"Mythlore"}]},{"reference":"Evans, Jonathan. \"Monsters\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment. p. 433.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment"}]},{"reference":"Burns, Marjorie (2013) [2007]. \"Old Norse Literature\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 473–474. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1. Echoes of these Norse battle animals appear throughout Tolkien's literature; in one way or another, all are associated with Gandalf or his cause. ... raven ... Eagles ... wolves ... horses ... Saruman is the one most closely associated with Odin's ravaging wolves and carrion birds","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjorie_Burns","url_text":"Burns, Marjorie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, John J. (25 November 1977). \"TV Weekend: \"The Hobbit\"\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1977/11/25/books/tolkien-hobbittv.html","url_text":"\"TV Weekend: \"The Hobbit\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Gaslin, Glenn (21 November 2001). \"Ralph Bakshi's unfairly maligned Lord of the Rings\". Slate. Retrieved 28 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2001/11/hobbits_on_film.html","url_text":"\"Ralph Bakshi's unfairly maligned Lord of the Rings\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_(magazine)","url_text":"Slate"}]},{"reference":"Timmons, Daniel (2013) [2007]. \"Jackson, Peter\". In Drout, Michael D. C. (ed.). J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 303–310. ISBN 978-0-415-86511-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_D._C._Drout","url_text":"Drout, Michael D. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.R.R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia","url_text":"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routledge","url_text":"Routledge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1","url_text":"978-0-415-86511-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Here Are The Biggest Academy Award Milestones In Oscars History\". Hollywood.Com. 3 February 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywood.com/movies/academy-award-milestones-60533072/#/ms-22651/1","url_text":"\"Here Are The Biggest Academy Award Milestones In Oscars History\""}]},{"reference":"Sydell, Laura (30 April 2009). \"High-Def 'Hunt For Gollum' New Lord of the Fanvids\". All Things Considered. National Public Radio. Retrieved 1 May 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Sydell","url_text":"Sydell, Laura"},{"url":"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=103673352","url_text":"\"High-Def 'Hunt For Gollum' New Lord of the Fanvids\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Things_Considered","url_text":"All Things Considered"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Public_Radio","url_text":"National Public Radio"}]},{"reference":"Martin, Nicole (27 October 2008). \"Orcs are back in Lord of the Rings-inspired Born of Hope\". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 29 October 2008. Retrieved 31 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081029071445/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/3268653/Orcs-are-back-in-Lord-of-the-Rings-inspired-Born-of-Hope.html","url_text":"\"Orcs are back in Lord of the Rings-inspired Born of Hope\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"},{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/3268653/Orcs-are-back-in-Lord-of-the-Rings-inspired-Born-of-Hope.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Takahashi, Dean (15 June 2017). \"Warner Bros. games are coming out of the shadow of its movies\". GamesBeat. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://venturebeat.com/2017/06/15/warner-bros-games-are-coming-out-of-the-shadow-of-its-movies/","url_text":"\"Warner Bros. games are coming out of the shadow of its movies\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170704220825/https://venturebeat.com/2017/06/15/warner-bros-games-are-coming-out-of-the-shadow-of-its-movies/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gardner, Eriq (3 July 2017). \"Warner Bros., Tolkien Estate Settle $80 Million 'Hobbit' Lawsuit\". Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/warner-bros-tolkien-estate-settle-80-million-hobbit-lawsuit-1018478","url_text":"\"Warner Bros., Tolkien Estate Settle $80 Million 'Hobbit' Lawsuit\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170703154839/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/warner-bros-tolkien-estate-settle-80-million-hobbit-lawsuit-1018478","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Manuel (10 September 2015). \"Minecraft: Spieler haben das komplette Auenland nachgebaut\". Computer Bild. Retrieved 9 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.computerbild.de/artikel/cbs-News-PC-Minecraft-Spieler-Auenland-nachgebaut-13195125.html","url_text":"\"Minecraft: Spieler haben das komplette Auenland nachgebaut\""}]},{"reference":"Davis, Erik (1 October 2001). \"The Fellowship of the Ring\". Wired.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.10/lotr_pr.html","url_text":"\"The Fellowship of the Ring\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)","url_text":"Wired"}]},{"reference":"Carpenter, Humphrey (1977). J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography. G. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-928037-3. OCLC 3046822.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Carpenter","url_text":"Carpenter, Humphrey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien:_A_Biography","url_text":"J. R. R. Tolkien: A Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-928037-3","url_text":"978-0-04-928037-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3046822","url_text":"3046822"}]},{"reference":"Carpenter, Humphrey, ed. (2023) [1981]. The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien Revised and Expanded Edition. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-35-865298-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_Carpenter","url_text":"Carpenter, Humphrey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letters_of_J._R._R._Tolkien","url_text":"The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harper_Collins","url_text":"Harper Collins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-35-865298-4","url_text":"978-0-35-865298-4"}]},{"reference":"Shippey, Tom (2005) [1982]. The Road to Middle-earth (3nd ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0261102750.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Shippey","url_text":"Shippey, Tom"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Road_to_Middle-earth","url_text":"The Road to Middle-earth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0261102750","url_text":"978-0261102750"}]},{"reference":"Tolkien, J. R. R. (1977). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). The Silmarillion. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-25730-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien","url_text":"Tolkien, J. R. R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Tolkien","url_text":"Christopher Tolkien"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Silmarillion","url_text":"The Silmarillion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin","url_text":"Houghton Mifflin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-25730-2","url_text":"978-0-395-25730-2"}]},{"reference":"Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954a). The Fellowship of the Ring. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 9552942.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien","url_text":"Tolkien, J. R. R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Fellowship_of_the_Ring","url_text":"The Fellowship of the Ring"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings","url_text":"The Lord of the Rings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin","url_text":"Houghton Mifflin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9552942","url_text":"9552942"}]},{"reference":"Tolkien, J. R. R. (1954). The Two Towers. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1042159111.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien","url_text":"Tolkien, J. R. R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Two_Towers","url_text":"The Two Towers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings","url_text":"The Lord of the Rings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin","url_text":"Houghton Mifflin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111","url_text":"1042159111"}]},{"reference":"Tolkien, J. R. R. (1955). The Return of the King. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 519647821.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien","url_text":"Tolkien, J. R. R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Return_of_the_King","url_text":"The Return of the King"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings","url_text":"The Lord of the Rings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin","url_text":"Houghton Mifflin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/519647821","url_text":"519647821"}]},{"reference":"Tolkien, J. R. R. (1980). Christopher Tolkien (ed.). Unfinished Tales. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-29917-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien","url_text":"Tolkien, J. R. R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Tolkien","url_text":"Christopher Tolkien"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfinished_Tales","url_text":"Unfinished Tales"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin","url_text":"Houghton Mifflin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-29917-3","url_text":"978-0-395-29917-3"}]},{"reference":"Fonstad, Karen Wynn (1981). The Atlas of Middle-earth (1st ed.). Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-28665-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Wynn_Fonstad","url_text":"Fonstad, Karen Wynn"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlas_of_Middle-earth","url_text":"The Atlas of Middle-earth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt","url_text":"Houghton Mifflin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-28665-4","url_text":"0-395-28665-4"}]},{"reference":"Garth, John (2020). The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien: The Places that Inspired Middle-earth. London: Frances Lincoln Publishers. ISBN 978-0-71124-127-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Garth_(author)","url_text":"Garth, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Worlds_of_J._R._R._Tolkien","url_text":"The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien: The Places that Inspired Middle-earth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frances_Lincoln_Publishers","url_text":"Frances Lincoln Publishers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-71124-127-5","url_text":"978-0-71124-127-5"}]},{"reference":"Foster, Robert (2001) [1978]. The Complete Guide to Middle-earth. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-44976-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Foster_(author)","url_text":"Foster, Robert"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complete_Guide_to_Middle-earth","url_text":"The Complete Guide to Middle-earth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballantine_Books","url_text":"Ballantine Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-44976-2","url_text":"0-345-44976-2"}]},{"reference":"Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2004) [1995]. J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-261-10322-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_G._Hammond","url_text":"Hammond, Wayne G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Scull","url_text":"Scull, Christina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._R._R._Tolkien:_Artist_and_Illustrator","url_text":"J. R. R. Tolkien: Artist and Illustrator"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-261-10322-9","url_text":"0-261-10322-9"}]},{"reference":"Hammond, Wayne G.; Scull, Christina (2005). The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion (1st ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-720907-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_G._Hammond","url_text":"Hammond, Wayne G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christina_Scull","url_text":"Scull, Christina"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings:_A_Reader%27s_Companion","url_text":"The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins","url_text":"HarperCollins"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-720907-X","url_text":"0-00-720907-X"}]}]
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Lewis's 'The Nameless Isle'\""},{"Link":"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Midgard","external_links_name":"\"Midgard\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/ringofwordstolki00gill","external_links_name":"The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=MocR5l-N8xIC&pg=PT15","external_links_name":"The Origins of Tolkien's Middle-earth For Dummies"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dgHgCQAAQBAJ&pg=PT5104","external_links_name":"Delphi Complete Works of William Morris (Illustrated)"},{"Link":"http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/widdemer/paradise/paradise.html#p21","external_links_name":"\"The Old Road to Paradise by Margaret Widdemer\""},{"Link":"https://bookandfilmglobe.com/creators/christopher-tolkien-1924-2020/","external_links_name":"\"Christopher Tolkien, 1924-2020 Keeper of Middle-earth's Legacy\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/jrrtolkiendescri0000hamm/page/376","external_links_name":"J.R.R. Tolkien: A Descriptive Bibliography"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/23/jrr-tolkien-middle-earth-annotated-map-blackwells-lord-of-the-rings?","external_links_name":"\"Tolkien's annotated map of Middle-earth discovered inside copy of Lord of the Rings\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/298788493","external_links_name":"298788493"},{"Link":"https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol29/iss1/3","external_links_name":"\"Let Us Now Praise Famous Orcs: Simple Humanity in Tolkien's Inhuman Creatures\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1977/11/25/books/tolkien-hobbittv.html","external_links_name":"\"TV Weekend: \"The Hobbit\"\""},{"Link":"http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/culturebox/2001/11/hobbits_on_film.html","external_links_name":"\"Ralph Bakshi's unfairly maligned Lord of the Rings\""},{"Link":"https://www.hollywood.com/movies/academy-award-milestones-60533072/#/ms-22651/1","external_links_name":"\"Here Are The Biggest Academy Award Milestones In Oscars History\""},{"Link":"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=103673352","external_links_name":"\"High-Def 'Hunt For Gollum' New Lord of the Fanvids\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081029071445/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/3268653/Orcs-are-back-in-Lord-of-the-Rings-inspired-Born-of-Hope.html","external_links_name":"\"Orcs are back in Lord of the Rings-inspired Born of Hope\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/3268653/Orcs-are-back-in-Lord-of-the-Rings-inspired-Born-of-Hope.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://venturebeat.com/2017/06/15/warner-bros-games-are-coming-out-of-the-shadow-of-its-movies/","external_links_name":"\"Warner Bros. games are coming out of the shadow of its movies\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170704220825/https://venturebeat.com/2017/06/15/warner-bros-games-are-coming-out-of-the-shadow-of-its-movies/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/warner-bros-tolkien-estate-settle-80-million-hobbit-lawsuit-1018478","external_links_name":"\"Warner Bros., Tolkien Estate Settle $80 Million 'Hobbit' Lawsuit\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170703154839/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/warner-bros-tolkien-estate-settle-80-million-hobbit-lawsuit-1018478","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.computerbild.de/artikel/cbs-News-PC-Minecraft-Spieler-Auenland-nachgebaut-13195125.html","external_links_name":"\"Minecraft: Spieler haben das komplette Auenland nachgebaut\""},{"Link":"https://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.mud.lp/browse_thread/thread/c4ecbb9be83f903d/2a9be0ea86e4c932?lnk=gst&q=Middle-earth#2a9be0ea86e4c932","external_links_name":"Groups.google.com"},{"Link":"https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.10/lotr_pr.html","external_links_name":"\"The Fellowship of the Ring\""},{"Link":"http://www.mudconnector.com/","external_links_name":"The Mud Connector"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051226173240/http://www.mudconnector.com/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3046822","external_links_name":"3046822"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9552942","external_links_name":"9552942"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1042159111","external_links_name":"1042159111"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/519647821","external_links_name":"519647821"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1020337/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13511224f","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13511224f","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4739415-8","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007533878205171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85085022","external_links_name":"United States"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Platform_for_NFV
Open Platform for NFV
["1 References","2 External links"]
Open source platform Open Platform for NFV is a collaborative open source platform for network functions virtualization. It was started by the Linux Foundation in 2014. Member companies include AT&T, Brocade Communications Systems, China Mobile, Cisco, Dell, Ericsson, Hewlett-Packard, Huawei, IBM, Intel, Juniper Networks, NEC, Nokia Networks, NTT DoCoMo, Orange S.A., Red Hat, Telecom Italia and Vodafone. References ^ Dan Meyer (30 September 2014). Linux Foundation launches reference platform for ‘carrier-grade’ NFV. RCR Wireless News. Accessed April 2015. External links OPNFV Homepage Virtual Central Office Homepage vteLinux FoundationSub-foundations Cloud Native Computing Foundation Cloud Foundry OpenJS Foundation LF Energy Presto Foundation Open Source Security Foundation Initiatives Open Container Initiative Core Infrastructure Initiative OpenAPI Initiative Projects Open Mainframe Project SONiC Hyperledger
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[]
null
[]
[{"Link":"http://www.rcrwireless.com/20140930/bssoss/linux-foundation-launches-reference-platform-for-carrier-grade-nfv-tag2","external_links_name":"Linux Foundation launches reference platform for ‘carrier-grade’ NFV"},{"Link":"https://www.opnfv.org/","external_links_name":"OPNFV Homepage"},{"Link":"https://www.opnfv.org/resources/virtual-central-office","external_links_name":"Virtual Central Office Homepage"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SFF_(disambiguation)
SFF
["1 Computing","2 Events","3 Military","4 Organizations and enterprises","5 Sports","6 Other uses","7 See also"]
SFF can refer to: Computing Small form factor (disambiguation), a term covering smaller-than traditional form factors for computer components Standard flowgram format, a file generated by a 454 sequencing machine Events Sarajevo Film Festival, a premier annual film festival in the Balkans Singapore Fireworks Festival Sydney Film Festival Military Special Field Force, a Namibian paramilitary police unit Special Frontier Force, an Indian paramilitary special force Organizations and enterprises The NYSE stock symbol for Santa Fe Energy Science Festival Foundation Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party, an Australian political party Small Form Factor Committee, a computer industry standards organization that creates standards for computer data storage systems (not related to SFF motherboards and cases) Small Form Factor Special Interest Group, a computer industry standards organization that maintains standards for SFF motherboards and cases Space Frontier Foundation, a space advocacy non-profit organization Stone Family Foundation, a charity Sports Seychelles Football Federation Somali Football Federation Split-finger fastball, a pitch in baseball Other uses Felts Field (IATA: SFF), a public airport near Spokane, Washington Safe failure fraction Self forging fragment (see explosively formed penetrator), a type of shaped charge SF&F, an acronym for science fiction and fantasy Solid freeform fabrication Spiritual Frontiers Fellowship Subito fortissimo, a dynamic marking in music See also Small form factor (disambiguation) Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title SFF.If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
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[]
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[]
[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:WhatLinksHere/SFF&namespace=0","external_links_name":"internal link"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roche_Tower
Roche Tower
["1 References","2 External links"]
Coordinates: 47°33′30″N 7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E / 47.5583; 7.6076Skyscraper in Basel, Switzerland Roche TowerRoche-TurmAlternative namesBuilding 1 (Bau 1)Record heightTallest in Switzerland since 18 September 2015Preceded byPrime Tower (Zürich)General informationStatusOpenTypeOffice buildingArchitectural styleModernismLocationBasel, SwitzerlandAddressGrenzacherstrasse 124Named forHoffmann-La RocheGroundbreaking9 May 2012Opened18 September 2015CostCHF 550 millionOwnerHoffman-La RocheHeight178 m (584 ft)Technical detailsFloor count41Floor area74,200 m2 (799,000 sq ft)Design and constructionArchitecture firmHerzog & de Meuron Roche Tower (German: Roche-Turm) is a skyscraper in the Swiss city of Basel. At 178 metres (584 ft), it is the second tallest building in the country. The building, also known as "Building 1" (German: Bau 1), was financed by pharmaceutical company Hoffmann-La Roche and designed by Herzog & de Meuron. It cost 550 million Swiss francs to build. The entire construction ensemble, including the 205 m (673 ft) "Building 2" research facility completed in 2022, was expected to cost three billion francs in total. When finished on 18 September 2015, Roche Tower overtook Prime Tower in Zürich as Switzerland's tallest building, the latter having held the record for four years. Strict planning laws mean there are few skyscrapers in the country. For the construction of the building, measures against earthquakes were envisioned and it stands on 143 pillars of reinforced concrete. It is supposed to endure an earthquake of 6.9 on the Richter scale and therefore surpass the security regulations by the government. References ^ a b c "Switzerland's tallest building officially opened". Swiss Info. 18 September 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2017. ^ a b "Neuer Roche-Turm - So sicher ist das höchste Gebäude der Schweiz". Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen (SRF) (in German). 9 December 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2021. External links Media related to Roche Tower at Wikimedia Commons Official website Information at Basel.com 47°33′30″N 7°36′27″E / 47.5583°N 7.6076°E / 47.5583; 7.6076 Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany This article about a Swiss building or structure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-capitalism
Eco-capitalism
["1 History","2 Eco-capitalist theorists","3 Transition to eco-capitalism","3.1 Externalities: Correcting of a free market failure","3.2 Green consumption","3.3 Carbon trading","3.4 Full cost accounting","3.5 Genuine progress indicator","4 Criticism and responses","5 Appeal of renewable energy in the capitalist market","5.1 Barriers to transition","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading"]
The view that capital exists in nature as "natural capital" For sustainable businesses, see Sustainable business. "Blue Greens" redirects here. For the colours, see Blue-green. Part of a series onGreen politics Core topics Climate change litigation Fossil fuels lobby Green politics Green party List of topics Politics of climate change Four pillars Ecological wisdom Social justice Grassroots democracy Nonviolence Perspectives Alter-globalization Bright green environmentalism Criticisms of globalization Deep ecology Degrowth Dirty hands Disinvestment Ecoauthoritarianism Eco-capitalism Ecocentrism Ecofascism Ecofeminism Eco-nationalism Eco-socialism Environmentalism Environmental skepticism Green anarchism Green conservatism Green left Green liberalism Green libertarianism Green Zionism Social ecology Queer ecology Organizations Asia Pacific Greens Federation European Green Party Federation of Green Parties of Africa Federation of the Green Parties of the Americas Federation of Young European Greens Global Greens Global Young Greens World Ecological Parties Related topics Carbon fee and dividend Carbon tax Circular economy Climate change mitigation Climate finance Climate justice Climate target Conservation movement Corporate political activism Eco-investing Ecological economics Ecological modernization Ecomodernism Eco-tariff Ecotax Eco-terrorism Environmental conflict effects of agriculture effects of aviation finance issues justice movement planning pricing reform racism technology Environmentalism opposition Stewardship in music Fossil fuel phase-out Green development economy growth grabbing greening imperialism industrial policy infrastructure job New Deal recovery retrofit state theory transport hierarchy vehicle washing Localism Low-carbon economy List of environmental incidents conflicts killings Political ecology Progressivism Renewable energy Sustainable design development energy engineering refurbishment transport War on coal Water conflict vte Part of a series onCapitalism (For and against) Concepts Austerity Business Business cycle Businessperson Capital Capital accumulation Capital markets Company Corporation Competitive markets Economic interventionism Economic liberalism Economic surplus Entrepreneurship Fictitious capital Financial market Free price system Free market Goods and services Investor Invisible hand Visible hand Liberalization Marginalism Money Private property Privatization Profit Rent seeking Supply and demand Surplus value Value Wage labour Economic systems Anglo-Saxon Authoritarian Corporate Dirigist Free-market Humanistic Laissez-faire Liberal Libertarian Market Mercantilist Mixed Monopoly National Neoliberal Nordic Private Raw Regulated market Regulatory Rhine Social State State-sponsored Welfare Economic theories American Austrian Chartalism MMT Chicago Classical Institutional Keynesian Neo- New Post- Market monetarism Critique of political economy Critique of work Marxist Monetarist Neoclassical New institutional Supply-side Origins Age of Enlightenment Capitalism and Islam Commercial Revolution Feudalism Industrial Revolution Mercantilism Primitive accumulation Physiocracy Simple commodity production Development Advanced Consumer Community Corporate Crony Finance Global Illiberal Late Marxist Merchant Progressive Rentier State monopoly Technological Intellectuals Smith Mill (James) Mill (John Stuart) Ricardo Malthus Say Marx Friedman Hayek Keynes Marshall Pareto Walras von Mises Rand Rothbard Schumpeter Veblen Weaver Weber Coase Related topics Anti-capitalism Capitalist propaganda Capitalist realism Capitalist state Consumerism Crisis theory Criticism of capitalism Critique of political economy Critique of work Cronyism Culture of capitalism Evergreening Exploitation of labour Globalization History History of theory Market economy Periodizations of capitalism Perspectives on capitalism Post-capitalism Speculation Spontaneous order Venture philanthropy Wage slavery Ideologies Anarcho Authoritarian Classical liberalism Democratic Dirigisme Eco Humanistic Inclusive Liberal Liberalism Libertarian Neo Neoliberalism Objectivism Ordoliberalism Privatism Right-libertarianism Third Way Capitalism portal Business portalvte Eco-capitalism, also known as environmental capitalism or (sometimes) green capitalism, is the view that capital exists in nature as "natural capital" (ecosystems that have ecological yield) on which all wealth depends. Therefore, governments should use market-based policy-instruments (such as a carbon tax) to resolve environmental problems. The term "Blue Greens" is often applied to those who espouse eco-capitalism. Eco-capitalism can be thought of as the right-wing equivalent to Red Greens. Critics of eco-capitalism, such as eco-socialists, view continued economic growth and commodification of nature as an inevitability in capitalism, and thus criticize bright-green environmentalism. History The roots of eco-capitalism can be traced back to the late 1960s. The "Tragedy of the Commons", an essay published in 1968 in Science by Garrett Hardin, claimed the inevitability of malthusian catastrophe due to liberal or democratic government's policies to leave family size matters to the family, and enabling the welfare state to willingly care for potential human overpopulation. Hardin argued that if families were given freedom of choice in the matter, but were removed from a welfare state, parents choosing to overbear would not have the resources to provide for their "litter", thus solving the problem of overpopulation. This represents an early argument made from an eco-capitalist standpoint: overpopulation would technically be solved by a free market. John Baden, a collaborator with Garrett Hardin on other works including Managing the Commons, founded the Political Economy Research Center (now called the Property and Environment Research Center) in 1982. As one of the first eco-capitalist organizations created, PERC's ongoing mission is "improving environmental quality through property rights and markets". The most popular eco-capitalist idea was emissions trading, or more commonly, cap and trade. Emissions trading, a market-based approach that allows polluting entities to purchase or be allocated permits, began being researched in the late 1960s. International emissions trading was significantly popularized in the 1990s when the United Nations adopted the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. Eco-capitalist theorists Terry L. Anderson, a graduate of the University of Montana who received his Ph.D. from Washington University, and who serves as the co-chair of the Hoover Institution's Property Rights, Freedom and Prosperity task force, has advocated that free markets can be both economically beneficial and environmentally protective. Anderson specializes in how markets impact Native American communities and their economies. Anderson is a co-author of Free Market Environmentalism, a book that explores how free market ideas could be used to solve environmental issues, based on Anderson's conclusion on a few case studies. Bruce Yandle, a graduate of Mercer University, attended Georgia State University where he earned an MBA and PhD. Yandle is the dean emeritus of Clemson University's college of business. He is prominent in the field of eco-capitalism for his story of the "Bootlegger and the Baptist". Yandle's theory of the Bootlegger and the Baptist posits that ethical groups, religious institutions and business captains can align their organizations in the interest of regulation and economic growth. Paul Hawken is the architect of the United States first natural foods company, Erewhon Trading Company, where all products were organically composed. Hawken founded the research organization, Natural Capital Institute, and developed Wiser Earth, a program focused on providing a platform for all to communicate about the environment. Hawken has authored hundreds of publications, including four best selling books. In his writings, Hawken stresses that many viable ecological options exist for businesses that will benefit the environment, while simultaneously bringing about economic profit. One idea discussed in his book, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, is the possibility of developing lightweight, electricity-powered cars as an alternative to current transportation modes. Hawken attributes the hesitancy of adopting these options to lack of knowledge of these alternatives and high initial costs. Hawken is now the head of OneSun, Inc., an energy corporation concentrated on low-cost solar. Lester Brown began his career as a tomato farmer in New Jersey, before earning a degree at Rutgers University and traveling to a rural India for a six-month study of the country's food and population crisis. Brown has primarily focused on finding alternatives which he contends would provide solutions to the world's population and resources problem. With financial support from Rockefeller Brothers Fund, Brown created the Worldwatch Institute, the first dedicated to researching global environmental problems. In 2001, Brown founded the Earth Policy Institute, an organization that outlines a vision for creating an environmentally sustainable economy. Brown has authored over 50 books and received 25 honorary degrees. In his publications, Brown posits that the key to an eco-friendly economy is an honest market. He advocates for replacing harmful aspects of the environment, like fossil fuels, with renewable energy. In June 2015, Brown retired from Earth Policy and closed the institute. Transition to eco-capitalism The ideology of eco-capitalism was adopted to satisfy two competing needs: the desire for generating profit by businesses in a capitalist society and the urgency for proper actions to address a struggling environment negatively impacted by human activity. Under the doctrine of eco-capitalism, businesses commodify the act of addressing environmental issues. The following are common principles in the transition to eco-capitalism. Externalities: Correcting of a free market failure A central part of eco-capitalism is to correct for the market failure seen in the externalization of pollution. By treating the issue of pollution as an externality it has allowed the market to minimize the degree of accountability. To correct for this market failure eco-capitalism would have to internalize this cost. A prime example of this shift towards internalizing externalities is seen in the adoption of a system for carbon trading. In a system like this people are forced to factor the pollution cost into their expenses. This system as well as other systems of internalization function on large and small scales (oftentimes both are tightly connected). On a corporate scale, the government can regulate carbon emissions and other polluting factors in business practices forcing companies to either reduce their pollution levels, externalize these costs onto their consumers by raising the cost of their goods/services, and/or a combination of the two. These kinds of systems can also be effective in indirectly creating a more environmentally conscious consumer base. As the companies who are creating the most pollution face falling profit levels and rising prices their consumers and investors are inclined to take their business elsewhere. This migration of investment and revenue would then be expected to make its way to business who have already incorporated the minimization of pollution into their business model thus allowing them to provide lower prices and higher profit margins attracting the migrating consumers and investors. Green consumption Further information: Green consumption At the conception of the ideology, major theorists of eco-capitalism, Paul Hawken, Lester Brown, and Francis Cairncross, saw an opportunity to establish a different approach to environmentalism in a capitalist society. These theorists posited that consumers as well as producers could shoulder the social responsibility of environmental restoration if "green technology, green taxes, green labeling, and eco-conscious shopping" existed. The resulting "shopping our way to sustainability" mentality encouraged the development of organic farming, renewable energy, green certifications as well as other eco-friendly practices. A 2015 report from the Nielsen Corporation lends credence to this theory. According to the report, consumers have more brand loyalty and are willing to pay higher prices for a product that is perceived as being sustainable. This is especially true among Millennials and Generation Z. These generations currently make up 48% of the global marketplace and still have not hit their peak spending levels. As these generations' preferences continue to shape how businesses operate and market themselves, they could drive a continued shift toward green consumption. According to the Annual Review of Environmental Resources, "the focus of policy makers, businesses, and researchers has mostly been on the latter (consuming differently), with relatively little attention paid to consuming less". A review of how to encourage sustainable consumption from the University of Surrey shows that, "Government policies send important signals to consumers about institutional goals and national priorities." Governments can pull a variety of levers to signal this including product, trading, building, media, and marketing standards. Carbon trading Further information: Carbon trading Creating perhaps the first major eco-capitalist endorsement, many political and economic institutions support a system of pollution credits. Such a system, which assigns property rights to emissions, is considered to be the most "efficient and effective" way for regulating greenhouse gas emissions in the current neoliberal global economy. Especially in the case of tradable pollution credits, the resulting market-based system of emissions regulation is believed to motivate businesses to invest in technology that reduce greenhouse gas emissions using positive reinforcement (i.e. ability to trade unused credits) and punishment (i.e. the need to buy more credits). Full cost accounting Environmental full-cost accounting explains corporate actions on the basis of the triple bottom line, which is best summarized as "people, planet, and profit". As a concept of corporate social responsibility, full cost accounting not only considers social and economic costs and benefits but also the environmental implications of specific corporate actions. While there has been progress in measuring the cost of harm to the health of individuals and the environment, the interaction of environmental, social, and health effects makes measurement difficult. Measurement attempts can be broadly categorized as either behavioral in nature, like hedonic pricing, or dose-response which looks at indirect effects. A standardized measurement of these costs has yet to emerge. This should not be confused with the full-cost method used by organizations searching for oil and gas that "does not differentiate between operating expenses associated with successful and unsuccessful exploration projects". Genuine progress indicator The current standard of using the gross domestic product (GDP) as an indicator of welfare is criticized for being inaccurate. An alternative to GDP, the genuine progress indicator compensates for the shortcomings of the GDP as a welfare indicator by accounting for environmental harms as well as other factors that affect consumption, such as crime and income inequality. Criticism and responses A fundamental criticism of the eco-capitalist idea rests on the idea that the commodification of nature and environmental services plus the principles of growth economics and sustainability cannot (easily) coexist. A majority of the criticisms from traditionally unregulated capitalism is due to eco-capitalism's increased regulation. Pollution credits (as a means for regulating greenhouse gas emissions) is traditionally at odds with economically laissez-faire ideologies. Elements of unregulated capitalism prefer environmental issues to be addressed by individuals who may allocate their own income and wealth, oppose the commodification of by-products like carbon emissions, and emphasize positive incentives to maintain resources through free-market competition and entrepreneurship. Proponents of eco-capitalism view environmental reform like pollution credits as a more transformative and progressive system. According to these proponents, since free market capitalism as inherently expansionist in tendency, ignoring environmental responsibility is a danger to the environment. Approximately 36% of Americans are deeply concerned about climate issues. Proponents of eco-capitalism typically favor political environmentalism, which emphasizes negative incentives like regulation and taxes to encourage the conservation of resources and prevent environmental harm. Political theorist Antonio Gramsci cites theories of common sense, which suggests that, in general, free market capitalism absent of environmental reform, is ingrained in the minds of its members as the only viable and successful form of economic organization through cultural hegemony. Therefore, the proposal of any alternate economic system, like eco-capitalism, must overcome the predominant common sense and economic status quo in order to develop opposing theories. Nonetheless, movements in the United States and abroad have continued to push for reforms to protect the environment in current capitalistic systems. Another political theorist, Daniel Tanuro, explains in his book, Green Capitalism: Why it Can't Work, that for green capitalism to be successful, it would have to replace current mainstream capitalism with eco-socialist methods, while defying corporate interests:If by "green capitalism" we understand a system in which the qualitative, social and ecological parameters are taken in account by the numerous competing capitals, that is to say even within economic activity as an endogenous mechanism, then we are completely deluded. In fact, we would be talking about a form of capitalism in which the law of value was no longer in operation, which is a contradiction in termsHowever, Tanuro adds that social and economical change to the current capitalist systems is necessary, because technology will invariably increase emissions as manufacturing processes and distribution systems progress. Tanuro argues for changes in three areas: Use of transportation methods Agriculture and dietary changes Overall consumer lifestyle and market spending Despite this argument, critics still claim that green consumption, sustainable behavior on the part of the consumer, is not enough to be instituted as a socio-environmental solution. In accordance with hegemony, capitalism agrees that the government has little control over market and buyers, sellers, and consumers ultimately drive the market. In contrast, in green capitalism, the government would have more control therefore; consumers do not have direct power over the market, and should not be held accountable. Environmental scholar Bill McKibben proposes "full scale climate mobilization" to address environmental decay. During World War II, vehicle manufacturers and general goods manufacturers shifted to producing weapons, military vehicles and war time goods. McKibben argues that, to combat environmental change, the American Military Industrial Complex and other national arms producers could shift to producing solar panels, wind turbines and other environmental products in an eco-capitalist system. Appeal of renewable energy in the capitalist market Tom Randall, a correspondent specializing in renewable energy for Bloomberg, calls to attention that wind and solar energy are "outperforming" fossil fuels. In terms of investments, clean energy outperforms both gas and coal by a 2-1 margin. This positive margin may be attributed to the consistently falling price of renewable energy production. Renewable energy sources hold assertive advantages over fossil fuels because they exist as technologies, not fuels. As time proceeds, renewable energy becomes inevitably more efficient as technology adapts. Technologies for extracting fuels may change, but the fuels remain as constants. Both the solar and wind industries have proven growth over time: Over the last 15 years, the solar industry has doubled seven times and the wind industry has doubled four times. In contrast, the fossil fuel industry has declined over the last 15 years. America's coal industry has lost 75 percent of its value within the past few years. Renewable energy sources also gain advantages over the fossil fuel industry through international governmental support. Globally, governments implement subsidies to boost the renewable energy industry. Concurrently, various global efforts fight against fossil fuel production and use. The demand for renewable energy sources has skyrocketed in the last 15 years, while fossil fuels have drastically fallen in demand (in capitalist societies). The worldwide concern of climate change (also known as global warming) is notably the largest contributor to the green energy industry's rapid acceleration, just as it is largely responsible for the decline of the fossil fuel industry. The overwhelming scientific consensus of climate change's reality and its potential catastrophic effects have caused a large part of the world's population to respond with panic and immediate action. While the world's response has been strong, environmentalists and climate scientists do not believe the response has been strong enough to counter climate change's effects, and that the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is moving far too slowly. The global efforts and concerns of both governments and individuals to take action regarding implementing and transforming a society's energy sources from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources show the enormous potential of the green energy market. This potential is seen in the countless renewable energy projects under way. Currently, there are over 4,000 major solar projects being implemented. These, and all renewable energy projects, set goals of long-term economic benefit. The Global Apollo Programme, set up by both economists and scientists, has a goal of creating a solar capability that can stand as a cheaper alternative to coal-fueled power plants by 2025. In capitalist markets, solar energy has the very real potential of becoming a direct competitor to coal plants in less than a decade. Barriers to transition One of the most daunting barriers to the transition to an eco-capitalist system is the systemic barrier that can be created by former models. Dimitri Zenghelis explores the idea of path dependence and the how continuing to build infrastructure without foresight seriously impedes the implementation and benefits of future innovations. Zenghelis uses the term "locked-in" to describe situations where the full implementation of a new innovation cannot be seen because an earlier infrastructure prevents it from functioning well. This barrier is exemplified in older cities like Los Angeles, San Francisco and New York where the infrastructure was designed around urban sprawl to accommodate private vehicles. The sprawl has been researched with the results returning that the moving forward mega-cities need to be constructed as eco-cities if the hope of curving emission levels down is going to have any hope. See also Business model – Rationale of how an organization operates Climate justice – Term linking the climate crisis with environmental and social justice Ecotax – Compulsory fee intended to discourage environmentally harmful actsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Ecological economics – Interdependence of human economies and natural ecosystems Eco-nationalism – A political ideology which combines environmentalism with nationalism Eco-socialism – Ideology merging aspects of socialism with green politics, ecology and alter-globalization Enviro-Capitalists: Doing Good While Doing Well – Book by Terry L. Anderson and Donald R. LealPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Environmental economics – Sub-field of economics Ethical consumerism – Type of consumer activism Free-market environmentalism – Political and economic philosophy Geolibertarianism – Political and economic ideology integrating libertarianism with Georgism Georgism – Economic philosophy centred on common ownership of land Green economy – Economy based on a knowledge of ecological economics Green growth – Economic growth that is environmentally sustainable Green libertarianism – Political ideology with mixed green and libertarian beliefs Greenwashing – Use of the aesthetic of conservationism for promotion Natural Capitalism – 1999 book by Hawken, Lovins, & Lovins Natural resource economics – Supply, demand and allocation of the Earth's natural resources Pigovian tax – Tax on activities generating negative externalitiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Pink capitalism – Capitalist appropriation and assimilation of sexual diversityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Purple capitalism – Capitalist appropriation and assimilation of feminismPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Sustainable business – Minimal negative or positive effect on the environment Tax shift – budget tweak and redistribution of incomePages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback Tragedy of the anticommons – Type of resource coordination breakdown Tragedy of the commons – Self-interests causing depletion of a shared resource References ^ "Good company: the capitalists putting purpose ahead of profit". The Guardian. 2019-11-24. Archived from the original on 2023-05-18. ^ "Definition of Eco-Capitalism". collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 27 November 2015. ^ Guttmann, Robert (2018). Eco-Capitalism: Carbon money, Climate Finance, and Sustainable Development. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9783319923574. ^ Bosch, Stephan; Schmidt, Matthias (2019). "Is the post-fossil era necessarily post-capitalistic? – The robustness and capabilities of green capitalism". Ecological Economics. 161: 270–279. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.04.001. ^ "The rise of green capitalism". roadtoparis.info. Retrieved 27 November 2015. ^ a b Jacklyn Cock. "'Green Capitalism' or Environmental Justice? A Critique of the Sustainability Discourse" (PDF). ^ a b Tibbe Smith Larsen (2019). 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"A comprehensive review of full cost accounting methods and their applicability to the automotive industry". Journal of Cleaner Production. 108: 1123. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.040. ^ "Sustainability Pathways: Full-cost accounting". www.fao.org. ^ Staff, Investopedia (14 May 2010). "Full-Cost Method". ^ Talberth, John; Cobb, Clifford; Slattery, Noah (2006). "The Genuine Progress Indicator 2006: A Tool for Sustainable Development" (PDF). Redefining Progress. ^ "Why economic growth is not compatible with environmental sustainability". The Ecologist. 2018-02-22. Retrieved 2022-02-03. ^ "Can economic growth coexist with sustainability?". Roland Berger. 2020-04-08. Retrieved 2022-02-03. Three of today's leading economic minds are challenging us to reconsider the way we view growth. One common thread runs through them all: it's time to slow down. ^ Fox, Nick J. (2022). "Green capitalism, climate change and the technological fix: A more-than-human assessment". 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Revista Katálysis (in Portuguese). 15 (1): 95–111. doi:10.1590/S1414-49802012000100010. ^ "We Need to Literally Declare War on Climate Change". New Republic. 2016-08-15. Retrieved 2017-03-01. ^ a b "Wind and Solar Are Crushing Fossil Fuels". Bloomberg.com. 2016-04-06. Retrieved 2017-02-26. ^ "Fossil fuels are dead – the rest is just detail". www.carbontracker.org. 29 July 2015. Retrieved 2017-02-26. ^ ""Green" Capitalism builds Big Solar: Should we throw the baby out with the bathwater?". CNS web. 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2017-02-26. ^ "Wind and Solar Are Crushing Fossil Fuels". Bloomberg.com. 2016-04-06. Retrieved 2017-02-28. ^ ""Green" Capitalism builds Big Solar: Should we throw the baby out with the bathwater?". CNS web. 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2017-02-28. ^ "Major Solar Projects List". SEIA. Retrieved 2017-02-28. ^ "Benefits of Renewable Energy Use". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved 2017-02-28. ^ "How renewable energy can become competitive". The Economist. Retrieved 2017-02-28. ^ Zheng, Siqi; Kahn, Matthew E; Sun, Weizeng; Luo, Danglun (2014). "Incentives for China's urban mayors to mitigate pollution externalities: The role of the central government and public environmentalism". Regional Science and Urban Economics. 47: 61. doi:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2013.09.003. Further reading Chapple, Stephen (2001) Confessions of an Eco-Redneck: Or how I Learned to Gut-Shoot Trout and Save the Wilderness at the Same Time. Perseus Publishing. ISBN 0-641-54292-5 Comolet, A. (1991) "Le Renouveau ecologique. De l'eco-utopie a l'eco-capitalisme" , Futuribles, 157(Sept.), 41–54. Corporate Watch (2016). "An A-Z of Green Capitalism". Corporate Watch, London. d'Humières, Patrick (2010) Le développement durable va-t-il tuer le capitalisme? Editions Maxima Lovins, Amory B & Hunter Lovins (1997) Factor Four. Doubling Wealth - Halving Resource Use, with Ernst von Weizacker. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London Pons Rullan, Bartolome (2015) Ecoliberalismo. ¡Hay alternativas al Capitalismo! Ed. Verbum ISBN 978-84-9074-266-2 Sarkar, Saral (1999) Eco-Socialism Or Eco-Capitalism? A Critical Analysis of Humanity's Fundamental Choices Porritt, Jonathon (2005, revised 2007) Capitalism: As if the World Matters. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London. ISBN 978-1-84407-193-7 vteGreen politicsCore topics Climate change litigation Fossil fuels lobby Green politics Green party List of topics Politics of climate change Four pillars Ecological wisdom Social justice Grassroots democracy Nonviolence Perspectives Alter-globalization Bright green environmentalism Criticisms of globalization Deep ecology Degrowth Dirty hands Disinvestment Ecoauthoritarianism Eco-capitalism Ecocentrism Ecofascism Ecofeminism Eco-nationalism Eco-socialism Environmentalism Environmental skepticism Green anarchism Green conservatism Green left Green liberalism Green libertarianism Green Zionism Social ecology Queer ecology Organizations Asia Pacific Greens Federation European Green Party Federation of Green Parties of Africa Federation of the Green Parties of the Americas Federation of Young European Greens Global Greens Global Young Greens World Ecological Parties Related topics Carbon fee and dividend Carbon tax Circular economy Climate change mitigation Climate finance Climate justice Climate target Conservation movement Corporate political activism Eco-investing Ecological economics Ecological modernization Ecomodernism Eco-tariff Ecotax Eco-terrorism Environmental conflict effects of agriculture effects of aviation finance issues justice movement planning pricing reform racism technology Environmentalism opposition Stewardship in music Fossil fuel phase-out Green development economy growth grabbing greening imperialism industrial policy infrastructure job New Deal recovery retrofit state theory transport hierarchy vehicle washing Localism Low-carbon economy List of environmental incidents conflicts killings Political ecology Progressivism Renewable energy Sustainable design development energy engineering refurbishment transport War on coal Water conflict vteSustainability Outline Index Principles Anthropocene Business action on climate change Business ethics Co-benefits of climate change mitigation Corporate sustainability Earth system governance Ecological modernization Environmental governance Environmentalism Ethical consumerism Global catastrophic risk Green economy Green growth Human impact on the environment Longtermism Planetary boundaries Social sustainability Stewardship Sustainability studies Capitalism Development Developmment goals Finance Consumption Anthropization Anti-consumerism Circular economy Earth Overshoot Day Ecological footprint Ethical Green Micro-sustainability Over-consumption Product stewardship Simple living Social return on investment Steady-state economy Sustainability Advertising Brand Marketing myopia Sustainable Consumer behaviour Market Systemic change resistance Tragedy of the commons World population Birth control Demographic transition Family planning Control Sustainable population Women's education and empowerment Technology Appropriate Digital sustainability Ecotechnology Environmental technology Environmental design High-performance buildings Natural building Superinsulation Sustainability science Sustainable architecture Sustainable design Sustainable design standards Sustainable flooring Sustainable industries Sustainable lighting Sustainable packaging Sustainable transport Biodiversity Biosecurity Biosphere Conservation biology Endangered species Holocene extinction Invasive species Energy Carbon footprint Climate change mitigation Conservation Descent Efficiency Electrification Emissions trading Energy conservation Energy efficiency implementation Fossil fuel divestment Fossil-fuel phase-out Peak oil Poverty Rebound effect Renewable Food Civic agriculture Climate-smart agriculture Community-supported agriculture Cultured meat Forest gardening Foodscaping Local Permaculture Security Sustainable agriculture Sustainable diet Sustainable fishery Urban horticulture Vegetable box scheme Water Conservation Desertification Efficiency Footprint Reclaimed Sanitation Scarcity Security Accountability Corporate environmental responsibility Corporate social responsibility Environmental accounting Environmental full-cost accounting Environmental planning Sustainability Accounting Measurement Metrics and indices Reporting Standards and certification Sustainable yield Applications Advertising Art Building insulation Business City Climate finance College programs Community Disinvestment Eco-capitalism Eco-investing Ecovillage Education Environmental finance Ethical banking Fashion Gardening Geopark Green Development Development Infrastructure Marketing Vehicle Impact investing Landscape Livelihood Living Low-impact development Market Music Organic movement Organizations Practices Procurement Public interest design Radical sustainability Refurbishment Social design Socially responsible business Socially responsible marketing Sourcing Space Sustainability organization Tourism Transport Urban drainage systems Urban infrastructure Urbanism Sustainable management Environmental Fisheries Forest Humanistic capitalism Landscape Materials Natural resource Planetary Waste Agreements and conferences UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972) Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983) Our Common Future (1987) Earth Summit (1992) Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) Agenda 21 (1992) Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) ICPD Programme of Action (1994) Lisbon Principles (1997) Kyoto Protocol (1997) Earth Charter (2000) UN Millennium Declaration (2000) Earth Summit 2002 (Rio+10, Johannesburg) UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20, 2012) Sustainable Development Goals (2015) Paris Agreement (2015) UN Ocean Conference (2017) Category Lists Science Studies Degrees
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sustainable business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_business"},{"link_name":"Blue-green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue-green"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(economics)"},{"link_name":"natural capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capital"},{"link_name":"ecosystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem"},{"link_name":"ecological yield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_yield"},{"link_name":"wealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wealth"},{"link_name":"market-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)"},{"link_name":"policy-instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy_instruments"},{"link_name":"carbon tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_tax"},{"link_name":"environmental problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_problem"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Red Greens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-socialism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"need quotation to verify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"eco-socialists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-socialists"},{"link_name":"economic growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growth"},{"link_name":"commodification of nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodification_of_nature"},{"link_name":"capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"},{"link_name":"bright-green environmentalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bright-green_environmentalism"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cock-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hegemony-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wright_Nyberg_2015-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schweickart2010-9"}],"text":"For sustainable businesses, see Sustainable business.\"Blue Greens\" redirects here. For the colours, see Blue-green.Eco-capitalism, also known as environmental capitalism or (sometimes[1]) green capitalism, is the view that capital exists in nature as \"natural capital\" (ecosystems that have ecological yield) on which all wealth depends. Therefore, governments should use market-based policy-instruments (such as a carbon tax) to resolve environmental problems.[2][3][4]The term \"Blue Greens\" is often applied to those who espouse eco-capitalism. Eco-capitalism can be thought of as the right-wing equivalent to Red Greens.[5][need quotation to verify]Critics of eco-capitalism, such as eco-socialists, view continued economic growth and commodification of nature as an inevitability in capitalism, and thus criticize bright-green environmentalism.[6][7][8][9]","title":"Eco-capitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tragedy of the Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_Commons"},{"link_name":"Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Garrett Hardin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garrett_Hardin"},{"link_name":"malthusian catastrophe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malthusian_catastrophe"},{"link_name":"human overpopulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_overpopulation"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"free market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_market"},{"link_name":"John Baden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Baden"},{"link_name":"Property and Environment Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_and_Environment_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"emissions trading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissions_trading"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Kyoto Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"The roots of eco-capitalism can be traced back to the late 1960s. The \"Tragedy of the Commons\", an essay published in 1968 in Science by Garrett Hardin, claimed the inevitability of malthusian catastrophe due to liberal or democratic government's policies to leave family size matters to the family, and enabling the welfare state to willingly care for potential human overpopulation.[10] Hardin argued that if families were given freedom of choice in the matter, but were removed from a welfare state, parents choosing to overbear would not have the resources to provide for their \"litter\", thus solving the problem of overpopulation. This represents an early argument made from an eco-capitalist standpoint: overpopulation would technically be solved by a free market. John Baden, a collaborator with Garrett Hardin on other works including Managing the Commons, founded the Political Economy Research Center (now called the Property and Environment Research Center) in 1982. As one of the first eco-capitalist organizations created, PERC's ongoing mission is \"improving environmental quality through property rights and markets\".[11] The most popular eco-capitalist idea was emissions trading, or more commonly, cap and trade.[12] Emissions trading, a market-based approach that allows polluting entities to purchase or be allocated permits, began being researched in the late 1960s. International emissions trading was significantly popularized in the 1990s when the United Nations adopted the Kyoto Protocol in 1997.[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Terry L. Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_L._Anderson"},{"link_name":"University of Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Montana"},{"link_name":"Washington University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_University"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Hoover Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoover_Institution"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Bruce Yandle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Yandle"},{"link_name":"Mercer University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercer_University"},{"link_name":"Georgia State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_State_University"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Clemson University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clemson_University"},{"link_name":"economic growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growth"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Paul Hawken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Hawken"},{"link_name":"natural foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_foods"},{"link_name":"Wiser Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiser.org"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-18"},{"link_name":"economic profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_profit"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-18"},{"link_name":"Lester Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester_R._Brown"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Rutgers University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_University"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Rockefeller Brothers Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Brothers_Fund"},{"link_name":"Worldwatch Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldwatch_Institute"},{"link_name":"Earth Policy Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Policy_Institute"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"},{"link_name":"fossil fuels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuels"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-20"}],"text":"Terry L. Anderson, a graduate of the University of Montana who received his Ph.D. from Washington University,[14] and who serves as the co-chair of the Hoover Institution's Property Rights, Freedom and Prosperity task force, has advocated that free markets can be both economically beneficial and environmentally protective. Anderson specializes in how markets impact Native American communities and their economies. Anderson is a co-author of Free Market Environmentalism, a book that explores how free market ideas could be used to solve environmental issues, based on Anderson's conclusion on a few case studies.[15]\nBruce Yandle, a graduate of Mercer University, attended Georgia State University where he earned an MBA and PhD.[16] Yandle is the dean emeritus of Clemson University's college of business. He is prominent in the field of eco-capitalism for his story of the \"Bootlegger and the Baptist\". Yandle's theory of the Bootlegger and the Baptist posits that ethical groups, religious institutions and business captains can align their organizations in the interest of regulation and economic growth.[17]\nPaul Hawken is the architect of the United States first natural foods company, Erewhon Trading Company, where all products were organically composed. Hawken founded the research organization, Natural Capital Institute, and developed Wiser Earth, a program focused on providing a platform for all to communicate about the environment. Hawken has authored hundreds of publications, including four best selling books.[18] In his writings, Hawken stresses that many viable ecological options exist for businesses that will benefit the environment, while simultaneously bringing about economic profit. One idea discussed in his book, Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, is the possibility of developing lightweight, electricity-powered cars as an alternative to current transportation modes. Hawken attributes the hesitancy of adopting these options to lack of knowledge of these alternatives and high initial costs.[19] Hawken is now the head of OneSun, Inc., an energy corporation concentrated on low-cost solar.[18]\nLester Brown began his career as a tomato farmer in New Jersey, before earning a degree at Rutgers University and traveling to a rural India for a six-month study of the country's food and population crisis. Brown has primarily focused on finding alternatives which he contends would provide solutions to the world's population and resources problem. With financial support from Rockefeller Brothers Fund, Brown created the Worldwatch Institute, the first dedicated to researching global environmental problems. In 2001, Brown founded the Earth Policy Institute, an organization that outlines a vision for creating an environmentally sustainable economy. Brown has authored over 50 books and received 25 honorary degrees.[20] In his publications, Brown posits that the key to an eco-friendly economy is an honest market. He advocates for replacing harmful aspects of the environment, like fossil fuels, with renewable energy.[21] In June 2015, Brown retired from Earth Policy and closed the institute.[20]","title":"Eco-capitalist theorists"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-god-23"}],"text":"The ideology of eco-capitalism was adopted to satisfy two competing needs:the desire for generating profit by businesses in a capitalist society and\nthe urgency for proper actions to address a struggling environment negatively impacted by human activity.Under the doctrine of eco-capitalism, businesses commodify the act of addressing environmental issues.[22][23]The following are common principles in the transition to eco-capitalism.","title":"Transition to eco-capitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"market failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_failure"},{"link_name":"pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution"},{"link_name":"externality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externality"},{"link_name":"carbon trading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_trading"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zenghelis2015-24"},{"link_name":"carbon emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_emissions"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Externalities: Correcting of a free market failure","text":"A central part of eco-capitalism is to correct for the market failure seen in the externalization of pollution. By treating the issue of pollution as an externality it has allowed the market to minimize the degree of accountability. To correct for this market failure eco-capitalism would have to internalize this cost. A prime example of this shift towards internalizing externalities is seen in the adoption of a system for carbon trading. In a system like this people are forced to factor the pollution cost into their expenses.[24] This system as well as other systems of internalization function on large and small scales (oftentimes both are tightly connected). On a corporate scale, the government can regulate carbon emissions and other polluting factors in business practices forcing companies to either reduce their pollution levels, externalize these costs onto their consumers by raising the cost of their goods/services, and/or a combination of the two.[25] These kinds of systems can also be effective in indirectly creating a more environmentally conscious consumer base. As the companies who are creating the most pollution face falling profit levels and rising prices their consumers and investors are inclined to take their business elsewhere. This migration of investment and revenue would then be expected to make its way to business who have already incorporated the minimization of pollution into their business model thus allowing them to provide lower prices and higher profit margins attracting the migrating consumers and investors.[citation needed]","title":"Transition to eco-capitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Green consumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_consumption"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-god-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-god-23"},{"link_name":"organic farming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_farming"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-god-23"},{"link_name":"Nielsen Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nielsen_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Millennials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennials"},{"link_name":"Generation Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_Z"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sustainablelifestyles.ac.uk-30"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sustainablelifestyles.ac.uk-30"}],"sub_title":"Green consumption","text":"Further information: Green consumptionAt the conception of the ideology, major theorists of eco-capitalism, Paul Hawken, Lester Brown, and Francis Cairncross, saw an opportunity to establish a different approach to environmentalism in a capitalist society.[23] These theorists posited that consumers as well as producers could shoulder the social responsibility of environmental restoration if \"green technology, green taxes, green labeling, and eco-conscious shopping\" existed.[23] The resulting \"shopping our way to sustainability\" mentality encouraged the development of organic farming, renewable energy, green certifications as well as other eco-friendly practices.[23]A 2015 report from the Nielsen Corporation lends credence to this theory. According to the report, consumers have more brand loyalty and are willing to pay higher prices for a product that is perceived as being sustainable. This is especially true among Millennials and Generation Z.[26] These generations currently make up 48% of the global marketplace[27] and still have not hit their peak spending levels. As these generations' preferences continue to shape how businesses operate and market themselves, they could drive a continued shift toward green consumption.[28]According to the Annual Review of Environmental Resources, \"the focus of policy makers, businesses, and researchers has mostly been on the latter (consuming differently), with relatively little attention paid to consuming less\".[29] A review of how to encourage sustainable consumption from the University of Surrey shows that, \"Government policies send important signals to consumers about institutional goals and national priorities.\"[30] Governments can pull a variety of levers to signal this including product, trading, building, media, and marketing standards.[30]","title":"Transition to eco-capitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Carbon trading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_trading"},{"link_name":"greenhouse gas emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions"},{"link_name":"neoliberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoliberal"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"positive reinforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_reinforcement"},{"link_name":"punishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punishment"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Carbon trading","text":"Further information: Carbon tradingCreating perhaps the first major eco-capitalist endorsement, many political and economic institutions support a system of pollution credits. Such a system, which assigns property rights to emissions, is considered to be the most \"efficient and effective\" way for regulating greenhouse gas emissions in the current neoliberal global economy.[31] Especially in the case of tradable pollution credits, the resulting market-based system of emissions regulation is believed to motivate businesses to invest in technology that reduce greenhouse gas emissions using positive reinforcement (i.e. ability to trade unused credits) and punishment (i.e. the need to buy more credits).[32]","title":"Transition to eco-capitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Environmental full-cost accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"hedonic pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedonic_pricing"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Full cost accounting","text":"Environmental full-cost accounting explains corporate actions on the basis of the triple bottom line, which is best summarized as \"people, planet, and profit\". As a concept of corporate social responsibility, full cost accounting not only considers social and economic costs and benefits but also the environmental implications of specific corporate actions.[33]While there has been progress in measuring the cost of harm to the health of individuals and the environment,[34] the interaction of environmental, social, and health effects makes measurement difficult. Measurement attempts can be broadly categorized as either behavioral in nature, like hedonic pricing, or dose-response which looks at indirect effects.[35] A standardized measurement of these costs has yet to emerge.[36] This should not be confused with the full-cost method used by organizations searching for oil and gas that \"does not differentiate between operating expenses associated with successful and unsuccessful exploration projects\".[37]","title":"Transition to eco-capitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gross domestic product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product"},{"link_name":"genuine progress indicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genuine_progress_indicator"},{"link_name":"income inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_inequality"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Genuine progress indicator","text":"The current standard of using the gross domestic product (GDP) as an indicator of welfare is criticized for being inaccurate. An alternative to GDP, the genuine progress indicator compensates for the shortcomings of the GDP as a welfare indicator by accounting for environmental harms as well as other factors that affect consumption, such as crime and income inequality.[38]","title":"Transition to eco-capitalism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"commodification of nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodification_of_nature"},{"link_name":"environmental services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_services"},{"link_name":"growth economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_economics"},{"link_name":"sustainability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Ecologist_2018-39"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hegemony-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cock-6"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wright_Nyberg_2015-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schweickart2010-9"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roland_Berger_2020-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"},{"link_name":"regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation"},{"link_name":"Pollution credits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_credit"},{"link_name":"unregulated capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unregulated_capitalism"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"commodification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodification"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"environmentalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalism"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Antonio Gramsci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci"},{"link_name":"common sense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_sense"},{"link_name":"cultural hegemony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_hegemony"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture"},{"link_name":"consumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer"},{"link_name":"hegemony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemony"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Bill McKibben","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_McKibben"},{"link_name":"Military Industrial Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Industrial_Complex"},{"link_name":"solar panels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_panel"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"A fundamental criticism of the eco-capitalist idea rests on the idea that the commodification of nature and environmental services plus the principles of growth economics and sustainability cannot (easily) coexist.[39][7][6][8][9][40][41]A majority of the criticisms from traditionally unregulated capitalism is due to eco-capitalism's increased regulation. Pollution credits (as a means for regulating greenhouse gas emissions) is traditionally at odds with economically laissez-faire ideologies. Elements of unregulated capitalism prefer environmental issues to be addressed by individuals who may allocate their own income and wealth,[42] oppose the commodification of by-products like carbon emissions, and emphasize positive incentives to maintain resources through free-market competition and entrepreneurship.Proponents of eco-capitalism view environmental reform like pollution credits as a more transformative and progressive system. According to these proponents, since free market capitalism as inherently expansionist in tendency, ignoring environmental responsibility is a danger to the environment.[43] Approximately 36% of Americans are deeply concerned about climate issues.[44] Proponents of eco-capitalism typically favor political environmentalism, which emphasizes negative incentives like regulation and taxes to encourage the conservation of resources and prevent environmental harm.[45]Political theorist Antonio Gramsci cites theories of common sense, which suggests that, in general, free market capitalism absent of environmental reform, is ingrained in the minds of its members as the only viable and successful form of economic organization through cultural hegemony. Therefore, the proposal of any alternate economic system, like eco-capitalism, must overcome the predominant common sense and economic status quo in order to develop opposing theories. Nonetheless, movements in the United States and abroad have continued to push for reforms to protect the environment in current capitalistic systems.[46]Another political theorist, Daniel Tanuro, explains in his book, Green Capitalism: Why it Can't Work, that for green capitalism to be successful, it would have to replace current mainstream capitalism with eco-socialist methods, while defying corporate interests:[47]If by \"green capitalism\" we understand a system in which the qualitative, social and ecological parameters are taken in account by the numerous competing capitals, that is to say even within economic activity as an endogenous mechanism, then we are completely deluded. In fact, we would be talking about a form of capitalism in which the law of value was no longer in operation, which is a contradiction in termsHowever, Tanuro adds that social and economical change to the current capitalist systems is necessary, because technology will invariably increase emissions as manufacturing processes and distribution systems progress.[48] Tanuro argues for changes in three areas:Use of transportation methods\nAgriculture and dietary changes\nOverall consumer lifestyle and market spendingDespite this argument, critics still claim that green consumption, sustainable behavior on the part of the consumer, is not enough to be instituted as a socio-environmental solution. In accordance with hegemony, capitalism agrees that the government has little control over market and buyers, sellers, and consumers ultimately drive the market. In contrast, in green capitalism, the government would have more control therefore; consumers do not have direct power over the market, and should not be held accountable.[49]Environmental scholar Bill McKibben proposes \"full scale climate mobilization\" to address environmental decay. During World War II, vehicle manufacturers and general goods manufacturers shifted to producing weapons, military vehicles and war time goods. McKibben argues that, to combat environmental change, the American Military Industrial Complex and other national arms producers could shift to producing solar panels, wind turbines and other environmental products in an eco-capitalist system.[50]","title":"Criticism and responses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"renewable energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy"},{"link_name":"Bloomberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_L.P."},{"link_name":"wind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy"},{"link_name":"solar energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energy"},{"link_name":"fossil fuels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-51"},{"link_name":"energy sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_source"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"international governmental support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Agreement"},{"link_name":"renewable energy industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_industry"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"green energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energy"},{"link_name":"fossil fuel industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_industry"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Global Apollo Programme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Apollo_Programme"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-economist.com-58"},{"link_name":"capitalist markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"}],"text":"Tom Randall, a correspondent specializing in renewable energy for Bloomberg, calls to attention that wind and solar energy are \"outperforming\" fossil fuels.[51] In terms of investments, clean energy outperforms both gas and coal by a 2-1 margin. This positive margin may be attributed to the consistently falling price of renewable energy production. Renewable energy sources hold assertive advantages over fossil fuels because they exist as technologies, not fuels. As time proceeds, renewable energy becomes inevitably more efficient as technology adapts. Technologies for extracting fuels may change, but the fuels remain as constants. Both the solar and wind industries have proven growth over time: Over the last 15 years, the solar industry has doubled seven times and the wind industry has doubled four times.[51] In contrast, the fossil fuel industry has declined over the last 15 years. America's coal industry has lost 75 percent of its value within the past few years.[52]Renewable energy sources also gain advantages over the fossil fuel industry through international governmental support. Globally, governments implement subsidies to boost the renewable energy industry. Concurrently, various global efforts fight against fossil fuel production and use.[53] The demand for renewable energy sources has skyrocketed in the last 15 years, while fossil fuels have drastically fallen in demand (in capitalist societies).[54]The worldwide concern of climate change (also known as global warming) is notably the largest contributor to the green energy industry's rapid acceleration, just as it is largely responsible for the decline of the fossil fuel industry. The overwhelming scientific consensus of climate change's reality and its potential catastrophic effects have caused a large part of the world's population to respond with panic and immediate action. While the world's response has been strong, environmentalists and climate scientists do not believe the response has been strong enough to counter climate change's effects, and that the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is moving far too slowly.[55]The global efforts and concerns of both governments and individuals to take action regarding implementing and transforming a society's energy sources from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources show the enormous potential of the green energy market. This potential is seen in the countless renewable energy projects under way. Currently, there are over 4,000 major solar projects being implemented.[56] These, and all renewable energy projects, set goals of long-term economic benefit.[57]The Global Apollo Programme, set up by both economists and scientists, has a goal of creating a solar capability that can stand as a cheaper alternative to coal-fueled power plants by 2025.[58] In capitalist markets, solar energy has the very real potential of becoming a direct competitor to coal plants in less than a decade.","title":"Appeal of renewable energy in the capitalist market"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"path dependence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_dependence"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zenghelis2015-24"},{"link_name":"urban sprawl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl"},{"link_name":"mega-cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mega-cities"},{"link_name":"eco-cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-cities"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"}],"sub_title":"Barriers to transition","text":"One of the most daunting barriers to the transition to an eco-capitalist system is the systemic barrier that can be created by former models. Dimitri Zenghelis explores the idea of path dependence and the how continuing to build infrastructure without foresight seriously impedes the implementation and benefits of future innovations.[24] Zenghelis uses the term \"locked-in\" to describe situations where the full implementation of a new innovation cannot be seen because an earlier infrastructure prevents it from functioning well. This barrier is exemplified in older cities like Los Angeles, San Francisco and New York where the infrastructure was designed around urban sprawl to accommodate private vehicles. The sprawl has been researched with the results returning that the moving forward mega-cities need to be constructed as eco-cities if the hope of curving emission levels down is going to have any hope.[59]","title":"Appeal of renewable energy in the capitalist market"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-641-54292-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-641-54292-5"},{"link_name":"Corporate Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_Watch"},{"link_name":"An A-Z of Green Capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//corporatewatch.org/product/a-z-of-green-capitalism/"},{"link_name":"Lovins, Amory B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amory_Lovins"},{"link_name":"Hunter Lovins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter_Lovins"},{"link_name":"Ernst von Weizacker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Ulrich_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-84-9074-266-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-9074-266-2"},{"link_name":"Sarkar, Saral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saral_Sarkar"},{"link_name":"Porritt, Jonathon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porritt,_Jonathon"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84407-193-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84407-193-7"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Green_politics"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Green_politics"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Green_politics"},{"link_name":"Green politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_politics"},{"link_name":"Climate 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fuel divestment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment"},{"link_name":"Fossil-fuel phase-out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil-fuel_phase-out"},{"link_name":"Peak oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_oil"},{"link_name":"Poverty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_poverty"},{"link_name":"Rebound effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebound_effect_(conservation)"},{"link_name":"Renewable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy"},{"link_name":"Food","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_food_system"},{"link_name":"Civic agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civic_agriculture"},{"link_name":"Climate-smart agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture"},{"link_name":"Community-supported agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community-supported_agriculture"},{"link_name":"Cultured meat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultured_meat"},{"link_name":"Forest gardening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_gardening"},{"link_name":"Foodscaping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodscaping"},{"link_name":"Local","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_food"},{"link_name":"Permaculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permaculture"},{"link_name":"Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security"},{"link_name":"Sustainable agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture"},{"link_name":"Sustainable diet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_diet"},{"link_name":"Sustainable fishery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_fishery"},{"link_name":"Urban horticulture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_horticulture"},{"link_name":"Vegetable box scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_box_scheme"},{"link_name":"Conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_conservation"},{"link_name":"Desertification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertification"},{"link_name":"Efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_efficiency"},{"link_name":"Footprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_footprint"},{"link_name":"Reclaimed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reclaimed_water"},{"link_name":"Sanitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_sanitation"},{"link_name":"Scarcity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity"},{"link_name":"Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_security"},{"link_name":"Corporate environmental responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility"},{"link_name":"Corporate social responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility"},{"link_name":"Environmental accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_accounting"},{"link_name":"Environmental full-cost accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting"},{"link_name":"Environmental planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_planning"},{"link_name":"Sustainability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability"},{"link_name":"Accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_accounting"},{"link_name":"Measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_measurement"},{"link_name":"Metrics and indices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_metrics_and_indices"},{"link_name":"Reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_reporting"},{"link_name":"Standards and certification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_standards_and_certification"},{"link_name":"Sustainable yield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_yield"},{"link_name":"Advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_advertising"},{"link_name":"Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_art"},{"link_name":"Building insulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_insulation"},{"link_name":"Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_business"},{"link_name":"City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_city"},{"link_name":"Climate finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_finance"},{"link_name":"College programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_collegiate_sustainability_programs"},{"link_name":"Community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_community"},{"link_name":"Disinvestment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinvestment"},{"link_name":"Eco-capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Eco-investing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-investing"},{"link_name":"Ecovillage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecovillage"},{"link_name":"Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_for_Sustainable_Development"},{"link_name":"Environmental finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_finance"},{"link_name":"Ethical banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_banking"},{"link_name":"Fashion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_fashion"},{"link_name":"Gardening","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_gardening"},{"link_name":"Geopark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopark"},{"link_name":"Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentally_friendly"},{"link_name":"Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_development"},{"link_name":"Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_home"},{"link_name":"Infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"Marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_marketing"},{"link_name":"Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Impact investing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_investing"},{"link_name":"Landscape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_landscape_architecture"},{"link_name":"Livelihood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_livelihood"},{"link_name":"Living","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_living"},{"link_name":"Low-impact development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-impact_development_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_market"},{"link_name":"Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_in_music"},{"link_name":"Organic movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_movement"},{"link_name":"Organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_organizations"},{"link_name":"Practices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_practices_in_organizations"},{"link_name":"Procurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_procurement"},{"link_name":"Public interest design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_interest_design"},{"link_name":"Radical sustainability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_sustainability"},{"link_name":"Refurbishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_refurbishment"},{"link_name":"Social design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_design"},{"link_name":"Socially responsible business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_responsible_business"},{"link_name":"Socially responsible marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_responsible_marketing"},{"link_name":"Sourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_sourcing"},{"link_name":"Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_sustainability"},{"link_name":"Sustainability organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_organization"},{"link_name":"Tourism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_tourism"},{"link_name":"Transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_transport"},{"link_name":"Urban drainage systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_urban_drainage_systems"},{"link_name":"Urban infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_urban_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"Urbanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Urbanism"},{"link_name":"Sustainable management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_management"},{"link_name":"Environmental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_and_environmental_management"},{"link_name":"Fisheries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisheries_management"},{"link_name":"Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management"},{"link_name":"Humanistic capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism"},{"link_name":"Landscape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_landscape_management"},{"link_name":"Materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_materials_management"},{"link_name":"Natural resource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource_management"},{"link_name":"Planetary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_management"},{"link_name":"Waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste_management"},{"link_name":"UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environment"},{"link_name":"Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brundtland_Commission"},{"link_name":"Our Common Future (1987)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Our_Common_Future"},{"link_name":"Earth Summit (1992)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Summit"},{"link_name":"Rio Declaration on Environment and Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development"},{"link_name":"Agenda 21 (1992)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21"},{"link_name":"Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity"},{"link_name":"ICPD Programme of Action (1994)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development"},{"link_name":"Lisbon Principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon_Principles"},{"link_name":"Kyoto Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Earth Charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Charter"},{"link_name":"UN Millennium Declaration (2000)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration"},{"link_name":"Earth Summit 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Summit_2002"},{"link_name":"UN Conference on Sustainable Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_Sustainable_Development"},{"link_name":"Sustainable Development Goals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals"},{"link_name":"Paris Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Agreement"},{"link_name":"UN Ocean Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Ocean_Conference"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sustainability"},{"link_name":"Lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Sustainability_lists"},{"link_name":"Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_science"},{"link_name":"Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_studies"},{"link_name":"Degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees"}],"text":"Chapple, Stephen (2001) Confessions of an Eco-Redneck: Or how I Learned to Gut-Shoot Trout and Save the Wilderness at the Same Time. Perseus Publishing. ISBN 0-641-54292-5\nComolet, A. (1991) \"Le Renouveau ecologique. De l'eco-utopie a l'eco-capitalisme\" [The Ecological Renewal. From Eco-Utopia to Eco-Capitalism], Futuribles, 157(Sept.), 41–54.\nCorporate Watch (2016). \"An A-Z of Green Capitalism\". Corporate Watch, London.\nd'Humières, Patrick (2010) Le développement durable va-t-il tuer le capitalisme? Editions Maxima\nLovins, Amory B & Hunter Lovins (1997) Factor Four. Doubling Wealth - Halving Resource Use, with Ernst von Weizacker. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London\nPons Rullan, Bartolome (2015) Ecoliberalismo. ¡Hay alternativas al Capitalismo! Ed. Verbum ISBN 978-84-9074-266-2\nSarkar, Saral (1999) Eco-Socialism Or Eco-Capitalism? A Critical Analysis of Humanity's Fundamental Choices\nPorritt, Jonathon (2005, revised 2007) Capitalism: As if the World Matters. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London. ISBN 978-1-84407-193-7vteGreen politicsCore topics\nClimate change litigation\nFossil fuels lobby\nGreen politics\nGreen party\nList of topics\nPolitics of climate change\nFour pillars\nEcological wisdom\nSocial justice\nGrassroots democracy\nNonviolence\nPerspectives\nAlter-globalization\nBright green environmentalism\nCriticisms of globalization\nDeep ecology\nDegrowth\nDirty hands\nDisinvestment\nEcoauthoritarianism\nEco-capitalism\nEcocentrism\nEcofascism\nEcofeminism\nEco-nationalism\nEco-socialism\nEnvironmentalism\nEnvironmental skepticism\nGreen anarchism\nGreen conservatism\nGreen left\nGreen liberalism\nGreen libertarianism\nGreen Zionism\nSocial ecology\nQueer ecology\nOrganizations\nAsia Pacific Greens Federation\nEuropean Green Party\nFederation of Green Parties of Africa\nFederation of the Green Parties of the Americas\nFederation of Young European Greens\nGlobal Greens\nGlobal Young Greens\nWorld Ecological Parties\nRelated topics\nCarbon fee and dividend\nCarbon tax\nCircular economy\nClimate change mitigation\nClimate finance\nClimate justice\nClimate target\nConservation movement\nCorporate political activism\nEco-investing\nEcological economics\nEcological modernization\nEcomodernism\nEco-tariff\nEcotax\nEco-terrorism\nEnvironmental\nconflict\neffects of agriculture\neffects of aviation\nfinance\nissues\njustice\nmovement\nplanning\npricing reform\nracism\ntechnology\nEnvironmentalism\nopposition\nStewardship\nin music\nFossil fuel phase-out\nGreen\ndevelopment\neconomy\ngrowth\ngrabbing\ngreening\nimperialism\nindustrial policy\ninfrastructure\njob\nNew Deal\nrecovery\nretrofit\nstate\ntheory\ntransport hierarchy\nvehicle\nwashing\nLocalism\nLow-carbon economy\nList of environmental incidents\nconflicts\nkillings\nPolitical ecology\nProgressivism\nRenewable energy\nSustainable\ndesign\ndevelopment\nenergy\nengineering\nrefurbishment\ntransport\nWar on coal\nWater conflictvteSustainability\nOutline\nIndex\nPrinciples\nAnthropocene\nBusiness action on climate change\nBusiness ethics\nCo-benefits of climate change mitigation\nCorporate sustainability\nEarth system governance\nEcological modernization\nEnvironmental governance\nEnvironmentalism\nEthical consumerism\nGlobal catastrophic risk\nGreen economy\nGreen growth\nHuman impact on the environment\nLongtermism\nPlanetary boundaries\nSocial sustainability\nStewardship\nSustainability studies\nCapitalism\nDevelopment\nDevelopmment goals\nFinance\nConsumption\nAnthropization\nAnti-consumerism\nCircular economy\nEarth Overshoot Day\nEcological footprint\nEthical\nGreen\nMicro-sustainability\nOver-consumption\nProduct stewardship\nSimple living\nSocial return on investment\nSteady-state economy\nSustainability\nAdvertising\nBrand\nMarketing myopia\nSustainable\nConsumer behaviour\nMarket\nSystemic change resistance\nTragedy of the commons\nWorld population\nBirth control\nDemographic transition\nFamily planning\nControl\nSustainable population\nWomen's education and empowerment\nTechnology\nAppropriate\nDigital sustainability\nEcotechnology\nEnvironmental technology\nEnvironmental design\nHigh-performance buildings\nNatural building\nSuperinsulation\nSustainability science\nSustainable architecture\nSustainable design\nSustainable design standards\nSustainable flooring\nSustainable industries\nSustainable lighting\nSustainable packaging\nSustainable transport\nBiodiversity\nBiosecurity\nBiosphere\nConservation biology\nEndangered species\nHolocene extinction\nInvasive species\nEnergy\nCarbon footprint\nClimate change mitigation\nConservation\nDescent\nEfficiency\nElectrification\nEmissions trading\nEnergy conservation\nEnergy efficiency implementation\nFossil fuel divestment\nFossil-fuel phase-out\nPeak oil\nPoverty\nRebound effect\nRenewable\nFood\nCivic agriculture\nClimate-smart agriculture\nCommunity-supported agriculture\nCultured meat\nForest gardening\nFoodscaping\nLocal\nPermaculture\nSecurity\nSustainable agriculture\nSustainable diet\nSustainable fishery\nUrban horticulture\nVegetable box scheme\nWater\nConservation\nDesertification\nEfficiency\nFootprint\nReclaimed\nSanitation\nScarcity\nSecurity\nAccountability\nCorporate environmental responsibility\nCorporate social responsibility\nEnvironmental accounting\nEnvironmental full-cost accounting\nEnvironmental planning\nSustainability\nAccounting\nMeasurement\nMetrics and indices\nReporting\nStandards and certification\nSustainable yield\nApplications\nAdvertising\nArt\nBuilding insulation\nBusiness\nCity\nClimate finance\nCollege programs\nCommunity\nDisinvestment\nEco-capitalism\nEco-investing\nEcovillage\nEducation\nEnvironmental finance\nEthical banking\nFashion\nGardening\nGeopark\nGreen\nDevelopment\nDevelopment\nInfrastructure\nMarketing\nVehicle\nImpact investing\nLandscape\nLivelihood\nLiving\nLow-impact development\nMarket\nMusic\nOrganic movement\nOrganizations\nPractices\nProcurement\nPublic interest design\nRadical sustainability\nRefurbishment\nSocial design\nSocially responsible business\nSocially responsible marketing\nSourcing\nSpace\nSustainability organization\nTourism\nTransport\nUrban drainage systems\nUrban infrastructure\nUrbanism\nSustainable management\nEnvironmental\nFisheries\nForest\nHumanistic capitalism\nLandscape\nMaterials\nNatural resource\nPlanetary\nWaste\nAgreements and conferences\nUN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)\nBrundtlandt Commission Report (1983)\nOur Common Future (1987)\nEarth Summit (1992)\nRio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992)\nAgenda 21 (1992)\nConvention on Biological Diversity (1992)\nICPD Programme of Action (1994)\nLisbon Principles (1997)\nKyoto Protocol (1997)\nEarth Charter (2000)\nUN Millennium Declaration (2000)\nEarth Summit 2002 (Rio+10, Johannesburg)\nUN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20, 2012)\nSustainable Development Goals (2015)\nParis Agreement (2015)\nUN Ocean Conference (2017)\n\n Category\n Lists\nScience\nStudies\nDegrees","title":"Further reading"}]
[]
[{"title":"Business model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_model"},{"title":"Climate justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_justice"},{"title":"Ecotax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotax"},{"title":"Ecological economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_economics"},{"title":"Eco-nationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-nationalism"},{"title":"Eco-socialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-socialism"},{"title":"Enviro-Capitalists: Doing Good While Doing Well","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enviro-Capitalists:_Doing_Good_While_Doing_Well"},{"title":"Environmental economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_economics"},{"title":"Ethical consumerism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_consumerism"},{"title":"Free-market environmentalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-market_environmentalism"},{"title":"Geolibertarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geolibertarianism"},{"title":"Georgism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgism"},{"title":"Green economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_economy"},{"title":"Green growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_growth"},{"title":"Green libertarianism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_libertarianism"},{"title":"Greenwashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwashing"},{"title":"Natural Capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Capitalism"},{"title":"Natural resource economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource_economics"},{"title":"Pigovian tax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigovian_tax"},{"title":"Pink capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink_capitalism"},{"title":"Purple capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_capitalism"},{"title":"Sustainable business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_business"},{"title":"Tax shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_shift"},{"title":"Tragedy of the anticommons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_anticommons"},{"title":"Tragedy of the commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons"}]
[{"reference":"\"Good company: the capitalists putting purpose ahead of profit\". The Guardian. 2019-11-24. Archived from the original on 2023-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/b-corps-captalism-for-an-environmentally-endangered-age","url_text":"\"Good company: the capitalists putting purpose ahead of profit\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230518001415/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/24/b-corps-captalism-for-an-environmentally-endangered-age","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of Eco-Capitalism\". collinsdictionary.com. Retrieved 27 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/eco-capitalism","url_text":"\"Definition of Eco-Capitalism\""}]},{"reference":"Guttmann, Robert (2018). Eco-Capitalism: Carbon money, Climate Finance, and Sustainable Development. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9783319923574.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan","url_text":"Palgrave Macmillan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319923574","url_text":"9783319923574"}]},{"reference":"Bosch, Stephan; Schmidt, Matthias (2019). \"Is the post-fossil era necessarily post-capitalistic? – The robustness and capabilities of green capitalism\". Ecological Economics. 161: 270–279. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.04.001.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_Economics_(journal)","url_text":"Ecological Economics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecolecon.2019.04.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.ecolecon.2019.04.001"}]},{"reference":"\"The rise of green capitalism\". roadtoparis.info. 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Norms\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-environ-032609-094328","external_links_name":"10.1146/annurev-environ-032609-094328"},{"Link":"http://sustainablelifestyles.ac.uk/sites/default/files/motivating_sc_final.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Microsoft Word - Motivating SC final.doc\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-4762.2007.00770.x","external_links_name":"10.1111/j.1475-4762.2007.00770.x"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fa4071","external_links_name":"\"Pimping climate change: Richard Branson, global warming, and the performance of green capitalism\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fa4071","external_links_name":"10.1068/a4071"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/1807%2F78578","external_links_name":"1807/78578"},{"Link":"https://www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/how-to-measure-the-environmental","external_links_name":"\"How to measure environmental pressures from production and 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can greed ever be green?\""},{"Link":"http://www.pewinternet.org/2016/10/04/the-politics-of-climate/","external_links_name":"\"The Politics of Climate\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170324064158/http://newpol.org/content/myths-%E2%80%9Cgreen-capitalism%E2%80%9D","external_links_name":"\"The Myths of 'Green Capitalism'\""},{"Link":"http://newpol.org/content/myths-%E2%80%9Cgreen-capitalism%E2%80%9D","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210525-why-the-next-stage-of-capitalism-is-coming","external_links_name":"\"Why the next stage of capitalism is coming\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1414-49802012000100010","external_links_name":"\"'Consumo consciente': O ecocapitalismo como ideologia\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1590%2FS1414-49802012000100010","external_links_name":"10.1590/S1414-49802012000100010"},{"Link":"https://newrepublic.com/article/135684/declare-war-climate-change-mobilize-wwii","external_links_name":"\"We 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baby out with the bathwater?\""},{"Link":"http://www.seia.org/research-resources/major-solar-projects-list","external_links_name":"\"Major Solar Projects List\""},{"Link":"http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-energy/renewable-energy/public-benefits-of-renewable-power#.WLX9nxC2CuV","external_links_name":"\"Benefits of Renewable Energy Use\""},{"Link":"https://www.economist.com/blogs/economist-explains/2015/06/economist-explains-1","external_links_name":"\"How renewable energy can become competitive\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.regsciurbeco.2013.09.003","external_links_name":"10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2013.09.003"},{"Link":"https://corporatewatch.org/product/a-z-of-green-capitalism/","external_links_name":"An A-Z of Green Capitalism"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KiCad
KiCad
["1 History","1.1 Early history","1.2 2010s to present","2 Features","2.1 Languages","2.2 Schematic editing","2.3 PCB editing","3 Community","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
Free software suite for electronic design automation KiCad PCB EditorOriginal author(s)Jean-Pierre CharrasDeveloper(s)KiCad developersInitial release1992; 32 years ago (1992)Stable release8.0.3  / 3 June 2024; 11 days ago (3 June 2024) Repositorygitlab.com/kicad Written inC++Operating systemLinux, macOS, WindowsAvailable in39 languagesTypeEDALicenseGPL-3.0Websitewww.kicad.org KiCad (/ˈkiːˌkæd/ KEE-kad) is a free software suite for electronic design automation (EDA). It facilitates the design and simulation of electronic hardware for PCB manufacturing. It features an integrated environment for schematic capture, PCB layout, manufacturing file viewing, ngspice-provided SPICE simulation, and engineering calculation. Tools exist within the package to create bill of materials, artwork, Gerber files, and 3D models of the PCB and its components. History Early history KiCad was created in 1992 by Jean-Pierre Charras while working at IUT de Grenoble. The name came from the first letters in the name of a company of Jean-Pierre's friend in combination with the term CAD. KiCad originally was a collection of electronics programs intended to be used in conjunction with each other. The main tools were EESchema, PCBnew, a Gerber viewer, and calculator. 2010s to present With the price of professionally made printed circuit boards rapidly dropping, hobbyists electronic design became much more popular. As a result, KiCad started gaining significant traction and a larger developer base. In 2013 the CERN BE-CO-HT section started contributing resources towards KiCad to help foster open hardware development by helping improve KiCad to be on par with commercial EDA tools. From 2013 until approximately 2018 CERN provided two developers part time to help improve KiCad. Much of the work provided by CERN involved massive refactoring of the code base to give KiCad a better structure to grow and adapt. Help is also provided by organizing donations and fundraisers to help pay for additional contract developers for KiCad, along with sponsoring KiCad's web infrastructure. Well over 1400 hours of developer time has been provided by CERN. A major milestone was hit in December 2015 starting with KiCad 4.0.0, the first KiCad release adopting a point release versioning scheme. This was also the first release featuring the more advanced tools implemented by CERN developers. KiCad joined the Linux Foundation in November 2019. Additionally two lead developers formed a services corporation in 2019 to help provide additional paid development support for KiCad. Features KiCad schematic editor for schematic capture KiCad PCB editor for board layout and design KiCad 3D viewer showing both VRML and IDF features on a demo board KiCad 3D viewer KiCad uses an integrated environment for all of the stages of the design process: Schematic capture, PCB layout, Gerber file generation/visualization, and library editing. KiCad is a cross-platform program, written in C++ with wxWidgets to run on FreeBSD, Linux, Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Many component libraries are available, and users can add custom components. The custom components can be available on a per-project basis or installed for use in any project. There are also tools to help with importing components from other EDA applications, for instance EAGLE. There are also third party libraries available for KiCad, including SnapEDA, and the Digi-Key KiCad Library. Schematics, board, libraries and project files are written as UTF-8-based human-readable S-expression files for easier maintenance. Configuration files are in well documented plain text as well, which helps with interfacing version control systems, as well as with automated component generation scripts. Languages Multiple languages are supported, such as Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese, Czech, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Lithuanian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Schematic editing The KiCad schematic editor has features including hierarchical schematic sheets, custom symbol creation, electrical rules check (ERC) and integrated ngspice circuit simulation. Schematic symbols are very loosely coupled to circuit board footprints to encourage reuse of footprints and symbols (e.g. a single 0805 footprint can be used for capacitors, resistors, inductors, etc). PCB editing Internally KiCad's PCB editor supports up to 32 copper layers and 32 technical layers. Dimensions are stored with nanometer precision in signed 32-bit integers making the theoretical maximum PCB dimension 231 nm, or approximately 2.14 meters. There are a variety of tools available while doing layout through both built in functions and external plugins. Some advanced built in functionality includes a push and shove router, differential and single ended trace length tuning, net hilighting and individual layer dimming, and a highly customizable design rule checking (DRC). A number of external tools have been developed following the addition of Python scripting integration in to KiCad. A number of plugins exist such as a high quality silkscreen label generators, BOM and assembly viewers, panelization plugins, along with many other plugins. A 3D PCB viewing function is based on STEP and VRML models, and the board model can be exported for CAD integration. Community On 12 March 2015 Olimex Ltd, a provider of development tools and embedded device programmers, announced that they have switched from EAGLE to KiCad as their primary EDA tool. See also Electronics portalFree and open-source software portal Comparison of EDA software List of free and open source software packages List of free electronics circuit simulators List of electrical engineering software References ^ ""KiCad Developers" team". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2018-07-29. ^ Halvick, Remy (2007-07-08). "Re: About KiCad first release". kicad-users. JP Charras said me that the first drafts were made in 1992 for a DOS version, but not diffused ^ "KiCad 8.0.3 Release". 2024-06-03. Retrieved 2024-06-04. ^ Manveru (2009-10-13). "KiCad". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2011-01-20. ^ "kicad-i18n - Translations for KiCad source code". ^ "KiCad Program License". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2016-07-12. ^ Stambaugh, Wayne (2018-02-03) . "KiCad Version 5 New Feature Demo". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. ^ "Kicad". iut-tice.ujf-grenoble.fr. Archived from the original on 2015-12-21. Retrieved 2015-12-29. ^ "Re: Application naming : Mailing list archive : Kicad-developers team in Launchpad". ^ "KiCad software gets the CERN treatment". 2023-05-26. ^ "KiCad reaches new heights". 2023-05-26. ^ https://cernandsocietyfoundation.cern/sites/cernandsocietyfoundation.web.cern.ch/files/Annual%20Reviews/CERN%20&%20Society%20Foundation%20Annual%20Review%202018.pdf ^ "KiCad Joins Linux Foundation to Advance Electronic Design Automation". 2019-11-22. Archived from the original on 2021-11-18. Retrieved 2021-11-18. ^ "About Us – KiPro". ^ SnapEDA ^ "Digi-Key KiCad Library". GitHub. ^ "Olimex Ltd." ^ "Our first two small KiCAD OSHW boards are ready!". 2015-03-12. Archived from the original on 2015-03-17. External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Kicad Official website Official documentation Getting started in KiCad Official KiCad libraries group New Feature Development - Kicad Forum vteCAD softwareFree and open-sourceMechanical BRL-CAD FreeCAD HeeksCAD LibreCAD Open Cascade Technology OpenSCAD QCAD rattleCAD Salome SolveSpace Electrical Electric FreePCB Fritzing gEDA KiCad kTechLab Magic ngspice Oregano QUCS XCircuit ProprietaryMechanical Alibre Design AutoCAD Autodesk Alias Autodesk Inventor Autodesk Revit ArchiCAD BricsCAD CADKEY CATIA Cimatron Cobalt DesignSpark Mechanical Creo Elements/Direct Drafting Creo Elements/Pro EasyCAD FastCAD FINE FORAN Fusion 360 GstarCAD IRONCAD KeyCreator MEDUSA MicroStation NX Onshape PDMS Pro/DESKTOP Rhinoceros 3D Grasshopper 3D rattleCAD 4.0 RUCAPS Solid Edge SolidWorks SpaceClaim T-FLEX CAD Tinkercad TurboCAD VariCAD Electrical Allegro AutoCAD Electrical Autotrax Altium Designer BoardStation CADSTAR CircuitMaker CR-2000 CR-3000 CR-5000 CR-8000 Delta Design DesignSpark PCB DipTrace EAGLE EasyEDA Easytrax FreeStyle IntegraStation LTspice Micro-Cap Multisim OrCAD PADS P-CAD PCB Protel Proteus Pulsonix SolidWorks Electrical Tango TARGET TopoR Ultiboard Upverter Xpedition File formats 3MF ACIS AMF C3D CKD DSN DWF DWFX DWG DXF IGES OBJ OpenDWG PLY PSpice SES STEP STL Modeling kernels ACIS C3D Open Cascade Technology Parasolid RGK Romulus KernelCAD ShapeManager Teigha IntelliCAD SMLib Old DAC-1 (1963) Sketchpad (1963) UNISURF (1968) History of CAD software
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Many component libraries are available, and users can add custom components. The custom components can be available on a per-project basis or installed for use in any project. There are also tools to help with importing components from other EDA applications, for instance EAGLE. There are also third party libraries available for KiCad, including SnapEDA,[15] and the Digi-Key KiCad Library.[16] Schematics, board, libraries and project files are written as UTF-8-based human-readable S-expression files for easier maintenance. Configuration files are in well documented plain text as well, which helps with interfacing version control systems, as well as with automated component generation scripts.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bulgarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_language"},{"link_name":"Catalan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_language"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_language"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Finnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_language"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_language"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Slovak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovak_language"},{"link_name":"Slovene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovene_language"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"}],"sub_title":"Languages","text":"Multiple languages are supported, such as Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese, Czech, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Lithuanian, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ERC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_verification#ERC"},{"link_name":"ngspice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngspice"}],"sub_title":"Schematic editing","text":"The KiCad schematic editor has features including hierarchical schematic sheets, custom symbol creation, electrical rules check (ERC) and integrated ngspice circuit simulation. Schematic symbols are very loosely coupled to circuit board footprints to encourage reuse of footprints and symbols (e.g. a single 0805 footprint can be used for capacitors, resistors, inductors, etc).","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"differential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling"},{"link_name":"design rule checking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_rule_checking"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"BOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_materials"},{"link_name":"STEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10303"},{"link_name":"VRML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VRML"},{"link_name":"CAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_design"}],"sub_title":"PCB editing","text":"Internally KiCad's PCB editor supports up to 32 copper layers and 32 technical layers. Dimensions are stored with nanometer precision in signed 32-bit integers making the theoretical maximum PCB dimension 231 nm, or approximately 2.14 meters.There are a variety of tools available while doing layout through both built in functions and external plugins. Some advanced built in functionality includes a push and shove router, differential and single ended trace length tuning, net hilighting and individual layer dimming, and a highly customizable design rule checking (DRC).A number of external tools have been developed following the addition of Python scripting integration in to KiCad. A number of plugins exist such as a high quality silkscreen label generators, BOM and assembly viewers, panelization plugins, along with many other plugins.A 3D PCB viewing function is based on STEP and VRML models, and the board model can be exported for CAD integration.","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Olimex-17"},{"link_name":"EAGLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EAGLE_(program)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OSHW_2015-18"}],"text":"On 12 March 2015 Olimex Ltd,[17] a provider of development tools and embedded device programmers, announced that they have switched from EAGLE to KiCad as their primary EDA tool.[18]","title":"Community"}]
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[{"reference":"\"\"KiCad Developers\" team\". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2018-07-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://launchpad.net/~kicad-developers","url_text":"\"\"KiCad Developers\" team\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180729032039/https://launchpad.net/~kicad-developers","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Halvick, Remy (2007-07-08). \"Re: About KiCad first release\". kicad-users. […] JP Charras said me that the first drafts were made in 1992 for a DOS version, but not diffused […]","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mail-archive.com/[email protected]/msg01566.html","url_text":"\"Re: About KiCad first release\""}]},{"reference":"\"KiCad 8.0.3 Release\". 2024-06-03. Retrieved 2024-06-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kicad.org/blog/2024/06/KiCad-8.0.3-Release/","url_text":"\"KiCad 8.0.3 Release\""}]},{"reference":"Manveru (2009-10-13). \"KiCad\". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2011-01-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://launchpad.net/kicad","url_text":"\"KiCad\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180729032450/https://launchpad.net/kicad","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"kicad-i18n - Translations for KiCad source code\".","urls":[{"url":"https://gitlab.com/kicad/code/kicad/-/tree/master/translation/pofiles","url_text":"\"kicad-i18n - Translations for KiCad source code\""}]},{"reference":"\"KiCad Program License\". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2016-07-12.","urls":[{"url":"http://kicad.org/about/licenses/#_program_license","url_text":"\"KiCad Program License\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180729031526/http://kicad.org/about/licenses/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Stambaugh, Wayne (2018-02-03) [2018]. \"KiCad Version 5 New Feature Demo\". Archived from the original on 2018-07-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://fosdem.org/2018/schedule/event/cad_kicad_v5/","url_text":"\"KiCad Version 5 New Feature Demo\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180729032002/https://fosdem.org/2018/schedule/event/cad_kicad_v5/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Kicad\". iut-tice.ujf-grenoble.fr. Archived from the original on 2015-12-21. Retrieved 2015-12-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151221161802/http://iut-tice.ujf-grenoble.fr/kicad/","url_text":"\"Kicad\""},{"url":"http://iut-tice.ujf-grenoble.fr/kicad/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Re: [RFC] Application naming : Mailing list archive : Kicad-developers team in Launchpad\".","urls":[{"url":"https://lists.launchpad.net/kicad-developers/msg27528.html","url_text":"\"Re: [RFC] Application naming : Mailing list archive : Kicad-developers team in Launchpad\""}]},{"reference":"\"KiCad software gets the CERN treatment\". 2023-05-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://home.cern/news/news/computing/kicad-software-gets-cern-treatment","url_text":"\"KiCad software gets the CERN treatment\""}]},{"reference":"\"KiCad reaches new heights\". 2023-05-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://home.cern/news/news/computing/kicad-reaches-new-heights","url_text":"\"KiCad reaches new heights\""}]},{"reference":"\"KiCad Joins Linux Foundation to Advance Electronic Design Automation\". 2019-11-22. Archived from the original on 2021-11-18. Retrieved 2021-11-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211118163340/https://www.linuxfoundation.org/press-release/kicad-joins-linux-foundation-to-advance-electronic-design-automation/","url_text":"\"KiCad Joins Linux Foundation to Advance Electronic Design Automation\""},{"url":"https://www.linuxfoundation.org/press-release/kicad-joins-linux-foundation-to-advance-electronic-design-automation/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"About Us – KiPro\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kipro-pcb.com/about-us/","url_text":"\"About Us – KiPro\""}]},{"reference":"\"Digi-Key KiCad Library\". GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/Digi-Key/digikey-kicad-library","url_text":"\"Digi-Key KiCad Library\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"Olimex Ltd.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://www.olimex.com/","url_text":"\"Olimex Ltd.\""}]},{"reference":"\"Our first two small KiCAD OSHW boards are ready!\". 2015-03-12. Archived from the original on 2015-03-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://olimex.wordpress.com/2015/03/12/our-first-two-small-kicad-oshw-boards-are-ready/","url_text":"\"Our first two small KiCAD OSHW boards are ready!\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150317011523/https://olimex.wordpress.com/2015/03/12/our-first-two-small-kicad-oshw-boards-are-ready/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Virtual_Private_Cloud
Amazon Virtual Private Cloud
["1 Comparison to private clouds","2 IP Addressing","3 Connectivity","4 Security","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
Cloud-based service This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Amazon Virtual Private CloudOriginal author(s)Amazon.com, Inc.Developer(s)Amazon.comInitial releaseSeptember 25, 2009; 14 years ago (2009-09-25)Operating systemMicrosoft Windows, Linux, FreeBSDAvailable inEnglishTypeVirtual Private ServerLicenseProprietary softwareWebsiteaws.amazon.com/vpc/ Amazon Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) is a commercial cloud computing service that provides a virtual private cloud, by provisioning a logically isolated section of Amazon Web Services (AWS) Cloud. Enterprise customers can access the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) over an IPsec based virtual private network. Unlike traditional EC2 instances which are allocated internal and external IP numbers by Amazon, the customer can assign IP numbers of their choosing from one or more subnets. Comparison to private clouds Amazon Virtual Private Cloud aims to provide a service similar to private clouds using technology such as OpenStack or HPE Helion Eucalyptus. However, private clouds typically use technology such as OpenShift application hosting and various database systems. Cloud security experts warn that there can be compliance risks, such as a loss of control or service cancellation in using public resources which do not exist with in-house systems. If transaction records are requested from Amazon about a VPC using a national security letter they may not be legally allowed to inform the customer of the breach of the security of their system. This would be true even if the actual VPC resources were in another country. The API used by AWS is only partly compatible with that of HPE Helion Eucalyptus and is not compatible with other private cloud systems, so migration from AWS may be difficult. This has led to warnings of the possibility of a lock-in to a specific technology. IP Addressing This section may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) IP Addressing in Amazon Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) refers to the assignment of IP addresses to the resources within a VPC. VPC is Amazon Web Services (AWS) solution for providing isolated network environments for AWS resources. IP addresses in a VPC are used for communication between resources within the VPC, as well as for communication between the VPC and the Internet. There are two types of IP addresses used in a VPC: private IP addresses and public IP addresses. Private IP addresses are used for communication between instances within the VPC, while public IP addresses are used for communication between the VPC and the Internet. Amazon VPC provides several options for IP address management, including the use of IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, the automatic assignment of private IP addresses, and the ability to assign static private IP addresses. Additionally, Amazon VPC provides the option to associate Elastic IP addresses with instances to ensure persistent public IP addresses. By using Amazon VPC, customers can have full control over the network configuration of their AWS resources, providing increased security and isolation compared to the traditional shared-tenancy model of public cloud computing. Connectivity This section may rely excessively on sources too closely associated with the subject, potentially preventing the article from being verifiable and neutral. Please help improve it by replacing them with more appropriate citations to reliable, independent, third-party sources. (May 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) AWS VPC allows users to connect to the Internet, a user's corporate data center, and other users' VPCs. Users can connect to the Internet by adding an Internet Gateway to their VPC, which assigns the VPC a public IPv4 Address. Users can connect to a data center by setting up a hardware virtual private network connection between the data center and the VPC. This connection allows the user to “interact with Amazon EC2 instances within a VPC as if they were within existing network.” Users are also able to route traffic from one VPC to another VPC using private IP addresses and can communicate as if they were on the same network. Peering can be achieved by connecting a route between two VPCs on the same account or two VPCs on different accounts in the same region. VPC peering is a one-to-one connection, but users can connect to more than one VPC at a time. To achieve a one-to-many connection between VPCs, you can deploy a transit gateway (TGW). In addition, you can connect your VPCs to your on-premise systems by employing the transit gateway. Security AWS VPC's security is two-fold: firstly, AWS VPC uses security groups as a firewall to control traffic at the instance level, while it also uses network access control lists as a firewall to control traffic at the subnet level. As another measure of privacy, AWS VPC provides users with the ability to create "dedicated instances" on hardware, physically isolating the dedicated instances from non-dedicated instances and instances owned by other accounts. AWS VPC is free, with users only paying for the consumption of EC2 resources. However, if users choose to access VPC via a Virtual Private Network (VPN), there is a charge. See also Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud Oracle Cloud Infrastructure References ^ "Amazon Virtual Private Cloud (VPC)". Amazon Web Services, Inc. ^ "Amazon to soothe Enterprise fears with Virtual Private Cloud". arstechnica.com. 27 August 2009. ^ "Latest Topics - ZDNet". ZDNet. Archived from the original on 2009-10-05. Retrieved 2009-08-28. ^ "Amazon Integrates With Datacenter Using Private Clouds". PCWorld. 26 August 2009. ^ a b John R. Vacca (2012-11-05), Computer and Information Security Handbook, Newnes, p. 99, ISBN 9780123946126 ^ Whittaker, Zack. "Microsoft admits Patriot Act can access EU-based cloud data | ZDNet". ZDNet. Retrieved 2018-07-05. ^ a b "Amazon VPC FAQs". Amazon Web Services, Inc. ^ "Internet Gateways - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud". docs.aws.amazon.com. ^ "VPC Peering - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud". docs.aws.amazon.com. ^ "AWS Transit Gateway". Amazon Web Services, Inc. Retrieved 2021-04-19. ^ "What is a transit gateway? - Amazon Virtual Private Cloud". docs.aws.amazon.com. ^ "Acc to success net worth". Retrieved 11 March 2024. ^ "Amazon Virtual Private Cloud Security" (PDF). uci.edu. ^ "Dedicated Instances - Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud". docs.aws.amazon.com. ^ "How AWS VPC Traffic Mirroring works | TechTarget". SearchAWS. Retrieved 2023-10-05. External links Seamlessly Extending the Data Center - Introducing Amazon Virtual Private Cloud⁣ – blog post by Amazon CTO Werner Vogels vteAmazonPeopleCurrent Jeff Bezos (Founder and Executive Chairman) Andy Jassy (President and CEO) Werner Vogels (CTO) Former Rick Dalzell Paul Davis Tony Hsieh Christopher North Ram Shriram Tom Szkutak Brian Valentine Facilities List of Amazon locations Doppler Day 1 HQ2 Principal Place Spheres Bellevue 600 Products andservicesSubsidiaries A9.com AbeBooks Amazon Clinic Amazon Games Double Helix Games Amazon Lab126 Amazon Pharmacy Amazon Robotics Amazon University Esports Annapurna Labs Audible Blink Home Body Labs Book Depository BookFinder ComiXology Freevee Fresh Goodreads Goodreads Choice Awards Graphiq IMDb Box Office Mojo IMDbPro Kuiper Systems One Medical PillPack Ring Neighbors Shopbop Souq.com Twitch Woot.com Zappos Zoox Cloudcomputing Web Services AMI Amazon Aurora Beanstalk CloudFront DynamoDB EBS EC2 EFS ElastiCache EMR Glacier Glue Lambda Lightsail MTurk Neptune Product Advertising API RDS Redshift Rekognition Route 53 S3 SageMaker SES SNS SimpleDB SQS VPC Services Amazon.com China Alexa Appstore Digital Game Store Fire OS Kindle Store Luna Payments Prime Key Prime Music Prime Now Prime Pantry Prime Video Sports Marketplace Music (Wondery) Silk Wireless Devices Astro Echo Show Echo Buds Fire Fire HD Fire HDX Fire TV Stick Kindle Technology 1-Click Dynamo Obidos Lumberyard Media Amazon Games Amazon Publishing Breakthrough Novel Award Best Books of the Year Amazon MGM Studios Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Orion Pictures American International Pictures MGM+ Kindle Direct Publishing YES Network (15%) Retail Amazon Fresh Amazon Go Whole Foods Market Logistics Amazon Air Amazon Prime Air Former 43 Things Askville Alexa Internet Amapedia Amazon Books Amie Street (Songza) CDNow Dash buttons Dash wand Diapers.com Digital Photography Review Drive Endless.com Fire Phone Lexcycle Liquavista LivingSocial LoveFilm MGM Holdings Mobipocket PlanetAll Reflexive Entertainment Sellaband Shelfari TenMarks Treasure Truck Withoutabox Litigation Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc. Amazon.com, Inc. v. Barnesandnoble.com, Inc. Amazon.com Inc v Canada (Commissioner of Patents) FTC v. Amazon Other Amazon Light ASIN Community Banana Stand Criticism (tax) Fishbowl History of Amazon LibraryThing List of Amazon brands List of Amazon products and services List of mergers and acquisitions by Amazon Locker MacKenzie Scott Statistically improbable phrase Vine Worker organization Unions Congress of Essential Workers Amazon Labor Union Category
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"virtual private cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_cloud"},{"link_name":"Amazon Web Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Web_Services"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amazon_Virtual_Private_Cloud-1"},{"link_name":"Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_storage"},{"link_name":"Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Elastic_Compute_Cloud"},{"link_name":"IPsec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPsec"},{"link_name":"virtual private network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_network"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Amazon Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) is a commercial cloud computing service that provides a virtual private cloud, by provisioning a logically isolated section of Amazon Web Services (AWS) Cloud.[1] Enterprise customers can access the Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2) over an IPsec based virtual private network.[2][3] Unlike traditional EC2 instances which are allocated internal and external IP numbers by Amazon, the customer can assign IP numbers of their choosing from one or more subnets.[4]","title":"Amazon Virtual Private Cloud"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OpenStack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenStack"},{"link_name":"HPE Helion Eucalyptus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPE_Helion_Eucalyptus"},{"link_name":"OpenShift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenShift"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John_R._Vacca_99-5"},{"link_name":"national security letter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security_letter"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John_R._Vacca_99-5"}],"text":"Amazon Virtual Private Cloud aims to provide a service similar to private clouds using technology such as OpenStack or HPE Helion Eucalyptus. However, private clouds typically use technology such as OpenShift application hosting and various database systems. Cloud security experts warn that there can be compliance risks, such as a loss of control or service cancellation in using public resources[5] which do not exist with in-house systems. If transaction records are requested from Amazon about a VPC using a national security letter they may not be legally allowed to inform the customer of the breach of the security of their system. This would be true even if the actual VPC resources were in another country.[6] The API used by AWS is only partly compatible with that of HPE Helion Eucalyptus and is not compatible with other private cloud systems, so migration from AWS may be difficult. This has led to warnings of the possibility of a lock-in to a specific technology.[5]","title":"Comparison to private clouds"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_cloud"},{"link_name":"Private IP addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_IP_addresses"},{"link_name":"IPv4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4"},{"link_name":"IPv6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6"},{"link_name":"Elastic IP addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elastic_IP_address"}],"text":"IP Addressing in Amazon Virtual Private Cloud (VPC) refers to the assignment of IP addresses to the resources within a VPC. VPC is Amazon Web Services (AWS) solution for providing isolated network environments for AWS resources. IP addresses in a VPC are used for communication between resources within the VPC, as well as for communication between the VPC and the Internet.There are two types of IP addresses used in a VPC: private IP addresses and public IP addresses. Private IP addresses are used for communication between instances within the VPC, while public IP addresses are used for communication between the VPC and the Internet.Amazon VPC provides several options for IP address management, including the use of IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, the automatic assignment of private IP addresses, and the ability to assign static private IP addresses. Additionally, Amazon VPC provides the option to associate Elastic IP addresses with instances to ensure persistent public IP addresses.By using Amazon VPC, customers can have full control over the network configuration of their AWS resources, providing increased security and isolation compared to the traditional shared-tenancy model of public cloud computing.","title":"IP Addressing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faqs-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-faqs-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VPC_Peering-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"AWS VPC allows users to connect to the Internet, a user's corporate data center, and other users' VPCs.[7]Users can connect to the Internet by adding an Internet Gateway to their VPC, which assigns the VPC a public IPv4 Address.[8]Users can connect to a data center by setting up a hardware virtual private network connection between the data center and the VPC. This connection allows the user to “interact with Amazon EC2 instances within a VPC as if they were within [the user's] existing network.”[7]Users are also able to route traffic from one VPC to another VPC using private IP addresses and can communicate as if they were on the same network. Peering can be achieved by connecting a route between two VPCs on the same account or two VPCs on different accounts in the same region. VPC peering is a one-to-one connection, but users can connect to more than one VPC at a time.[9]To achieve a one-to-many connection between VPCs, you can deploy a transit gateway (TGW).[10][11][12] In addition, you can connect your VPCs to your on-premise systems by employing the transit gateway.","title":"Connectivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"access control lists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control_lists"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"non-primary source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"EC2 resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Elastic_Compute_Cloud#Cost"}],"text":"AWS VPC's security is two-fold: firstly, AWS VPC uses security groups as a firewall to control traffic at the instance level, while it also uses network access control lists as a firewall to control traffic at the subnet level.[13] As another measure of privacy, AWS VPC provides users with the ability to create \"dedicated instances\" on hardware, physically isolating the dedicated instances from non-dedicated instances and instances owned by other accounts.[14][non-primary source needed][15]AWS VPC is free, with users only paying for the consumption of EC2 resources. However, if users choose to access VPC via a Virtual Private Network (VPN), there is a charge.","title":"Security"}]
[]
[{"title":"Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Elastic_Compute_Cloud"},{"title":"Oracle Cloud Infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Cloud#Infrastructure_as_a_Service_(IaaS)_and_Platform_as_a_Service_(PaaS)"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamwork
Teamwork
["1 History","2 Effective teamwork characteristics","3 Basic team dynamics","4 Processes","4.1 Transition processes","4.2 Action processes","4.3 Interpersonal processes","5 Training to improve teamwork","5.1 Enhancing teamwork","6 Drawbacks and benefits","7 References","8 Further reading"]
Collaborative effort of a team to achieve a common goal For other uses, see Teamwork (disambiguation). 6 people pushing a van U.S. Navy sailors hauling in a mooring line A U.S. Navy rowing team A group of people forming a strategy A group of people collaborating Teamwork is the collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal or to complete a task in an effective and efficient way. Teamwork is seen within the framework of a team, which is a group of interdependent individuals who work together towards a common goal. The four key characteristics of a team include a shared goal, interdependence, boundedness, stability, the ability to manage their own work and internal process, and operate in a bigger social system. Teams need to be able to leverage resources to be productive (i.e. playing fields or meeting spaces, scheduled times for planning, guidance from coaches or supervisors, support from the organization, etc.), and clearly defined roles within the team in order for everyone to have a clear purpose. Teamwork is present in contexts including an industrial organization (formal work teams), athletics (sports teams), a school (classmates working on a project), and the healthcare system (operating room teams). In each of these settings, the level of teamwork and interdependence can vary from low (e.g. golf, track and field), to intermediate (e.g. baseball, football), to high (e.g. basketball, soccer), depending on the amount of communication, interaction, and collaboration present between team members. Among the requirements for effective teamwork are an adequate team size. The context is important, and team sizes can vary depending upon the objective. A team must include at least two members, and most teams range in size from two to 100. Sports teams generally have fixed sizes based upon set rules, and work teams may change in size depending upon the phase and complexity of the objective. History The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of "team-work" in the context of a team of draught animals as early as 1800. Even though collaborative work among groups of individuals is very prominent today, that was not the case over half a century ago. The shift from the typical assembly line to organizational models that contained increasing amounts of teamwork first came about during World War I and World War II, in an effort for countries to unite their people. The movement towards teamwork was mostly due to the Hawthorne studies, a set of studies conducted in the 1920s and 1930s that suggested positive aspects of teamwork in an organizational setting. After organizations recognized the value of teamwork and the positive effects it had on companies, entire fields of work shifted from the typical assembly line to the contemporary High Performance Organizational Model. Effective teamwork characteristics A team must have certain interrelated characteristics to work effectively. Among these is strong group cohesion. There is a positive relationship between group cohesion and performance. Communication is another vital characteristic for effective teamwork. Members must be able to effectively communicate with each other to overcome obstacles, resolve conflict, and avoid confusion. Communication increases cohesion. Communication helps to clearly define the team's purpose so that there is a common goal. Having a common goal increases cohesion because all members are striving for the same objective and will help each other achieve their goals. Commitment occurs when members are focused on achieving the team's common goal. Accountability is necessary to ensure milestones are reached and that all members are participating. Holding members accountable increases commitment within team relations. Basic team dynamics Basic team dynamics include: Open communication to avoid conflicts. Effective coordination to avoid confusion and the overstepping of boundaries. Efficient cooperation to perform the tasks in a timely manner and produce the required results, especially in the form of workload sharing. High levels of interdependence to maintain trust, risk-taking, and performance. These teamwork conditions lead to the team turning in a finished product. To measure if the teamwork was effective, the organization must examine the quality of the output, the process, and the members' experience. The teamwork can be deemed efficient if the output met or exceeded the organization's standard, the process the team chose to take helped them reach their goals, and the members report high levels of satisfaction with the team members as well as the processes that the team followed. Processes See also: Team development Teamwork processes fall into three categories: Transition processes These processes occur between periods of action. Team members can evaluate their overall performance as a team and on an individual level, give feedback to each other, make clarifications about the upcoming tasks, and make any changes that would improve the process of collaborating. Task Analysis Goal Specification Strategy Formulation Result oriented group Action processes These processes take place when the team takes steps to accomplish its goals and objectives. Team members keep each other informed about their progress and their responsibilities, while helping one another with tasks. Feedback and collaborative work continues in high levels throughout this process. Monitoring progress toward goals Systems Monitoring Team Monitoring and Backup Behavior Coordination Interpersonal processes These processes are present in both action periods and transition periods, and occur between team members. This is a continuous process, in which team members communicate thoughts and/or feelings concerning either another team member or a manner in which a task is being performed. Furthermore, team members encourage and support each other on their individual tasks. Conflict management Motivation and Confidence building Affect Management Teamwork performance generally improves when a team passes through these processes, since processes like these enhance coordination and communication between the team members and therefore increase teamwork and collaborative work. Training to improve teamwork Teamwork and performance can be enhanced through specific training that targets individual team members and the team as a whole. Bruce Tuckman proposed a team developmental model that separated the stages of a team's lifespan and the level of teamwork for each stage: Forming This stage is described by approach/avoidance issues, as well as internal conflicts about being independent vs. wanting to be a part of the team. Team members usually tend to 'play it safe' and minimize their risk-taking in case something goes wrong. Teamwork in this stage is at its lowest levels. Storming The second stage is characterized by a competition for power and authority, which is the source of most of the conflicts and doubts about the success of the team. If teamwork is low in this stage, it is very unlikely that the team will get past their conflicts. If there is a high degree of teamwork and willingness to collaborate, then the team might have a brighter future. Norming The third stage is characterized by increasing levels of solidarity, interdependence, and cohesiveness, while simultaneously making an effort to adjust to the team environment. This stage shows much higher levels of teamwork that make it easier for the above characteristics to occur. Performing This final stage of team development includes a comfortable environment in which team members are effectively completing tasks in an interdependent and cohesive manner. This stage is characterized by the highest levels of comfort, success, interdependence, and maturity, and therefore includes the highest levels of teamwork. Enhancing teamwork One way organizational psychologists measure teamwork is through the Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA) Teamwork Test. This test was developed by Michael Stevens and Michael Campion in 1994. It assesses people who want to join a team by measuring 14 KSA requirements for teamwork, especially within formal teams. The test has two main categories: Interpersonal KSAs that contain items such as Conflict Resolution and Communication, and Self-Management KSAs that include items such as Goal Setting and Task Coordination. Drawbacks and benefits Utilizing teamwork is sometimes unnecessary and can lead to teams not reaching their performance peak. Some of those disadvantages include: Social loafing: This phenomenon appears when a person working in a group puts in less effort than they can towards a task. If other members of the team are exerting comparatively more effort, this can create conflict and lead to lower levels of performance. Behavioral conflicts or ingrained individualism: Employees at higher organizational levels have adapted to positions that require more individual initiative, and therefore have trouble engaging in collaborative work. This creates a more competitive environment with less communication and more conflict. This disadvantage is mostly seen in organizations that utilize teamwork in an extremely hierarchical environment. Individual tasks: Certain tasks do not require teamwork, and are more appropriate for individual work. By assigning a team to complete an 'individual task', there can be high levels of conflict between members which can damage the team's dynamic and weaken their overall performance. Groupthink: This is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when, from a desire for conflict-avoidance, the desire for cohesiveness is greater than the desire for the best decisions. When a team experiences groupthink, alternative solutions will not be suggested due to fear of rejection or disagreement within the group. Group members will measure success based on the harmony of their group and not by the outcome of their decisions. One way to counteract groupthink is to have members of a group be from diverse backgrounds and have different characteristics (gender, age, nationality). Another way to avoid groupthink is to require each member to suggest different ideas. Working in teams has also shown to be very beneficial. Some advantages of teamwork include: Problem solving: A group of people can bring together various perspectives and combine views and opinions to rapidly and effectively solve an issue. Due to the team's culture, each team member has a responsibility to contribute equally and offer their unique perspective on a problem to arrive at the best possible solution. Teamwork can lead to better decisions, products, or services. The effectiveness of teamwork depends on the following six components of collaboration among team members: communication, coordination, balance of member contributions, mutual support, effort, and cohesion. Healthy competition: This can motivate people and help the team excel. Relationship development: A team that continues to work together will eventually develop an increased level of bonding. This can help members avoid unnecessary conflicts since they have become well acquainted with each other through teamwork. By building strong relationships between members, team members' satisfaction with their team increases, therefore improving both teamwork and performance. Individual qualities: Every team member can offer their unique knowledge and ability to help improve other team members. Through teamwork the sharing of these qualities allows team members to be more productive in the future. Motivation: Working collaboratively can lead to increased motivation levels within a team due to increasing accountability for individual performance. When groups are being compared, members tend to become more ambitious to perform better. Providing groups with a comparison standard increases their performance level thus encouraging members to work collaboratively. Paulus describes additional benefits of teamwork: shared workload opportunity to achieve leadership and social satisfaction sense of belonging to a successful team ability to accomplish more than if team members worked individually References ^ a b Montebello, Anthony R.; Buzzotta, Victor R. (March 1993). "Work Teams That Work". Training & Development. 47 (3). Archived from the original on 2018-02-26. ^ a b Salas, Eduardo; Cooke, Nancy J.; Rosen, Michael A. (2008). "On Teams, Teamwork, as well as Team Performance: Discoveries and Developments". Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. 50 (3): 540–547. doi:10.1518/001872008X288457. PMID 18689065. S2CID 17017793. ^ Parker, Glenn (2008). Team Players and Teamwork: New Strategies for Developing Successful Collaboration. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp. 1–68. ISBN 978-0-787-99811-0. ^ Thompson, Leigh (2011). Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-014363-1. ^ Chang, Artemis; Bordia, Prashanti; Duck, Julie (2003). "Punctuated Equilibrium and Linear Progression: Toward a New Understanding of Group Development". Academy of Management Journal. 46 (1): 106–117. doi:10.2307/30040680. JSTOR 30040680.Gersick, Connie (1991). "Revolutionary Change Theories: A Multilevel Exploration of the Punctuated Equilibrium Paradigm". Academy of Management Review. 16: 10–16. doi:10.5465/amr.1991.4278988. S2CID 13960681.West, Michael (2012). Effective Teamwork: Practical Lessons from Organizational Research. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-470-97498-8.Woods, Stephen; West, Michael (2014). The Psychology of Work and Organizations. Andover: Cengage Learning EMEA. ISBN 9781408072455. ^ "teamwork". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) – "How is the ploughing, the drawing, and all kind of team-work to be performed without horses?" ^ Hoegl, Martin; Gemuenden, Hans Georg (2001). "Teamwork Quality and the Success of Innovative Projects: a Theoretical Concept and Empirical Evidence". Organization Science. 12 (4): 435–449. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635. JSTOR 3085981. ^ Hackman, Richard (1990). Groups That Work (and Those That Don't): Creating Conditions for Effective Teamwork. Jossey-Bass. pp. 1–13, 479–504]. ISBN 978-1555421878. ^ a b Ilgen, Daniel; Hollenbeck, John (October 5, 2004). "Teams in Organizations: From Input-Process-Output Models to IMOI Models". Annual Review of Psychology. 56: 517–543. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250. PMID 15709945. S2CID 15290229. ^ Marks, Michelle A.; Mathieu, John E.; Zaccaro, Stephen J. (2001). "A Temporally Based Framework and Taxonomy of Team Processes". Academy of Management Review. 26 (3): 356–376. doi:10.2307/259182. JSTOR 259182. ^ a b LePine, Jeffery A.; Piccolo, Ronald F.; Jackson, Christine L.; Mathieu, John E.; Saul, Jessica R. (2008). "A Meta-Analysis of Teamwork Processes: Tests of a Multidimensional Model and Relationships with Team Effectiveness Criteria". Personnel Psychology. 61 (2): 273–307. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.468.6198. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00114.x. ISSN 0031-5826. ^ Cattani, G.; Ferriani, S.; Mariani, M.; Mengoli, S. (2013). "Tackling the 'Galácticos' Effect: Team Familiarity and the Performance of Star-Studded Projects". Industrial and Corporate Change. 22 (6): 1629–62. doi:10.1093/icc/dtt001. ^ Tuckman, Bruce (1965). "Developmental Sequence in Small Groups". Psychological Bulletin. 63 (6): 384–399. doi:10.1037/h0022100. PMID 14314073. S2CID 10356275.Neusch, Donna; Siebenaler, Alan (1998). The High Performance Enterprise: Reinventing the People Side of Your Business. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–177. ISBN 978-0939246298. ^ Stevens, Michael; Campion, Michael (1994). "The Knowledge, Skill, and Ability Requirements for Teamwork: Implications of Human Resource Management". Journal of Management. 20 (2): 503–530. doi:10.1177/014920639402000210. S2CID 220584820. ^ a b Osbrun, Jack; Moran, Linda; Musselwhite, Ed (1990). Self-Directed Work Teams: The New American Challenge. Homewood, IL: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1–26. ISBN 978-1556233418. ^ a b Katzenbach, Jon; Smith, Douglas (2015). The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-Performance Organization. Harvard Business School Press. pp. 1–26. ^ a b Chin, Roger (2015). "Examining teamwork and leadership in the fields of public administration, leadership, and management". Team Performance Management. 21 (3/4): 199–216. doi:10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037. ^ Hoegl, Martin; Gemuenden, Hans Georg (2001). "Teamwork Quality and the Success of Innovative Projects: a Theoretical Concept and Empirical Evidence". Organization Science. 12 (4): 435–449. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635. JSTOR 3085981. ^ Paulus, P. (2000). "Groups, teams, and creativity: the creative potential of idea-generating groups". Applied Psychology. 49 (2): 237–262. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00013. Further reading Wikimedia Commons has media related to Teamwork. Baker, David P.; Day, Rachel; Salas, Eduardo (2006). "Teamwork as an Essential Component of High-Reliability Organizations". Health Services Research. 41 (4p2): 1576–1598. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00566.x. PMC 1955345. PMID 16898980. DeChurch, Leslie A.; Mesmer-Magnus, Jessica R. (2010). "The Cognitive Underpinnings of Effective Teamwork: a Meta-Analysis" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 95 (1): 32–53. doi:10.1037/a0017328. PMID 20085405. S2CID 15188731. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-09-29. Hall, P.; Weaver, L. (2001). "Interdisciplinary Education and Teamwork: a Long and Winding Road". Medical Education. 35 (9): 867–875. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2001.00919.x. PMID 11555225. S2CID 25811610. Larson, Carl E.; LaFasto, Frank M. (1989). Teamwork: What Must Go Right, What Can Go Wrong. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. ISBN 978-0-8039-3289-0. Leonard, M.; Graham, S.; Bonacum, D. (2004). "The Human Factor: the Critical Importance of Effective Teamwork and Communication in Providing Safe Care". Quality and Safety in Health Care. 13 (Supplement 1): i85–i90. doi:10.1136/qshc.2004.010033. PMC 1765783. PMID 15465961. Jones, Gareth R.; George, Jennifer M. (1998). "The Experience and Evolution of Trust: Implications for Cooperation and Teamwork". The Academy of Management Review. 23 (3): 531–546. doi:10.2307/259293. JSTOR 259293. Sexton, J. Bryan; Thomas, Eric J.; Helmreich, Robert L. (2000). "Error, Stress, and Teamwork in Medicine and Aviation: Cross Sectional Surveys". BMJ. 320 (7237): 745–749. doi:10.1136/bmj.320.7237.745. PMC 27316. PMID 10720356. Sheard, A. G.; Kakabadse, A. P. (2004). "A Process Perspective on Leadership and Team Development". The Journal of Management Development. 23 (1): 7–11, 13–41, 43–79, 81–106. doi:10.1108/02621710410511027. Thomas, Eric J.; Sexton, J. Bryan; Helmreich, Robert L. (2003). "Discrepant Attitudes about Teamwork Among Critical Care Nurses and Physicians". Critical Care Medicine. 31 (3): 956–959. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000056183.89175.76. PMID 12627011. S2CID 42102070. Xyrichis, Andreas; Ream, Emma (2008). "Teamwork: a concept analysis". Journal of Advanced Nursing. 61 (2): 232–241. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04496.x. PMID 18186914. vteVirtuesAbout virtues Endowment Moral character Nicomachean Ethics Positive psychology Trait theory Virtue ethics Virtue families Bodhipakkhiyā dhammā Brahmavihārās Cardinal virtues Catalogue of Vices and Virtues Epistemic virtues Five virtues Four Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues Nine Noble Virtues Pāramīs Prussian virtues Scout Law Seven virtues Teachings of the Seven Grandfathers Theological virtues Three Treasures Values in Action Inventory of Strengths Yamas Individual virtues Accountability Alertness Altruism Authenticity Calmness Charisma Charity Chastity Chivalry Cleanliness Compassion Conscientiousness Courage Civil Moral Courtesy Diligence Discernment Discipline Duty Empathy Endurance Equanimity Etiquette Faith Faithfulness Fidelity Foresight Forgiveness Frugality Generosity Glory Good faith Gratitude Heroism Honesty Honour Hope Hospitality Humanity Humility Impartiality Innocence Insight Integrity Intelligence Emotional Social Judgement Justice Kindness Love Loyalty Magnanimity Magnificence Meekness Mercy Moderation Modesty Nonattachment Patience Patriotism Perspicacity Philanthropy Piety Filial Pity Politeness Prudence Punctuality Religion Renunciation Resilience Respect Reverence Righteous indignation Righteousness Self-control Self-cultivation Self-transcendence Simplicity Sincerity Solidarity Sportsmanship Sympathy Taste Temperance Tranquillity Trust Wisdom Wit Workmanship Chinese De Jing Li Ren Yi Greek Agape Arete Ataraxia Eutrapelia Philotimo Phronesis Sophia Sophrosyne Indian Adhiṭṭhāna Ahimsa Akrodha Aparigraha Ārjava Asteya Brahmacharya Dāna Dhṛti Hrī Karuṇā Kshama Kshanti Mettā Muditā Prajñā Satya Shaucha Sevā Śraddhā/Saddhā Upekṣā Vīrya Latin Auctoritas Caritas Decorum Dignitas Fides Gravitas Humanitas Pietas Virtus Other Ganbaru Giri Sadaqah Seny Sisu Virtù Authority control databases: National Israel United States 2 Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Teamwork (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teamwork_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pushing_van_together_(cropped).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Defense.gov_News_Photo_100930-N-2855B-251_-_U.S._Navy_sailors_aboard_the_guided_missile_destroyer_USS_Bainbridge_DDG_96_haul_in_a_mooring_line_while_mooring_the_ship_in_Faslane_Scotland_on.jpg"},{"link_name":"U.S. Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Navy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Navy_070425-N-4198C-002_Personnel_Specialist_1st_Class_Omar_Saliba_and_Hospital_Corpsman_1st_Class_Ryan_De_La_Cruz_lead_the_men%27s_Navy_rowing_team.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hemlock_Overlook_-_Peanut_Butter_Pit_-_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hemlock_Overlook_-_Peanut_Butter_Pit_-_04.jpg"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_group"},{"link_name":"task","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_(project_management)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SalasCookeRosen20083-2"},{"link_name":"team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team"},{"link_name":"interdependent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdependent"},{"link_name":"goal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goal"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-1"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"social system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_system"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_(project_management)"},{"link_name":"planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning"},{"link_name":"roles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Role"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"athletics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athletics_(physical_culture)"},{"link_name":"project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project"},{"link_name":"golf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golf"},{"link_name":"baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football"},{"link_name":"basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball"},{"link_name":"soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_communication"},{"link_name":"interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interaction"},{"link_name":"Sports teams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_team"},{"link_name":"complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_complexity"}],"text":"For other uses, see Teamwork (disambiguation).6 people pushing a vanU.S. Navy sailors hauling in a mooring lineA U.S. Navy rowing teamA group of people forming a strategyA group of people collaboratingTeamwork is the collaborative effort of a group to achieve a common goal or to complete a task in an effective and efficient way.[1][2] Teamwork is seen within the framework of a team, which is a group of interdependent individuals who work together towards a common goal.[3][1]The four[clarification needed] key characteristics of a team include a shared goal, interdependence, boundedness, stability, the ability to manage their own work and internal process, and operate in a bigger social system.[4]Teams need to be able to leverage resources to be productive (i.e. playing fields or meeting spaces, scheduled times for planning, guidance from coaches or supervisors, support from the organization, etc.), and clearly defined roles within the team in order for everyone to have a clear purpose.[5] Teamwork is present in contexts including an industrial organization (formal work teams), athletics (sports teams), a school (classmates working on a project), and the healthcare system (operating room teams). In each of these settings, the level of teamwork and interdependence can vary from low (e.g. golf, track and field), to intermediate (e.g. baseball, football), to high (e.g. basketball, soccer), depending on the amount of communication, interaction, and collaboration present between team members.Among the requirements for effective teamwork are an adequate team size. The context is important, and team sizes can vary depending upon the objective. A team must include at least two members, and most teams range in size from two to 100. Sports teams generally have fixed sizes based upon set rules, and work teams may change in size depending upon the phase and complexity of the objective.","title":"Teamwork"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oxford English Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"timeframe?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Relative_time_references"},{"link_name":"assembly line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_line"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Hawthorne studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorne_studies"},{"link_name":"High Performance Organizational Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_performance_organization"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoegl20012-7"},{"link_name":"need quotation to verify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"}],"text":"The Oxford English Dictionary records the use of \"team-work\" in the context of a team of draught animals as early as 1800.[6]Even though collaborative work among groups of individuals is very prominent today, that was not the case over half a century ago.[timeframe?] The shift from the typical assembly line to organizational models that contained increasing amounts of teamwork first came about during World War I and World War II, in an effort[by whom?] for countries to unite their people.[citation needed] The movement towards teamwork was mostly due to the Hawthorne studies, a set of studies conducted in the 1920s and 1930s that suggested positive aspects of teamwork in an organizational setting. After organizations recognized the value of teamwork and the positive effects it had on companies, entire fields of work shifted from the typical assembly line to the contemporary High Performance Organizational Model.[7][need quotation to verify]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"group cohesion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_cohesiveness"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"resolve conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_resolution"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Accountability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountability"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"A team must have certain interrelated characteristics to work effectively.Among these is strong group cohesion. There is a positive relationship between group cohesion and performance.[citation needed]Communication is another vital characteristic for effective teamwork. Members must be able to effectively communicate with each other to overcome obstacles, resolve conflict, and avoid confusion. Communication increases cohesion.[citation needed]Communication helps to clearly define the team's purpose so that there is a common goal. Having a common goal increases cohesion because all members are striving for the same objective and will help each other achieve their goals.[citation needed]Commitment occurs when members are focused on achieving the team's common goal.Accountability is necessary to ensure milestones are reached and that all members are participating. Holding members accountable increases commitment within team relations.[citation needed]","title":"Effective teamwork characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Basic team dynamics include:[8]Open communication to avoid conflicts.\nEffective coordination to avoid confusion and the overstepping of boundaries.\nEfficient cooperation to perform the tasks in a timely manner and produce the required results, especially in the form of workload sharing.[9]\nHigh levels of interdependence to maintain trust, risk-taking, and performance.These teamwork conditions lead to the team turning in a finished product. To measure if the teamwork was effective, the organization must examine the quality of the output, the process, and the members' experience. The teamwork can be deemed efficient if the output met or exceeded the organization's standard, the process the team chose to take helped them reach their goals, and the members report high levels of satisfaction with the team members as well as the processes that the team followed.[citation needed]","title":"Basic team dynamics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Team development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_development"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marks2001-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LePine2008-11"}],"text":"See also: Team developmentTeamwork processes fall into three categories:[10][11]","title":"Processes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"Transition processes","text":"These processes occur between periods of action. Team members can evaluate their overall performance as a team and on an individual level, give feedback to each other, make clarifications about the upcoming tasks, and make any changes that would improve the process of collaborating.[clarification needed]Task Analysis\nGoal Specification\nStrategy Formulation\nResult oriented group","title":"Processes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"Action processes","text":"These processes take place when the team takes steps to accomplish its goals and objectives. Team members keep each other informed about their progress and their responsibilities, while helping one another with tasks. Feedback and collaborative work continues in high levels throughout this process.[clarification needed]Monitoring progress toward goals\nSystems Monitoring\nTeam Monitoring and Backup Behavior\nCoordination","title":"Processes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cattani2013-12"}],"sub_title":"Interpersonal processes","text":"These processes are present in both action periods and transition periods, and occur between team members. This is a continuous process, in which team members communicate thoughts and/or feelings concerning either another team member or a manner in which a task is being performed. Furthermore, team members encourage and support each other on their individual tasks.[clarification needed]Conflict management\nMotivation and Confidence building\nAffect ManagementTeamwork performance generally improves when a team passes through these processes, since processes like these enhance coordination and communication between the team members and therefore increase teamwork and collaborative work.[12]","title":"Processes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SalasCookeRosen20083-2"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"solidarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidarity"}],"text":"Teamwork and performance can be enhanced through specific training that targets individual team members and the team as a whole.[2] Bruce Tuckman proposed a team developmental model that separated the stages of a team's lifespan and the level of teamwork for each stage:[13]Forming\nThis stage is described by approach/avoidance issues, as well as internal conflicts about being independent vs. wanting to be a part of the team.\nTeam members usually tend to 'play it safe' and minimize their risk-taking in case something goes wrong.\nTeamwork in this stage is at its lowest levels.\nStorming\nThe second stage is characterized by a competition for power and authority, which is the source of most of the conflicts and doubts about the success of the team.\nIf teamwork is low in this stage, it is very unlikely that the team will get past their conflicts. If there is a high degree of teamwork and willingness to collaborate, then the team might have a brighter future.\nNorming\nThe third stage is characterized by increasing levels of solidarity, interdependence, and cohesiveness, while simultaneously making an effort to adjust to the team environment.\nThis stage shows much higher levels of teamwork that make it easier for the above characteristics to occur.\nPerforming\nThis final stage of team development includes a comfortable environment in which team members are effectively completing tasks in an interdependent and cohesive manner.\nThis stage is characterized by the highest levels of comfort, success, interdependence, and maturity, and therefore includes the highest levels of teamwork.","title":"Training to improve teamwork"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Enhancing teamwork","text":"One way organizational psychologists measure teamwork is through the Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities (KSA) Teamwork Test.[14] This test was developed by Michael Stevens and Michael Campion in 1994. It assesses people who want to join a team by measuring 14 KSA requirements for teamwork, especially within formal teams. The test has two main categories: Interpersonal KSAs that contain items such as Conflict Resolution and Communication, and Self-Management KSAs that include items such as Goal Setting and Task Coordination.","title":"Training to improve teamwork"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-16"},{"link_name":"Social loafing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Loafing"},{"link_name":"Groupthink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupthink"},{"link_name":"diverse backgrounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversity_ideologies"},{"link_name":"gender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender"},{"link_name":"age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageing"},{"link_name":"nationality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationality"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-16"},{"link_name":"Problem solving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chin_2015-17"},{"link_name":"collaboration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoegl2001-18"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Relationship development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chin_2015-17"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LePine2008-11"},{"link_name":"Individual qualities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_quality"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Motivation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivation"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"workload","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workload"},{"link_name":"opportunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunism"},{"link_name":"leadership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership"},{"link_name":"satisfaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contenement"}],"text":"Utilizing teamwork is sometimes unnecessary and can lead to teams not reaching their performance peak. Some of those disadvantages include:[15][16]Social loafing: This phenomenon appears when a person working in a group puts in less effort than they can towards a task. If other members of the team are exerting comparatively more effort, this can create conflict and lead to lower levels of performance.\nBehavioral conflicts or ingrained individualism: Employees at higher organizational levels have adapted to positions that require more individual initiative, and therefore have trouble engaging in collaborative work. This creates a more competitive environment with less communication and more conflict. This disadvantage is mostly seen in organizations that utilize teamwork in an extremely hierarchical environment.\nIndividual tasks: Certain tasks do not require teamwork, and are more appropriate for individual work. By assigning a team to complete an 'individual task', there can be high levels of conflict between members which can damage the team's dynamic and weaken their overall performance.\nGroupthink: This is a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people when, from a desire for conflict-avoidance, the desire for cohesiveness is greater than the desire for the best decisions. When a team experiences groupthink, alternative solutions will not be suggested due to fear of rejection or disagreement within the group. Group members will measure success based on the harmony of their group and not by the outcome of their decisions. One way to counteract groupthink is to have members of a group be from diverse backgrounds and have different characteristics (gender, age, nationality). Another way to avoid groupthink is to require each member to suggest different ideas.Working in teams has also shown to be very beneficial. Some advantages of teamwork include:[15][16]Problem solving: A group of people can bring together various perspectives and combine views and opinions to rapidly and effectively solve an issue. Due to the team's culture, each team member has a responsibility to contribute equally and offer their unique perspective on a problem to arrive at the best possible solution.[17] Teamwork can lead to better decisions, products, or services. The effectiveness of teamwork depends on the following six components of collaboration among team members: communication, coordination, balance of member contributions, mutual support, effort, and cohesion.[18]\nHealthy competition: This can motivate people and help the team excel.[citation needed]\nRelationship development: A team that continues to work together will eventually develop an increased level of bonding. This can help members avoid unnecessary conflicts since they have become well acquainted with each other through teamwork.[17] By building strong relationships between members, team members' satisfaction with their team increases, therefore improving both teamwork and performance.[11]\nIndividual qualities: Every team member can offer their unique knowledge and ability to help improve other team members. Through teamwork the sharing of these qualities allows team members to be more productive in the future.[9]\nMotivation: Working collaboratively can lead to increased motivation levels within a team due to increasing accountability for individual performance. When groups are being compared, members tend to become more ambitious to perform better. Providing groups with a comparison standard increases their performance level thus encouraging members to work collaboratively.Paulus describes additional benefits of teamwork:[19]shared workload\nopportunity to achieve leadership and social satisfaction\nsense of belonging to a successful team\nability to accomplish more than if team members worked individually","title":"Drawbacks and benefits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Teamwork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Teamwork"},{"link_name":"\"Teamwork as an Essential Component of High-Reliability 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control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q626225#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007566073005171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85148150"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85148150"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph136568&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Teamwork.Baker, David P.; Day, Rachel; Salas, Eduardo (2006). \"Teamwork as an Essential Component of High-Reliability Organizations\". Health Services Research. 41 (4p2): 1576–1598. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00566.x. PMC 1955345. PMID 16898980.\nDeChurch, Leslie A.; Mesmer-Magnus, Jessica R. (2010). \"The Cognitive Underpinnings of Effective Teamwork: a Meta-Analysis\" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 95 (1): 32–53. doi:10.1037/a0017328. PMID 20085405. S2CID 15188731. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-09-29.\nHall, P.; Weaver, L. (2001). \"Interdisciplinary Education and Teamwork: a Long and Winding Road\". Medical Education. 35 (9): 867–875. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2001.00919.x. PMID 11555225. S2CID 25811610.\nLarson, Carl E.; LaFasto, Frank M. (1989). Teamwork: What Must Go Right, What Can Go Wrong. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. ISBN 978-0-8039-3289-0.\nLeonard, M.; Graham, S.; Bonacum, D. (2004). \"The Human Factor: the Critical Importance of Effective Teamwork and Communication in Providing Safe Care\". Quality and Safety in Health Care. 13 (Supplement 1): i85–i90. doi:10.1136/qshc.2004.010033. PMC 1765783. PMID 15465961.\nJones, Gareth R.; George, Jennifer M. (1998). \"The Experience and Evolution of Trust: Implications for Cooperation and Teamwork\". The Academy of Management Review. 23 (3): 531–546. doi:10.2307/259293. JSTOR 259293.\nSexton, J. Bryan; Thomas, Eric J.; Helmreich, Robert L. (2000). \"Error, Stress, and Teamwork in Medicine and Aviation: Cross Sectional Surveys\". BMJ. 320 (7237): 745–749. doi:10.1136/bmj.320.7237.745. PMC 27316. PMID 10720356.\nSheard, A. G.; Kakabadse, A. P. (2004). \"A Process Perspective on Leadership and Team Development\". The Journal of Management Development. 23 (1): 7–11, 13–41, 43–79, 81–106. doi:10.1108/02621710410511027.\nThomas, Eric J.; Sexton, J. Bryan; Helmreich, Robert L. (2003). \"Discrepant Attitudes about Teamwork Among Critical Care Nurses and Physicians\". Critical Care Medicine. 31 (3): 956–959. doi:10.1097/01.CCM.0000056183.89175.76. PMID 12627011. S2CID 42102070.\nXyrichis, Andreas; Ream, Emma (2008). \"Teamwork: a concept analysis\". Journal of Advanced Nursing. 61 (2): 232–241. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04496.x. PMID 18186914.vteVirtuesAbout virtues\nEndowment\nMoral character\nNicomachean Ethics\nPositive psychology\nTrait theory\nVirtue ethics\nVirtue families\nBodhipakkhiyā dhammā\nBrahmavihārās\nCardinal virtues\nCatalogue of Vices and Virtues\nEpistemic virtues\nFive virtues\nFour Cardinal Principles and Eight Virtues\nNine Noble Virtues\nPāramīs\nPrussian virtues\nScout Law\nSeven virtues\nTeachings of the Seven Grandfathers\nTheological virtues\nThree Treasures\nValues in Action Inventory of Strengths\nYamas\nIndividual virtues\nAccountability\nAlertness\nAltruism\nAuthenticity\nCalmness\nCharisma\nCharity\nChastity\nChivalry\nCleanliness\nCompassion\nConscientiousness\nCourage\nCivil\nMoral\nCourtesy\nDiligence\nDiscernment\nDiscipline\nDuty\nEmpathy\nEndurance\nEquanimity\nEtiquette\nFaith\nFaithfulness\nFidelity\nForesight\nForgiveness\nFrugality\nGenerosity\nGlory\nGood faith\nGratitude\nHeroism\nHonesty\nHonour\nHope\nHospitality\nHumanity\nHumility\nImpartiality\nInnocence\nInsight\nIntegrity\nIntelligence\nEmotional\nSocial\nJudgement\nJustice\nKindness\nLove\nLoyalty\nMagnanimity\nMagnificence\nMeekness\nMercy\nModeration\nModesty\nNonattachment\nPatience\nPatriotism\nPerspicacity\nPhilanthropy\nPiety\nFilial\nPity\nPoliteness\nPrudence\nPunctuality\nReligion\nRenunciation\nResilience\nRespect\nReverence\nRighteous indignation\nRighteousness\nSelf-control\nSelf-cultivation\nSelf-transcendence\nSimplicity\nSincerity\nSolidarity\nSportsmanship\nSympathy\nTaste\nTemperance\nTranquillity\nTrust\nWisdom\nWit\nWorkmanship\nChinese\nDe\nJing\nLi\nRen\nYi\nGreek\nAgape\nArete\nAtaraxia\nEutrapelia\nPhilotimo\nPhronesis\nSophia\nSophrosyne\nIndian\nAdhiṭṭhāna\nAhimsa\nAkrodha\nAparigraha\nĀrjava\nAsteya\nBrahmacharya\nDāna\nDhṛti\nHrī\nKaruṇā\nKshama\nKshanti\nMettā\nMuditā\nPrajñā\nSatya\nShaucha\nSevā\nŚraddhā/Saddhā\nUpekṣā\nVīrya\nLatin\nAuctoritas\nCaritas\nDecorum\nDignitas\nFides\nGravitas\nHumanitas\nPietas\nVirtus\nOther\nGanbaru\nGiri\nSadaqah\nSeny\nSisu\nVirtùAuthority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States\n2\nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"6 people pushing a van","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Pushing_van_together_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Pushing_van_together_%28cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"U.S. Navy sailors hauling in a mooring line","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Defense.gov_News_Photo_100930-N-2855B-251_-_U.S._Navy_sailors_aboard_the_guided_missile_destroyer_USS_Bainbridge_DDG_96_haul_in_a_mooring_line_while_mooring_the_ship_in_Faslane_Scotland_on.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"A U.S. Navy rowing team","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/US_Navy_070425-N-4198C-002_Personnel_Specialist_1st_Class_Omar_Saliba_and_Hospital_Corpsman_1st_Class_Ryan_De_La_Cruz_lead_the_men%27s_Navy_rowing_team.jpg/220px-US_Navy_070425-N-4198C-002_Personnel_Specialist_1st_Class_Omar_Saliba_and_Hospital_Corpsman_1st_Class_Ryan_De_La_Cruz_lead_the_men%27s_Navy_rowing_team.jpg"},{"image_text":"A group of people forming a strategy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Hemlock_Overlook_-_Peanut_Butter_Pit_-_01.jpg/220px-Hemlock_Overlook_-_Peanut_Butter_Pit_-_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"A group of people collaborating","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Hemlock_Overlook_-_Peanut_Butter_Pit_-_04.jpg/220px-Hemlock_Overlook_-_Peanut_Butter_Pit_-_04.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"Montebello, Anthony R.; Buzzotta, Victor R. (March 1993). \"Work Teams That Work\". Training & Development. 47 (3). Archived from the original on 2018-02-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180226092201/https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-13770774/work-teams-that-work","url_text":"\"Work Teams That Work\""},{"url":"https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-13770774/work-teams-that-work","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Salas, Eduardo; Cooke, Nancy J.; Rosen, Michael A. (2008). \"On Teams, Teamwork, as well as Team Performance: Discoveries and Developments\". Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. 50 (3): 540–547. doi:10.1518/001872008X288457. PMID 18689065. S2CID 17017793.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1518%2F001872008X288457","url_text":"10.1518/001872008X288457"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18689065","url_text":"18689065"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17017793","url_text":"17017793"}]},{"reference":"Parker, Glenn (2008). Team Players and Teamwork: New Strategies for Developing Successful Collaboration. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pp. 1–68. ISBN 978-0-787-99811-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/teamplayersteamw00park_1","url_text":"Team Players and Teamwork: New Strategies for Developing Successful Collaboration"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/teamplayersteamw00park_1/page/1","url_text":"1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-787-99811-0","url_text":"978-0-787-99811-0"}]},{"reference":"Thompson, Leigh (2011). Making the Team: A Guide for Managers (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-014363-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/makingteamguidef00thom","url_text":"Making the Team: A Guide for Managers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-014363-1","url_text":"978-0-13-014363-1"}]},{"reference":"Chang, Artemis; Bordia, Prashanti; Duck, Julie (2003). \"Punctuated Equilibrium and Linear Progression: Toward a New Understanding of Group Development\". Academy of Management Journal. 46 (1): 106–117. doi:10.2307/30040680. JSTOR 30040680.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F30040680","url_text":"10.2307/30040680"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/30040680","url_text":"30040680"}]},{"reference":"Gersick, Connie (1991). \"Revolutionary Change Theories: A Multilevel Exploration of the Punctuated Equilibrium Paradigm\". Academy of Management Review. 16: 10–16. doi:10.5465/amr.1991.4278988. S2CID 13960681.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5465%2Famr.1991.4278988","url_text":"10.5465/amr.1991.4278988"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13960681","url_text":"13960681"}]},{"reference":"West, Michael (2012). Effective Teamwork: Practical Lessons from Organizational Research. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-470-97498-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-97498-8","url_text":"978-0-470-97498-8"}]},{"reference":"Woods, Stephen; West, Michael (2014). The Psychology of Work and Organizations. Andover: Cengage Learning EMEA. ISBN 9781408072455.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408072455","url_text":"9781408072455"}]},{"reference":"\"teamwork\". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=teamwork","url_text":"\"teamwork\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary","url_text":"Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"}]},{"reference":"Hoegl, Martin; Gemuenden, Hans Georg (2001). \"Teamwork Quality and the Success of Innovative Projects: a Theoretical Concept and Empirical Evidence\". Organization Science. 12 (4): 435–449. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635. JSTOR 3085981.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1287%2Forsc.12.4.435.10635","url_text":"10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3085981","url_text":"3085981"}]},{"reference":"Hackman, Richard (1990). Groups That Work (and Those That Don't): Creating Conditions for Effective Teamwork. Jossey-Bass. pp. 1–13, 479–504]. ISBN 978-1555421878.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/groupsthatworkan0000unse","url_text":"Groups That Work (and Those That Don't): Creating Conditions for Effective Teamwork"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/groupsthatworkan0000unse/page/1","url_text":"1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1555421878","url_text":"978-1555421878"}]},{"reference":"Ilgen, Daniel; Hollenbeck, John (October 5, 2004). \"Teams in Organizations: From Input-Process-Output Models to IMOI Models\". Annual Review of Psychology. 56: 517–543. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250. PMID 15709945. S2CID 15290229.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.psych.56.091103.070250","url_text":"10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070250"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15709945","url_text":"15709945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15290229","url_text":"15290229"}]},{"reference":"Marks, Michelle A.; Mathieu, John E.; Zaccaro, Stephen J. (2001). \"A Temporally Based Framework and Taxonomy of Team Processes\". Academy of Management Review. 26 (3): 356–376. doi:10.2307/259182. JSTOR 259182.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F259182","url_text":"10.2307/259182"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/259182","url_text":"259182"}]},{"reference":"LePine, Jeffery A.; Piccolo, Ronald F.; Jackson, Christine L.; Mathieu, John E.; Saul, Jessica R. (2008). \"A Meta-Analysis of Teamwork Processes: Tests of a Multidimensional Model and Relationships with Team Effectiveness Criteria\". Personnel Psychology. 61 (2): 273–307. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.468.6198. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00114.x. ISSN 0031-5826.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.468.6198","url_text":"10.1.1.468.6198"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1744-6570.2008.00114.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00114.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-5826","url_text":"0031-5826"}]},{"reference":"Cattani, G.; Ferriani, S.; Mariani, M.; Mengoli, S. (2013). \"Tackling the 'Galácticos' Effect: Team Familiarity and the Performance of Star-Studded Projects\". Industrial and Corporate Change. 22 (6): 1629–62. doi:10.1093/icc/dtt001.","urls":[{"url":"https://drive.google.com/file/d/0ByE7rCUuloTlVEF2UFBjMURmX2s/edit?usp=sharing","url_text":"\"Tackling the 'Galácticos' Effect: Team Familiarity and the Performance of Star-Studded Projects\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficc%2Fdtt001","url_text":"10.1093/icc/dtt001"}]},{"reference":"Tuckman, Bruce (1965). \"Developmental Sequence in Small Groups\". Psychological Bulletin. 63 (6): 384–399. doi:10.1037/h0022100. PMID 14314073. S2CID 10356275.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0022100","url_text":"10.1037/h0022100"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14314073","url_text":"14314073"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10356275","url_text":"10356275"}]},{"reference":"Neusch, Donna; Siebenaler, Alan (1998). The High Performance Enterprise: Reinventing the People Side of Your Business. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 135–177. ISBN 978-0939246298.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/highperformancee00neus","url_text":"The High Performance Enterprise: Reinventing the People Side of Your Business"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/highperformancee00neus/page/135","url_text":"135"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0939246298","url_text":"978-0939246298"}]},{"reference":"Stevens, Michael; Campion, Michael (1994). \"The Knowledge, Skill, and Ability Requirements for Teamwork: Implications of Human Resource Management\". Journal of Management. 20 (2): 503–530. doi:10.1177/014920639402000210. S2CID 220584820.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014920639402000210","url_text":"10.1177/014920639402000210"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220584820","url_text":"220584820"}]},{"reference":"Osbrun, Jack; Moran, Linda; Musselwhite, Ed (1990). Self-Directed Work Teams: The New American Challenge. Homewood, IL: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1–26. ISBN 978-1556233418.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/selfdirectedwor00orsb","url_text":"Self-Directed Work Teams: The New American Challenge"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/selfdirectedwor00orsb/page/1","url_text":"1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1556233418","url_text":"978-1556233418"}]},{"reference":"Katzenbach, Jon; Smith, Douglas (2015). The Wisdom of Teams: Creating the High-Performance Organization. Harvard Business School Press. pp. 1–26.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Chin, Roger (2015). \"Examining teamwork and leadership in the fields of public administration, leadership, and management\". Team Performance Management. 21 (3/4): 199–216. doi:10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1108%2FTPM-07-2014-0037","url_text":"10.1108/TPM-07-2014-0037"}]},{"reference":"Hoegl, Martin; Gemuenden, Hans Georg (2001). \"Teamwork Quality and the Success of Innovative Projects: a Theoretical Concept and Empirical Evidence\". Organization Science. 12 (4): 435–449. doi:10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635. JSTOR 3085981.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1287%2Forsc.12.4.435.10635","url_text":"10.1287/orsc.12.4.435.10635"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3085981","url_text":"3085981"}]},{"reference":"Paulus, P. (2000). \"Groups, teams, and creativity: the creative potential of idea-generating groups\". Applied Psychology. 49 (2): 237–262. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1464-0597.00013","url_text":"10.1111/1464-0597.00013"}]},{"reference":"Baker, David P.; Day, Rachel; Salas, Eduardo (2006). \"Teamwork as an Essential Component of High-Reliability Organizations\". Health Services Research. 41 (4p2): 1576–1598. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00566.x. PMC 1955345. PMID 16898980.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955345","url_text":"\"Teamwork as an Essential Component of High-Reliability Organizations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-6773.2006.00566.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1475-6773.2006.00566.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1955345","url_text":"1955345"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16898980","url_text":"16898980"}]},{"reference":"DeChurch, Leslie A.; Mesmer-Magnus, Jessica R. (2010). \"The Cognitive Underpinnings of Effective Teamwork: a Meta-Analysis\" (PDF). Journal of Applied Psychology. 95 (1): 32–53. doi:10.1037/a0017328. PMID 20085405. S2CID 15188731. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-09-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200929144536/http://www.delta.gatech.edu/papers/underpinningsTeamwork.pdf","url_text":"\"The Cognitive Underpinnings of Effective Teamwork: a Meta-Analysis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0017328","url_text":"10.1037/a0017328"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20085405","url_text":"20085405"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15188731","url_text":"15188731"},{"url":"http://www.delta.gatech.edu/papers/underpinningsTeamwork.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hall, P.; Weaver, L. (2001). \"Interdisciplinary Education and Teamwork: a Long and Winding Road\". Medical Education. 35 (9): 867–875. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2001.00919.x. PMID 11555225. S2CID 25811610.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2923.2001.00919.x","url_text":"10.1046/j.1365-2923.2001.00919.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11555225","url_text":"11555225"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25811610","url_text":"25811610"}]},{"reference":"Larson, Carl E.; LaFasto, Frank M. (1989). Teamwork: What Must Go Right, What Can Go Wrong. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. ISBN 978-0-8039-3289-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/teamworkwhatmust00lars","url_text":"Teamwork: What Must Go Right, What Can Go Wrong"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-3289-0","url_text":"978-0-8039-3289-0"}]},{"reference":"Leonard, M.; Graham, S.; Bonacum, D. (2004). \"The Human Factor: the Critical Importance of Effective Teamwork and Communication in Providing Safe Care\". Quality and Safety in Health Care. 13 (Supplement 1): i85–i90. doi:10.1136/qshc.2004.010033. PMC 1765783. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton_Project
Dayton Project
["1 Background","2 Organization","3 Locations","4 Research","5 Production","6 Health and safety","7 Espionage","8 Initiators","9 Mound Laboratories","10 Site cleanup","11 Notes","12 References"]
Coordinates: 39°43′29″N 84°10′46″W / 39.72472°N 84.17944°W / 39.72472; -84.17944 United States historic placeUnit III, Dayton ProjectU.S. National Register of Historic Places Buildings at Unit III, seen in 2012Show map of OhioShow map of the United StatesLocationDayton, OhioCoordinates39°43′29″N 84°10′46″W / 39.72472°N 84.17944°W / 39.72472; -84.17944Built1944–1945NRHP reference No.06000480Added to NRHP10 May 2006 The Dayton Project was a research and development project to produce polonium during World War II, as part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs. Work took place at several sites in and around Dayton, Ohio. Those working on the project were ultimately responsible for creating the polonium-based modulated neutron initiators that were used to begin the chain reactions in the atomic bombs. The Dayton Project began in 1943 when Monsanto's Charles Allen Thomas was recruited by the Manhattan Project to coordinate the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at various sites. Scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory calculated that a plutonium bomb would require a neutron initiator. The best-known neutron sources used radioactive polonium and beryllium, so Thomas undertook to produce polonium at Monsanto's laboratories in Dayton. While most Manhattan Project activity took place at remote locations, the Dayton Project was located in a populated, urban area. It ran from 1943 to 1949, when the Mound Laboratories were completed in nearby Miamisburg, Ohio, and the work moved there. The Dayton Project developed techniques for extracting polonium from the lead dioxide ore in which it occurs naturally, and from bismuth targets that had been bombarded by neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Ultimately, polonium-based neutron initiators were used in both the gun-type Little Boy and the implosion-type Fat Man used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. The fact that polonium was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s, but George Koval, a technician with the Manhattan Project's Special Engineer Detachment, penetrated the Dayton Project as a spy for the Soviet Union. Background In December 1942, during World War II, Charles Allen Thomas, a chemist and director of research at Monsanto in St. Louis, joined the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) as the deputy chief of its Division 8, which was responsible for propellants, explosives and the like. Early in 1943, he traveled to the east with Richard C. Tolman, a member of the NDRC, and James B. Conant, the president of Harvard University and the chairman of the NDRC, to witness a demonstration of a new underwater explosive. Conant and Tolman took the opportunity to quietly investigate Thomas' background. He was then invited to a meeting in Washington D.C., with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., the director of the wartime Manhattan Project responsible for building an atomic bomb. When he got there, Thomas found Conant was also present. Groves and Conant were hoping to harness Thomas's industrial expertise. They offered him a post as a deputy to Robert Oppenheimer, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, but he did not wish to move his family or give up his responsibilities at Monsanto. Instead, he accepted the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at Los Alamos, the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago, Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, and Ames Laboratory in Iowa. Chemistry and metallurgy at Los Alamos would be led by the youthful Joseph W. Kennedy. At Los Alamos, physicist Robert Serber proposed that instead of relying on spontaneous fission, the chain reaction inside the atomic bomb should be triggered by a neutron initiator. The best-known neutron sources were radium-beryllium and polonium-beryllium. The latter was chosen, as polonium has a 138-day half-life, which made it intense enough to be useful but not long-lived enough to be stockpiled. Thomas took charge of the development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the "urchin" internal neutron initiators. This effort became the Dayton Project. Organization Dayton Project – Unit III in September 1943 Thomas brought in key personnel from Monsanto's Thomas and Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio, including Caroll Hochwalt, James Lum and Nicholas Samaras. Thomas became Director of the Dayton Project, with Hochwalt as Assistant Project Director and Lum as Laboratory Director. They decided that about twelve chemists would be required, and Lum set about recruiting professors, graduate students and industrial chemists from universities and laboratories in the area. The first of these recruits commenced in August 1943, but few had any experience with radiochemistry. Numbers increased from 46 full-time employees at the end of 1943 to 101 at the end of 1944, 201 at the end of 1945, and 334 at the end of 1946, including 34 members of the Army's Special Engineer Detachment. Locations Office space was initially found in the Monsanto offices at 1515 Nicholas Rd, which became known as Unit I. Unit II was the Monsanto Rocket Propellant works off Betty Lane near Ohio State Route 741. While it was administered by Monsanto, it was not used by the Dayton Project. The site handled explosives including ammonium nitrate and ammonium picrate, but no radioactive materials were handled there. Work at Unit II ceased in the fall of 1945. Consideration was given to using it in December 1946, but this proposal was rejected in favor of erecting a Quonset hut at Unit III. A laboratory site was found at 1601 W. First Street that had originally been constructed to house the Bonebrake Seminary. It was a three-story brick building built in 1879, and owned by the Dayton Board of Education, which used it as a warehouse. Monsanto leased the site on 15 October 1943, and began converting it into a laboratory known as Unit III. The building was in poor shape when the Dayton Project took it over, with many broken windows, and the staircase between the second and third floors was missing. New heating and lighting were installed, windows were replaced, new flooring was laid, and some rooms were re-plastered. A pair of guard houses known as buildings J and K were added, as was a chemical storage shed known as building F, and a wire fence. Laboratory activities were transferred there from Unit I on 25 September. Initially only the bottom two floors were occupied, providing 560 square meters (6,000 sq ft) of laboratory space. Later, the third floor was taken over as well, providing another 280 square meters (3,000 sq ft). In May 1945, five additional temporary buildings were constructed on land leased from the Board of Education that housed offices, a cafeteria, locker rooms, a physics laboratory and a laundry. A new guardhouse was also built. To this was added two portable buildings in 1946. Dayton Project – Unit IV in October 1947 By 1944, space was running short, and Monsanto began negotiations to acquire the Runnymede Playhouse in the wealthy residential Dayton suburb of Oakwood. Built in 1927, the Playhouse was a leisure facility that included an outdoor swimming pool, a ballroom, a squash court, a tennis court with a cork floor and a stage for community theater. It had showers with Italian marble and a 1+1⁄2-story garage. The estate was owned by the Talbott Realty Company, which was controlled by Thomas's wife's family. The Talbotts were among the heirs of the Delco company, which was by then a part of General Motors. The Oakwood City Council wanted the Playhouse as a community center. Thomas appeared before the council and assured them that it would not be damaged, although he could not disclose what he was intending to use it for. When Talbott Realty proved reluctant to sell, the United States Army Corps of Engineers condemned the property, which became Unit IV on 15 February 1944. A lease was signed on 10 March 1944, under which the Talbott Realty was paid $4,266.72 per annum for the property. The lease was initially up to 30 June 1944, but was then extended annually until 30 June 1949. The lease specified that the property would be returned in its original condition. Talbott Realty were told that the property would be used to produce training films. Dayton Project – Unit III in October 1947 Remodeling began on 17 March 1944. The tennis courts were subdivided into multiple rooms. The ceiling was lowered, and heating, air conditioning and air filtration systems were added. One of the greenhouses was converted into a loading dock. The property was enclosed in a barbed wire fence that was floodlit by night, and patrolled around the clock by armed guards; there were 43 guards at Units III and IV. The Production Group began moving in on 1 June. Three guard houses were added, along with a wire fence. Changes to the site were minimized in order to make it easier to restore later. Because it was located in a residential area, efforts were also made to minimize noise and other disruptions. In May 1945, Monsanto rented three floors of a warehouse at 601 East Third Street from General Electric. Initially it was used to receive and store equipment used by the Project. Later the fourth floor was used as office space, and a laboratory was established on the fifth floor where studies were carried out on the effects of polonium on laboratory animals. Analysis of bioassay samples was carried out there to minimize the danger of polonium contamination of the samples. Research Few people had seen polonium before. It was a silvery metal. In a dark room, it gave off an eerie, purple glow. Polonium occurs naturally in various ores, and the lead dioxide residues from the refinery in Port Hope, Ontario, left over after the removal of uranium and radium, were estimated to contain 0.2 to 0.3 milligrams (0.0031 to 0.0046 gr) of polonium per metric ton. A curie of polonium weighs about 0.2 milligrams (0.0031 gr). Port Hope was already under contract from the Manhattan Project for the supply and refining of uranium ore. The first 3,290 kilograms (7,250 lb) of radioactive lead dioxide was delivered to the Dayton Project on 10 November 1943. The first 230-kilogram (500 lb) batch was processed by 8 December, which made 30 microcuries (1.1 MBq) of polonium available for experiments a week later. Three processes were investigated for extracting the polonium from the ore. J. H. Dillon of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company had patented a process in which the lead oxide was dissolved in hydrochloric acid: PbO2 + 4 HCl → PbCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2O The polonium could then be deposited on copper or nickel sheets. This required large-scale glass-lined equipment not available in Dayton, but available at the Monsanto B plant in Monsanto, Illinois. After small-scale tests at Unit III revealed that the process was practical, some three tons of lead dioxide were sent to the B plant, and 2.50 curies (93 GBq) were recovered. Getting the polonium off the copper and nickel sheets proved more problematic. A second method attempted was a kiln process. The idea was to simply roast the lead dioxide and vaporize the polonium. The problem was that lead dioxide slagged at 700 °C (1,292 °F), which was too low for the process to work. So lead orthophosphate was tried, which slagged at 900 °C (1,650 °F). This was made by mixing the lead dioxide with phosphoric acid. Experiments showed that the polonium vaporized well when the lead orthophosphate was heated to 750 °C (1,380 °F) for four hours. Unfortunately, the process then ran into problems with dust and other foreign matter, and with contamination of the personnel and equipment involved. The third method involved dissolving the lead dioxide in a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide: PbO2 + 2HNO3 + H2O2 → Pb(NO3)2 + O2 + 2H2O This proved to be the best way to separate the polonium from the lead dioxide, although there were problems with the precipitation of various contaminants, including iron and aluminum. Although about 32 metric tons (35 short tons) of lead dioxide were treated with nitric acid, and about 40 curies (1.5 TBq) of polonium were produced, the process did not proceed beyond the pilot stage because a better source of polonium became available. The lead dioxide was not purchased by the Manhattan Project, and early in the war had been acquired by the Canadian government. In June 1945, the lead was precipitated as a lead carbonate slurry, and shipped to the Manhattan District's Madison Square area to be dried and returned to Canada. Production Polonium could also be produced by neutron irradiation of bismuth. In 1943 the only polonium produced in this manner was in cyclotrons, but the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear reactors offered the prospect of producing large amounts of polonium in this manner: 20983Bi + n → 21083Bi → 21084Po + β A metric ton of bismuth irradiated in the Manhattan Project's X-10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, contained 32 to 83 curies (1.2 to 3.1 TBq) of polonium, a vast improvement over the yields from Port Hope's lead dioxide. Irradiated bismuth came from Clinton in the form of 30.5-by-9.5-by-9.5-centimeter (12 by 3.75 by 3.75 in) bricks that weighed about 26 kilograms (58 lb). They were shipped to Dayton by rail in wooden boxes, which were stored in a tile-lined cavity in the floor at Unit IV. These procedures were adequate because the quantity of polonium in the bismuth was still fairly low, but starting in June 1945, the Dayton Project began receiving bismuth irradiated in the more powerful reactors at the Hanford Site in Washington, which now became the major source of supply. Even at Clinton, unprotected bismuth proved problematic when a brick broke apart and chips fell into containers of uranium slugs, and had to be hazardously separated by hand by project personnel. Bismuth slugs irradiated in the reactors at Hanford were therefore canned in aluminium. The canned slugs were 3.8 centimeters (1.5 in) in diameter, and 10 or 20 centimeters (4 or 8 in) long. The problem was that the aluminium contained impurities such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, tin, zinc, silicon, titanium, nickel, magnesium, chromium, vanadium, bismuth and gallium, and when irradiated, these could form radioactive isotopes. Most were of little concern for the Dayton Project, as they had short half-lives, and would become harmless during the slugs' cooling off period in water at Hanford; but iron could form iron-59, which had a half-life of 45 days, and produced gamma radiation. The slugs were therefore shipped in casks, each of which contained several tubes which held the slugs. The spaces between the tubs was filled with lead. At Dayton, the slugs were stored in a lead-lined safe with doors on both sides containing tubes. They were also stored underwater on racks, and could be removed with tongs. A periscope allowed the identification markings on the slugs to be checked without removing them from the pool. By the end of 1946 Hanford was shipping material that contained up to 13,200 curies (490 TBq) per metric ton of bismuth. Bismuth was purchased from the American Smelting and Refining Company of the highest purity that it could produce. It was sent to Hanford, where it was canned, and placed inside a reactor for 100 days. The irradiated slugs were then shipped by road to Unit IV, where they were bathed in hydrochloric acid, which dissolved the aluminum. This formed an aluminum chloride solution that was disposed of, as it was highly radioactive due to the iron impurities in the aluminum. The bismuth slugs were then dissolved in aqua regia. This was too weak for electroplating the polonium, so the nitric acid was removed, and then the polonium deposited on bismuth by adding powdered bismuth. This resulted in a 100–1 concentration. This could then be repeated by dissolving in aqua regia again to achieve a 1000–1 concentration. This was again dissolved, and the polonium electroplated on platinum foils. The main problem with the process was that it required glass-lined containers due to the aqua regia, and mechanisms for safe handling of the radioactive material. The Dayton Project explored alternative purification methods that were found to be workable, but less efficient or safe. The first consignment of polonium left for Los Alamos on 15 March 1944 in a lead-lined suitcase carried by a military courier. Regular shipments were made thereafter. Initiator testing at Los Alamos required more polonium than anticipated, and in December 1944, Oppenheimer was forced to ask Thomas if he could ship 20 curies (0.74 TBq) per month. The Dayton Project was able to do so. In February 1945, Thomas agreed to increase shipments to 100 curies (3.7 TBq) per month by June, and 500 per month by December. The total cost of the Dayton Project up to the end of 1946 was $3,666,507 ($57.3 million in today's dollars). Estimated final cost of the Dayton Project Date Cost May–November 1943 $133,275.42 January–December 1944 $996,538.41 January–December 1945 $1,131,644.59 January–December 1946 $1,605,048.93 Total expenditures 1943–1946 $3,866,507.35 Health and safety Dayton Project employees were not allowed to eat or smoke in processing areas, and had to scrub their hands before leaving these areas. The chemists wore protective gear, with surgical, cloth and rubber gloves worn in three layers. When leaving for lunch or at the end of the shift, they had to wash their hands with dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute Clorox, and soap. The radioactive residue on their hands was measured with a special Geiger counter designed for the purpose by physicist John J. Sopka. No more than one thousand counts per minute per hand was permissible. They had to shower at the end of each day's work, and were subjected to weekly urine tests. Employees with elevated levels of polonium were not allowed in the processing areas. Working with polonium without spreading contamination proved to be almost impossible. Fortunately, it is not a bone seeker like radium or plutonium, and is thus readily excreted in urine. Detection methods had already been developed, making it easy to track. The employee at Unit IV with the highest levels of polonium in her urine had contaminated her hair, and often held bobby pins in her mouth. Espionage George Koval was drafted into the United States Army in 1943, and was inducted into the Manhattan Project's Special Engineer Detachment. He was initially assigned to the Clinton Engineer Works, where his job as a health physics officer gave him access to much of the site. He began passing secrets relating to the production of polonium at Oak Ridge to the Soviet Union through his GRU (Soviet military intelligence) handler code-named "Clyde". In 1945 Koval was transferred to Dayton. Again, his job as a health physics officer gave him wide access to the secret installation. In 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin posthumously awarded Koval a gold star, making him a hero of the Russian Federation for his work as the GRU spy "Delmar". Russian officials stated that the initiator for their Joe-1 bomb had been "prepared to the recipe provided by Delmar". The fact that polonium was used as an initiator remained classified until the 1960s. Initiators After Leonard I. Schiff calculated that an initiator might improve the efficiency of a gun-type fission weapon, Oppenheimer gave approval on 15 March 1945 for initiators to be included in the Little Boy design. The initiators were tested to ensure they were rugged enough to handle being transported in an airplane and being accidentally dropped. Eventually, about forty initiators were dispatched to Tinian, where four were inserted into the bomb that was used in the bombing of Hiroshima. The initiator used in the implosion design of the Fat Man bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki was code-named "urchin". In order to increase the efficiency of the explosion, the initiator had to emit a large number of neutrons in a few microseconds while the plutonium core was fully compressed. At the heart of the urchin was a solid beryllium sphere 0.4 centimeters (0.16 in) in diameter. This was gold-plated and coated with 20 curies (0.74 TBq) of polonium. The gold kept the polonium's alpha particles from striking the beryllium. This fitted inside two beryllium hemispheres with 15 parallel grooves cut into the inner surface. These grooves converted the shock wave of the implosion into jets that shattered the spheres and caused the beryllium and polonium to mix and emit neutrons. The hemispheres were nickel-plated and the outer surface was coated in gold and 30 curies (1.1 TBq) of polonium. The 2.0-centimeter (0.79 in) initiator, which was hot to the touch, fitted neatly inside the 20-millimeter (0.8 in) hole in the center of the plutonium pit. Mound Laboratories View looking southeast over the Mound Laboratories By 1945, the Dayton Project had assumed such importance that the Manhattan Project decided to make it into a permanent facility. The original intention was to move operations to Oak Ridge, but it was decided that a site near Dayton was preferable. Few of the scientific and technical staff wanted to move to Tennessee, and there were concerns about the dangers of polonium contamination at a plutonium processing site. A search for a suitable site began in early 1946, and one was found in Miamisburg, about 19 kilometers (12 mi) from Dayton. The 72-hectare (178-acre) site was next to a state park containing a large prehistoric Indian burial mound, which ultimately gave the Mound Laboratories its name. It was initially known as Unit V. Monsanto began construction in May 1946, using the Detroit firm of Giffels and Vallet as architects, while the plant was built by the Maxon Construction of Dayton. The design called for an underground complex that could withstand a direct hit from a 910-kilogram (2,000 lb) bomb, with protection against biological and chemical weapons, at a cost of $17,900,000. Responsibility for nuclear weapons production was transferred from the Manhattan Project to the Atomic Energy Commission in 1947, but work continued on the Mound Laboratories. The first building was completed in May 1948, and polonium processing commenced at the Mound Laboratories in February 1949. Altogether, 14 major buildings were constructed with a total floor space of 34,000 square meters (366,000 sq ft) at a cost of $25.5 million. Due to fear of attack or sabotage, the former Scioto Laboratory Complex in Marion, Ohio, was acquired by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948. It was maintained as a cold standby site until it was no longer needed in 1953. Site cleanup Unit I continued to be used by Monsanto as an administrative facility until 1988, when it was demolished. The land was sold to Quality Chemicals in 1992, and then to DuPont in 2002. Unit III, the former Bonebrake Theological Seminary, was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to the Dayton Board of Education. The original seminary building was subsequently demolished, but several structures remain from the Dayton Project. The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 10 May 2006. Although the lease on Unit IV, the former Runnymede Playhouse, specified that it was to be returned, it was deemed to be too contaminated. The building was demolished in February 1950. The cobblestones in the driveway were removed and taken away, along with 2.1 meters (7 ft) of earth from under the house. The excavation was filled in, and the site was returned to the Talbott family, who were paid $138,750 in compensation. As of 2017, all that remains of the original playhouse is a brass doorknob and part of the greenhouse roof, which are part of the collection of the Mound Science and Energy Museum. Private residences now occupy the site. The Dayton Warehouse was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to its owners. The Mound Laboratories continued to produce polonium initiators until 1969. Polonium continued to be produced there for commercial sales and use in satellites until 1972. The laboratories were decommissioned in 1993, and the area was decontaminated. As of 2017, it houses the Mound Advanced Technology Center. In 1996, the Department of Energy, which had succeeded the Atomic Energy Commission, decided that since the Dayton sites already had been decontaminated, they did not warrant inclusion in the Army Corps of Engineers' Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP). The local community in Dayton was concerned that the cleanup did not meet 21st-century environmental standards. Therefore, the state of Ohio asked the United States Congress to have the Army Corps of Engineers conduct a review. This was carried out in 2004 and 2005. The review concluded that no radioactive contaminants were found that would warrant inclusion in FUSRAP. Notes ^ Stewart 1948, p. 88. ^ Stewart 1948, p. 7. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 2.1. ^ a b Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 237. ^ "George Mahfouz's Interview". Manhattan Project Voices. Retrieved 27 January 2014. ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 119–125. ^ a b DeBrosse, Jim (25 December 2004). "The Dayton Project". Dayton Daily News. p. A1. Archived from the original on 14 August 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 2.2. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 3.1. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 4.6. ^ Thomas 2017, p. 72. ^ a b c Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. "Southwest Ohio: The Dayton Sites" (PDF). Department of Energy Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP). Retrieved 24 February 2014. ^ Meyer 1979, pp. 1–2. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 8.3. ^ Thomas 2017, p. 77. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 3.2, 4.1–4.2. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 4.2–4.4. ^ a b c d Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 4.2–4.3. ^ a b c d e f Shook, Howard; Williams, Joseph M. (18 September 1983). "Building the Bomb in Oakwood". Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 29 January 2014. ^ Pearson, Drew (30 July 1955). "1917 Airplane Scandals Should Have Warned Ike". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 17 February 2018. ^ Thomas 2017, p. 90. ^ Thomas 2017, pp. 91–92. ^ "Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2005. p. PA-4. Retrieved 27 January 2014. ^ a b Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 5.1–5.2. ^ Moyer 1956, p. 2. ^ a b Moyer 1956, p. 3. ^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 65, 86. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 3.3, 5.1–5.2. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.3–5.4. ^ a b Moyer 1956, pp. 4–5. ^ a b c Moyer 1956, pp. 5–6. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.6. ^ a b Moyer 1956, pp. 150–153. ^ a b Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.7. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.7–5.11. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 3.3. ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 309. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 4.7. ^ Sopka & Sopka 2010, p. 346. ^ Thomas 2017, p. 117. ^ a b Walsh, Michael (May 2009). "George Koval: Atomic Spy Unmasked". Smithsonian. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 40–47. Retrieved 7 September 2017. ^ "Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-7)]". Department of Energy Office of Declassification. 1 January 2001. Retrieved 1 February 2014. ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 125–126. ^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 316–319. ^ Coster-Mullen 2012, pp. 48–49, 400–401. ^ a b c d Moyer 1956, p. viii. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 9.1. ^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 9.1–9.3. ^ a b Gilbert 1969, p. 15. ^ "Scioto Laboratory". United States Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved 27 January 2014. ^ "Dayton I Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2004. p. E-1. Retrieved 27 January 2014. ^ Thomas 2017, p. 157. ^ "Preliminary Assessment – Bonebrake Theological Seminary Site – Dayton Unit III – Dayton, Ohio" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2004. p. 1. Retrieved 27 January 2014. ^ "Notices" (PDF). Federal Register. 71 (90): 27274. 10 May 2006. ^ a b Thomas 2017, p. 156. ^ "Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2005. p. E-1. Retrieved 27 January 2014. ^ "Army Corps of Engineers completes its evaluation of former Manhattan Project Sites" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. 14 October 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2014. References Coster-Mullen, John (2012). Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man. United States: J. Coster-Mullen. OCLC 298514167. Gilbert, Keith V. (1969). History of the Dayton Project (PDF). Miamisburg, Ohio: Monsanto Research Corporation, Mound Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2014. Hewlett, Richard G.; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). The New World, 1939–1946 (PDF). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-520-07186-7. OCLC 637004643. Retrieved 26 March 2013. Hochwalt, Carroll A.; Haring, M.M. (1947). Historical Report – Dayton Project, Manhattan District History Book VIII, Los Alamos Project (Y), Volume 3, Auxiliary Activities, Chapter 4, Dayton Project (PDF). Retrieved 29 January 2014. Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (1993). Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44132-3. OCLC 26764320. Meyer, H. E. (20 December 1979). Historical Resume of Monsanto's Operation of the Dayton Project Sites-Units I, II, Ill, IV and Others – Waste Disposal 1943–1980. Washington, D.C.: Department of Energy. Moyer, Harvey V., ed. (July 1956). Polonium (PDF). Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Atomic Energy Commission. doi:10.2172/4367751. Retrieved 24 January 2014. Sopka, Katherine R.; Sopka, Elisabeth M. (February 2010). "The Bonebrake Theological Seminary: Top-Secret Manhattan Project Site". Physics in Perspective. 12 (3): 338–349. Bibcode:2010PhP....12..338S. doi:10.1007/s00016-010-0019-4. ISSN 1422-6944. S2CID 119677054. Stewart, Irvin (1948). Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. OCLC 500138898. Retrieved 1 April 2012. Thomas, Linda Carrick (2017). Polonium in the Playhouse: The Manhattan Project's Secret Chemistry Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio. Columbus, Ohio: Trillium, an imprint of the Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8142-1338-4. OCLC 970396012. vteManhattan ProjectTimelineSites Ames Berkeley Chicago (Site A) Dayton Hanford Inyokern Los Alamos Montreal New York Oak Ridge Salt Wells Pilot Plant Trinity Wendover Heavy water sites Administrators Vannevar Bush Arthur Compton James B. Conant Priscilla Duffield Thomas Farrell Leslie Groves John Lansdale Ernest Lawrence James Marshall Franklin Matthias Dorothy McKibbin Kenneth Nichols Robert Oppenheimer Deak Parsons Boris Pash William Purnell Frank Spedding Charles Thomas Paul Tibbets Bud Uanna Harold Urey Stafford Warren Ed Westcott Roscoe Wilson Scientists Luis Alvarez Robert Bacher Hans Bethe Aage Bohr Niels Bohr Norris Bradbury James Chadwick John Cockcroft Charles Critchfield Harry Daghlian John R. Dunning Enrico Fermi Richard Feynman Val Fitch James Franck Klaus Fuchs Maria Goeppert Mayer George Kistiakowsky George Koval Willard Libby Edwin McMillan Mark Oliphant George B. Pegram Norman Ramsey Jr. Isidor Isaac Rabi James Rainwater Bruno Rossi Glenn Seaborg Emilio Segrè Louis Slotin Henry DeWolf Smyth Leo Szilard Edward Teller Stanisław Ulam John von Neumann John Wheeler Eugene Wigner Robert Wilson Leona Woods Chien-Shiung Wu Operations Alsos Mission Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Operation Crossroads Operation Peppermint Project Alberta Silverplate 509th Composite Group Enola Gay Bockscar The Great Artiste Weapons Fat Man Little Boy Pumpkin bomb Thin Man Related topics African Americans Atomic Energy Act of 1946 Bismuth phosphate process British contribution Calutron Girls Chicago Pile-1 Demon core Einstein–Szilard letter Franck Report Interim Committee K-25 Project Los Alamos Primer Nobel Prize laureates Oppenheimer security hearing Plutonium Quebec Agreement RaLa Experiment S-1 Executive Committee S-50 Project Smyth Report Uranium X-10 Graphite Reactor Y-12 Project Category Portals: History of Science National Register of Historic Places Nuclear technology Ohio Chemistry
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*"},{"link_name":"polonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Manhattan Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project"},{"link_name":"atomic bombs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombs"},{"link_name":"Dayton, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"modulated neutron initiators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulated_neutron_initiator"},{"link_name":"Monsanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsanto"},{"link_name":"Charles Allen Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas"},{"link_name":"plutonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"beryllium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium"},{"link_name":"Mound Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mound_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"Miamisburg, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miamisburg,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"lead dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_dioxide"},{"link_name":"bismuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth"},{"link_name":"nuclear reactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor"},{"link_name":"gun-type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun-type_fission_weapon"},{"link_name":"Little Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Boy"},{"link_name":"implosion-type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design"},{"link_name":"Fat Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_Man"},{"link_name":"atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"George Koval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Koval"},{"link_name":"Special Engineer Detachment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Engineer_Detachment"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"}],"text":"United States historic placeThe Dayton Project was a research and development project to produce polonium during World War II, as part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs. Work took place at several sites in and around Dayton, Ohio. Those working on the project were ultimately responsible for creating the polonium-based modulated neutron initiators that were used to begin the chain reactions in the atomic bombs.The Dayton Project began in 1943 when Monsanto's Charles Allen Thomas was recruited by the Manhattan Project to coordinate the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at various sites. Scientists at the Los Alamos Laboratory calculated that a plutonium bomb would require a neutron initiator. The best-known neutron sources used radioactive polonium and beryllium, so Thomas undertook to produce polonium at Monsanto's laboratories in Dayton. While most Manhattan Project activity took place at remote locations, the Dayton Project was located in a populated, urban area. It ran from 1943 to 1949, when the Mound Laboratories were completed in nearby Miamisburg, Ohio, and the work moved there.The Dayton Project developed techniques for extracting polonium from the lead dioxide ore in which it occurs naturally, and from bismuth targets that had been bombarded by neutrons in a nuclear reactor. Ultimately, polonium-based neutron initiators were used in both the gun-type Little Boy and the implosion-type Fat Man used in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki respectively. The fact that polonium was used as an initiator was classified until the 1960s, but George Koval, a technician with the Manhattan Project's Special Engineer Detachment, penetrated the Dayton Project as a spy for the Soviet Union.","title":"Dayton Project"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Charles Allen Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas"},{"link_name":"Monsanto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monsanto"},{"link_name":"St. Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis"},{"link_name":"National Defense Research Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Defense_Research_Committee"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart194888-1"},{"link_name":"Richard C. Tolman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_C._Tolman"},{"link_name":"James B. Conant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_B._Conant"},{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Brigadier General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Leslie R. Groves, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leslie_R._Groves,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Manhattan Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project"},{"link_name":"atomic bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bomb"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart19487-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19472.1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962237-4"},{"link_name":"Robert Oppenheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"plutonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutonium"},{"link_name":"Metallurgical Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Radiation Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calutron"},{"link_name":"Ames Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_Project"},{"link_name":"Joseph W. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_W._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962237-4"},{"link_name":"Robert Serber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Serber"},{"link_name":"neutron initiator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_initiator"},{"link_name":"radium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium"},{"link_name":"beryllium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium"},{"link_name":"polonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium"},{"link_name":"half-life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-life"},{"link_name":"\"urchin\" internal neutron initiators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulated_neutron_initiator#Urchin"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993119%E2%80%93125-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeBrosse-7"}],"text":"In December 1942, during World War II, Charles Allen Thomas, a chemist and director of research at Monsanto in St. Louis, joined the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) as the deputy chief of its Division 8, which was responsible for propellants, explosives and the like.[1] Early in 1943, he traveled to the east with Richard C. Tolman, a member of the NDRC, and James B. Conant, the president of Harvard University and the chairman of the NDRC, to witness a demonstration of a new underwater explosive. Conant and Tolman took the opportunity to quietly investigate Thomas' background. He was then invited to a meeting in Washington D.C., with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., the director of the wartime Manhattan Project responsible for building an atomic bomb. When he got there, Thomas found Conant was also present.[2][3]Groves and Conant were hoping to harness Thomas's industrial expertise.[4] They offered him a post as a deputy to Robert Oppenheimer, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, but he did not wish to move his family or give up his responsibilities at Monsanto.[5] Instead, he accepted the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at Los Alamos, the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago, Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley, and Ames Laboratory in Iowa. Chemistry and metallurgy at Los Alamos would be led by the youthful Joseph W. Kennedy.[4]At Los Alamos, physicist Robert Serber proposed that instead of relying on spontaneous fission, the chain reaction inside the atomic bomb should be triggered by a neutron initiator. The best-known neutron sources were radium-beryllium and polonium-beryllium. The latter was chosen, as polonium has a 138-day half-life, which made it intense enough to be useful but not long-lived enough to be stockpiled. Thomas took charge of the development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the \"urchin\" internal neutron initiators. This effort became the Dayton Project.[6][7]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dayton_Project_-_Unit_III_in_September_1943.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dayton, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19472.2-8"},{"link_name":"radiochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiochemistry"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19473.1-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19474.6-10"},{"link_name":"Special Engineer Detachment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Engineer_Detachment"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas201772-11"}],"text":"Dayton Project – Unit III in September 1943Thomas brought in key personnel from Monsanto's Thomas and Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio, including Caroll Hochwalt, James Lum and Nicholas Samaras. Thomas became Director of the Dayton Project, with Hochwalt as Assistant Project Director and Lum as Laboratory Director.[8] They decided that about twelve chemists would be required, and Lum set about recruiting professors, graduate students and industrial chemists from universities and laboratories in the area. The first of these recruits commenced in August 1943, but few had any experience with radiochemistry.[9] Numbers increased from 46 full-time employees at the end of 1943 to 101 at the end of 1944, 201 at the end of 1945, and 334 at the end of 1946,[10] including 34 members of the Army's Special Engineer Detachment.[11]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dayton_Sites-12"},{"link_name":"Ohio State Route 741","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_State_Route_741"},{"link_name":"ammonium nitrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_nitrate"},{"link_name":"ammonium picrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_picrate"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyer19791%E2%80%932-13"},{"link_name":"Quonset hut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quonset_hut"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19478.3-14"},{"link_name":"Bonebrake Seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Theological_Seminary"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas201777-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19473.2,_4.1%E2%80%934.2-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dayton_Sites-12"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19474.2%E2%80%934.4-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dayton_Project_-_Unit_IV_in_October_1947.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oakwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakwood,_Montgomery_County,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19474.2%E2%80%934.3-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Building-19"},{"link_name":"wife's family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_E._Talbott#Family"},{"link_name":"Delco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delco_Electronics"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeBrosse-7"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Building-19"},{"link_name":"United States Army Corps of Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers"},{"link_name":"condemned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eminent_domain"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19474.2%E2%80%934.3-18"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas201790-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dayton_Project_-_Unit_III_in_October_1947.jpg"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19474.2%E2%80%934.3-18"},{"link_name":"loading dock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loading_dock"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas201791%E2%80%9392-22"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19474.2%E2%80%934.3-18"},{"link_name":"General Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"bioassay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioassay"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dayton_Sites-12"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Office space was initially found in the Monsanto offices at 1515 Nicholas Rd, which became known as Unit I.[12] Unit II was the Monsanto Rocket Propellant works off Betty Lane near Ohio State Route 741. While it was administered by Monsanto, it was not used by the Dayton Project. The site handled explosives including ammonium nitrate and ammonium picrate, but no radioactive materials were handled there. Work at Unit II ceased in the fall of 1945.[13] Consideration was given to using it in December 1946, but this proposal was rejected in favor of erecting a Quonset hut at Unit III.[14]A laboratory site was found at 1601 W. First Street that had originally been constructed to house the Bonebrake Seminary. It was a three-story brick building built in 1879, and owned by the Dayton Board of Education, which used it as a warehouse. Monsanto leased the site on 15 October 1943, and began converting it into a laboratory known as Unit III. The building was in poor shape when the Dayton Project took it over, with many broken windows, and the staircase between the second and third floors was missing. New heating and lighting were installed, windows were replaced, new flooring was laid, and some rooms were re-plastered. A pair of guard houses known as buildings J and K were added, as was a chemical storage shed known as building F, and a wire fence. Laboratory activities were transferred there from Unit I on 25 September. Initially only the bottom two floors were occupied, providing 560 square meters (6,000 sq ft) of laboratory space. Later, the third floor was taken over as well, providing another 280 square meters (3,000 sq ft).[15][16][12] In May 1945, five additional temporary buildings were constructed on land leased from the Board of Education that housed offices, a cafeteria, locker rooms, a physics laboratory and a laundry. A new guardhouse was also built. To this was added two portable buildings in 1946.[17]Dayton Project – Unit IV in October 1947By 1944, space was running short, and Monsanto began negotiations to acquire the Runnymede Playhouse in the wealthy residential Dayton suburb of Oakwood. Built in 1927, the Playhouse was a leisure facility that included an outdoor swimming pool, a ballroom, a squash court, a tennis court with a cork floor and a stage for community theater. It had showers with Italian marble and a 1+1⁄2-story garage.[18][19] The estate was owned by the Talbott Realty Company, which was controlled by Thomas's wife's family. The Talbotts were among the heirs of the Delco company, which was by then a part of General Motors.[7][20] The Oakwood City Council wanted the Playhouse as a community center. Thomas appeared before the council and assured them that it would not be damaged, although he could not disclose what he was intending to use it for.[19] When Talbott Realty proved reluctant to sell, the United States Army Corps of Engineers condemned the property, which became Unit IV on 15 February 1944.[18] A lease was signed on 10 March 1944, under which the Talbott Realty was paid $4,266.72 per annum for the property. The lease was initially up to 30 June 1944, but was then extended annually until 30 June 1949. The lease specified that the property would be returned in its original condition. Talbott Realty were told that the property would be used to produce training films.[21]Dayton Project – Unit III in October 1947Remodeling began on 17 March 1944.[18] The tennis courts were subdivided into multiple rooms. The ceiling was lowered, and heating, air conditioning and air filtration systems were added. One of the greenhouses was converted into a loading dock. The property was enclosed in a barbed wire fence that was floodlit by night, and patrolled around the clock by armed guards; there were 43 guards at Units III and IV.[22] The Production Group began moving in on 1 June. Three guard houses were added, along with a wire fence. Changes to the site were minimized in order to make it easier to restore later. Because it was located in a residential area, efforts were also made to minimize noise and other disruptions.[18]In May 1945, Monsanto rented three floors of a warehouse at 601 East Third Street from General Electric. Initially it was used to receive and store equipment used by the Project. Later the fourth floor was used as office space, and a laboratory was established on the fifth floor where studies were carried out on the effects of polonium on laboratory animals. Analysis of bioassay samples was carried out there to minimize the danger of polonium contamination of the samples.[12][23]","title":"Locations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lead dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_dioxide"},{"link_name":"Port Hope, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Hope,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"uranium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium"},{"link_name":"milligrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milligram"},{"link_name":"gr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19475.1%E2%80%935.2-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19562-25"},{"link_name":"curie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19563-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson196265,_86-27"},{"link_name":"microcuries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie_(unit)"},{"link_name":"MBq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becquerel"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19473.3,_5.1%E2%80%935.2-28"},{"link_name":"Firestone Tire and Rubber Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company"},{"link_name":"hydrochloric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19563-26"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"Monsanto, Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauget,_Illinois"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19475.1%E2%80%935.2-24"},{"link_name":"lead orthophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_phosphate"},{"link_name":"phosphoric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19475.3%E2%80%935.4-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19564%E2%80%935-30"},{"link_name":"nitric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid"},{"link_name":"hydrogen peroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19564%E2%80%935-30"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"aluminum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19565%E2%80%936-31"},{"link_name":"lead carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_carbonate"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19475.6-32"}],"text":"Few people had seen polonium before. It was a silvery metal. In a dark room, it gave off an eerie, purple glow. Polonium occurs naturally in various ores, and the lead dioxide residues from the refinery in Port Hope, Ontario, left over after the removal of uranium and radium, were estimated to contain 0.2 to 0.3 milligrams (0.0031 to 0.0046 gr) of polonium per metric ton.[24][25] A curie of polonium weighs about 0.2 milligrams (0.0031 gr).[26] Port Hope was already under contract from the Manhattan Project for the supply and refining of uranium ore.[27] The first 3,290 kilograms (7,250 lb) of radioactive lead dioxide was delivered to the Dayton Project on 10 November 1943. The first 230-kilogram (500 lb) batch was processed by 8 December, which made 30 microcuries (1.1 MBq) of polonium available for experiments a week later.[28]Three processes were investigated for extracting the polonium from the ore. J. H. Dillon of the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company had patented a process in which the lead oxide was dissolved in hydrochloric acid:[26]PbO2 + 4 HCl → PbCl2 + Cl2 + 2H2OThe polonium could then be deposited on copper or nickel sheets. This required large-scale glass-lined equipment not available in Dayton, but available at the Monsanto B plant in Monsanto, Illinois. After small-scale tests at Unit III revealed that the process was practical, some three tons of lead dioxide were sent to the B plant, and 2.50 curies (93 GBq) were recovered. Getting the polonium off the copper and nickel sheets proved more problematic.[24]A second method attempted was a kiln process. The idea was to simply roast the lead dioxide and vaporize the polonium. The problem was that lead dioxide slagged at 700 °C (1,292 °F), which was too low for the process to work. So lead orthophosphate was tried, which slagged at 900 °C (1,650 °F). This was made by mixing the lead dioxide with phosphoric acid. Experiments showed that the polonium vaporized well when the lead orthophosphate was heated to 750 °C (1,380 °F) for four hours. Unfortunately, the process then ran into problems with dust and other foreign matter, and with contamination of the personnel and equipment involved.[29][30]The third method involved dissolving the lead dioxide in a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide:[30]PbO2 + 2HNO3 + H2O2 → Pb(NO3)2 + O2 + 2H2OThis proved to be the best way to separate the polonium from the lead dioxide, although there were problems with the precipitation of various contaminants, including iron and aluminum. Although about 32 metric tons (35 short tons) of lead dioxide were treated with nitric acid, and about 40 curies (1.5 TBq) of polonium were produced, the process did not proceed beyond the pilot stage because a better source of polonium became available.[31] The lead dioxide was not purchased by the Manhattan Project, and early in the war had been acquired by the Canadian government. In June 1945, the lead was precipitated as a lead carbonate slurry, and shipped to the Manhattan District's Madison Square area to be dried and returned to Canada.[32]","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bismuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth"},{"link_name":"cyclotrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclotron"},{"link_name":"nuclear reactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19565%E2%80%936-31"},{"link_name":"X-10 Graphite Reactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor"},{"link_name":"Clinton Engineer Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works"},{"link_name":"Oak Ridge, Tennessee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Ridge,_Tennessee"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer19565%E2%80%936-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer1956150%E2%80%93153-33"},{"link_name":"Hanford Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanford_Site"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19475.7-34"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"manganese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"tin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tin"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"chromium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium"},{"link_name":"vanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium"},{"link_name":"gallium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer1956150%E2%80%93153-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19475.7-34"},{"link_name":"American Smelting and Refining Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Smelting_and_Refining_Company"},{"link_name":"aqua regia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_regia"},{"link_name":"platinum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19475.7%E2%80%935.11-35"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Building-19"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19473.3-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993309-37"}],"text":"Polonium could also be produced by neutron irradiation of bismuth. In 1943 the only polonium produced in this manner was in cyclotrons, but the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear reactors offered the prospect of producing large amounts of polonium in this manner:[31]20983Bi + n → 21083Bi → 21084Po + βA metric ton of bismuth irradiated in the Manhattan Project's X-10 Graphite Reactor at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, contained 32 to 83 curies (1.2 to 3.1 TBq) of polonium, a vast improvement over the yields from Port Hope's lead dioxide.[31] Irradiated bismuth came from Clinton in the form of 30.5-by-9.5-by-9.5-centimeter (12 by 3.75 by 3.75 in) bricks that weighed about 26 kilograms (58 lb). They were shipped to Dayton by rail in wooden boxes, which were stored in a tile-lined cavity in the floor at Unit IV.[33]These procedures were adequate because the quantity of polonium in the bismuth was still fairly low, but starting in June 1945, the Dayton Project began receiving bismuth irradiated in the more powerful reactors at the Hanford Site in Washington, which now became the major source of supply.[34] Even at Clinton, unprotected bismuth proved problematic when a brick broke apart and chips fell into containers of uranium slugs, and had to be hazardously separated by hand by project personnel. Bismuth slugs irradiated in the reactors at Hanford were therefore canned in aluminium. The canned slugs were 3.8 centimeters (1.5 in) in diameter, and 10 or 20 centimeters (4 or 8 in) long. The problem was that the aluminium contained impurities such as iron, manganese, copper, lead, tin, zinc, silicon, titanium, nickel, magnesium, chromium, vanadium, bismuth and gallium, and when irradiated, these could form radioactive isotopes. Most were of little concern for the Dayton Project, as they had short half-lives, and would become harmless during the slugs' cooling off period in water at Hanford; but iron could form iron-59, which had a half-life of 45 days, and produced gamma radiation. The slugs were therefore shipped in casks, each of which contained several tubes which held the slugs. The spaces between the tubs was filled with lead. At Dayton, the slugs were stored in a lead-lined safe with doors on both sides containing tubes. They were also stored underwater on racks, and could be removed with tongs. A periscope allowed the identification markings on the slugs to be checked without removing them from the pool.[33]By the end of 1946 Hanford was shipping material that contained up to 13,200 curies (490 TBq) per metric ton of bismuth.[34] Bismuth was purchased from the American Smelting and Refining Company of the highest purity that it could produce. It was sent to Hanford, where it was canned, and placed inside a reactor for 100 days. The irradiated slugs were then shipped by road to Unit IV, where they were bathed in hydrochloric acid, which dissolved the aluminum. This formed an aluminum chloride solution that was disposed of, as it was highly radioactive due to the iron impurities in the aluminum. The bismuth slugs were then dissolved in aqua regia. This was too weak for electroplating the polonium, so the nitric acid was removed, and then the polonium deposited on bismuth by adding powdered bismuth. This resulted in a 100–1 concentration. This could then be repeated by dissolving in aqua regia again to achieve a 1000–1 concentration. This was again dissolved, and the polonium electroplated on platinum foils. The main problem with the process was that it required glass-lined containers due to the aqua regia, and mechanisms for safe handling of the radioactive material. The Dayton Project explored alternative purification methods that were found to be workable, but less efficient or safe.[35]The first consignment of polonium left for Los Alamos on 15 March 1944 in a lead-lined suitcase carried by a military courier. Regular shipments were made thereafter.[19][36] Initiator testing at Los Alamos required more polonium than anticipated, and in December 1944, Oppenheimer was forced to ask Thomas if he could ship 20 curies (0.74 TBq) per month. The Dayton Project was able to do so. In February 1945, Thomas agreed to increase shipments to 100 curies (3.7 TBq) per month by June, and 500 per month by December.[37]The total cost of the Dayton Project up to the end of 1946 was $3,666,507 ($57.3 million in today's dollars).","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Clorox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clorox"},{"link_name":"Geiger counter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger_counter"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Building-19"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESopkaSopka2010346-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas2017117-40"},{"link_name":"bone seeker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone_seeker"},{"link_name":"bobby pins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_pin"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Building-19"}],"text":"Dayton Project employees were not allowed to eat or smoke in processing areas, and had to scrub their hands before leaving these areas. The chemists wore protective gear, with surgical, cloth and rubber gloves worn in three layers. When leaving for lunch or at the end of the shift, they had to wash their hands with dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute Clorox, and soap. The radioactive residue on their hands was measured with a special Geiger counter designed for the purpose by physicist John J. Sopka.[19][39] No more than one thousand counts per minute per hand was permissible.[40] They had to shower at the end of each day's work, and were subjected to weekly urine tests. Employees with elevated levels of polonium were not allowed in the processing areas. Working with polonium without spreading contamination proved to be almost impossible. Fortunately, it is not a bone seeker like radium or plutonium, and is thus readily excreted in urine. Detection methods had already been developed, making it easy to track. The employee at Unit IV with the highest levels of polonium in her urine had contaminated her hair, and often held bobby pins in her mouth.[19]","title":"Health and safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Koval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Koval"},{"link_name":"health physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_physics"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"GRU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRU_(Soviet_Union)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koval-41"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"hero of the Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_the_Russian_Federation"},{"link_name":"Joe-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe-1"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koval-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"text":"George Koval was drafted into the United States Army in 1943, and was inducted into the Manhattan Project's Special Engineer Detachment. He was initially assigned to the Clinton Engineer Works, where his job as a health physics officer gave him access to much of the site. He began passing secrets relating to the production of polonium at Oak Ridge to the Soviet Union through his GRU (Soviet military intelligence) handler code-named \"Clyde\". In 1945 Koval was transferred to Dayton. Again, his job as a health physics officer gave him wide access to the secret installation.[41] In 2007 Russian President Vladimir Putin posthumously awarded Koval a gold star, making him a hero of the Russian Federation for his work as the GRU spy \"Delmar\". Russian officials stated that the initiator for their Joe-1 bomb had been \"prepared to the recipe provided by Delmar\".[41] The fact that polonium was used as an initiator remained classified until the 1960s.[42]","title":"Espionage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leonard I. Schiff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_I._Schiff"},{"link_name":"gun-type fission weapon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gun-type_fission_weapon"},{"link_name":"Little Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Boy"},{"link_name":"Tinian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tinian"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993125%E2%80%93126-43"},{"link_name":"implosion design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design"},{"link_name":"Fat Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_Man"},{"link_name":"Nagasaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagasaki"},{"link_name":"core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit_(nuclear_weapon)"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993316%E2%80%93319-44"},{"link_name":"gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold"},{"link_name":"alpha particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_particle"},{"link_name":"jets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_(fluid)"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoster-Mullen201248%E2%80%9349,_400%E2%80%93401-45"}],"text":"After Leonard I. Schiff calculated that an initiator might improve the efficiency of a gun-type fission weapon, Oppenheimer gave approval on 15 March 1945 for initiators to be included in the Little Boy design. The initiators were tested to ensure they were rugged enough to handle being transported in an airplane and being accidentally dropped. Eventually, about forty initiators were dispatched to Tinian, where four were inserted into the bomb that was used in the bombing of Hiroshima.[43]The initiator used in the implosion design of the Fat Man bomb that was dropped on Nagasaki was code-named \"urchin\". In order to increase the efficiency of the explosion, the initiator had to emit a large number of neutrons in a few microseconds while the plutonium core was fully compressed.[44] At the heart of the urchin was a solid beryllium sphere 0.4 centimeters (0.16 in) in diameter. This was gold-plated and coated with 20 curies (0.74 TBq) of polonium. The gold kept the polonium's alpha particles from striking the beryllium. This fitted inside two beryllium hemispheres with 15 parallel grooves cut into the inner surface. These grooves converted the shock wave of the implosion into jets that shattered the spheres and caused the beryllium and polonium to mix and emit neutrons. The hemispheres were nickel-plated and the outer surface was coated in gold and 30 curies (1.1 TBq) of polonium. The 2.0-centimeter (0.79 in) initiator, which was hot to the touch, fitted neatly inside the 20-millimeter (0.8 in) hole in the center of the plutonium pit. [45]","title":"Initiators"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Department_of_Energy_-_Mound_Plant_-_Electronics_Laboratory_Building.jpg"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer1956viii-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19479.1-47"},{"link_name":"burial mound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumulus"},{"link_name":"Mound Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mound_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer1956viii-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer1956viii-46"},{"link_name":"biological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare"},{"link_name":"chemical weapons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19479.1%E2%80%939.3-48"},{"link_name":"Atomic Energy Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoyer1956viii-46"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert196915-49"},{"link_name":"Marion, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marion,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"View looking southeast over the Mound LaboratoriesBy 1945, the Dayton Project had assumed such importance that the Manhattan Project decided to make it into a permanent facility.[46] The original intention was to move operations to Oak Ridge, but it was decided that a site near Dayton was preferable. Few of the scientific and technical staff wanted to move to Tennessee, and there were concerns about the dangers of polonium contamination at a plutonium processing site.[47] A search for a suitable site began in early 1946, and one was found in Miamisburg, about 19 kilometers (12 mi) from Dayton. The 72-hectare (178-acre) site was next to a state park containing a large prehistoric Indian burial mound, which ultimately gave the Mound Laboratories its name. It was initially known as Unit V.[46] Monsanto began construction in May 1946, using the Detroit firm of Giffels and Vallet as architects, while the plant was built by the Maxon Construction of Dayton.[46] The design called for an underground complex that could withstand a direct hit from a 910-kilogram (2,000 lb) bomb, with protection against biological and chemical weapons, at a cost of $17,900,000.[48]Responsibility for nuclear weapons production was transferred from the Manhattan Project to the Atomic Energy Commission in 1947, but work continued on the Mound Laboratories.[46] The first building was completed in May 1948, and polonium processing commenced at the Mound Laboratories in February 1949. Altogether, 14 major buildings were constructed with a total floor space of 34,000 square meters (366,000 sq ft) at a cost of $25.5 million.[49] Due to fear of attack or sabotage, the former Scioto Laboratory Complex in Marion, Ohio, was acquired by the Atomic Energy Commission in 1948. It was maintained as a cold standby site until it was no longer needed in 1953.[50]","title":"Mound Laboratories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas2017157-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"National Register of Historic Places","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilbert196915-49"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dayton_Project&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Building-19"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas2017156-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dayton_Project&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas2017156-55"},{"link_name":"Department of Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy"},{"link_name":"Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formerly_Utilized_Sites_Remedial_Action_Program"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"text":"Unit I continued to be used by Monsanto as an administrative facility until 1988, when it was demolished. The land was sold to Quality Chemicals in 1992, and then to DuPont in 2002.[51][52] Unit III, the former Bonebrake Theological Seminary, was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to the Dayton Board of Education. The original seminary building was subsequently demolished, but several structures remain from the Dayton Project.[53] The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 10 May 2006.[54] Although the lease on Unit IV, the former Runnymede Playhouse, specified that it was to be returned, it was deemed to be too contaminated. The building was demolished in February 1950.[49] The cobblestones in the driveway were removed and taken away, along with 2.1 meters (7 ft) of earth from under the house. The excavation was filled in, and the site was returned to the Talbott family, who were paid $138,750 in compensation. As of 2017[update], all that remains of the original playhouse is a brass doorknob and part of the greenhouse roof, which are part of the collection of the Mound Science and Energy Museum. Private residences now occupy the site.[19][55] The Dayton Warehouse was decontaminated in 1950 and returned to its owners.[56] The Mound Laboratories continued to produce polonium initiators until 1969. Polonium continued to be produced there for commercial sales and use in satellites until 1972. The laboratories were decommissioned in 1993, and the area was decontaminated. As of 2017[update], it houses the Mound Advanced Technology Center.[55]In 1996, the Department of Energy, which had succeeded the Atomic Energy Commission, decided that since the Dayton sites already had been decontaminated, they did not warrant inclusion in the Army Corps of Engineers' Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP). The local community in Dayton was concerned that the cleanup did not meet 21st-century environmental standards. Therefore, the state of Ohio asked the United States Congress to have the Army Corps of Engineers conduct a review. This was carried out in 2004 and 2005. The review concluded that no radioactive contaminants were found that would warrant inclusion in FUSRAP.[57]","title":"Site cleanup"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart194888_1-0"},{"link_name":"Stewart 1948","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStewart1948"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStewart19487_2-0"},{"link_name":"Stewart 1948","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStewart1948"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHochwaltHaring19472.1_3-0"},{"link_name":"Hochwalt & Haring 1947","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHochwaltHaring1947"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962237_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHewlettAnderson1962237_4-1"},{"link_name":"Hewlett & Anderson 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of Engineers completes its evaluation of former Manhattan Project Sites\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.lrb.usace.army.mil/Portals/45/docs/FUSRAP/DaytonIV/10-14-2005.pdf"}],"text":"^ Stewart 1948, p. 88.\n\n^ Stewart 1948, p. 7.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 2.1.\n\n^ a b Hewlett & Anderson 1962, p. 237.\n\n^ \"George Mahfouz's Interview\". Manhattan Project Voices. Retrieved 27 January 2014.\n\n^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 119–125.\n\n^ a b DeBrosse, Jim (25 December 2004). \"The Dayton Project\". Dayton Daily News. p. A1. Archived from the original on 14 August 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 2.2.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 3.1.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 4.6.\n\n^ Thomas 2017, p. 72.\n\n^ a b c Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. \"Southwest Ohio: The Dayton Sites\" (PDF). Department of Energy Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP). Retrieved 24 February 2014.\n\n^ Meyer 1979, pp. 1–2.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 8.3.\n\n^ Thomas 2017, p. 77.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 3.2, 4.1–4.2.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 4.2–4.4.\n\n^ a b c d Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 4.2–4.3.\n\n^ a b c d e f Shook, Howard; Williams, Joseph M. (18 September 1983). \"Building the Bomb in Oakwood\". Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 29 January 2014.\n\n^ Pearson, Drew (30 July 1955). \"1917 Airplane Scandals Should Have Warned Ike\". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 17 February 2018.\n\n^ Thomas 2017, p. 90.\n\n^ Thomas 2017, pp. 91–92.\n\n^ \"Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2005. p. PA-4. Retrieved 27 January 2014.\n\n^ a b Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 5.1–5.2.\n\n^ Moyer 1956, p. 2.\n\n^ a b Moyer 1956, p. 3.\n\n^ Hewlett & Anderson 1962, pp. 65, 86.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 3.3, 5.1–5.2.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.3–5.4.\n\n^ a b Moyer 1956, pp. 4–5.\n\n^ a b c Moyer 1956, pp. 5–6.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.6.\n\n^ a b Moyer 1956, pp. 150–153.\n\n^ a b Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.7.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 5.7–5.11.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 3.3.\n\n^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, p. 309.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 4.7.\n\n^ Sopka & Sopka 2010, p. 346.\n\n^ Thomas 2017, p. 117.\n\n^ a b Walsh, Michael (May 2009). \"George Koval: Atomic Spy Unmasked\". Smithsonian. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 40–47. Retrieved 7 September 2017.\n\n^ \"Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-7)]\". Department of Energy Office of Declassification. 1 January 2001. Retrieved 1 February 2014.\n\n^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 125–126.\n\n^ Hoddeson et al. 1993, pp. 316–319.\n\n^ Coster-Mullen 2012, pp. 48–49, 400–401.\n\n^ a b c d Moyer 1956, p. viii.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, p. 9.1.\n\n^ Hochwalt & Haring 1947, pp. 9.1–9.3.\n\n^ a b Gilbert 1969, p. 15.\n\n^ \"Scioto Laboratory\". United States Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved 27 January 2014.\n\n^ \"Dayton I Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2004. p. E-1. Retrieved 27 January 2014.\n\n^ Thomas 2017, p. 157.\n\n^ \"Preliminary Assessment – Bonebrake Theological Seminary Site – Dayton Unit III – Dayton, Ohio\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2004. p. 1. Retrieved 27 January 2014.\n\n^ \"Notices\" (PDF). Federal Register. 71 (90): 27274. 10 May 2006.\n\n^ a b Thomas 2017, p. 156.\n\n^ \"Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2005. p. E-1. Retrieved 27 January 2014.\n\n^ \"Army Corps of Engineers completes its evaluation of former Manhattan Project Sites\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. 14 October 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"Dayton Project – Unit III in September 1943","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Dayton_Project_-_Unit_III_in_September_1943.jpg/220px-Dayton_Project_-_Unit_III_in_September_1943.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dayton Project – Unit IV in October 1947","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Dayton_Project_-_Unit_IV_in_October_1947.jpg/220px-Dayton_Project_-_Unit_IV_in_October_1947.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dayton Project – Unit III in October 1947","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Dayton_Project_-_Unit_III_in_October_1947.jpg/220px-Dayton_Project_-_Unit_III_in_October_1947.jpg"},{"image_text":"View looking southeast over the Mound Laboratories","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Department_of_Energy_-_Mound_Plant_-_Electronics_Laboratory_Building.jpg/220px-Department_of_Energy_-_Mound_Plant_-_Electronics_Laboratory_Building.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"George Mahfouz's Interview\". Manhattan Project Voices. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/george-mahfouzs-interview","url_text":"\"George Mahfouz's Interview\""}]},{"reference":"DeBrosse, Jim (25 December 2004). \"The Dayton Project\". Dayton Daily News. p. A1. Archived from the original on 14 August 2013. Retrieved 25 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130814002324/http://www.atomicheritage.org/index.php/component/content/83.html?task=view","url_text":"\"The Dayton Project\""},{"url":"http://www.atomicheritage.org/index.php/component/content/83.html?task=view","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. \"Southwest Ohio: The Dayton Sites\" (PDF). Department of Energy Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP). Retrieved 24 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.epa.state.oh.us/portals/30/FFS/docs/doe/Dayton_Sites.pdf","url_text":"\"Southwest Ohio: The Dayton Sites\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy","url_text":"Department of Energy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formerly_Utilized_Sites_Remedial_Action_Program","url_text":"Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program"}]},{"reference":"Shook, Howard; Williams, Joseph M. (18 September 1983). \"Building the Bomb in Oakwood\". Dayton Daily News. Retrieved 29 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.daytonhistorybooks.com/building_the_bomb_in_oakw.html","url_text":"\"Building the Bomb in Oakwood\""}]},{"reference":"Pearson, Drew (30 July 1955). \"1917 Airplane Scandals Should Have Warned Ike\". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 17 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&dat=19550730&id=lElSAAAAIBAJ&pg=7213,5380282","url_text":"\"1917 Airplane Scandals Should Have Warned Ike\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2005. p. PA-4. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lrb.usace.army.mil/Portals/45/docs/FUSRAP/DaytonWH/dayware-pasi-2005-09.pdf","url_text":"\"Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\""}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Michael (May 2009). \"George Koval: Atomic Spy Unmasked\". Smithsonian. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 40–47. Retrieved 7 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/george-koval-atomic-spy-unmasked-125046223/","url_text":"\"George Koval: Atomic Spy Unmasked\""}]},{"reference":"\"Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-7)]\". Department of Energy Office of Declassification. 1 January 2001. Retrieved 1 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/rdd-7.html#I16","url_text":"\"Restricted Data Declassification Decisions, 1946 to the Present (RDD-7)]\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy","url_text":"Department of Energy"}]},{"reference":"\"Scioto Laboratory\". United States Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lrb.usace.army.mil/Missions/HTRW/FUSRAP/SciotoLaboratory.aspx","url_text":"\"Scioto Laboratory\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dayton I Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2004. p. E-1. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lrb.usace.army.mil/Portals/45/docs/FUSRAP/DaytonI/day1-pasi-2004-09.pdf","url_text":"\"Dayton I Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\""}]},{"reference":"\"Preliminary Assessment – Bonebrake Theological Seminary Site – Dayton Unit III – Dayton, Ohio\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2004. p. 1. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lrb.usace.army.mil/Portals/45/docs/FUSRAP/DaytonIII/day3-pa-2000-09.pdf","url_text":"\"Preliminary Assessment – Bonebrake Theological Seminary Site – Dayton Unit III – Dayton, Ohio\""}]},{"reference":"\"Notices\" (PDF). Federal Register. 71 (90): 27274. 10 May 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2006-05-10/pdf/06-4365.pdf","url_text":"\"Notices\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Register","url_text":"Federal Register"}]},{"reference":"\"Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. September 2005. p. E-1. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lrb.usace.army.mil/Portals/45/docs/FUSRAP/DaytonWH/dayware-pasi-2005-09.pdf","url_text":"\"Dayton Warehouse Preliminary Assessment/Site Inspection\""}]},{"reference":"\"Army Corps of Engineers completes its evaluation of former Manhattan Project Sites\" (PDF). United States Army Corps of Engineers. 14 October 2005. Retrieved 27 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lrb.usace.army.mil/Portals/45/docs/FUSRAP/DaytonIV/10-14-2005.pdf","url_text":"\"Army Corps of Engineers completes its evaluation of former Manhattan Project Sites\""}]},{"reference":"Coster-Mullen, John (2012). Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man. United States: J. Coster-Mullen. OCLC 298514167.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Coster-Mullen","url_text":"Coster-Mullen, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/298514167","url_text":"298514167"}]},{"reference":"Gilbert, Keith V. (1969). History of the Dayton Project (PDF). Miamisburg, Ohio: Monsanto Research Corporation, Mound Laboratory. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 31 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190412054801/https://www.eecap.org/PDF_Files/Ohio/Dayton_Project/History/HISTORY_OF_THE_DAYTON_PROJECT.pdf","url_text":"History of the Dayton Project"},{"url":"http://www.eecap.org/PDF_Files/Ohio/Dayton_Project/History/HISTORY_OF_THE_DAYTON_PROJECT.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hewlett, Richard G.; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). The New World, 1939–1946 (PDF). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-520-07186-7. OCLC 637004643. Retrieved 26 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_G._Hewlett","url_text":"Hewlett, Richard G."},{"url":"https://www.governmentattic.org/5docs/TheNewWorld1939-1946.pdf","url_text":"The New World, 1939–1946"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07186-7","url_text":"0-520-07186-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/637004643","url_text":"637004643"}]},{"reference":"Hochwalt, Carroll A.; Haring, M.M. (1947). Historical Report – Dayton Project, Manhattan District History Book VIII, Los Alamos Project (Y), Volume 3, Auxiliary Activities, Chapter 4, Dayton Project (PDF). Retrieved 29 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/includes/opennet/includes/MED_scans/Book%20VIII%20-%20%20Volume%203%20-%20Auxiliary%20Activities%20-%20Chapter%204,%20Da.pdf","url_text":"Historical Report – Dayton Project, Manhattan District History Book VIII, Los Alamos Project (Y), Volume 3, Auxiliary Activities, Chapter 4, Dayton Project"}]},{"reference":"Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (1993). Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44132-3. OCLC 26764320.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse","url_text":"Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3","url_text":"0-521-44132-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320","url_text":"26764320"}]},{"reference":"Meyer, H. E. (20 December 1979). Historical Resume of Monsanto's Operation of the Dayton Project Sites-Units I, II, Ill, IV and Others – Waste Disposal 1943–1980. Washington, D.C.: Department of Energy.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Moyer, Harvey V., ed. (July 1956). Polonium (PDF). Oak Ridge, Tennessee: Atomic Energy Commission. doi:10.2172/4367751. Retrieved 24 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/4367751-nEJIbm/4367751.pdf","url_text":"Polonium"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2172%2F4367751","url_text":"10.2172/4367751"}]},{"reference":"Sopka, Katherine R.; Sopka, Elisabeth M. (February 2010). \"The Bonebrake Theological Seminary: Top-Secret Manhattan Project Site\". Physics in Perspective. 12 (3): 338–349. Bibcode:2010PhP....12..338S. doi:10.1007/s00016-010-0019-4. ISSN 1422-6944. S2CID 119677054.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katherine_Sopka","url_text":"Sopka, Katherine R."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhP....12..338S","url_text":"2010PhP....12..338S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00016-010-0019-4","url_text":"10.1007/s00016-010-0019-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1422-6944","url_text":"1422-6944"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119677054","url_text":"119677054"}]},{"reference":"Stewart, Irvin (1948). Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. OCLC 500138898. Retrieved 1 April 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/organizingscient00stew","url_text":"Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/500138898","url_text":"500138898"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Linda Carrick (2017). Polonium in the Playhouse: The Manhattan Project's Secret Chemistry Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio. Columbus, Ohio: Trillium, an imprint of the Ohio State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8142-1338-4. OCLC 970396012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8142-1338-4","url_text":"978-0-8142-1338-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/970396012","url_text":"970396012"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IO-Link
IO-Link
["1 System overview","2 Connector","3 Protocol","4 IO-Link Wireless","5 IO-Link Safety","6 Literature","7 References"]
Communication protocol IO-Link is a short distance, bi-directional, digital, point-to-point, wired (or wireless), industrial communications networking standard (IEC 61131-9) used for connecting digital sensors and actuators to either a type of industrial fieldbus or a type of industrial Ethernet. Its objective is to provide a technological platform that enables the development and use of sensors and actuators that can produce and consume enriched sets of data that in turn can be used for economically optimizing industrial automated processes and operations. The technology standard is managed by the industry association Profibus and Profinet International. System overview An IO-Link system consists of an IO-Link master and one or more IO-Link devices, i.e. Sensors or Actuators. The IO-Link master provides the interface to the higher-level controller (PLC) and controls the communication with the connected IO-Link devices. An IO-Link master can have one or more IO-Link ports to which only one device can be connected at a time. This can also be a "hub" which, as a concentrator, enables the connection of classic switching sensors and actuators. An IO-Link device can be an intelligent sensor, actuator, hub or, due to bidirectional communication, also a mechatronic component, e.g. a gripper or a power supply unit with IO-Link connection. Intelligent with regard to IO-Link means that a device has identification data e.g. a type designation and a serial number or parameter data (e.g. sensitivities, switching delays or characteristic curves) that can be read or written via the IO-Link protocol. This allows parameters to be changed by the PLC during operation, for example. Intelligent also means, however, that it can provide detailed diagnostic information. IO-Link and the data transmitted with it are often used for preventive maintenance and servicing, e.g. it is possible to set an optical sensor in such a way that it reports via IO-Link in good time if it threatens to become dirty. Cleaning no longer comes as a surprise and blocks production; it can now be put on a production break. The parameters of the sensors and actuators are device- and technology-specific, which is why parameter information in the form of an IODD (IO Device Description) with the description language XML. The IO-Link community provides interfaces to an "IODD Finder", which can be used by engineering or master tools to present the appropriate IODD for a device. Connector Cabling is in the form of an unshielded, three or five conductor cables, not longer than twenty meters, and a standardized four or five pin connector. The master and device pin assignment is based on the specifications in IEC 60947-5-2. For a master, two port classes are defined, port class A and port class B. Port class A uses M5, M8, or M12 connectors, with a maximum of four pins. Port class B uses only M12 connectors with 5 pins. M12 connectors are mechanically "A"-coded according to IEC 61076-2-101. Female connectors are assigned to the master and male connectors to the device. At the master pin 1 to pin 3 provides 24V DC power with max. 200 mA for an optional power supply of the IO-Link device. Pin 4 is used as a digital input (DI) or digital output (DO) according to the IEC 61131-2 specification to allow backward compatibility to proximity sensors according to IEC60947-5-2 or other sensors or electrical switches. The IO-Link master sends a wake-up current pulse to get the IO-Link device from the serial input-output (SIO) state into the single-drop digital communication interface (SDCI) state. In the SDCI state the IO-Link master exchanges information frames with the IO-Link device. In a port class A the pins 2 and 5 are not specified and are left to the manufacturer to define. In a port class B the pins 2 and 5 are configured as an additional power supply. Protocol The IO-Link communications protocol consists of communication ports, communication modes, data types, and transmission speeds. The ports are physically located on the master, and provide it a means for connecting with terminal devices and for bridging to a fieldbus or Ethernet. There are four communication modes that can be applied to a port connected to a terminal device: IO-Link, DI, DQ, and Deactivated. IO-Link mode configures the port for bi-directional communications, DI mode configures it as an input, DQ configures it as an output, and Deactivated just simply deactivates the port. There are four data types: process data, value status data, device data, and event data. The protocol can be configured to operate at transmission speeds of either 4.8 kilobaud, 38.4 kilobaud, or 230.4 kilobaud. The minimum transmission time at 230.4 kilobaud is 400 microseconds. An engineering tool is used for configuring the master to operate as the network bridge. IO-Link Wireless IO-Link Wireless is an extension of IO-Link on the physical level. An IO-Link Wireless Master ("W-Master") behaves like a Master to the superordinate system. There are only virtual ports "down" to the IO-Link Wireless Devices ("W-Devices"). A transmission cycle consists of two phases. To transmit output data, the W master sends a Multicast-W frame (Downlink) with data for the W devices in assigned time slots. Then the W-Master goes on reception and collects in the Uplink Data from the W-Devices which transmit one after the other according to an agreed fixed scheme. To secure the transmission Frequency Hopping and Channel-Blacklisting are used. IO-Link Safety IO-Link Safety is an extension of IO-Link by providing an additional safety communication layer on the existing master and device layers, which thus become the "FS master" and "FS device". One also speaks of the Black Channel principle. The concept has been tested by TÜV SÜD. IO-Link Safety has also extended the OSSD (Output Switching Signal Device) output switching elements commonly used for functional safety in a non-contact protective device like a light curtain to OSSDe. As with standard IO-Link, an FS-Device can be operated both in switching mode as OSSDe and via functionally safe IO-Link communication. During implementation, the safety rules of IEC 61508 and/or ISO 13849 must be observed. Literature Joachim R. Uffelmann, Peter Wienzek, Myriam Jahn: IO-Link. The DNA of Industry 4.0. Edition 1. Vulkan-Verlag GmbH, Essen 2018, ISBN 978-3-8356-7390-8. References ^ "IO-Link System Description – Technology and Application" (PDF). IO-Link Company Community. 2018. Retrieved 2020-05-19. ^ "IODD finder". IO-Link Community Consortium. Retrieved 27 September 2018. ^ "IEC 60947: Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Part 5-2: Control circuitdevices and switching elements - Proximity switches". International Electrotechnical Commission. Retrieved 2020-05-19. ^ "IEC 61076-2-101: Connectors for electronic equipment - Product requirements - Part 2-101: Circular connectors - Detail specification for M12 connectors with screw-locking". International Electrotechnical Commission. Retrieved 20 June 2018. ^ "IO-Link Interface and System Specification" (PDF). IO-Link Community Consortium. Retrieved 20 June 2018. ^ "IO-Link System Description" (PDF). IO-Link Community. Retrieved 20 March 2023. ^ "What is IO-Link?". IO-Link Consortium Community. Retrieved 12 June 2018. ^ "IO-Link Wireless Exposé" (PDF). IO-Link Consortium Community. Retrieved 27 September 2018. ^ "IO-Link Safety System Description, Technology and Application" (PDF). IO-Link Consortium Community. Retrieved 10 October 2018. vteAutomation protocolsProcess automation AS-i BSAP CC-Link Industrial Networks CIP CAN bus CANopen DeviceNet ControlNet DF-1 DirectNET EtherCAT Ethernet Global Data (EGD) Ethernet Powerlink EtherNet/IP Factory Instrumentation Protocol FINS FOUNDATION fieldbus H1 HSE GE SRTP HART Protocol Honeywell SDS HostLink INTERBUS IO-Link MECHATROLINK MelsecNet Modbus Optomux PieP PROFIBUS PROFINET RAPIEnet SERCOS interface SERCOS III Sinec H1 SynqNet TTEthernet Industrial control system MTConnect OPC DA OPC HDA OPC UA Building automation 1-Wire BACnet BatiBUS C-Bus CEBus DALI DSI DyNet EnOcean EHS EIB FIP KNX LonTalk Modbus OpenTherm oBIX VSCP X10 xAP xPL Z-Wave Zigbee Power-system automation IEC 60870 IEC 60870-5 IEC 60870-6 DNP3 Factory Instrumentation Protocol IEC 61850 IEC 62351 Modbus PROFIBUS Automatic meter reading ANSI C12.18 IEC 61107 DLMS/IEC 62056 M-Bus Modbus Zigbee Automobile / Vehicle AFDX ARINC 429 CAN bus ARINC 825 SAE J1939 NMEA 2000 FMS Factory Instrumentation Protocol FlexRay IEBus J1587 J1708 Keyword Protocol 2000 Unified Diagnostic Services LIN MOST SENT (SAE J2716) VAN Cyphal vteIEC standardsIEC 60027 60034 60038 60062 60063 60068 60112 60228 60269 60297 60309 60320 60364 60446 60559 60601 60870 60870-5 60870-6 60906-1 60908 60929 60958 61030 61131 61131-3 61131-9 61158 61162 61334 61355 61360 61400 61499 61508 61511 61784 61850 61851 61883 61960 61968 61970 62014-4 62026 62056 62061 62196 62262 62264 62304 62325 62351 62365 62366 62379 62386 62455 62680 62682 62700 63110 63119 63382 ISO/IEC 646 1989 2022 4909 5218 6429 6523 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8613 8632 8652 8859 9126 9293 9496 9529 9592 9593 9899 9945 9995 10021 10116 10165 10179 10279 10646 10967 11172 11179 11404 11544 11801 12207 13250 13346 13522-5 13568 13816 13818 14443 14496 14651 14882 15288 15291 15408 15444 15445 15504 15511 15693 15897 15938 16262 16485 17024 17025 18004 18014 18181 19752 19757 19770 19788 20000 20802 21000 21827 22275 22537 23000 23003 23008 23270 23360 24707 24727 24744 24752 26300 27000 27000-series 27002 27040 29110 29119 33001 38500 39075 42010 80000 81346 Related International Electrotechnical Commission Io-Link Communication Io-Link Io-Link Sensors
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wireless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#IO-Link_Wireless"},{"link_name":"IEC 61131","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_61131"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor"},{"link_name":"actuators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator"},{"link_name":"Profibus and Profinet International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Profibus_and_Profinet_International&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"IO-Link is a short distance, bi-directional, digital, point-to-point, wired (or wireless), industrial communications networking standard (IEC 61131-9) used for connecting digital sensors and actuators to either a type of industrial fieldbus or a type of industrial Ethernet.[1] Its objective is to provide a technological platform that enables the development and use of sensors and actuators that can produce and consume enriched sets of data that in turn can be used for economically optimizing industrial automated processes and operations. The technology standard is managed by the industry association Profibus and Profinet International.","title":"IO-Link"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor"},{"link_name":"Actuators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuator"},{"link_name":"PLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller"},{"link_name":"IODD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IODD"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"An IO-Link system consists of an IO-Link master and one or more IO-Link devices, i.e. Sensors or Actuators. The IO-Link master provides the interface to the higher-level controller (PLC) and controls the communication with the connected IO-Link devices.An IO-Link master can have one or more IO-Link ports to which only one device can be connected at a time. This can also be a \"hub\" which, as a concentrator, enables the connection of classic switching sensors and actuators.An IO-Link device can be an intelligent sensor, actuator, hub or, due to bidirectional communication, also a mechatronic component, e.g. a gripper or a power supply unit with IO-Link connection. Intelligent with regard to IO-Link means that a device has identification data e.g. a type designation and a serial number or parameter data (e.g. sensitivities, switching delays or characteristic curves) that can be read or written via the IO-Link protocol. This allows parameters to be changed by the PLC during operation, for example. Intelligent also means, however, that it can provide detailed diagnostic information. IO-Link and the data transmitted with it are often used for preventive maintenance and servicing, e.g. it is possible to set an optical sensor in such a way that it reports via IO-Link in good time if it threatens to become dirty. Cleaning no longer comes as a surprise and blocks production; it can now be put on a production break.The parameters of the sensors and actuators are device- and technology-specific, which is why parameter information in the form of an IODD (IO Device Description) with the description language XML. The IO-Link community provides interfaces to an \"IODD Finder\",[2] which can be used by engineering or master tools to present the appropriate IODD for a device.","title":"System overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"M5, M8, or M12 connectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_metric_screw_sized_connectors"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"proximity sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proximity_sensor"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Cabling is in the form of an unshielded, three or five conductor cables, not longer than twenty meters, and a standardized four or five pin connector. The master and device pin assignment is based on the specifications in IEC 60947-5-2.[3] For a master, two port classes are defined, port class A and port class B. \nPort class A uses M5, M8, or M12 connectors, with a maximum of four pins. Port class B uses only M12 connectors with 5 pins. M12 connectors are mechanically \"A\"-coded according to IEC 61076-2-101.[4] Female connectors are assigned to the master and male connectors to the device.At the master pin 1 to pin 3 provides 24V DC power with max. 200 mA for an optional power supply of the IO-Link device. Pin 4 is used as a digital input (DI) or digital output (DO) according to the IEC 61131-2 specification to allow backward compatibility to proximity sensors according to IEC60947-5-2 or other sensors or electrical switches.The IO-Link master sends a wake-up current pulse to get the IO-Link device from the serial input-output (SIO) state into the single-drop digital communication interface (SDCI) state. In the SDCI state the IO-Link master exchanges information frames with the IO-Link device.In a port class A the pins 2 and 5 are not specified and are left to the manufacturer to define. In a port class B the pins 2 and 5 are configured as an additional power supply.[5][6]","title":"Connector"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The IO-Link communications protocol consists of communication ports, communication modes, data types, and transmission speeds. The ports are physically located on the master, and provide it a means for connecting with terminal devices and for bridging to a fieldbus or Ethernet. There are four communication modes that can be applied to a port connected to a terminal device: IO-Link, DI, DQ, and Deactivated. IO-Link mode configures the port for bi-directional communications, DI mode configures it as an input, DQ configures it as an output, and Deactivated just simply deactivates the port. There are four data types: process data, value status data, device data, and event data. The protocol can be configured to operate at transmission speeds of either 4.8 kilobaud, 38.4 kilobaud, or 230.4 kilobaud. The minimum transmission time at 230.4 kilobaud is 400 microseconds. An engineering tool is used for configuring the master to operate as the network bridge.[7]","title":"Protocol"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Multicast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast"},{"link_name":"Downlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downlink"},{"link_name":"Uplink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplink"},{"link_name":"Frequency Hopping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_Hopping"}],"text":"IO-Link Wireless[8] is an extension of IO-Link on the physical level. An IO-Link Wireless Master (\"W-Master\") behaves like a Master to the superordinate system. There are only virtual ports \"down\" to the IO-Link Wireless Devices (\"W-Devices\").A transmission cycle consists of two phases. To transmit output data, the W master sends a Multicast-W frame (Downlink) with data for the W devices in assigned time slots. Then the W-Master goes on reception and collects in the Uplink Data from the W-Devices which transmit one after the other according to an agreed fixed scheme.To secure the transmission Frequency Hopping and Channel-Blacklisting are used.","title":"IO-Link Wireless"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"TÜV SÜD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%9CV_S%C3%9CD"},{"link_name":"functional safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_safety"},{"link_name":"light curtain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_curtain"},{"link_name":"IEC 61508","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEC_61508"},{"link_name":"ISO 13849","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_13849"}],"text":"IO-Link Safety[9] is an extension of IO-Link by providing an additional safety communication layer on the existing master and device layers, which thus become the \"FS master\" and \"FS device\". One also speaks of the Black Channel principle. The concept has been tested by TÜV SÜD.IO-Link Safety has also extended the OSSD (Output Switching Signal Device) output switching elements commonly used for functional safety in a non-contact protective device like a light curtain to OSSDe. As with standard IO-Link, an FS-Device can be operated both in switching mode as OSSDe and via functionally safe IO-Link communication.During implementation, the safety rules of IEC 61508 and/or ISO 13849 must be observed.","title":"IO-Link Safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-8356-7390-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8356-7390-8"}],"text":"Joachim R. Uffelmann, Peter Wienzek, Myriam Jahn: IO-Link. The DNA of Industry 4.0. Edition 1. Vulkan-Verlag GmbH, Essen 2018, ISBN 978-3-8356-7390-8.","title":"Literature"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsey%E2%80%93Cass%E2%80%93Koopmans_model
Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model
["1 Mathematical description","1.1 Model setup","1.2 Maximizing welfare","1.3 Solution","1.4 Graphical analysis in phase space","2 History","3 Notes","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
Neoclassical economic model Part of a series onMacroeconomics Basic concepts Aggregate demand Aggregate supply Business cycle CAGR Deflation Demand shock Disinflation Effective demand Expectations Adaptive Rational Financial crisis Growth Inflation Demand-pull Cost-push Interest rate Investment Liquidity trap Measures of national income and output GDP GNI NNI Microfoundations Money Endogenous Money creation Demand for money Liquidity preference Money supply National accounts SNA Nominal rigidity Price level Recession Shrinkflation Stagflation Supply shock Saving Unemployment Policies Fiscal Monetary Commercial Central bank Universal basic income Models IS–LM AD–AS Keynesian cross Multiplier Accelerator Phillips curve Arrow–Debreu Harrod–Domar Solow–Swan Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans Overlapping generations General equilibrium DSGE Endogenous growth Matching theory Mundell–Fleming Overshooting NAIRU Related fields Econometrics Economic statistics Monetary economics Development economics International economics SchoolsMainstream Keynesian Neo- New Monetarism New classical Real business-cycle theory Stockholm Supply-side New neoclassical synthesis Saltwater and freshwater Heterodox Austrian Chartalism Modern monetary theory Ecological Post-Keynesian Circuitism Disequilibrium Marxian Market monetarism People François Quesnay Adam Smith Thomas Robert Malthus Karl Marx Léon Walras Knut Wicksell Irving Fisher Wesley Clair Mitchell John Maynard Keynes Alvin Hansen Michał Kalecki Gunnar Myrdal Simon Kuznets Joan Robinson Friedrich Hayek John Hicks Richard Stone Hyman Minsky Milton Friedman Paul Samuelson Lawrence Klein Edmund Phelps Robert Lucas Jr. Edward C. Prescott Peter Diamond William Nordhaus Joseph Stiglitz Thomas J. Sargent Paul Krugman N. Gregory Mankiw See also Macroeconomic model Publications in macroeconomics Economics Applied Microeconomics Political economy Mathematical economics Money portal Business portalvte The Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model, or Ramsey growth model, is a neoclassical model of economic growth based primarily on the work of Frank P. Ramsey, with significant extensions by David Cass and Tjalling Koopmans. The Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model differs from the Solow–Swan model in that the choice of consumption is explicitly microfounded at a point in time and so endogenizes the savings rate. As a result, unlike in the Solow–Swan model, the saving rate may not be constant along the transition to the long run steady state. Another implication of the model is that the outcome is Pareto optimal or Pareto efficient. Originally Ramsey set out the model as a social planner's problem of maximizing levels of consumption over successive generations. Only later was a model adopted by Cass and Koopmans as a description of a decentralized dynamic economy with a representative agent. The Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model aims only at explaining long-run economic growth rather than business cycle fluctuations, and does not include any sources of disturbances like market imperfections, heterogeneity among households, or exogenous shocks. Subsequent researchers therefore extended the model, allowing for government-purchases shocks, variations in employment, and other sources of disturbances, which is known as real business cycle theory. Mathematical description Model setup In the usual setup, time is continuous starting, for simplicity, at t = 0 {\displaystyle t=0} and continuing forever. By assumption, the only productive factors are capital K {\displaystyle K} and labour L {\displaystyle L} , both required to be nonnegative. The labour force, which makes up the entire population, is assumed to grow at a constant rate n {\displaystyle n} , i.e. L ˙ = d L d t = n L {\displaystyle {\dot {L}}={\tfrac {\mathrm {d} L}{\mathrm {d} t}}=nL} , implying that L = L 0 e n t {\displaystyle L=L_{0}e^{nt}} with initial level L 0 > 0 {\displaystyle L_{0}>0} at t = 0 {\displaystyle t=0} . Finally, let Y {\displaystyle Y} denote aggregate production, and C {\displaystyle C} denote aggregate consumption. The variables that the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model ultimately aims to describe are c = C L {\displaystyle c={\frac {C}{L}}} , the per capita (or more accurately, per labour) consumption, as well as k = K L {\displaystyle k={\frac {K}{L}}} , the so-called capital intensity. It does so by first connecting capital accumulation, written K ˙ = d K d t {\displaystyle {\dot {K}}={\tfrac {\mathrm {d} K}{\mathrm {d} t}}} in Newton's notation, with consumption C {\displaystyle C} , describing a consumption-investment trade-off. More specifically, since the existing capital stock decays by depreciation rate δ {\displaystyle \delta } (assumed to be constant), it requires investment of current-period production output Y {\displaystyle Y} . Thus, K ˙ = Y − δ K − c L {\displaystyle {\dot {K}}=Y-\delta K-cL} The relationship between the productive factors and aggregate output is described by the aggregate production function, Y = F ( K , L ) {\displaystyle Y=F(K,L)} . A common choice is the Cobb–Douglas production function F ( K , L ) = A K 1 − α L α {\displaystyle F(K,L)=AK^{1-\alpha }L^{\alpha }} , but generally any production function satisfying the Inada conditions is permissible. Importantly, though, F {\displaystyle F} is required to be homogeneous of degree 1, which economically implies constant returns to scale. With this assumption, we can re-express aggregate output in per capita terms F ( K , L ) = L ⋅ F ( K L , 1 ) = L ⋅ f ( k ) {\displaystyle F(K,L)=L\cdot F\left({\frac {K}{L}},1\right)=L\cdot f(k)} For example, if we use the Cobb–Douglas production function with A = 1 , α = 0.5 {\displaystyle A=1,\alpha =0.5} , then f ( k ) = k 0.5 {\displaystyle f(k)=k^{0.5}} . To obtain the first key equation of the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model, the dynamic equation for the capital stock needs to be expressed in per capita terms. Noting the quotient rule for d d t ( K L ) {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\mathrm {d} }{\mathrm {d} t}}\left({\tfrac {K}{L}}\right)} , we have k ˙ = f ( k ) − ( n + δ ) k − c {\displaystyle {\dot {k}}=f(k)-(n+\delta )k-c} a non-linear differential equation akin to the Solow–Swan model. Maximizing welfare If we ignore the problem of how consumption is distributed, then the rate of utility U {\displaystyle U} is a function of aggregate consumption. That is, U = U ( C , t ) {\displaystyle U=U(C,t)} . To avoid the problem of infinity, we exponentially discount future utility at a discount rate ρ ∈ ( 0 , ∞ ) {\displaystyle \rho \in (0,\infty )} . A high ρ {\displaystyle \rho } reflects high impatience. The social planner's problem is maximizing the social welfare function U 0 = ∫ 0 ∞ e − ρ t U ( C , t ) d t {\displaystyle U_{0}=\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-\rho t}U(C,t)\,\mathrm {d} t} . Assume that the economy is populated by identical immortal individuals with unchanging utility functions u ( c ) {\displaystyle u(c)} (a representative agent), such that the total utility is: U ( C , t ) = L u ( c ) = L 0 e n t u ( c ) {\displaystyle U(C,t)=Lu(c)=L_{0}e^{nt}u(c)} The utility function is assumed to be strictly increasing (i.e., there is no bliss point) and concave in c {\displaystyle c} , with lim c → 0 u c = ∞ {\displaystyle \lim _{c\to 0}u_{c}=\infty } , where u c {\displaystyle u_{c}} is marginal utility of consumption ∂ u ∂ c {\displaystyle {\tfrac {\partial u}{\partial c}}} . Thus we have the social planner's problem: max c ∫ 0 ∞ e − ( ρ − n ) t u ( c ) d t {\displaystyle \max _{c}\int _{0}^{\infty }e^{-(\rho -n)t}u(c)\,\mathrm {d} t} subject to c = f ( k ) − ( n + δ ) k − k ˙ {\displaystyle {\text{subject to}}\quad c=f(k)-(n+\delta )k-{\dot {k}}} where an initial non-zero capital stock k ( 0 ) = k 0 > 0 {\displaystyle k(0)=k_{0}>0} is given. To ensure that the integral is well-defined, we impose ρ > n {\displaystyle \rho >n} . Solution The solution, usually found by using a Hamiltonian function, is a differential equation that describes the optimal evolution of consumption, c ˙ = σ ( c ) [ f k ( k ) − δ − ρ ] ⋅ c {\displaystyle {\dot {c}}=\sigma (c)\left\cdot c} the Keynes–Ramsey rule. The term f k ( k ) − δ − ρ {\displaystyle f_{k}(k)-\delta -\rho } , where f k = ∂ k f {\displaystyle f_{k}=\partial _{k}f} is the marginal product of capital, reflects the marginal return on net investment, accounting for capital depreciation and time discounting. Here σ ( c ) {\displaystyle \sigma (c)} is the elasticity of intertemporal substitution, defined by σ ( c ) = − u c ( c ) c ⋅ u c c ( c ) = − d ln ⁡ c d ln ⁡ ( u ′ ( c ) ) {\displaystyle \sigma (c)=-{\frac {u_{c}(c)}{c\cdot u_{cc}(c)}}=-{\frac {d\ln c}{d\ln(u'(c))}}} It is formally equivalent to the inverse of relative risk aversion. The quantity reflects the curvature of the utility function and indicates how much the representative agent wishes to smooth consumption over time. If the agent has high relative risk aversion, then it has low EIS, and thus would be more willing to smooth consumption over time. It is often assumed that u {\displaystyle u} is strictly monotonically increasing and concave, thus σ > 0 {\displaystyle \sigma >0} . In particular, if utility is logarithmic, then it is constant: u ( c ) = u 0 ln ⁡ c ⟹ σ ( c ) = 1 {\displaystyle u(c)=u_{0}\ln c\implies \sigma (c)=1} We can rewrite the Ramsey rule as d d t ln ⁡ c ⏟ consumption delay rate = σ ( c ) ⏟ EIS at current consumption level [ f k ( k ) − δ − ρ ] ⏟ marginal return on net investment {\displaystyle \underbrace {{\frac {d}{dt}}\ln c} _{\text{consumption delay rate}}=\underbrace {\sigma (c)} _{{\text{EIS at current consumption level}}\quad }\underbrace {} _{\text{marginal return on net investment}}} where we interpret d d t ln ⁡ c {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}\ln c} as the "consumption delay rate", because if it is high, then it means the agent is consuming a lot less now compared to later, which is essentially what delayed consumption is about. Graphical analysis in phase space Phase diagram of the Ramsey model, for the case of f ( k ) = k 0.5 {\displaystyle f(k)=k^{0.5}} , and n , δ , ρ , σ = 1 , 1 , 1.1 , 1 {\displaystyle n,\delta ,\rho ,\sigma =1,1,1.1,1} . Phase space graph (or phase diagram) of the Ramsey model. The blue line represents the dynamic adjustment (or saddle) path of the economy in which all the constraints present in the model are satisfied. It is a stable path of the dynamic system. The red lines represent dynamic paths which are ruled out by the transversality condition. The two coupled differential equations for k {\displaystyle k} and c {\displaystyle c} form the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans dynamical system. { k ˙ = f ( k ) − ( n + δ ) k − c c ˙ = σ ( c ) [ f k ( k ) − δ − ρ ] ⋅ c {\displaystyle {\begin{cases}{\dot {k}}=f(k)-(n+\delta )k-c\\{\dot {c}}=\sigma (c)\left\cdot c\end{cases}}} A steady state ( k ∗ , c ∗ ) {\displaystyle (k^{\ast },c^{\ast })} for the system is found by setting k ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {k}}} and c ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {c}}} equal to zero. There are three solutions: f k ( k ∗ ) = δ + ρ and c ∗ = f ( k ∗ ) − ( n + δ ) k ∗ {\displaystyle f_{k}\left(k^{\ast }\right)=\delta +\rho \quad {\text{and}}\quad c^{\ast }=f\left(k^{\ast }\right)-(n+\delta )k^{\ast }} ( 0 , 0 ) {\displaystyle (0,0)} f ( k ∗ ) = ( n + δ ) k ∗  with  k ∗ > 0 , c ∗ = 0 {\displaystyle f(k^{*})=(n+\delta )k^{*}{\text{ with }}k^{*}>0,c^{*}=0} The first is the only solution in the interior of the upper quadrant. It is a saddle point (as shown below). The second is a repelling point. The third is a degenerate stable equilibrium. By default, the first solution is meant, although the other two solutions are important to keep track of. Any optimal trajectory must follow the dynamical system. However, since the variable c {\displaystyle c} is a control variable, at each capital intensity k {\displaystyle k} , to find its corresponding optimal trajectory, we still need to find its starting consumption rate c ( 0 ) {\displaystyle c(0)} . As it turns out, the optimal trajectory is the unique one that converges to the interior equilibrium point. Any other trajectory either converges to the all-saving equilibrium with k ∗ > 0 , c ∗ = 0 {\displaystyle k^{*}>0,c^{*}=0} , or diverges to k → 0 , c → ∞ {\displaystyle k\to 0,c\to \infty } , which means that the economy expends all its capital in finite time. Both achieve a lower overall utility than the trajectory towards the interior equilibrium point. A qualitative statement about the stability of the solution ( k ∗ , c ∗ ) {\displaystyle (k^{\ast },c^{\ast })} requires a linearization by a first-order Taylor polynomial [ k ˙ c ˙ ] ≈ J ( k ∗ , c ∗ ) [ ( k − k ∗ ) ( c − c ∗ ) ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {k}}\\{\dot {c}}\end{bmatrix}}\approx \mathbf {J} (k^{\ast },c^{\ast }){\begin{bmatrix}(k-k^{\ast })\\(c-c^{\ast })\end{bmatrix}}} where J ( k ∗ , c ∗ ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} (k^{\ast },c^{\ast })} is the Jacobian matrix evaluated at steady state, given by J ( k ∗ , c ∗ ) = [ ρ − n − 1 1 σ f k k ( k ) ⋅ c ∗ 0 ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \left(k^{\ast },c^{\ast }\right)={\begin{bmatrix}\rho -n&-1\\{\frac {1}{\sigma }}f_{kk}(k)\cdot c^{\ast }&0\end{bmatrix}}} which has determinant | J ( k ∗ , c ∗ ) | = 1 σ f k k ( k ) ⋅ c ∗ < 0 {\displaystyle \left|\mathbf {J} \left(k^{\ast },c^{\ast }\right)\right|={\frac {1}{\sigma }}f_{kk}(k)\cdot c^{\ast }<0} since c ∗ > 0 {\displaystyle c^{*}>0} , σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is positive by assumption, and f k k < 0 {\displaystyle f_{kk}<0} since f {\displaystyle f} is concave (Inada condition). Since the determinant equals the product of the eigenvalues, the eigenvalues must be real and opposite in sign. Hence by the stable manifold theorem, the equilibrium is a saddle point and there exists a unique stable arm, or “saddle path”, that converges on the equilibrium, indicated by the blue curve in the phase diagram. The system is called “saddle path stable” since all unstable trajectories are ruled out by the “no Ponzi scheme” condition: lim t → ∞ k ⋅ e − ∫ 0 t ( f k − n − δ ) d s ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \lim _{t\to \infty }k\cdot e^{-\int _{0}^{t}\left(f_{k}-n-\delta \right)\mathrm {d} s}\geq 0} implying that the present value of the capital stock cannot be negative. History This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This section may lend undue weight to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies. Please help improve it by rewriting it in a balanced fashion that contextualizes different points of view. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Spear and Young re-examine the history of optimal growth during the 1950s and 1960s, focusing in part on the veracity of the claimed simultaneous and independent development of Cass' "Optimum growth in an aggregative model of capital accumulation" (published in 1965 in the Review of Economic Studies), and Tjalling Koopman's "On the concept of optimal economic growth" (published in Study Week on the Econometric Approach to Development Planning, 1965, Rome: Pontifical Academy of Science). Over their lifetimes, neither Cass nor Koopmans ever suggested that their results characterizing optimal growth in the one-sector, continuous-time growth model were anything other than "simultaneous and independent". That the issue of priority ever became a discussion point was due only to the fact that in the published version of Koopmans' work, he cited the chapter from Cass' thesis that later became the RES paper. In his paper, Koopmans states in a footnote that Cass independently obtained conditions similar to what Koopmans finds, and that Cass also considers the limiting case where the discount rate goes to zero in his paper. For his part, Cass notes that "after the original version of this paper was completed, a very similar analysis by Koopmans came to our attention. We draw on his results in discussing the limiting case, where the effective social discount rate goes to zero". In the interview that Cass gave to Macroeconomic Dynamics, he credits Koopmans with pointing him to Frank Ramsey's previous work, claiming to have been embarrassed not to have known of it, but says nothing to dispel the basic claim that his work and Koopmans' were in fact independent. Spear and Young dispute this history, based upon a previously overlooked working paper version of Koopmans' paper, which was the basis for Koopmans' oft-cited presentation at a conference held by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in October 1963. In this Cowles Discussion paper, there is an error. Koopmans claims in his main result that the Euler equations are both necessary and sufficient to characterize optimal trajectories in the model because any solutions to the Euler equations which do not converge to the optimal steady-state would hit either a zero consumption or zero capital boundary in finite time. This error was apparently presented at the Vatican conference, although at the time of Koopmans' presenting it, no participant commented on the problem. This can be inferred because the discussion after each paper presentation at the Vatican conference is preserved verbatim in the conference volume. In the Vatican volume discussion following the presentation of a paper by Edmond Malinvaud, the issue does arise because of Malinvaud's explicit inclusion of a so-called "transversality condition" (which Malinvaud calls Condition I) in his paper. At the end of the presentation, Koopmans asks Malinvaud whether it is not the case that Condition I simply guarantees that solutions to the Euler equations that do not converge to the optimal steady-state hit a boundary in finite time. Malinvaud replies that this is not the case, and suggests that Koopmans look at the example with log utility functions and Cobb-Douglas production functions. At this point, Koopmans obviously recognizes he has a problem, but, based on a confusing appendix to a later version of the paper produced after the Vatican conference, he seems unable to decide how to deal with the issue raised by Malinvaud's Condition I. From the Macroeconomic Dynamics interview with Cass, it is clear that Koopmans met with Cass' thesis advisor, Hirofumi Uzawa, at the winter meetings of the Econometric Society in January 1964, where Uzawa advised him that his student had solved this problem already. Uzawa must have then provided Koopmans with the copy of Cass' thesis chapter, which he apparently sent along in the guise of the IMSSS Technical Report that Koopmans cited in the published version of his paper. The word "guise" is appropriate here, because the TR number listed in Koopmans' citation would have put the issue date of the report in the early 1950s, which it clearly was not. In the published version of Koopmans' paper, he imposes a new Condition Alpha in addition to the Euler equations, stating that the only admissible trajectories among those satisfying the Euler equations is the one that converges to the optimal steady-state equilibrium of the model. This result is derived in Cass' paper via the imposition of a transversality condition that Cass deduced from relevant sections of a book by Lev Pontryagin. Spear and Young conjecture that Koopmans took this route because he did not want to appear to be "borrowing" either Malinvaud's or Cass' transversality technology. Based on this and other examination of Malinvaud's contributions in 1950s—specifically his intuition of the importance of the transversality condition—Spear and Young suggest that the neo-classical growth model might better be called the Ramsey–Malinvaud–Cass model than the established Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans honorific. Notes ^ This result is due not just to the endogeneity of the saving rate but also because of the infinite nature of the planning horizon of the agents in the model; it does not hold in other models with endogenous saving rates but more complex intergenerational dynamics, for example, in Samuelson's or Diamond's overlapping generations models. ^ The assumption that lim c → 0 u c = ∞ {\displaystyle \lim _{c\to 0}u_{c}=\infty } is in fact crucial for the analysis. If u c ( 0 ) < ∞ {\displaystyle u_{c}(0)<\infty } , then for low values of k {\displaystyle k} the optimal value of c {\displaystyle c} is 0 and therefore if k ( 0 ) {\displaystyle k(0)} is sufficiently low there exists an initial time interval where c ˙ = 0 {\displaystyle {\dot {c}}=0} even if f k − δ − ρ > 0 {\displaystyle f_{k}-\delta -\rho >0} , see Nævdal, E. (2019). "New Insights From The Canonical Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans Growth Model". Macroeconomic Dynamics. 25 (6): 1569–1577. doi:10.1017/S1365100519000786. S2CID 214268940. ^ The Hamiltonian for the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans problem is H = e − ρ t u ( c ) + μ [ f ( k ) − ( n + δ ) k − c ] {\displaystyle H=e^{-\rho t}u(c)+\mu \left} where μ {\displaystyle \mu } is the costate variable usually economically interpreted as the shadow price. Because the terminal value of k {\displaystyle k} is free but may not be negative, a transversality condition lim t → ∞ μ ⋅ k = 0 {\displaystyle \lim _{t\to \infty }\mu \cdot k=0} similar to the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker “complementary slackness” condition is required. From the first-order conditions for maximization of the Hamiltonian one can derive the equation of motion for consumption, see Ferguson, Brian S.; Lim, G. C. (1998). Introduction to Dynamic Economic Models. Manchester University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-7190-4997-2, or Gandolfo, Giancarlo (1996). Economic Dynamics (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 381–384. ISBN 978-3-540-60988-9. ^ The problem can also be solved with classical calculus of variations methods, see Hadley, G.; Kemp, M. C. (1971). Variational Methods in Economics. New York: Elsevier. pp. 50–71. ISBN 978-0-444-10097-9. ^ The Jacobian matrix of the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans system is J ( k , c ) = [ ∂ k ˙ ∂ k ∂ k ˙ ∂ c ∂ c ˙ ∂ k ∂ c ˙ ∂ c ] = [ f k ( k ) − ( n + δ ) − 1 1 σ f k k ( k ) ⋅ c 1 σ [ f k ( k ) − δ − ρ ] ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} \left(k,c\right)={\begin{bmatrix}{\frac {\partial {\dot {k}}}{\partial k}}&{\frac {\partial {\dot {k}}}{\partial c}}\\{\frac {\partial {\dot {c}}}{\partial k}}&{\frac {\partial {\dot {c}}}{\partial c}}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}f_{k}(k)-(n+\delta )&-1\\{\frac {1}{\sigma }}f_{kk}(k)\cdot c&{\frac {1}{\sigma }}\left\end{bmatrix}}} See Afonso, Oscar; Vasconcelos, Paulo B. (2016). Computational Economics : A Concise Introduction. New York: Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-138-85965-4. ^ It can be shown that the “no Ponzi scheme” condition follows from the transversality condition on the Hamiltonian, see Barro, Robert J.; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2004). Economic Growth (Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-0-262-02553-9. References ^ Ramsey, Frank P. (1928). "A Mathematical Theory of Saving". Economic Journal. 38 (152): 543–559. doi:10.2307/2224098. JSTOR 2224098. ^ Cass, David (1965). "Optimum Growth in an Aggregative Model of Capital Accumulation". Review of Economic Studies. 32 (3): 233–240. doi:10.2307/2295827. JSTOR 2295827. ^ Koopmans, T. C. (1965). "On the Concept of Optimal Economic Growth". The Economic Approach to Development Planning. Chicago: Rand McNally. pp. 225–287. ^ Collard, David A. (2011). "Ramsey, saving and the generations". Generations of Economists. London: Routledge. pp. 256–273. ISBN 978-0-415-56541-7. ^ Blanchard, Olivier Jean; Fischer, Stanley (1989). Lectures on Macroeconomics. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-0-262-02283-5. ^ Beavis, Brian; Dobbs, Ian (1990). Optimization and Stability Theory for Economic Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-521-33605-5. ^ Roe, Terry L.; Smith, Rodney B. W.; Saracoglu, D. Sirin (2009). Multisector Growth Models: Theory and Application. New York: Springer. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-387-77358-2. ^ Spear, S. E.; Young, W. (2014). "Optimum Savings and Optimal Growth: The Cass–Malinvaud–Koopmans Nexus". Macroeconomic Dynamics. 18 (1): 215–243. doi:10.1017/S1365100513000291. S2CID 1340808. ^ Koopmans, Tjalling (December 1963). "On the Concept of Optimal Economic Growth" (PDF). Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper 163. ^ McKenzie, Lionel (2002). "Some Early Conferences on Growth Theory". In Bitros, George; Katsoulacos, Yannis (eds.). Essays in Economic Theory, Growth and Labor Markets. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. pp. 3–18. ISBN 978-1-84064-739-6. ^ Pontryagin, Lev; Boltyansky, Vladimir; Gamkrelidze, Revaz; Mishchenko, Evgenii (1962). The Mathematical Theory of Optimal Processes. New York: John Wiley. Further reading Acemoglu, Daron (2009). "The Neoclassical Growth Model". Introduction to Modern Economic Growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 287–326. ISBN 978-0-691-13292-1. Barro, Robert J.; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2004). "Growth Models with Consumer Optimization". Economic Growth (Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 85–142. ISBN 978-0-262-02553-9. Bénassy, Jean-Pascal (2011). "The Ramsey Model". Macroeconomic Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 145–160. ISBN 978-0-19-538771-1. Blanchard, Olivier Jean; Fischer, Stanley (1989). "Consumption and Investment: Basic Infinite Horizon Models". Lectures on Macroeconomics. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 37–89. ISBN 978-0-262-02283-5. Miao, Jianjun (2014). "Neoclassical Growth Models". Economic Dynamics in Discrete Time. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 353–364. ISBN 978-0-262-02761-8. Novales, Alfonso; Fernández, Esther; Ruíz, Jesús (2009). "Optimal Growth: Continuous Time Analysis". Economic Growth: Theory and Numerical Solution Methods. Berlin: Springer. pp. 101–154. ISBN 978-3-540-68665-1. Romer, David (2011). "Infinite-Horizon and Overlapping-Generations Models". Advanced Macroeconomics (Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 49–77. ISBN 978-0-07-351137-5. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neoclassical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_economics"},{"link_name":"economic growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growth"},{"link_name":"Frank P. Ramsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"David Cass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Cass"},{"link_name":"Tjalling Koopmans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tjalling_Koopmans"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Solow–Swan model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solow%E2%80%93Swan_model"},{"link_name":"consumption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumption_(economics)"},{"link_name":"microfounded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfoundations"},{"link_name":"savings rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saving"},{"link_name":"steady state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady_state"},{"link_name":"Pareto optimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency"},{"link_name":"Pareto efficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pareto_efficiency"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"social planner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_planner"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"representative agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_agent"},{"link_name":"shocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_(economics)"},{"link_name":"real business cycle theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_business_cycle_theory"}],"text":"The Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model, or Ramsey growth model, is a neoclassical model of economic growth based primarily on the work of Frank P. Ramsey,[1] with significant extensions by David Cass and Tjalling Koopmans.[2][3] The Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model differs from the Solow–Swan model in that the choice of consumption is explicitly microfounded at a point in time and so endogenizes the savings rate. As a result, unlike in the Solow–Swan model, the saving rate may not be constant along the transition to the long run steady state. Another implication of the model is that the outcome is Pareto optimal or Pareto efficient.[note 1]Originally Ramsey set out the model as a social planner's problem of maximizing levels of consumption over successive generations.[4] Only later was a model adopted by Cass and Koopmans as a description of a decentralized dynamic economy with a representative agent. The Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model aims only at explaining long-run economic growth rather than business cycle fluctuations, and does not include any sources of disturbances like market imperfections, heterogeneity among households, or exogenous shocks. Subsequent researchers therefore extended the model, allowing for government-purchases shocks, variations in employment, and other sources of disturbances, which is known as real business cycle theory.","title":"Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mathematical description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"per capita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_capita"},{"link_name":"capital intensity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_intensity"},{"link_name":"capital accumulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_accumulation"},{"link_name":"Newton's notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_notation"},{"link_name":"investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment"},{"link_name":"aggregate production function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggregate_production_function"},{"link_name":"Cobb–Douglas production function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobb%E2%80%93Douglas_production_function"},{"link_name":"Inada conditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inada_conditions"},{"link_name":"homogeneous of degree 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_function"},{"link_name":"constant returns to scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_returns_to_scale"},{"link_name":"quotient rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_rule"},{"link_name":"Solow–Swan model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solow%E2%80%93Swan_model"}],"sub_title":"Model setup","text":"In the usual setup, time is continuous starting, for simplicity, at \n \n \n \n t\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t=0}\n \n and continuing forever. By assumption, the only productive factors are capital \n \n \n \n K\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K}\n \n and labour \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L}\n \n, both required to be nonnegative. The labour force, which makes up the entire population, is assumed to grow at a constant rate \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n, i.e. \n \n \n \n \n \n \n L\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n L\n \n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n =\n n\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {L}}={\\tfrac {\\mathrm {d} L}{\\mathrm {d} t}}=nL}\n \n, implying that \n \n \n \n L\n =\n \n L\n \n 0\n \n \n \n e\n \n n\n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L=L_{0}e^{nt}}\n \n with initial level \n \n \n \n \n L\n \n 0\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L_{0}>0}\n \n at \n \n \n \n t\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t=0}\n \n. Finally, let \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n denote aggregate production, and \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n denote aggregate consumption.The variables that the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model ultimately aims to describe are \n \n \n \n c\n =\n \n \n C\n L\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c={\\frac {C}{L}}}\n \n, the per capita (or more accurately, per labour) consumption, as well as \n \n \n \n k\n =\n \n \n K\n L\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle k={\\frac {K}{L}}}\n \n, the so-called capital intensity. It does so by first connecting capital accumulation, written \n \n \n \n \n \n \n K\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n K\n \n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {K}}={\\tfrac {\\mathrm {d} K}{\\mathrm {d} t}}}\n \n in Newton's notation, with consumption \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n, describing a consumption-investment trade-off. More specifically, since the existing capital stock decays by depreciation rate \n \n \n \n δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta }\n \n (assumed to be constant), it requires investment of current-period production output \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y}\n \n. Thus,K\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n Y\n −\n δ\n K\n −\n c\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {K}}=Y-\\delta K-cL}The relationship between the productive factors and aggregate output is described by the aggregate production function, \n \n \n \n Y\n =\n F\n (\n K\n ,\n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y=F(K,L)}\n \n. A common choice is the Cobb–Douglas production function \n \n \n \n F\n (\n K\n ,\n L\n )\n =\n A\n \n K\n \n 1\n −\n α\n \n \n \n L\n \n α\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle F(K,L)=AK^{1-\\alpha }L^{\\alpha }}\n \n, but generally any production function satisfying the Inada conditions is permissible. Importantly, though, \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F}\n \n is required to be homogeneous of degree 1, which economically implies constant returns to scale. With this assumption, we can re-express aggregate output in per capita termsF\n (\n K\n ,\n L\n )\n =\n L\n ⋅\n F\n \n (\n \n \n \n K\n L\n \n \n ,\n 1\n \n )\n \n =\n L\n ⋅\n f\n (\n k\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F(K,L)=L\\cdot F\\left({\\frac {K}{L}},1\\right)=L\\cdot f(k)}A\n =\n 1\n ,\n α\n =\n 0.5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A=1,\\alpha =0.5}f\n (\n k\n )\n =\n \n k\n \n 0.5\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(k)=k^{0.5}}To obtain the first key equation of the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans model, the dynamic equation for the capital stock needs to be expressed in per capita terms. Noting the quotient rule for \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n K\n L\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {\\mathrm {d} }{\\mathrm {d} t}}\\left({\\tfrac {K}{L}}\\right)}\n \n, we havek\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n f\n (\n k\n )\n −\n (\n n\n +\n δ\n )\n k\n −\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {k}}=f(k)-(n+\\delta )k-c}a non-linear differential equation akin to the Solow–Swan model.","title":"Mathematical description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"exponentially discount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_discounting"},{"link_name":"discount rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertemporal_choice"},{"link_name":"impatience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_preference"},{"link_name":"social planner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_planner"},{"link_name":"social welfare function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_welfare_function"},{"link_name":"representative agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_(economics)"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Maximizing welfare","text":"If we ignore the problem of how consumption is distributed, then the rate of utility \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U}\n \n is a function of aggregate consumption. That is, \n \n \n \n U\n =\n U\n (\n C\n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U=U(C,t)}\n \n. To avoid the problem of infinity, we exponentially discount future utility at a discount rate \n \n \n \n ρ\n ∈\n (\n 0\n ,\n ∞\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho \\in (0,\\infty )}\n \n. A high \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n reflects high impatience.The social planner's problem is maximizing the social welfare function \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n ρ\n t\n \n \n U\n (\n C\n ,\n t\n )\n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{0}=\\int _{0}^{\\infty }e^{-\\rho t}U(C,t)\\,\\mathrm {d} t}\n \n.Assume that the economy is populated by identical immortal individuals with unchanging utility functions \n \n \n \n u\n (\n c\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u(c)}\n \n (a representative agent), such that the total utility is:U\n (\n C\n ,\n t\n )\n =\n L\n u\n (\n c\n )\n =\n \n L\n \n 0\n \n \n \n e\n \n n\n t\n \n \n u\n (\n c\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U(C,t)=Lu(c)=L_{0}e^{nt}u(c)}bliss pointc\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}lim\n \n c\n →\n 0\n \n \n \n u\n \n c\n \n \n =\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lim _{c\\to 0}u_{c}=\\infty }[note 2]u\n \n c\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{c}}marginal utility∂\n u\n \n \n ∂\n c\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\tfrac {\\partial u}{\\partial c}}}Thus we have the social planner's problem:max\n \n c\n \n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n (\n ρ\n −\n n\n )\n t\n \n \n u\n (\n c\n )\n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\max _{c}\\int _{0}^{\\infty }e^{-(\\rho -n)t}u(c)\\,\\mathrm {d} t}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n subject to\n \n \n c\n =\n f\n (\n k\n )\n −\n (\n n\n +\n δ\n )\n k\n −\n \n \n \n k\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{subject to}}\\quad c=f(k)-(n+\\delta )k-{\\dot {k}}}where an initial non-zero capital stock \n \n \n \n k\n (\n 0\n )\n =\n \n k\n \n 0\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k(0)=k_{0}>0}\n \n is given.To ensure that the integral is well-defined, we impose \n \n \n \n ρ\n >\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho >n}\n \n.","title":"Mathematical description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hamiltonian function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_(control_theory)"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Keynes–Ramsey rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynes%E2%80%93Ramsey_rule"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"marginal product of capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_product_of_capital"},{"link_name":"net investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_investment"},{"link_name":"elasticity of intertemporal substitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_of_intertemporal_substitution"}],"sub_title":"Solution","text":"The solution, usually found by using a Hamiltonian function,[note 3][note 4] is a differential equation that describes the optimal evolution of consumption,c\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n σ\n (\n c\n )\n \n [\n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n −\n δ\n −\n ρ\n \n ]\n \n ⋅\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {c}}=\\sigma (c)\\left[f_{k}(k)-\\delta -\\rho \\right]\\cdot c}the Keynes–Ramsey rule.[5]The term \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n −\n δ\n −\n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{k}(k)-\\delta -\\rho }\n \n, where \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n =\n \n ∂\n \n k\n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{k}=\\partial _{k}f}\n \n is the marginal product of capital, reflects the marginal return on net investment, accounting for capital depreciation and time discounting.Here \n \n \n \n σ\n (\n c\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma (c)}\n \n is the elasticity of intertemporal substitution, defined byσ\n (\n c\n )\n =\n −\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n c\n \n \n (\n c\n )\n \n \n c\n ⋅\n \n u\n \n c\n c\n \n \n (\n c\n )\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n d\n ln\n ⁡\n c\n \n \n d\n ln\n ⁡\n (\n \n u\n ′\n \n (\n c\n )\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma (c)=-{\\frac {u_{c}(c)}{c\\cdot u_{cc}(c)}}=-{\\frac {d\\ln c}{d\\ln(u'(c))}}}relative risk aversioncurvaturesmooth consumptionIt is often assumed that \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u}\n \n is strictly monotonically increasing and concave, thus \n \n \n \n σ\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma >0}\n \n. In particular, if utility is logarithmic, then it is constant:u\n (\n c\n )\n =\n \n u\n \n 0\n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n c\n \n ⟹\n \n σ\n (\n c\n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u(c)=u_{0}\\ln c\\implies \\sigma (c)=1}d\n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n c\n \n ⏟\n \n \n \n consumption delay rate\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n σ\n (\n c\n )\n \n ⏟\n \n \n \n \n EIS at current consumption level\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n −\n δ\n −\n ρ\n ]\n \n ⏟\n \n \n \n marginal return on net investment\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\underbrace {{\\frac {d}{dt}}\\ln c} _{\\text{consumption delay rate}}=\\underbrace {\\sigma (c)} _{{\\text{EIS at current consumption level}}\\quad }\\underbrace {[f_{k}(k)-\\delta -\\rho ]} _{\\text{marginal return on net investment}}}d\n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n ln\n ⁡\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d}{dt}}\\ln c}","title":"Mathematical description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_the_Ramsey_model.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ramseypic.svg"},{"link_name":"Phase space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_space"},{"link_name":"dynamical system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_system"},{"link_name":"steady state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steady_state"},{"link_name":"stability of the solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stability_theory"},{"link_name":"Taylor polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_polynomial"},{"link_name":"Jacobian matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobian_matrix_and_determinant"},{"link_name":"[note 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"determinant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Determinant"},{"link_name":"concave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concave_function"},{"link_name":"eigenvalues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalues_and_eigenvectors"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"stable manifold theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_manifold_theorem"},{"link_name":"saddle point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saddle_point"},{"link_name":"Ponzi scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponzi_scheme"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"present value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_value"},{"link_name":"[note 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Graphical analysis in phase space","text":"Phase diagram of the Ramsey model, for the case of \n \n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n =\n \n k\n \n 0.5\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(k)=k^{0.5}}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n n\n ,\n δ\n ,\n ρ\n ,\n σ\n =\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1.1\n ,\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n,\\delta ,\\rho ,\\sigma =1,1,1.1,1}\n \n.Phase space graph (or phase diagram) of the Ramsey model. The blue line represents the dynamic adjustment (or saddle) path of the economy in which all the constraints present in the model are satisfied. It is a stable path of the dynamic system. The red lines represent dynamic paths which are ruled out by the transversality condition.The two coupled differential equations for \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n and \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n form the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans dynamical system.{\n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n f\n (\n k\n )\n −\n (\n n\n +\n δ\n )\n k\n −\n c\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n c\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n σ\n (\n c\n )\n \n [\n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n −\n δ\n −\n ρ\n \n ]\n \n ⋅\n c\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{cases}{\\dot {k}}=f(k)-(n+\\delta )k-c\\\\{\\dot {c}}=\\sigma (c)\\left[f_{k}(k)-\\delta -\\rho \\right]\\cdot c\\end{cases}}}A steady state \n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (k^{\\ast },c^{\\ast })}\n \n for the system is found by setting \n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {k}}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n \n c\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {c}}}\n \n equal to zero. There are three solutions:f\n \n k\n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n =\n δ\n +\n ρ\n \n \n and\n \n \n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n f\n \n (\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n −\n (\n n\n +\n δ\n )\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{k}\\left(k^{\\ast }\\right)=\\delta +\\rho \\quad {\\text{and}}\\quad c^{\\ast }=f\\left(k^{\\ast }\\right)-(n+\\delta )k^{\\ast }}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (0,0)}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n f\n (\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n =\n (\n n\n +\n δ\n )\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n  with \n \n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n >\n 0\n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(k^{*})=(n+\\delta )k^{*}{\\text{ with }}k^{*}>0,c^{*}=0}The first is the only solution in the interior of the upper quadrant. It is a saddle point (as shown below). The second is a repelling point. The third is a degenerate stable equilibrium.By default, the first solution is meant, although the other two solutions are important to keep track of.Any optimal trajectory must follow the dynamical system. However, since the variable \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n is a control variable, at each capital intensity \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n, to find its corresponding optimal trajectory, we still need to find its starting consumption rate \n \n \n \n c\n (\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c(0)}\n \n. As it turns out, the optimal trajectory is the unique one that converges to the interior equilibrium point. Any other trajectory either converges to the all-saving equilibrium with \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n >\n 0\n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k^{*}>0,c^{*}=0}\n \n, or diverges to \n \n \n \n k\n →\n 0\n ,\n c\n →\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k\\to 0,c\\to \\infty }\n \n, which means that the economy expends all its capital in finite time. Both achieve a lower overall utility than the trajectory towards the interior equilibrium point.A qualitative statement about the stability of the solution \n \n \n \n (\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (k^{\\ast },c^{\\ast })}\n \n requires a linearization by a first-order Taylor polynomial[\n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n c\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ≈\n \n J\n \n (\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n (\n k\n −\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n (\n c\n −\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}{\\dot {k}}\\\\{\\dot {c}}\\end{bmatrix}}\\approx \\mathbf {J} (k^{\\ast },c^{\\ast }){\\begin{bmatrix}(k-k^{\\ast })\\\\(c-c^{\\ast })\\end{bmatrix}}}where \n \n \n \n \n J\n \n (\n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {J} (k^{\\ast },c^{\\ast })}\n \n is the Jacobian matrix evaluated at steady state,[note 5] given byJ\n \n \n (\n \n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n ρ\n −\n n\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n σ\n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n ⋅\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {J} \\left(k^{\\ast },c^{\\ast }\\right)={\\begin{bmatrix}\\rho -n&-1\\\\{\\frac {1}{\\sigma }}f_{kk}(k)\\cdot c^{\\ast }&0\\end{bmatrix}}}which has determinant \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n J\n \n \n (\n \n \n k\n \n ∗\n \n \n ,\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n |\n \n =\n \n \n 1\n σ\n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n ⋅\n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|\\mathbf {J} \\left(k^{\\ast },c^{\\ast }\\right)\\right|={\\frac {1}{\\sigma }}f_{kk}(k)\\cdot c^{\\ast }<0}\n \n since \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n ∗\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c^{*}>0}\n \n , \n \n \n \n σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma }\n \n is positive by assumption, and \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n k\n \n \n <\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{kk}<0}\n \n since \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is concave (Inada condition). Since the determinant equals the product of the eigenvalues, the eigenvalues must be real and opposite in sign.[6]Hence by the stable manifold theorem, the equilibrium is a saddle point and there exists a unique stable arm, or “saddle path”, that converges on the equilibrium, indicated by the blue curve in the phase diagram.The system is called “saddle path stable” since all unstable trajectories are ruled out by the “no Ponzi scheme” condition:[7]lim\n \n t\n →\n ∞\n \n \n k\n ⋅\n \n e\n \n −\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n −\n n\n −\n δ\n \n )\n \n \n d\n \n s\n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lim _{t\\to \\infty }k\\cdot e^{-\\int _{0}^{t}\\left(f_{k}-n-\\delta \\right)\\mathrm {d} s}\\geq 0}implying that the present value of the capital stock cannot be negative.[note 6]","title":"Mathematical description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Review of Economic Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_Economic_Studies"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Pontifical Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Edmond Malinvaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Malinvaud"},{"link_name":"Hirofumi Uzawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirofumi_Uzawa"},{"link_name":"Econometric Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econometric_Society"},{"link_name":"Lev Pontryagin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Pontryagin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Spear and Young re-examine the history of optimal growth during the 1950s and 1960s,[8] focusing in part on the veracity of the claimed simultaneous and independent development of Cass' \"Optimum growth in an aggregative model of capital accumulation\" (published in 1965 in the Review of Economic Studies), and Tjalling Koopman's \"On the concept of optimal economic growth\" (published in Study Week on the Econometric Approach to Development Planning, 1965, Rome: Pontifical Academy of Science).Over their lifetimes, neither Cass nor Koopmans ever suggested that their results characterizing optimal growth in the one-sector, continuous-time growth model were anything other than \"simultaneous and independent\". That the issue of priority ever became a discussion point was due only to the fact that in the published version of Koopmans' work, he cited the chapter from Cass' thesis that later became the RES paper. In his paper, Koopmans states in a footnote that Cass independently obtained conditions similar to what Koopmans finds, and that Cass also considers the limiting case where the discount rate goes to zero in his paper. For his part, Cass notes that \"after the original version of this paper was completed, a very similar analysis by Koopmans came to our attention. We draw on his results in discussing the limiting case, where the effective social discount rate goes to zero\". In the interview that Cass gave to Macroeconomic Dynamics, he credits Koopmans with pointing him to Frank Ramsey's previous work, claiming to have been embarrassed not to have known of it, but says nothing to dispel the basic claim that his work and Koopmans' were in fact independent.Spear and Young dispute this history, based upon a previously overlooked working paper version of Koopmans' paper,[9] which was the basis for Koopmans' oft-cited presentation at a conference held by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in October 1963.[10] In this Cowles Discussion paper, there is an error. Koopmans claims in his main result that the Euler equations are both necessary and sufficient to characterize optimal trajectories in the model because any solutions to the Euler equations which do not converge to the optimal steady-state would hit either a zero consumption or zero capital boundary in finite time. This error was apparently presented at the Vatican conference, although at the time of Koopmans' presenting it, no participant commented on the problem. This can be inferred because the discussion after each paper presentation at the Vatican conference is preserved verbatim in the conference volume.In the Vatican volume discussion following the presentation of a paper by Edmond Malinvaud, the issue does arise because of Malinvaud's explicit inclusion of a so-called \"transversality condition\" (which Malinvaud calls Condition I) in his paper. At the end of the presentation, Koopmans asks Malinvaud whether it is not the case that Condition I simply guarantees that solutions to the Euler equations that do not converge to the optimal steady-state hit a boundary in finite time. Malinvaud replies that this is not the case, and suggests that Koopmans look at the example with log utility functions and Cobb-Douglas production functions.At this point, Koopmans obviously recognizes he has a problem, but, based on a confusing appendix to a later version of the paper produced after the Vatican conference, he seems unable to decide how to deal with the issue raised by Malinvaud's Condition I.From the Macroeconomic Dynamics interview with Cass, it is clear that Koopmans met with Cass' thesis advisor, Hirofumi Uzawa, at the winter meetings of the Econometric Society in January 1964, where Uzawa advised him that his student [Cass] had solved this problem already. Uzawa must have then provided Koopmans with the copy of Cass' thesis chapter, which he apparently sent along in the guise of the IMSSS Technical Report that Koopmans cited in the published version of his paper. The word \"guise\" is appropriate here, because the TR number listed in Koopmans' citation would have put the issue date of the report in the early 1950s, which it clearly was not.In the published version of Koopmans' paper, he imposes a new Condition Alpha in addition to the Euler equations, stating that the only admissible trajectories among those satisfying the Euler equations is the one that converges to the optimal steady-state equilibrium of the model. This result is derived in Cass' paper via the imposition of a transversality condition that Cass deduced from relevant sections of a book by Lev Pontryagin.[11] Spear and Young conjecture that Koopmans took this route because he did not want to appear to be \"borrowing\" either Malinvaud's or Cass' transversality technology.Based on this and other examination of Malinvaud's contributions in 1950s—specifically his intuition of the importance of the transversality condition—Spear and Young suggest that the neo-classical growth model might better be called the Ramsey–Malinvaud–Cass model than the established Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans honorific.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Samuelson's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Samuelson"},{"link_name":"Diamond's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Diamond"},{"link_name":"overlapping generations models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overlapping_generations_model"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S1365100519000786","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS1365100519000786"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"214268940","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214268940"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"costate variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costate_equation"},{"link_name":"shadow price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow_price"},{"link_name":"transversality condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transversality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Karush–Kuhn–Tucker “complementary slackness” condition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karush%E2%80%93Kuhn%E2%80%93Tucker_conditions"},{"link_name":"Introduction to Dynamic Economic Models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=RmCAmgEACAAJ&pg=PA174"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7190-4997-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4997-2"},{"link_name":"Gandolfo, Giancarlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Gandolfo"},{"link_name":"Economic Dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ZMwXi67nhHQC&pg=PA381"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-60988-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-60988-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"calculus of variations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus_of_variations"},{"link_name":"Variational Methods in Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=tqujBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-444-10097-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-10097-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Computational Economics : A Concise Introduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=fN5zCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-138-85965-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-85965-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Barro, Robert J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Barro"},{"link_name":"Sala-i-Martin, Xavier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Sala-i-Martin"},{"link_name":"Economic Growth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=jD3ASoSQJ-AC&pg=PA91"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-262-02553-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02553-9"}],"text":"^ This result is due not just to the endogeneity of the saving rate but also because of the infinite nature of the planning horizon of the agents in the model; it does not hold in other models with endogenous saving rates but more complex intergenerational dynamics, for example, in Samuelson's or Diamond's overlapping generations models.\n\n^ The assumption that \n \n \n \n \n lim\n \n c\n →\n 0\n \n \n \n u\n \n c\n \n \n =\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lim _{c\\to 0}u_{c}=\\infty }\n \n is in fact crucial for the analysis. If \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n c\n \n \n (\n 0\n )\n <\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{c}(0)<\\infty }\n \n, then for low values of \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n the optimal value of \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n is 0 and therefore if \n \n \n \n k\n (\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k(0)}\n \n is sufficiently low there exists an initial time interval where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n c\n ˙\n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {c}}=0}\n \n even if \n \n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n −\n δ\n −\n ρ\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{k}-\\delta -\\rho >0}\n \n, see Nævdal, E. (2019). \"New Insights From The Canonical Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans Growth Model\". Macroeconomic Dynamics. 25 (6): 1569–1577. doi:10.1017/S1365100519000786. S2CID 214268940.\n\n^ The Hamiltonian for the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans problem is\n\n \n \n \n H\n =\n \n e\n \n −\n ρ\n t\n \n \n u\n (\n c\n )\n +\n μ\n \n [\n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n −\n (\n n\n +\n δ\n )\n k\n −\n c\n \n ]\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H=e^{-\\rho t}u(c)+\\mu \\left[f(k)-(n+\\delta )k-c\\right]}\n \n\nwhere \n \n \n \n μ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mu }\n \n is the costate variable usually economically interpreted as the shadow price. Because the terminal value of \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k}\n \n is free but may not be negative, a transversality condition \n \n \n \n \n lim\n \n t\n →\n ∞\n \n \n μ\n ⋅\n k\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lim _{t\\to \\infty }\\mu \\cdot k=0}\n \n similar to the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker “complementary slackness” condition is required. From the first-order conditions for maximization of the Hamiltonian one can derive the equation of motion for consumption, see Ferguson, Brian S.; Lim, G. C. (1998). Introduction to Dynamic Economic Models. Manchester University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-7190-4997-2, or Gandolfo, Giancarlo (1996). Economic Dynamics (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 381–384. ISBN 978-3-540-60988-9.\n\n^ The problem can also be solved with classical calculus of variations methods, see Hadley, G.; Kemp, M. C. (1971). Variational Methods in Economics. New York: Elsevier. pp. 50–71. ISBN 978-0-444-10097-9.\n\n^ The Jacobian matrix of the Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans system is\n\n \n \n \n \n J\n \n \n (\n \n k\n ,\n c\n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n \n \n \n k\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n \n \n \n k\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n c\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n \n \n \n c\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n \n \n \n c\n ˙\n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n c\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n −\n (\n n\n +\n δ\n )\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n σ\n \n \n \n f\n \n k\n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n ⋅\n c\n \n \n \n \n 1\n σ\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n (\n k\n )\n −\n δ\n −\n ρ\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {J} \\left(k,c\\right)={\\begin{bmatrix}{\\frac {\\partial {\\dot {k}}}{\\partial k}}&{\\frac {\\partial {\\dot {k}}}{\\partial c}}\\\\{\\frac {\\partial {\\dot {c}}}{\\partial k}}&{\\frac {\\partial {\\dot {c}}}{\\partial c}}\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}f_{k}(k)-(n+\\delta )&-1\\\\{\\frac {1}{\\sigma }}f_{kk}(k)\\cdot c&{\\frac {1}{\\sigma }}\\left[f_{k}(k)-\\delta -\\rho \\right]\\end{bmatrix}}}\n \n\nSee Afonso, Oscar; Vasconcelos, Paulo B. (2016). Computational Economics : A Concise Introduction. New York: Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-138-85965-4.\n\n^ It can be shown that the “no Ponzi scheme” condition follows from the transversality condition on the Hamiltonian, see Barro, Robert J.; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2004). Economic Growth (Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-0-262-02553-9.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acemoglu, Daron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu"},{"link_name":"\"The Neoclassical Growth Model\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=DsPH5fWNdrsC&pg=PA287"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-13292-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13292-1"},{"link_name":"Barro, Robert J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Barro"},{"link_name":"Sala-i-Martin, Xavier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Sala-i-Martin"},{"link_name":"\"Growth Models with Consumer Optimization\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=jD3ASoSQJ-AC&pg=PA85"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-262-02553-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02553-9"},{"link_name":"Bénassy, Jean-Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pascal_B%C3%A9nassy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"\"The Ramsey Model\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=8SHtW0BCK2AC&pg=PA145"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-538771-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538771-1"},{"link_name":"Blanchard, Olivier Jean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier_Blanchard"},{"link_name":"Fischer, Stanley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Fischer"},{"link_name":"\"Consumption and Investment: Basic Infinite Horizon Models\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=j_zs7htz9moC&pg=PA37"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-262-02283-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02283-5"},{"link_name":"Miao, Jianjun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jianjun_Miao&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"\"Neoclassical Growth Models\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=mByEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA353"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-262-02761-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02761-8"},{"link_name":"Novales, Alfonso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfonso_Novales&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"\"Optimal Growth: Continuous Time Analysis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=EpZzFRa3exgC&pg=PA101"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-68665-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68665-1"},{"link_name":"Romer, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Romer"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-07-351137-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-351137-5"}],"text":"Acemoglu, Daron (2009). \"The Neoclassical Growth Model\". Introduction to Modern Economic Growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 287–326. ISBN 978-0-691-13292-1.\nBarro, Robert J.; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2004). \"Growth Models with Consumer Optimization\". Economic Growth (Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 85–142. ISBN 978-0-262-02553-9.\nBénassy, Jean-Pascal (2011). \"The Ramsey Model\". Macroeconomic Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 145–160. ISBN 978-0-19-538771-1.\nBlanchard, Olivier Jean; Fischer, Stanley (1989). \"Consumption and Investment: Basic Infinite Horizon Models\". Lectures on Macroeconomics. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 37–89. ISBN 978-0-262-02283-5.\nMiao, Jianjun (2014). \"Neoclassical Growth Models\". Economic Dynamics in Discrete Time. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 353–364. ISBN 978-0-262-02761-8.\nNovales, Alfonso; Fernández, Esther; Ruíz, Jesús (2009). \"Optimal Growth: Continuous Time Analysis\". Economic Growth: Theory and Numerical Solution Methods. Berlin: Springer. pp. 101–154. ISBN 978-3-540-68665-1.\nRomer, David (2011). \"Infinite-Horizon and Overlapping-Generations Models\". Advanced Macroeconomics (Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 49–77. ISBN 978-0-07-351137-5.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Phase diagram of the Ramsey model, for the case of \n \n \n \n f\n (\n k\n )\n =\n \n k\n \n 0.5\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(k)=k^{0.5}}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n n\n ,\n δ\n ,\n ρ\n ,\n σ\n =\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1.1\n ,\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n,\\delta ,\\rho ,\\sigma =1,1,1.1,1}\n \n.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Phase_diagram_of_the_Ramsey_model.svg/220px-Phase_diagram_of_the_Ramsey_model.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Phase space graph (or phase diagram) of the Ramsey model. The blue line represents the dynamic adjustment (or saddle) path of the economy in which all the constraints present in the model are satisfied. It is a stable path of the dynamic system. The red lines represent dynamic paths which are ruled out by the transversality condition.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Ramseypic.svg/300px-Ramseypic.svg.png"}]
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[{"reference":"Nævdal, E. (2019). \"New Insights From The Canonical Ramsey–Cass–Koopmans Growth Model\". Macroeconomic Dynamics. 25 (6): 1569–1577. doi:10.1017/S1365100519000786. S2CID 214268940.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1365100519000786","url_text":"10.1017/S1365100519000786"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:214268940","url_text":"214268940"}]},{"reference":"Ferguson, Brian S.; Lim, G. C. (1998). Introduction to Dynamic Economic Models. Manchester University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-7190-4997-2","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=RmCAmgEACAAJ&pg=PA174","url_text":"Introduction to Dynamic Economic Models"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4997-2","url_text":"978-0-7190-4997-2"}]},{"reference":"Gandolfo, Giancarlo (1996). Economic Dynamics (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 381–384. ISBN 978-3-540-60988-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giancarlo_Gandolfo","url_text":"Gandolfo, Giancarlo"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZMwXi67nhHQC&pg=PA381","url_text":"Economic Dynamics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-60988-9","url_text":"978-3-540-60988-9"}]},{"reference":"Hadley, G.; Kemp, M. C. (1971). Variational Methods in Economics. New York: Elsevier. pp. 50–71. ISBN 978-0-444-10097-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=tqujBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50","url_text":"Variational Methods in Economics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-10097-9","url_text":"978-0-444-10097-9"}]},{"reference":"Afonso, Oscar; Vasconcelos, Paulo B. (2016). Computational Economics : A Concise Introduction. New York: Routledge. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-138-85965-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=fN5zCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA163","url_text":"Computational Economics : A Concise Introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-85965-4","url_text":"978-1-138-85965-4"}]},{"reference":"Barro, Robert J.; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2004). Economic Growth (Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 91–92. ISBN 978-0-262-02553-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Barro","url_text":"Barro, Robert J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Sala-i-Martin","url_text":"Sala-i-Martin, Xavier"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jD3ASoSQJ-AC&pg=PA91","url_text":"Economic Growth"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02553-9","url_text":"978-0-262-02553-9"}]},{"reference":"Ramsey, Frank P. (1928). \"A Mathematical Theory of Saving\". Economic Journal. 38 (152): 543–559. doi:10.2307/2224098. JSTOR 2224098.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Journal","url_text":"Economic Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2224098","url_text":"10.2307/2224098"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2224098","url_text":"2224098"}]},{"reference":"Cass, David (1965). \"Optimum Growth in an Aggregative Model of Capital Accumulation\". Review of Economic Studies. 32 (3): 233–240. doi:10.2307/2295827. JSTOR 2295827.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_Economic_Studies","url_text":"Review of Economic Studies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2295827","url_text":"10.2307/2295827"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2295827","url_text":"2295827"}]},{"reference":"Koopmans, T. C. (1965). \"On the Concept of Optimal Economic Growth\". The Economic Approach to Development Planning. Chicago: Rand McNally. pp. 225–287.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Collard, David A. (2011). \"Ramsey, saving and the generations\". Generations of Economists. London: Routledge. pp. 256–273. ISBN 978-0-415-56541-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=B4MG8XzM3qYC&pg=PA256","url_text":"\"Ramsey, saving and the generations\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-56541-7","url_text":"978-0-415-56541-7"}]},{"reference":"Blanchard, Olivier Jean; Fischer, Stanley (1989). Lectures on Macroeconomics. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 41–43. ISBN 978-0-262-02283-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j_zs7htz9moC&pg=PA41","url_text":"Lectures on Macroeconomics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02283-5","url_text":"978-0-262-02283-5"}]},{"reference":"Beavis, Brian; Dobbs, Ian (1990). Optimization and Stability Theory for Economic Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-521-33605-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=L7HMACFgnXMC&pg=PA157","url_text":"Optimization and Stability Theory for Economic Analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33605-5","url_text":"978-0-521-33605-5"}]},{"reference":"Roe, Terry L.; Smith, Rodney B. W.; Saracoglu, D. Sirin (2009). Multisector Growth Models: Theory and Application. New York: Springer. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-387-77358-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-NzlllN-OAIC&pg=PA48","url_text":"Multisector Growth Models: Theory and Application"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-77358-2","url_text":"978-0-387-77358-2"}]},{"reference":"Spear, S. E.; Young, W. (2014). \"Optimum Savings and Optimal Growth: The Cass–Malinvaud–Koopmans Nexus\". Macroeconomic Dynamics. 18 (1): 215–243. doi:10.1017/S1365100513000291. S2CID 1340808.","urls":[{"url":"https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/6707300","url_text":"\"Optimum Savings and Optimal Growth: The Cass–Malinvaud–Koopmans Nexus\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1365100513000291","url_text":"10.1017/S1365100513000291"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1340808","url_text":"1340808"}]},{"reference":"Koopmans, Tjalling (December 1963). \"On the Concept of Optimal Economic Growth\" (PDF). Cowles Foundation Discussion Paper 163.","urls":[{"url":"http://cowles.econ.yale.edu/P/cd/d01b/d0163.pdf","url_text":"\"On the Concept of Optimal Economic Growth\""}]},{"reference":"McKenzie, Lionel (2002). \"Some Early Conferences on Growth Theory\". In Bitros, George; Katsoulacos, Yannis (eds.). Essays in Economic Theory, Growth and Labor Markets. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. pp. 3–18. ISBN 978-1-84064-739-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_McKenzie","url_text":"McKenzie, Lionel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84064-739-6","url_text":"978-1-84064-739-6"}]},{"reference":"Pontryagin, Lev; Boltyansky, Vladimir; Gamkrelidze, Revaz; Mishchenko, Evgenii (1962). The Mathematical Theory of Optimal Processes. New York: John Wiley.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Acemoglu, Daron (2009). \"The Neoclassical Growth Model\". Introduction to Modern Economic Growth. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 287–326. ISBN 978-0-691-13292-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu","url_text":"Acemoglu, Daron"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DsPH5fWNdrsC&pg=PA287","url_text":"\"The Neoclassical Growth Model\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13292-1","url_text":"978-0-691-13292-1"}]},{"reference":"Barro, Robert J.; Sala-i-Martin, Xavier (2004). \"Growth Models with Consumer Optimization\". Economic Growth (Second ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 85–142. ISBN 978-0-262-02553-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Barro","url_text":"Barro, Robert J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Sala-i-Martin","url_text":"Sala-i-Martin, Xavier"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jD3ASoSQJ-AC&pg=PA85","url_text":"\"Growth Models with Consumer Optimization\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02553-9","url_text":"978-0-262-02553-9"}]},{"reference":"Bénassy, Jean-Pascal (2011). \"The Ramsey Model\". Macroeconomic Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 145–160. ISBN 978-0-19-538771-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pascal_B%C3%A9nassy&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Bénassy, Jean-Pascal"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8SHtW0BCK2AC&pg=PA145","url_text":"\"The Ramsey Model\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-538771-1","url_text":"978-0-19-538771-1"}]},{"reference":"Blanchard, Olivier Jean; Fischer, Stanley (1989). \"Consumption and Investment: Basic Infinite Horizon Models\". Lectures on Macroeconomics. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 37–89. ISBN 978-0-262-02283-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier_Blanchard","url_text":"Blanchard, Olivier Jean"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Fischer","url_text":"Fischer, Stanley"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j_zs7htz9moC&pg=PA37","url_text":"\"Consumption and Investment: Basic Infinite Horizon Models\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02283-5","url_text":"978-0-262-02283-5"}]},{"reference":"Miao, Jianjun (2014). \"Neoclassical Growth Models\". Economic Dynamics in Discrete Time. Cambridge: MIT Press. pp. 353–364. ISBN 978-0-262-02761-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jianjun_Miao&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Miao, Jianjun"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mByEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA353","url_text":"\"Neoclassical Growth Models\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-02761-8","url_text":"978-0-262-02761-8"}]},{"reference":"Novales, Alfonso; Fernández, Esther; Ruíz, Jesús (2009). \"Optimal Growth: Continuous Time Analysis\". Economic Growth: Theory and Numerical Solution Methods. Berlin: Springer. pp. 101–154. ISBN 978-3-540-68665-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alfonso_Novales&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Novales, Alfonso"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EpZzFRa3exgC&pg=PA101","url_text":"\"Optimal Growth: Continuous Time Analysis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-68665-1","url_text":"978-3-540-68665-1"}]},{"reference":"Romer, David (2011). \"Infinite-Horizon and Overlapping-Generations Models\". Advanced Macroeconomics (Fourth ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 49–77. ISBN 978-0-07-351137-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Romer","url_text":"Romer, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-351137-5","url_text":"978-0-07-351137-5"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_plant
Annual plant
["1 The evolutionary and ecological drivers of the annual life cycle","2 Traits of annuals and their implication for agriculture","3 Molecular genetics","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
Plant which completes its life cycle within one growing season and then dies Peas are an annual plant. An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. Globally, only 6% of all plant species and 15% of herbaceous plants (excluding trees and shrubs) are annuals. The annual life cycle has independently emerged in over 120 different plant families throughout the entire angiosperm phylogeny. The evolutionary and ecological drivers of the annual life cycle Traditionally, there has been a prevailing assumption that annuals have evolved from perennial ancestors. However, recent research challenges this notion, revealing instances where perennials have evolved from annual ancestors. Intriguingly, models propose that transition rates from an annual to a perennial life cycle are twice as fast as the reverse transition. The life-history theory posits that annual plants are favored when adult mortality is higher than seedling (or seed) mortality, i.e., annuals will dominate environments with disturbances or high temporal variability, reducing adult survival. This hypothesis finds support in observations of increased prevalence of annuals in regions with hot-dry summers, with elevated adult mortality and high seed persistence. Furthermore, the evolution of the annual life cycle under hot-dry summer in different families makes it one of the best examples of convergent evolution. Additionally, annual prevalence is also positively affected by year-to-year variability. Globally, the prevalence of annual plants shows an upward trend with an increasing human footprint. Moreover, domestic grazing has been identified as contributing to the heightened abundance of annuals in grasslands. Disturbances linked to activities like grazing and agriculture, particularly following European settlement, have facilitated the invasion of annual species from Europe and Asia into the New World. In various ecosystems, the dominance of annual plants is often a temporary phase during secondary succession, particularly in the aftermath of disturbances. For instance, after fields are abandoned, annuals may initially colonize them but are eventually replaced by long-lived species. However, in certain Mediterranean systems, a unique scenario unfolds: when annuals establish dominance, perennials do not necessarily supplant them. This peculiarity is attributed to alternative stable states in the system—both annual dominance and perennial states prove stable, with the ultimate system state dependent on the initial conditions. Traits of annuals and their implication for agriculture Annual plants commonly exhibit a higher growth rate, allocate more resources to seeds, and allocate fewer resources to roots than perennials. In contrast to perennials, which feature long-lived plants and short-lived seeds, annual plants compensate for their lower longevity by maintaining a higher persistence of soil seed banks. These differences in life history strategies profoundly affect ecosystem functioning and services. For instance, annuals, by allocating less resources belowground, play a minor role in reducing erosion, storing organic carbon, and achieving lower nutrient- and water-use efficiencies than perennials. The distinctions between annual and perennial plants are notably evident in agricultural contexts. Despite constituting a minor part of global biomass, annual species stand out as the primary food source for humankind, likely owing to their greater allocation of resources to seed production, thereby enhancing agricultural productivity. In the Anthropocene epoch, marked by human impact on the environment, there has been a substantial increase in the global cover of annuals. This shift is primarily attributed to the conversion of natural systems, often dominated by perennials, into annual cropland. Currently, annual plants cover approximately 70% of croplands and contribute to around 80% of worldwide food consumption. Molecular genetics In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to its conversion into a perennial plant. Researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes (which control flowering time) of Arabidopsis thaliana. This switch established phenotypes common in perennial plants, such as wood formation. See also Biennial plant – Flowering plant that takes two years to complete its biological life cycle Perennial plant – Plant that lives for more than two yearsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Monocarpic plant – Botanical life strategyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets - Plant that flowers & sets seeds once, then dies. Ephemeral plant References ^ a b c d e Poppenwimer, Tyler; Mayrose, Itay; DeMalach, Niv (8 November 2023). "Revising the global biogeography of annual and perennial plants". Nature. 624 (7990): 109–114. arXiv:2304.13101. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06644-x. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 10830411. PMID 37938778. S2CID 260332117. ^ Friedman, Jannice (2 November 2020). "The Evolution of Annual and Perennial Plant Life Histories: Ecological Correlates and Genetic Mechanisms". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 51 (1): 461–481. doi:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110218-024638. ISSN 1543-592X. S2CID 225237602. ^ a b Hjertaas, Ane C.; Preston, Jill C.; Kainulainen, Kent; Humphreys, Aelys M.; Fjellheim, Siri (2023). "Convergent evolution of the annual life history syndrome from perennial ancestors". Frontiers in Plant Science. 13. doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.1048656. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 9846227. PMID 36684797. ^ a b c Boyko, James D.; Hagen, Eric R.; Beaulieu, Jeremy M.; Vasconcelos, Thais (November 2023). "The evolutionary responses of life-history strategies to climatic variability in flowering plants". New Phytologist. 240 (4): 1587–1600. doi:10.1111/nph.18971. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 37194450. ^ Charnov, Eric L.; Schaffer, William M. (November 1973). "Life-History Consequences of Natural Selection: Cole's Result Revisited". The American Naturalist. 107 (958): 791–793. doi:10.1086/282877. ISSN 0003-0147. S2CID 264255777. ^ Taylor, Amanda; Weigelt, Patrick; Denelle, Pierre; Cai, Lirong; Kreft, Holger (November 2023). "The contribution of plant life and growth forms to global gradients of vascular plant diversity". New Phytologist. 240 (4): 1548–1560. doi:10.1111/nph.19011. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 37264995. ^ Díaz, Sandra; Lavorel, Sandra; McIntyre, Sue; Falczuk, Valeria; Casanoves, Fernando; Milchunas, Daniel G.; Skarpe, Christina; Rusch, Graciela; Sternberg, Marcelo; Noy-Meir, Imanuel; Landsberg, Jill; Zhang, Wei; Clark, Harry; Campbell, Bruce D. (February 2007). "Plant trait responses to grazing – a global synthesis". Global Change Biology. 13 (2): 313–341. Bibcode:2007GCBio..13..313D. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2006.01288.x. hdl:11336/42236. ISSN 1354-1013. S2CID 84886127. ^ Clark, Adam Thomas; Knops, Johannes M. H.; Tilman, Dave (March 2019). Bardgett, Richard (ed.). "Contingent factors explain average divergence in functional composition over 88 years of old field succession". Journal of Ecology. 107 (2): 545–558. Bibcode:2019JEcol.107..545C. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.13070. ISSN 0022-0477. ^ Uricchio, Lawrence H.; Daws, S. Caroline; Spear, Erin R.; Mordecai, Erin A. (February 2019). "Priority Effects and Nonhierarchical Competition Shape Species Composition in a Complex Grassland Community". The American Naturalist. 193 (2): 213–226. doi:10.1086/701434. ISSN 0003-0147. PMC 8518031. PMID 30720356. ^ DeMalach, Niv; Shnerb, Nadav; Fukami, Tadashi (1 August 2021). "Alternative States in Plant Communities Driven by a Life-History Trade-Off and Demographic Stochasticity". The American Naturalist. 198 (2): E27–E36. arXiv:1812.03971. doi:10.1086/714418. ISSN 0003-0147. PMID 34260874. S2CID 226191832. ^ Vico, Giulia; Manzoni, Stefano; Nkurunziza, Libère; Murphy, Kevin; Weih, Martin (January 2016). "Trade-offs between seed output and life span – a quantitative comparison of traits between annual and perennial congeneric species". New Phytologist. 209 (1): 104–114. doi:10.1111/nph.13574. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 26214792. ^ DeMalach, Niv; Kigel, Jaime; Sternberg, Marcelo (1 March 2023). "Contrasting dynamics of seed banks and standing vegetation of annuals and perennials along a rainfall gradient". Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 58: 125718. arXiv:2301.12696. doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2023.125718. ISSN 1433-8319. S2CID 256389403. ^ Glover, Jerry D.; Reganold, John P.; Cox, Cindy M. (September 2012). "Plant perennials to save Africa's soils". Nature. 489 (7416): 359–361. doi:10.1038/489359a. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 22996532. ^ Foley, Jonathan A.; DeFries, Ruth; Asner, Gregory P.; Barford, Carol; Bonan, Gordon; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Chapin, F. Stuart; Coe, Michael T.; Daily, Gretchen C.; Gibbs, Holly K.; Helkowski, Joseph H.; Holloway, Tracey; Howard, Erica A.; Kucharik, Christopher J.; Monfreda, Chad (22 July 2005). "Global Consequences of Land Use". Science. 309 (5734): 570–574. Bibcode:2005Sci...309..570F. doi:10.1126/science.1111772. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16040698. S2CID 5711915. ^ Pimentel, David; Cerasale, David; Stanley, Rose C.; Perlman, Rachel; Newman, Elise M.; Brent, Lincoln C.; Mullan, Amanda; Chang, Debbie Tai-I (15 October 2012). "Annual vs. perennial grain production". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 161: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2012.05.025. ISSN 0167-8809. ^ Melzer, S; Lens, F; Gennen, J; Vanneste, S; Rohde, A; Beeckman, T (2008). "Flowering-time genes modulate meristem determinacy and growth form in Arabidopsis thaliana". Nature Genetics. 40 (12): 1489–92. doi:10.1038/ng.253. PMID 18997783. S2CID 13225884. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Annuals. Authority control databases: National Israel United States Japan Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Doperwt_rijserwt_peulen_Pisum_sativum.jpg"},{"link_name":"Peas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pea"},{"link_name":"life cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cycle"},{"link_name":"germination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination"},{"link_name":"seeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed"},{"link_name":"growing season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growing_season"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Peas are an annual plant.An annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle, from germination to the production of seeds, within one growing season, and then dies. Globally, only 6% of all plant species and 15% of herbaceous plants (excluding trees and shrubs) are annuals.[1] The annual life cycle has independently emerged in over 120 different plant families throughout the entire angiosperm phylogeny.[2]","title":"Annual plant"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"convergent evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_evolution"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"alternative stable states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_stable_state"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Traditionally, there has been a prevailing assumption that annuals have evolved from perennial ancestors. However, recent research challenges this notion, revealing instances where perennials have evolved from annual ancestors.[3] Intriguingly, models propose that transition rates from an annual to a perennial life cycle are twice as fast as the reverse transition.[4]The life-history theory posits that annual plants are favored when adult mortality is higher than seedling (or seed) mortality,[5] i.e., annuals will dominate environments with disturbances or high temporal variability, reducing adult survival. This hypothesis finds support in observations of increased prevalence of annuals in regions with hot-dry summers,[1][4][6] with elevated adult mortality and high seed persistence. Furthermore, the evolution of the annual life cycle under hot-dry summer in different families makes it one of the best examples of convergent evolution.[1][4][3] Additionally, annual prevalence is also positively affected by year-to-year variability.[1]Globally, the prevalence of annual plants shows an upward trend with an increasing human footprint.[1] Moreover, domestic grazing has been identified as contributing to the heightened abundance of annuals in grasslands.[7] Disturbances linked to activities like grazing and agriculture, particularly following European settlement, have facilitated the invasion of annual species from Europe and Asia into the New World.In various ecosystems, the dominance of annual plants is often a temporary phase during secondary succession, particularly in the aftermath of disturbances. For instance, after fields are abandoned, annuals may initially colonize them but are eventually replaced by long-lived species.[8] However, in certain Mediterranean systems, a unique scenario unfolds: when annuals establish dominance, perennials do not necessarily supplant them.[9] This peculiarity is attributed to alternative stable states in the system—both annual dominance and perennial states prove stable, with the ultimate system state dependent on the initial conditions.[10]","title":"The evolutionary and ecological drivers of the annual life cycle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"soil seed banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_seed_bank"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Annual plants commonly exhibit a higher growth rate, allocate more resources to seeds, and allocate fewer resources to roots than perennials.[11] In contrast to perennials, which feature long-lived plants and short-lived seeds, annual plants compensate for their lower longevity by maintaining a higher persistence of soil seed banks.[12] These differences in life history strategies profoundly affect ecosystem functioning and services. For instance, annuals, by allocating less resources belowground, play a minor role in reducing erosion, storing organic carbon, and achieving lower nutrient- and water-use efficiencies than perennials.[13]The distinctions between annual and perennial plants are notably evident in agricultural contexts. Despite constituting a minor part of global biomass, annual species stand out as the primary food source for humankind, likely owing to their greater allocation of resources to seed production, thereby enhancing agricultural productivity. In the Anthropocene epoch, marked by human impact on the environment, there has been a substantial increase in the global cover of annuals.[14] This shift is primarily attributed to the conversion of natural systems, often dominated by perennials, into annual cropland. Currently, annual plants cover approximately 70% of croplands and contribute to around 80% of worldwide food consumption.[15]","title":"Traits of annuals and their implication for agriculture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"perennial plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_plant"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Arabidopsis thaliana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana"},{"link_name":"phenotypes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypes"},{"link_name":"wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood"}],"text":"In 2008, it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to its conversion into a perennial plant.[16] Researchers deactivated the SOC1 and FUL genes (which control flowering time) of Arabidopsis thaliana. This switch established phenotypes common in perennial plants, such as wood formation.","title":"Molecular genetics"}]
[{"image_text":"Peas are an annual plant.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Doperwt_rijserwt_peulen_Pisum_sativum.jpg/240px-Doperwt_rijserwt_peulen_Pisum_sativum.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Biennial plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biennial_plant"},{"title":"Perennial plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_plant"},{"title":"Monocarpic plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monocarpic_plant"},{"title":"Ephemeral plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ephemeral_plant"}]
[{"reference":"Poppenwimer, Tyler; Mayrose, Itay; DeMalach, Niv (8 November 2023). \"Revising the global biogeography of annual and perennial plants\". Nature. 624 (7990): 109–114. arXiv:2304.13101. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06644-x. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 10830411. PMID 37938778. 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PMID 37264995.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.19011","url_text":"\"The contribution of plant life and growth forms to global gradients of vascular plant diversity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.19011","url_text":"10.1111/nph.19011"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-646X","url_text":"0028-646X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37264995","url_text":"37264995"}]},{"reference":"Díaz, Sandra; Lavorel, Sandra; McIntyre, Sue; Falczuk, Valeria; Casanoves, Fernando; Milchunas, Daniel G.; Skarpe, Christina; Rusch, Graciela; Sternberg, Marcelo; Noy-Meir, Imanuel; Landsberg, Jill; Zhang, Wei; Clark, Harry; Campbell, Bruce D. (February 2007). \"Plant trait responses to grazing – a global synthesis\". 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H.; Tilman, Dave (March 2019). Bardgett, Richard (ed.). \"Contingent factors explain average divergence in functional composition over 88 years of old field succession\". Journal of Ecology. 107 (2): 545–558. Bibcode:2019JEcol.107..545C. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.13070. ISSN 0022-0477.","urls":[{"url":"https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.13070","url_text":"\"Contingent factors explain average divergence in functional composition over 88 years of old field succession\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019JEcol.107..545C","url_text":"2019JEcol.107..545C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1365-2745.13070","url_text":"10.1111/1365-2745.13070"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0477","url_text":"0022-0477"}]},{"reference":"Uricchio, Lawrence H.; Daws, S. Caroline; Spear, Erin R.; Mordecai, Erin A. (February 2019). \"Priority Effects and Nonhierarchical Competition Shape Species Composition in a Complex Grassland Community\". The American Naturalist. 193 (2): 213–226. doi:10.1086/701434. ISSN 0003-0147. PMC 8518031. 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The American Naturalist. 198 (2): E27–E36. arXiv:1812.03971. doi:10.1086/714418. ISSN 0003-0147. PMID 34260874. S2CID 226191832.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/714418","url_text":"\"Alternative States in Plant Communities Driven by a Life-History Trade-Off and Demographic Stochasticity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1812.03971","url_text":"1812.03971"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F714418","url_text":"10.1086/714418"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0147","url_text":"0003-0147"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34260874","url_text":"34260874"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226191832","url_text":"226191832"}]},{"reference":"Vico, Giulia; Manzoni, Stefano; Nkurunziza, Libère; Murphy, Kevin; Weih, Martin (January 2016). \"Trade-offs between seed output and life span – a quantitative comparison of traits between annual and perennial congeneric species\". New Phytologist. 209 (1): 104–114. doi:10.1111/nph.13574. ISSN 0028-646X. PMID 26214792.","urls":[{"url":"https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.13574","url_text":"\"Trade-offs between seed output and life span – a quantitative comparison of traits between annual and perennial congeneric species\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fnph.13574","url_text":"10.1111/nph.13574"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0028-646X","url_text":"0028-646X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26214792","url_text":"26214792"}]},{"reference":"DeMalach, Niv; Kigel, Jaime; Sternberg, Marcelo (1 March 2023). \"Contrasting dynamics of seed banks and standing vegetation of annuals and perennials along a rainfall gradient\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_systems_engineering
Cognitive systems engineering
["1 History","1.1 \"Cognitive systems engineering\" vs \"Cognitive engineering\"","2 Themes","2.1 Joint cognitive systems","2.2 Studying work in context","2.3 Coping with complexity","2.4 Anomaly response","2.5 Coordination","2.6 Cognitive artifacts","3 Books","4 See also","5 References","6 External links","6.1 Journals"]
Field of study Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a field of study that examines the intersection of people, work, and technology, with a focus on safety-critical systems. The central tenet of cognitive systems engineering is that it views a collection of people and technology as a single unit that is capable of cognitive work, which is called a joint cognitive system. CSE draws on concepts from cognitive psychology and cognitive anthropology, such as Edwin Hutchins's distributed cognition, James Gibson's ecological theory of visual perception, Ulric Neisser's perceptual cycle, and William Clancey's situated cognition. CSE techniques include cognitive task analysis and cognitive work analysis. History Cognitive systems engineering emerged in the wake of the Three Mile Island (TMI) accident. At the time, existing theories about safety were unable to explain how the operators at TMI could be confused about what was actually happening inside of the plant. Following the accident, Jens Rasmussen did early research on cognitive aspects of nuclear power plant control rooms. This work influenced a generation of researchers who would later come to be associated with cognitive systems engineering, including Morten Lind, Erik Hollnagel, and David Woods. Following the publication of a textbook on cognitive systems engineering by Kim Vicente in 1999 the techniques employed to establish a cognitive work analysis (CWA) were used to aid the design of any kind of system were humans have to interact with technology. The tools outlined by Vicente were not tried and tested, and there are few if any published accounts of the five phases of analysis being implemented. "Cognitive systems engineering" vs "Cognitive engineering" The term "cognitive systems engineering" was introduced in a 1983 paper by Hollnagel and Woods. Although the term cognitive engineering had already been introduced by Don Norman, Hollnagel and Woods deliberately introduced new terminology. They were unhappy with the framing of the term cognitive engineering, which they felt focused too much on improving the interaction between humans and computers, through the application of cognitive science. Instead, Hollnagel and Woods wished to emphasize a shift in focus from human-computer interaction to joint cognitive systems as the unit of analysis. Despite the intention by Hollnagel and Woods to distinguish cognitive engineering from cognitive systems engineering, some researchers continue to use the two terms interchangeably. Themes Joint cognitive systems As mentioned in the Origins section above, one of the key tenets of cognitive systems engineering is that the base unit of analysis is the joint cognitive system. Instead of viewing cognitive tasks as being done only by individuals, CSE views cognitive work as being accomplished by a collection of people coordinating with each other and using technology to jointly perform cognitive work as a system. See also: Extended mind thesis Studying work in context CSE researchers focus their studies on work in situ, as opposed to studying how work is done in controlled laboratory environments. This research approach, known as macrocognition, is similar to the one taken by naturalistic decision-making. Examples of studies of work done in context include Julian Orr's ethnographic studies of copy machine technicians, Lucy Suchman's ethnographic studies of how people use photocopiers, Diane Vaughan's study of engineering work at NASA in the wake of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, and Scott Snook's study of military work in the wake of the 1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident. Coping with complexity A general thread that runs through cognitive systems engineering research is the question of how to design joint cognitive systems that can deal effectively with complexity, including common patterns in how such systems can fail to deal effectively with complexity. Anomaly response As mentioned in the Origins section above, CSE researchers were influenced by TMI. One specific application of coping with complexity is the work that human operators must do when they are supervising a process such as nuclear power plant, and they must then deal with a problem that arises. This work is sometimes known as anomaly response or dynamic fault management. This type of work often involves uncertainty, quickly changing conditions, and risk tradeoffs in deciding what remediation actions to take. Coordination Because joint cognitive systems involve multiple agents that must work together to complete cognitive tasks, coordination is another topic of interest in CSE. One specific example is the notion of common ground and its implications for building software that can contribute effectively as agents in a joint cognitive system. Cognitive artifacts CSE researchers study how people use technology to support cognitive work and coordinate this work across multiple people. Examples of such cognitive artifacts, which have been studied by researchers, include "the bed book" used in intensive care units, "voice loops" used in space operations, "speed bugs" used in aviation, drawings and sketches in engineering work, and the various tools used in marine navigation. Of particular interest to CSE researchers is how computer-based tools influence joint cognitive work, in particular the impact of automation, and computerized interfaces used by system operators. Books Cognitive Systems Engineering: The Future for a Changing World by Philip J. Smith and Robbert R. Hoffman, eds. 2017 Joint Cognitive Systems: Patterns in Cognitive Systems Engineering by David Woods and Erik Hollnagel, 2005. 978-0849328213 Joint Cognitive Systems: Foundations of Cognitive Systems Engineering by Erik Hollnagel and David Woods, 2005. 978-0367864156 Cognitive Systems Engineering by Jens Rasmussen, Annelise Mark Pejtersen, and L.P. Goodstein, 1994. See also Cognitive work analysis Ecological interface design References ^ a b c Hollnagel, Erik; Woods, David D. (June 1983). "Cognitive Systems Engineering: New wine in new bottles". International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. 18 (6): 583–600. doi:10.1016/S0020-7373(83)80034-0. S2CID 15398274. ^ Flach, John (2020). A meaning processing approach to cognition : what matters?. Fred Voorhorst. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-367-40428-4. OCLC 1117930294.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Crandall, Beth (2006). Working minds : a practitioner's guide to cognitive task analysis. Gary A. Klein, Robert R. Hoffman. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-27092-2. OCLC 76064684. ^ Vicente, Kim J. (1999). Cognitive work analysis : toward safe, productive, and healthy computer-based work. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-585-16171-2. OCLC 44961122. ^ a b Klein, G.; Wiggins, S.; Deal, S. (March 2008). "Cognitive Systems Engineering: The Hype and the Hope". Computer. 41 (3): 95–97. doi:10.1109/MC.2008.81. ISSN 0018-9162. S2CID 38587194. ^ Cook, Richard (2014-02-05), 1. It all started at TMI, 1979, retrieved 2022-09-23 ^ Jens Rasmussen (1986). Information processing and human-machine interaction : an approach to cognitive engineering. North-Holland. ISBN 0444009876. OCLC 13792295. ^ Ann M. Bisantz; Catherine M. Burns, eds. (2016). Applications of Cognitive Work Analysis. CRC Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9781420063059. ^ Philip J. Smith; Robert R. Hoffman (2018). Cognitive systems engineering : the future for a changing world. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781472430496. OCLC 987070476. ^ DOWELL, JOHN; LONG, JOHN (1998-02-01). "Target Paper: Conception of the cognitive engineering design problem". Ergonomics. 41 (2): 126–139. doi:10.1080/001401398187125. ISSN 0014-0139. ^ a b c Woods, D. (2019). JOINT COGNITIVE SYSTEMS : patterns in cognitive systems engineering. : CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-367-86415-6. OCLC 1129755331. ^ Orr, Julian E. (2016). Talking about Machines : an Ethnography of a Modern Job. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-0740-7. OCLC 1030353116. ^ Suchman, Lucy (2009). Human-machine reconfigurations : plans and situated actions. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85891-5. OCLC 902661378. ^ Vaughan, Diane (4 January 2016). The Challenger launch decision : risky technology, culture, and deviance at NASA. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-34682-3. OCLC 944938820. ^ A., Snook, Scott (2011). Friendly Fire : the Accidental Shootdown of U.S. Black Hawks over Northern Iraq. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4097-7. OCLC 749265018.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Hollnagel, Erik (2005). Joint cognitive systems : foundations of cognitive systems engineering. David D. Woods. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8493-2821-7. OCLC 309875728. ^ Rasmussen, Jens; Lind, Morten (1981). "Coping with complexity" (PDF). Risø-M (2293). Risø National Laboratory. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Hollnagel, Erik (2012-09-01). "Coping with complexity: past, present and future". Cognition, Technology & Work. 14 (3): 199–205. doi:10.1007/s10111-011-0202-7. ISSN 1435-5566. S2CID 15222531. ^ "Cognitive Work of Hypothesis Exploration During Anomaly Response - ACM Queue". queue.acm.org. Retrieved 2022-09-24. ^ WOODS, DAVID D. (1995-11-01). "The alarm problem and directed attention in dynamic fault management". Ergonomics. 38 (11): 2371–2393. doi:10.1080/00140139508925274. ISSN 0014-0139. ^ Klein, Gary; Feltovich, Paul J.; Bradshaw, Jeffrey M.; Woods, David D. (2005-06-27), "Common Ground and Coordination in Joint Activity", Organizational Simulation, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 139–184, doi:10.1002/0471739448.ch6, ISBN 9780471739449, retrieved 2022-09-24 ^ Klien, G.; Woods, D.D.; Bradshaw, J.M.; Hoffman, R.R.; Feltovich, P.J. (November 2004). "Ten challenges for making automation a "team player" in joint human-agent activity". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 19 (6): 91–95. doi:10.1109/MIS.2004.74. ISSN 1941-1294. S2CID 27049933. ^ "BEING BUMPABLE (by R. I. Cook)", Joint Cognitive Systems, CRC Press, pp. 33–46, 2006-03-27, doi:10.1201/9781420005684-8, ISBN 978-0-429-12766-3, retrieved 2022-09-24 ^ Patterson, Emily S.; Watts-Perotti*, Jennifer; Woods, David D. (December 1999). "Voice Loops as Coordination Aids in Space Shuttle Mission Control". Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW). 8 (4): 353–371. doi:10.1023/A:1008722214282. ISSN 0925-9724. PMID 12269347. S2CID 5341838. ^ Hutchins, Edwin (July 1995). "How a Cockpit Remembers Its Speeds". Cognitive Science. 19 (3): 265–288. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1903_1. ISSN 0364-0213. S2CID 9409426. ^ Henderson, Kathryn (October 1991). "Flexible Sketches and Inflexible Data Bases: Visual Communication, Conscription Devices, and Boundary Objects in Design Engineering". Science, Technology, & Human Values. 16 (4): 448–473. doi:10.1177/016224399101600402. ISSN 0162-2439. S2CID 111281029. ^ Hutchins, Edwin (1995). Cognition in the wild. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-27597-2. OCLC 44965743. ^ Henderson, Kathryn (1999). On line and on paper : visual representations, visual culture, and computer graphics in design engineering. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-27525-5. OCLC 42856204. ^ Bainbridge, Lisanne (1983-11-01). "Ironies of automation". Automatica. 19 (6): 775–779. doi:10.1016/0005-1098(83)90046-8. ISSN 0005-1098. S2CID 12667742. ^ Woods, David D. (September 1984). "Visual momentum: a concept to improve the cognitive coupling of person and computer". International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. 21 (3): 229–244. doi:10.1016/S0020-7373(84)80043-7. External links Journals Cognition, Technology & Work International Journal of Human-Computer Studies Ergonomics Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW): The Journal of Collaborative Computing and Work Practices
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"cognitive psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_psychology"},{"link_name":"cognitive anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology"},{"link_name":"Edwin Hutchins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hutchins"},{"link_name":"distributed cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_cognition"},{"link_name":"James Gibson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_J._Gibson"},{"link_name":"ecological theory of visual perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_psychology"},{"link_name":"Ulric Neisser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulric_Neisser"},{"link_name":"William Clancey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Clancey"},{"link_name":"situated cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Situated_cognition"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"cognitive work analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_work_analysis"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is a field of study that examines the intersection of people, work, and technology, with a focus on safety-critical systems. The central tenet of cognitive systems engineering is that it views a collection of people and technology as a single unit that is capable of cognitive work, which is called a joint cognitive system.[1]CSE draws on concepts from cognitive psychology and cognitive anthropology, such as Edwin Hutchins's distributed cognition, James Gibson's ecological theory of visual perception, Ulric Neisser's perceptual cycle, and William Clancey's situated cognition.[2] CSE techniques include cognitive task analysis[3] and cognitive work analysis.[4]","title":"Cognitive systems engineering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Three Mile Island (TMI) accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Jens Rasmussen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jens_Rasmussen_(human_factors_expert)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Morten Lind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morten_Lind&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Erik Hollnagel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erik_Hollnagel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"David Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Woods_(safety_researcher)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"Kim Vicente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Vicente"},{"link_name":"cognitive work analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_work_analysis"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Cognitive systems engineering emerged in the wake of the Three Mile Island (TMI) accident.[5] At the time, existing theories about safety were unable to explain how the operators at TMI could be confused about what was actually happening inside of the plant.[6]Following the accident, Jens Rasmussen did early research on cognitive aspects of nuclear power plant control rooms.[7] This work influenced a generation of researchers who would later come to be associated with cognitive systems engineering, including Morten Lind, Erik Hollnagel, and David Woods.[5]Following the publication of a textbook on cognitive systems engineering by Kim Vicente in 1999 the techniques employed to establish a cognitive work analysis (CWA) were used to aid the design of any kind of system were humans have to interact with technology. The tools outlined by Vicente were not tried and tested, and there are few if any published accounts of the five phases of analysis being implemented.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"cognitive engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_engineering"},{"link_name":"Don Norman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Norman"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"\"Cognitive systems engineering\" vs \"Cognitive engineering\"","text":"The term \"cognitive systems engineering\" was introduced in a 1983 paper by Hollnagel and Woods.[1]Although the term cognitive engineering had already been introduced by Don Norman, Hollnagel and Woods deliberately introduced new terminology. They were unhappy with the framing of the term cognitive engineering, which they felt focused too much on improving the interaction between humans and computers, through the application of cognitive science. Instead, Hollnagel and Woods wished to emphasize a shift in focus from human-computer interaction to joint cognitive systems as the unit of analysis.[9]Despite the intention by Hollnagel and Woods to distinguish cognitive engineering from cognitive systems engineering, some researchers continue to use the two terms interchangeably.[10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"Extended mind thesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_mind_thesis"}],"sub_title":"Joint cognitive systems","text":"As mentioned in the Origins section above, one of the key tenets of cognitive systems engineering is that the base unit of analysis is the joint cognitive system. Instead of viewing cognitive tasks as being done only by individuals, CSE views cognitive work as being accomplished by a collection of people coordinating with each other and using technology to jointly perform cognitive work as a system.[1]See also: Extended mind thesis","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in situ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_situ"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"macrocognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrocognition"},{"link_name":"naturalistic decision-making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturalistic_decision-making"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Lucy Suchman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Diane Vaughan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diane_Vaughan"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle Challenger disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Black_Hawk_shootdown_incident"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Studying work in context","text":"CSE researchers focus their studies on work in situ, as opposed to studying how work is done in controlled laboratory environments.[11] This research approach, known as macrocognition, is similar to the one taken by naturalistic decision-making. Examples of studies of work done in context include Julian Orr's ethnographic studies of copy machine technicians,[12] Lucy Suchman's ethnographic studies of how people use photocopiers,[13] Diane Vaughan's study of engineering work at NASA in the wake of the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster,[14] and Scott Snook's study of military work in the wake of the 1994 Black Hawk shootdown incident.[15]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Coping with complexity","text":"A general thread that runs through cognitive systems engineering research is the question of how to design joint cognitive systems that can deal effectively with complexity, including common patterns in how such systems can fail to deal effectively with complexity.[16][11][17][18]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Anomaly response","text":"As mentioned in the Origins section above, CSE researchers were influenced by TMI. One specific application of coping with complexity is the work that human operators must do when they are supervising a process such as nuclear power plant, and they must then deal with a problem that arises. This work is sometimes known as anomaly response[11][19] or dynamic fault management.[20] This type of work often involves uncertainty, quickly changing conditions, and risk tradeoffs in deciding what remediation actions to take.","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"common ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grounding_in_communication"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Coordination","text":"Because joint cognitive systems involve multiple agents that must work together to complete cognitive tasks, coordination is another topic of interest in CSE. One specific example is the notion of common ground[21] and its implications for building software that can contribute effectively as agents in a joint cognitive system.[22]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Cognitive artifacts","text":"CSE researchers study how people use technology to support cognitive work and coordinate this work across multiple people. Examples of such cognitive artifacts, which have been studied by researchers, include \"the bed book\" used in intensive care units,[23] \"voice loops\" used in space operations,[24] \"speed bugs\" used in aviation,[25] drawings and sketches in engineering work,[26] and the various tools used in marine navigation.[27]Of particular interest to CSE researchers is how computer-based tools influence joint cognitive work,[28] in particular the impact of automation,[29] and computerized interfaces used by system operators.[30]","title":"Themes"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Cognitive Systems Engineering: The Future for a Changing World by Philip J. Smith and Robbert R. Hoffman, eds. 2017\nJoint Cognitive Systems: Patterns in Cognitive Systems Engineering by David Woods and Erik Hollnagel, 2005. 978-0849328213\nJoint Cognitive Systems: Foundations of Cognitive Systems Engineering by Erik Hollnagel and David Woods, 2005. 978-0367864156\nCognitive Systems Engineering by Jens Rasmussen, Annelise Mark Pejtersen, and L.P. Goodstein, 1994.","title":"Books"}]
[]
[{"title":"Cognitive work analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_work_analysis"},{"title":"Ecological interface design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_interface_design"}]
[{"reference":"Hollnagel, Erik; Woods, David D. (June 1983). \"Cognitive Systems Engineering: New wine in new bottles\". International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. 18 (6): 583–600. doi:10.1016/S0020-7373(83)80034-0. S2CID 15398274.","urls":[{"url":"https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0020737383800340","url_text":"\"Cognitive Systems Engineering: New wine in new bottles\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0020-7373%2883%2980034-0","url_text":"10.1016/S0020-7373(83)80034-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15398274","url_text":"15398274"}]},{"reference":"Flach, John (2020). A meaning processing approach to cognition : what matters?. Fred Voorhorst. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-367-40428-4. OCLC 1117930294.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1117930294","url_text":"A meaning processing approach to cognition : what matters?"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-40428-4","url_text":"978-0-367-40428-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1117930294","url_text":"1117930294"}]},{"reference":"Crandall, Beth (2006). Working minds : a practitioner's guide to cognitive task analysis. Gary A. Klein, Robert R. Hoffman. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-27092-2. OCLC 76064684.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76064684","url_text":"Working minds : a practitioner's guide to cognitive task analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-27092-2","url_text":"978-0-262-27092-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/76064684","url_text":"76064684"}]},{"reference":"Vicente, Kim J. (1999). Cognitive work analysis : toward safe, productive, and healthy computer-based work. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-585-16171-2. OCLC 44961122.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44961122","url_text":"Cognitive work analysis : toward safe, productive, and healthy computer-based work"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-585-16171-2","url_text":"0-585-16171-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44961122","url_text":"44961122"}]},{"reference":"Klein, G.; Wiggins, S.; Deal, S. (March 2008). \"Cognitive Systems Engineering: The Hype and the Hope\". Computer. 41 (3): 95–97. doi:10.1109/MC.2008.81. ISSN 0018-9162. S2CID 38587194.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4476234","url_text":"\"Cognitive Systems Engineering: The Hype and the Hope\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMC.2008.81","url_text":"10.1109/MC.2008.81"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9162","url_text":"0018-9162"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38587194","url_text":"38587194"}]},{"reference":"Cook, Richard (2014-02-05), 1. It all started at TMI, 1979, retrieved 2022-09-23","urls":[{"url":"https://vimeo.com/85909644","url_text":"1. It all started at TMI, 1979"}]},{"reference":"Jens Rasmussen (1986). Information processing and human-machine interaction : an approach to cognitive engineering. North-Holland. ISBN 0444009876. OCLC 13792295.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0444009876","url_text":"0444009876"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13792295","url_text":"13792295"}]},{"reference":"Ann M. Bisantz; Catherine M. Burns, eds. (2016). Applications of Cognitive Work Analysis. CRC Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9781420063059.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420063059","url_text":"9781420063059"}]},{"reference":"Philip J. Smith; Robert R. Hoffman (2018). Cognitive systems engineering : the future for a changing world. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781472430496. OCLC 987070476.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781472430496","url_text":"9781472430496"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/987070476","url_text":"987070476"}]},{"reference":"DOWELL, JOHN; LONG, JOHN (1998-02-01). \"Target Paper: Conception of the cognitive engineering design problem\". Ergonomics. 41 (2): 126–139. doi:10.1080/001401398187125. ISSN 0014-0139.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/001401398187125","url_text":"\"Target Paper: Conception of the cognitive engineering design problem\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F001401398187125","url_text":"10.1080/001401398187125"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0014-0139","url_text":"0014-0139"}]},{"reference":"Woods, D. (2019). JOINT COGNITIVE SYSTEMS : patterns in cognitive systems engineering. [Place of publication not identified]: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-367-86415-6. OCLC 1129755331.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1129755331","url_text":"JOINT COGNITIVE SYSTEMS : patterns in cognitive systems engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-367-86415-6","url_text":"978-0-367-86415-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1129755331","url_text":"1129755331"}]},{"reference":"Orr, Julian E. (2016). Talking about Machines : an Ethnography of a Modern Job. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-0740-7. OCLC 1030353116.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/1030353116","url_text":"Talking about Machines : an Ethnography of a Modern Job"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-0740-7","url_text":"978-1-5017-0740-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1030353116","url_text":"1030353116"}]},{"reference":"Suchman, Lucy (2009). Human-machine reconfigurations : plans and situated actions. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85891-5. OCLC 902661378.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/902661378","url_text":"Human-machine reconfigurations : plans and situated actions"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-85891-5","url_text":"978-0-521-85891-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/902661378","url_text":"902661378"}]},{"reference":"Vaughan, Diane (4 January 2016). The Challenger launch decision : risky technology, culture, and deviance at NASA. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-34682-3. OCLC 944938820.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/944938820","url_text":"The Challenger launch decision : risky technology, culture, and deviance at NASA"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-34682-3","url_text":"978-0-226-34682-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/944938820","url_text":"944938820"}]},{"reference":"A., Snook, Scott (2011). Friendly Fire : the Accidental Shootdown of U.S. Black Hawks over Northern Iraq. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4097-7. OCLC 749265018.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldcat.org/oclc/749265018","url_text":"Friendly Fire : the Accidental Shootdown of U.S. Black Hawks over Northern Iraq"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4097-7","url_text":"978-1-4008-4097-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/749265018","url_text":"749265018"}]},{"reference":"Hollnagel, Erik (2005). Joint cognitive systems : foundations of cognitive systems engineering. David D. Woods. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-8493-2821-7. OCLC 309875728.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/309875728","url_text":"Joint cognitive systems : foundations of cognitive systems engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8493-2821-7","url_text":"0-8493-2821-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/309875728","url_text":"309875728"}]},{"reference":"Rasmussen, Jens; Lind, Morten (1981). \"Coping with complexity\" (PDF). Risø-M (2293). Risø National Laboratory.","urls":[{"url":"https://backend.orbit.dtu.dk/ws/portalfiles/portal/55672721/ris_m_2293.pdf","url_text":"\"Coping with complexity\""}]},{"reference":"Hollnagel, Erik (2012-09-01). \"Coping with complexity: past, present and future\". Cognition, Technology & Work. 14 (3): 199–205. doi:10.1007/s10111-011-0202-7. ISSN 1435-5566. S2CID 15222531.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-011-0202-7","url_text":"\"Coping with complexity: past, present and future\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10111-011-0202-7","url_text":"10.1007/s10111-011-0202-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1435-5566","url_text":"1435-5566"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15222531","url_text":"15222531"}]},{"reference":"\"Cognitive Work of Hypothesis Exploration During Anomaly Response - ACM Queue\". queue.acm.org. Retrieved 2022-09-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://queue.acm.org/detail.cfm?id=3380778","url_text":"\"Cognitive Work of Hypothesis Exploration During Anomaly Response - ACM Queue\""}]},{"reference":"WOODS, DAVID D. (1995-11-01). \"The alarm problem and directed attention in dynamic fault management\". Ergonomics. 38 (11): 2371–2393. doi:10.1080/00140139508925274. ISSN 0014-0139.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139508925274","url_text":"\"The alarm problem and directed attention in dynamic fault management\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00140139508925274","url_text":"10.1080/00140139508925274"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0014-0139","url_text":"0014-0139"}]},{"reference":"Klein, Gary; Feltovich, Paul J.; Bradshaw, Jeffrey M.; Woods, David D. (2005-06-27), \"Common Ground and Coordination in Joint Activity\", Organizational Simulation, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 139–184, doi:10.1002/0471739448.ch6, ISBN 9780471739449, retrieved 2022-09-24","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/0471739448.ch6","url_text":"\"Common Ground and Coordination in Joint Activity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F0471739448.ch6","url_text":"10.1002/0471739448.ch6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471739449","url_text":"9780471739449"}]},{"reference":"Klien, G.; Woods, D.D.; Bradshaw, J.M.; Hoffman, R.R.; Feltovich, P.J. (November 2004). \"Ten challenges for making automation a \"team player\" in joint human-agent activity\". IEEE Intelligent Systems. 19 (6): 91–95. doi:10.1109/MIS.2004.74. ISSN 1941-1294. 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S2CID 5341838.","urls":[{"url":"http://link.springer.com/10.1023/A:1008722214282","url_text":"\"Voice Loops as Coordination Aids in Space Shuttle Mission Control\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1008722214282","url_text":"10.1023/A:1008722214282"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0925-9724","url_text":"0925-9724"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12269347","url_text":"12269347"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5341838","url_text":"5341838"}]},{"reference":"Hutchins, Edwin (July 1995). \"How a Cockpit Remembers Its Speeds\". Cognitive Science. 19 (3): 265–288. doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1903_1. ISSN 0364-0213. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo_Siffert
Jo Siffert
["1 Life and career","1.1 Early life","1.2 Formula One","1.3 Sports cars","1.4 Death","1.5 Legacy","2 Racing record","2.1 Career summary","2.2 Complete Formula One World Championship results","2.3 Complete Formula One Non-Championship results","2.4 Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results","2.5 Complete European Formula Two Championship results","3 Other results","4 References","5 Sources","6 External links"]
Swiss racing driver (1936–1971) Jo SiffertSiffert in 1968Born(1936-07-07)7 July 1936Fribourg, SwitzerlandDied24 October 1971(1971-10-24) (aged 35)Kent, EnglandFormula One World Championship careerNationality SwissActive years1962–1971TeamsPrivateer Lotus and Brabham, Rob Walker Racing Team, March, BRMEntries100 (96 starts)Championships0Wins2Podiums6Career points68Pole positions2Fastest laps4First entry1962 Monaco Grand PrixFirst win1968 British Grand PrixLast win1971 Austrian Grand PrixLast entry1971 United States Grand Prix Joseph Siffert (French: ; 7 July 1936 – 24 October 1971) was a Swiss racing driver. Affectionately known as "Seppi" to his family and friends, Siffert was born in Fribourg, Switzerland, the son of a dairy owner. He initially made his name in racing on two wheels, winning the Swiss 350 cc motorcycle championship in 1959, before switching to four wheels with a Formula Junior Stanguellini. Siffert graduated to Formula One as a privateer in 1962, with a four-cylinder Lotus-Climax. He later moved to Swiss team Scuderia Filipinetti, and in 1964 joined Rob Walker's private British Rob Walker Racing Team. Early successes included victories in the non-Championship 1964 and 1965 Mediterranean Grands Prix, both times beating Jim Clark by a very narrow margin. He won two races in Formula One for the Rob Walker Racing Team and BRM. He died at the 1971 World Championship Victory Race, having his car roll over after a crash caused by a mechanical failure and being caught under the burning vehicle. Siffert was married twice and to his second wife Simone during the height of his career in the late 1960s and at the time of his death. They had two children together, Véronique and Philippe. Life and career Early life Siffert was born in 1936 in the town of Fribourg, Switzerland, 35 km (22 mi) from Bern to a poor family. Aged 12, Siffert and his father went to Bern to see the 1948 Swiss Grand Prix at the Bremgarten circuit, and it was at this event where Siffert wanted to be a racing driver. Formula One Siffert at the wheel of a Porsche 906 in practice for the 1966 1000 km Nürburgring race In 1968, Siffert drove into the F1 history books by winning the 1968 British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in Rob Walker Racing Team's Lotus 49B, beating Chris Amon's Ferrari into second place after a race-long battle. This is regarded as the last GP victory by a genuine privateer. In 1971 as a BRM team driver he scored his second Formula One Championship race victory at the Austrian Grand Prix held at the Österreichring. Sports cars While Siffert's status in F1 grew slowly, his fame came as a leading driver for the factory Porsche effort in its quest for the World Sportscar Championship. In 1968, Siffert and Hans Herrmann won the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring in a Porsche 907, marking the first major outright wins for the company, apart from a few earlier victories on twisty tracks. Siffert in the Porsche 908.03 at the 1970 1,000 km Nürburgring Siffert at the wheel of a Porsche 908 Siffert at the 1969 Dutch Grand Prix. Later on, Siffert's driving displays in the Porsche 917 earned him several major wins in Europe. In addition, Siffert was chosen by Porsche to help launch its CanAm development programme, driving a Porsche 917PA spyder in 1969 and finishing fourth in the championship despite few entries. In 1970 he teamed up with Brian Redman to drive a Porsche 908/3 to victory at the Targa Florio. That same year, Porsche bankrolled Siffert's seat in a works March Engineering F1 since the German company did not wish to lose one of their prize drivers to rival Ferrari. His association with March in F1 was disastrous, so he was pleased to join rival Porsche racer Pedro Rodriguez at BRM the following season. Death Siffert was killed in the non-championship World Championship Victory Race at Brands Hatch, Kent, England, the scene of his first victory in 1968. The suspension of his BRM had been damaged in a lap one incident with Ronnie Peterson, and broke later. This was not admitted by BRM until much later when it was accidentally divulged by a BRM ex-mechanic. The BRM crashed and immediately caught fire. Siffert could not free himself from the burning car. In the subsequent Royal Automobile Club (the UK organising and regulatory representative of the FIA at the time) investigation, it was discovered that Siffert had only suffered a leg fracture in the initial crash but because three fire extinguishers failed to work properly no rescuers could reach Siffert for five minutes and he died of smoke inhalation. A fire marshall stated that if the fire extinguishers worked correctly then they could have reached Siffert within 20 seconds. This accident led to a rapid overhaul of safety, both in-car and on circuit. On-board fire extinguishers (using BCF—bromochlorodifluoromethane, an aircraft product) became mandatory and also piped air for the drivers, direct into their helmets. His funeral in Switzerland was attended by 50,000 people and a Gulf-Porsche 917 of Team John Wyer led the hearse and procession through the streets of Fribourg. Benoit was a period Formula 1 sports reporter and knew Siffert well. He was also present at Siffert's tragic last Brands Hatch race in 1971. The night before the race, Benoit took pictures of Siffert, his wife Simone and his mother Maria as well as a friend Jean Tinguely at an evening victory celebration. He then also took the last picture of Siffert alive as he sat waiting in his BRM in the pole position on the starting line five minutes before the start of the race. Legacy In the final round of the 2007–08 A1GP season, at Brands Hatch, the A1 Team Switzerland car carried the message Jo 'Seppi' Siffert - 40th Anniversary - Brands Hatch. This commemorated his 1968 British Grand Prix victory at Brands Hatch. Jo Siffert memorial bust outside Palexpo complexe (Geneva Feb.1997) Racing record Career summary Season Series Team Races Wins Poles F/Laps Podiums Points Position 1962 Formula One Ecurie Filipinetti 3 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1963 Formula One Siffert Racing Team 9 0 0 0 0 1 14th 1964 Formula One Siffert Racing Team 8 0 0 0 0 7 10th R.R.C. Walker Racing Team 2 0 0 0 1 Trophées de France Siffert Racing Team 1 0 0 0 0 0 NC 1965 Formula One R.R.C. Walker Racing Team 10 0 0 0 0 5 12th 24 Hours of Le Mans J.H. Simone 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF 1966 Formula One R.R.C. Walker Racing Team 8 0 0 0 0 3 14th British Formula Two Joakim Bonnier 1 0 0 0 0 0 NC 24 Hours of Le Mans Porsche System Engineering 1 1 0 ? 1 N/A 1st 1967 Formula One Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team 10 0 0 0 0 6 12th European Formula Two BMW AG München 3 0 0 0 0 0 NC‡ 24 Hours of Le Mans Porsche System Engineering 1 1 0 ? 1 N/A 1st 1968 Formula One Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team 12 1 1 3 1 12 7th European Formula Two Bayerische Motoren Werke 2 0 0 0 0 0 NC‡ 24 Hours of Le Mans Porsche System Engineering 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF 24 Hours of Daytona 1 1 ? ? 1 N/A 1st 1969 Formula One Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team 11 0 0 0 2 15 9th Can-Am Porsche-Audi 8 0 0 0 1 56 4th European Formula Two Bayerische Motoren Werke 3 0 1 0 1 0 NC‡ 24 Hours of Le Mans Hart Ski Racing 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC 24 Hours of Daytona Porsche System Engineering 1 0 0 0 0 N/A NC 1970 Formula One March Engineering 12 0 0 0 0 0 NC European Formula Two Bayerische Motoren Werke 4 0 0 0 1 0 NC‡ Can-Am J.W. Automotive 1 0 0 0 1 15 17th 24 Hours of Le Mans 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF 1971 Formula One Yardley Team BRM 11 1 1 1 2 19 5th Can-Am STP-Jo Siffert 6 0 0 0 3 68 4th European Formula Two Jo Siffert - Chevron Racing Team 2 0 0 0 0 0 NC‡ 24 Hours of Le Mans J.W. Automotive 1 0 0 0 0 N/A DNF ‡ Graded drivers not eligible for European Formula Two Championship points Complete Formula One World Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 WDC Pts 1962 Ecurie Nationale Suisse Lotus 21 Climax FPF 1.5 L4 NED MONDNQ NC 0 Ecurie Filipinetti BEL10 GER12 Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 FRARet GBR ITADNQ USA RSA 1963 Siffert Racing Team Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 MONRet BELRet NED7 FRA6 GBRRet GER9 ITARet USARet MEX9 RSA 14th 1 1964 Siffert Racing Team Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 MON8 10th 7 Brabham BT11 NED13 BELRet FRARet GBR11 GER4 AUTRet ITA7 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team USA3 MEXRet 1965 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 RSA7 MON6 BEL8 FRA6 GBR9 NED13 GERRet ITARet USA11 MEX4 12th 5 1966 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P60 2.0 V8 MONRet 14th 3 Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 BELRet FRARet GBRNC NEDRet GER ITARet USA4 MEXRet 1967 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 RSARet MONRet NED10 BEL7 FRA4 GBRRet GERRet CANDNS ITARet USA4 MEX12 12th 6 1968 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 RSA7 7th 12 Lotus 49 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ESPRet MONRet BEL7 NEDRet FRA11 Lotus 49B GBR1 GERRet ITARet CANRet USA5 MEX6 1969 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 RSA4 ESPRet MON3 NED2 FRA9 GBR8 GER111 ITA8 CANRet USARet MEXRet 9th 15 1970 March Engineering March 701 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 RSA10 ESPDNQ MON8 BEL7 NEDRet FRARet GBRRet GER8 AUT9 ITARet CANRet USA9 MEXRet NC 0 1971 Yardley Team BRM BRM P153 BRM P142 3.0 V12 RSARet 5th 19 BRM P160 ESPRet MONRet NED6 FRA4 GBR9 GERDSQ AUT1 ITA9 CAN9 USA2 Source: Notes ^1 – Formula Two cars occupied fifth to tenth positions in the 1969 German Grand Prix, however drivers of these cars were not eligible for championship points. The points for fifth and sixth were awarded to the drivers of the eleventh and twelfth placed cars. Complete Formula One Non-Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1962 Ecurie Nationale Suisse Lotus 22 Ford 105E 1.5 L4 CAP BRX6 LOM LAV GLV Lotus 21 Climax FPF 1.5 L4 PAU7 AIN INT NAP MAL CLP Scuderia Filipinetti RMS9 MED4 DAN OUL MEX RAN NAT Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 SOLRet KAN 1963 Ecurie Filipinetti Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 LOMDNS GLV PAURet IMO2 SYR1 AIN INT Siffert Racing Team ROMDNS SOLRet KAN MED5 AUTRet OUL11 RAN 1964 Siffert Racing Team Lotus 24 BRM P56 1.5 V8 DMT NWT SYRDNS AIN INT11 Brabham BT11 SOL7 MED1 RAN 1965 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 ROC6 SYRRet SMTRet INT MED1 RAN5 1966 R.R.C. Walker Racing Team Brabham BT11 BRM P56 1.5 V8 RSA2 Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 SYRRet Cooper T80 INTRet OUL 1967 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Cooper T81 Maserati 9/F1 3.0 V12 ROC3 SPC INT3 SYR3 OUL Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T100 BMW M12 2.0 L4 ESPRet 1968 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ROCDNS INTRet OUL 1969 Rob Walker/Jack Durlacher Racing Team Lotus 49B Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ROC4 INT11 MAD OUL 1971 Jo Siffert Automobiles March 701 Ford Cosworth DFV 3.0 V8 ARGRet ROC Yardley Team BRM BRM P160 BRM P142 3.0 V12 QUE6 INTRet RIN OUL VIC4 BRM P153 SPRRet Source: Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results Year Team Co-Drivers Car Class Laps Pos. ClassPos. 1965 J.H. Simone Jochen Neerpasch Maserati Tipo 65 P +5.0 3 DNF DNF 1966 Porsche System Engineering Colin Davis Porsche 906/6L Carrera 6 P 2.0 339 4th 1st 1967 Porsche System Engineering Hans Herrmann Porsche 907/6L P 2.0 358 5th 1st 1968 Porsche System Engineering Hans Herrmann Porsche 908 P 3.0 59 DNF DNF 1969 Hart Ski Racing Brian Redman Porsche 908/2L P 3.0 60 DNF DNF 1970 John Wyer Automotive Engineering Ltd. Brian Redman Porsche 917K S 5.0 156 DNF DNF 1971 John Wyer Automotive Engineering Ltd. Derek Bell Porsche 917LH S 5.0 DNF DNF Source: Complete European Formula Two Championship results (key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap) Year Entrant Chassis Engine 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Pos. Pts 1967 Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T100 BMW M11 SNE SILRet NÜRRet HOC TUL JAR ZAN PER BRH VAL9 NC 0 1968 Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T102 BMW M11 HOC THR JAR PAL TUL ZAN PER HOCRet VAL18 NC 0 1969 Bayerische Motoren Werke Lola T102 BMW M11 THRRet HOC NÜR2 JAR TUL NC 0‡ BMW 269 PERRet VAL 1970 Bayerische Motoren Werke BMW 270 BMW M11 THRRet HOC BAR ROU1 PER2 TUL11 IMORet HOC NC 0‡ 1971 Jo Siffert - Chevron Racing Team Chevron B18 Cosworth FVA HOC THRRet NÜR10 JAR PALDNQ ROU MAN TUL ALB VAL VAL NC 0 Source: ‡ Graded drivers not eligible for European Formula Two Championship points Other results Targa Florio: 1st, 1970 Coppa Cittá di Enna: 1st, 1968 12 hours of Sebring: 1st, 1968 24 hours of Daytona: 1st, 1968 6 Hours of Nürburgring: 1st, 1968, 1969 6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps: 1st, 1969, 1970 1000 km of Zeltweg: 1st, 1968, 1969, 1970 1000 km of Monza: 1st, 1969 1000 km of Buenos Aires: 1st, 1971 6 Hours of Watkins Glen: 1st, 1969 1000 km of Brands Hatch: 1st, 1968 References ^ "No ordinary Jo". Motor Sport Magazine. 7 July 2014. ^ "8W – What? – R R C Walker Racing Team". Retrieved 19 April 2008. ^ Turner, Kevin (24 October 2021). "The 10 greatest drives of lost legend Jo Siffert". Autosport. Retrieved 24 October 2021. ^ Benoit, Roger (24 December 2005). "Jo Siffert (7. Juli 1936 - 24. Oktober 1971)". blick.ch (in German). Der Blick. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2016. ^ "Faulty Fire Equipment Killed Driver". The Spokesman-Review. 27 November 1971. Retrieved 23 July 2020 – via Newspapers.com. ^ "Fire Extinguishers Are Blamed In Siffert Death". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 27 November 1971. Retrieved 23 July 2020 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Benoit, Roger (24 December 2005). "Jo Siffert (7. Juli 1936 – 24. Oktober 1971) Das Scheckheft des Todes". blick.ch (in German). Der Blick. Archived from the original on 8 July 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2016. ^ a b c "Profile for racing driver Jo Siffert". MotorSportMagazine. Retrieved 4 February 2018. ^ "All Results of Jo Siffert". RacingSportCars. Retrieved 19 January 2019. Sources Lareida, Men (director) (2005). Jo Siffert. Live Fast, Die Young (DVD). Hugofilm. F1 Results include information from the following sources: Whitelock, Mark (2006). 1½-litre Grand Prix Racing 1961-1965. Veloce Publishing Ltd. ISBN 184584016X. "The Formula One Archives". "F2 Register - The Formula 1, Non-Championship Races". Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Joseph Siffert. Official Jo Siffert web site (German and French) by Philippe Siffert, Jo's son Archived 27 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine Jo Siffert fan page authorized by Simone Siffert, Jo's second wife Biography at der Blick (German) Preceded byJochen Rindt Formula One fatal accidents 24 October 1971 Succeeded byRoger Williamson vteWinners of the 24 Hours of Daytona run as the Daytona 3 Hour Continental (1962–63) Daytona 2000 (1964–65) 6 Hours of Daytona (1972) 24 Hours of Daytona (1966–71 / 1973 / 1975–present) Five-time Hurley Haywood Scott Pruett Four-time Peter Gregg Pedro Rodríguez Rolf Stommelen Bob Wollek Three-time João Barbosa Derek Bell Hélio Castroneves Scott Dixon Christian Fittipaldi Butch Leitzinger Juan Pablo Montoya Brian Redman Memo Rojas Andy Wallace Two-time Filipe Albuquerque Max Angelelli Mauro Baldi Tom Blomqvist Terry Borcheller Elliott Forbes-Robinson A. J. Foyt Al Holbert Kamui Kobayashi Jan Lammers Ken Miles Simon Pagenaud John Paul Jr. Lloyd Ruby Scott Sharp Jordan Taylor Ricky Taylor Wayne Taylor Didier Theys Al Unser Jr. Renger van der Zande One-time Allmendinger Alonso Amon J. Andretti Ma. Andretti Ballot-Léna Bandini Barber Beretta Bergmeister Bernhard Boesel Bouchut Bourdais Boutsen Braun Briscoe Brown Brundle Buckler Cameron Campbell Collard Dalziel Derani Dismore D. Donohue M. Donohue Dupuy Durán Duxbury Dyson Elford Fellows Field Fitzpatrick Franchitti Fréon García Garretson Gentilozzi Gordon Graves Gurney Hand Hasemi Helmick Henn Herrmann Hezemans Hill Hoshino Ickx Jarvis Jelinski Joest D. Jones P. J. Jones Kanaan Kimball Kinnunen Kneifel Krages Larson Lässig Lavaggi Law Lienhard Luyendyk Martin McMurray Mears Merl Millen Moran Moretti Nasr Neerpasch Negri Newgarden Nielsen O'Connell Oliver Ongais Pace Papis C. Parsons Paul Sr. Pescarolo Pew Pilgrim B. Rahal G. Rahal Rice Robinson Rockenfeller Rossi Schneider Schrom Siffert Suzuki Unser Sr. Van der Merwe Van Overbeek Weaver Wendlinger Werner Wheldon Wilson vteWinners of the 12 Hours of SebringSix-time Tom Kristensen Five-time Rinaldo Capello Four-time Frank Biela Pipo Derani Allan McNish Three-time Hans-Joachim Stuck Mario Andretti Marco Werner Two-time Bob Akin Sébastien Bourdais Geoff Brabham Derek Daly Loïc Duval Andy Evans Juan Manuel Fangio Juan Manuel Fangio II Olivier Gendebien Hurley Haywood Hans Herrmann Phil Hill Al Holbert Jacky Ickx Stefan Johansson Nicolas Lapierre JJ Lehto Alex Lynn Emanuele Pirro Brian Redman Jordan Taylor Eric van de Poele Johannes van Overbeek Fermín Vélez Andy Wallace Phil Walters One-time Aïello Aitken Alboreto Baker Baldi Bamber Barbosa Barbour Behra Bernhard Bianchi Bomarito Bonnier Gary Brabham Brown Castellotti Collard Collins Curran Daigh Dalmas Davidson de Narváez Delétraz Dumas Dyer Earl Elford Fässler Fitch Fittipaldi Fitzpatrick Foyt Franchitti Frisselle Garretson Gartner Gené Giunti Gray Gregg Gurney Hall Hawthorn Helmick Herbert Herta Heyer Hunter-Reay Jani Jarvis Kaffer Keyser Kulok Larrousse Leven Lloyd Ludwig Luyendyk Maglioli Mass McFarlin McLaren Mendez Miles Millen Moffat Moretti Morton Moss Mullen Müller Nasr Nierop O'Connell Oliver Pace Panis Parkes Paul Jr. Paul Sr. Pescatori Peter Pruett Rahal Robinson Rojas Ruby Scarfiotti H. Sharp S. Sharp Siffert Sims Surtees R. Taylor W. Taylor Theys Tincknell Tréluyer Vaccarella Vautier Wollek Woods Wurz Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Poland People Deutsche Biographie Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[ʒo sifɛʁ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"racing driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_driver"},{"link_name":"Fribourg, Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fribourg,_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"motorcycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorcycle"},{"link_name":"Formula Junior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_Junior"},{"link_name":"Formula One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_One"},{"link_name":"Lotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_Lotus"},{"link_name":"Climax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coventry_Climax"},{"link_name":"Scuderia Filipinetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuderia_Filipinetti"},{"link_name":"Rob Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Walker_(motorsport)"},{"link_name":"Rob Walker Racing Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Walker_Racing_Team"},{"link_name":"1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_Mediterranean_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"1965 Mediterranean Grands Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_Mediterranean_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"Jim Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Clark"},{"link_name":"Rob Walker Racing Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Walker_Racing_Team"},{"link_name":"BRM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Racing_Motors"},{"link_name":"1971 World Championship Victory Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_World_Championship_Victory_Race"}],"text":"Joseph Siffert (French: [ʒo sifɛʁ]; 7 July 1936 – 24 October 1971) was a Swiss racing driver.Affectionately known as \"Seppi\" to his family and friends, Siffert was born in Fribourg, Switzerland, the son of a dairy owner. He initially made his name in racing on two wheels, winning the Swiss 350 cc motorcycle championship in 1959, before switching to four wheels with a Formula Junior Stanguellini. Siffert graduated to Formula One as a privateer in 1962, with a four-cylinder Lotus-Climax. He later moved to Swiss team Scuderia Filipinetti, and in 1964 joined Rob Walker's private British Rob Walker Racing Team. Early successes included victories in the non-Championship 1964 and 1965 Mediterranean Grands Prix, both times beating Jim Clark by a very narrow margin. He won two races in Formula One for the Rob Walker Racing Team and BRM. He died at the 1971 World Championship Victory Race, having his car roll over after a crash caused by a mechanical failure and being caught under the burning vehicle. Siffert was married twice and to his second wife Simone during the height of his career in the late 1960s and at the time of his death. They had two children together, Véronique and Philippe.","title":"Jo Siffert"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fribourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fribourg"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Bern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern"},{"link_name":"1948 Swiss Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1948_Swiss_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"Bremgarten circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bremgarten_circuit"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"sub_title":"Early life","text":"Siffert was born in 1936 in the town of Fribourg, Switzerland, 35 km (22 mi) from Bern to a poor family. Aged 12, Siffert and his father went to Bern to see the 1948 Swiss Grand Prix at the Bremgarten circuit, and it was at this event where Siffert wanted to be a racing driver.[1]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Porsche_906_mit_J._Siffert_am_03.06.1966.jpg"},{"link_name":"Porsche 906","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_906"},{"link_name":"1000 km Nürburgring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_km_N%C3%BCrburgring"},{"link_name":"1968 British Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_British_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"Brands Hatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brands_Hatch"},{"link_name":"Rob Walker Racing Team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Walker_Racing_Team"},{"link_name":"Lotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_Lotus"},{"link_name":"Chris Amon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Amon"},{"link_name":"Ferrari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuderia_Ferrari"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"BRM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRM"},{"link_name":"Austrian Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_Austrian_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"Österreichring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96sterreichring"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Formula One","text":"Siffert at the wheel of a Porsche 906 in practice for the 1966 1000 km Nürburgring raceIn 1968, Siffert drove into the F1 history books by winning the 1968 British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch in Rob Walker Racing Team's Lotus 49B, beating Chris Amon's Ferrari into second place after a race-long battle. This is regarded as the last GP victory by a genuine privateer.[2] In 1971 as a BRM team driver he scored his second Formula One Championship race victory at the Austrian Grand Prix held at the Österreichring.[3]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Porsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_in_motorsport"},{"link_name":"World Sportscar Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Sportscar_Championship"},{"link_name":"Hans Herrmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Herrmann"},{"link_name":"24 Hours of Daytona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24_Hours_of_Daytona"},{"link_name":"12 Hours of Sebring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Hours_of_Sebring"},{"link_name":"Porsche 907","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_907"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Porsche_908_-_Josef_Siffert_1970-05-31.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1971-05-29_Joseph_Siffert,_Porsche_908-3_(Gegengerade).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Siffert_at_1969_Dutch_Grand_Prix.jpg"},{"link_name":"1969 Dutch Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969_Dutch_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"Porsche 917","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_917"},{"link_name":"CanAm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can-Am_Challenge_Cup"},{"link_name":"Porsche 917","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_917"},{"link_name":"Brian Redman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Redman"},{"link_name":"Porsche 908","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_908"},{"link_name":"Targa Florio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targa_Florio"},{"link_name":"March Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_Engineering"},{"link_name":"Pedro Rodriguez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Rodriguez_(racing_driver)"},{"link_name":"BRM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Racing_Motors"}],"sub_title":"Sports cars","text":"While Siffert's status in F1 grew slowly, his fame came as a leading driver for the factory Porsche effort in its quest for the World Sportscar Championship. In 1968, Siffert and Hans Herrmann won the 24 Hours of Daytona and the 12 Hours of Sebring in a Porsche 907, marking the first major outright wins for the company, apart from a few earlier victories on twisty tracks.Siffert in the Porsche 908.03 at the 1970 1,000 km NürburgringSiffert at the wheel of a Porsche 908Siffert at the 1969 Dutch Grand Prix.Later on, Siffert's driving displays in the Porsche 917 earned him several major wins in Europe. In addition, Siffert was chosen by Porsche to help launch its CanAm development programme, driving a Porsche 917PA spyder in 1969 and finishing fourth in the championship despite few entries.In 1970 he teamed up with Brian Redman to drive a Porsche 908/3 to victory at the Targa Florio. That same year, Porsche bankrolled Siffert's seat in a works March Engineering F1 since the German company did not wish to lose one of their prize drivers to rival Ferrari. His association with March in F1 was disastrous, so he was pleased to join rival Porsche racer Pedro Rodriguez at BRM the following season.","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Championship Victory Race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971_World_Championship_Victory_Race"},{"link_name":"Brands Hatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Brands_Hatch_Circuit_fatal_accidents"},{"link_name":"Ronnie Peterson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Peterson"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blick1-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"bromochlorodifluoromethane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromochlorodifluoromethane"},{"link_name":"Porsche 917","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_917"},{"link_name":"John Wyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wyer"},{"link_name":"Jean Tinguely","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Tinguely"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blick2-7"}],"sub_title":"Death","text":"Siffert was killed in the non-championship World Championship Victory Race at Brands Hatch, Kent, England, the scene of his first victory in 1968. The suspension of his BRM had been damaged in a lap one incident with Ronnie Peterson, and broke later. This was not admitted by BRM until much later when it was accidentally divulged by a BRM ex-mechanic.[4] The BRM crashed and immediately caught fire. Siffert could not free himself from the burning car.In the subsequent Royal Automobile Club (the UK organising and regulatory representative of the FIA at the time) investigation, it was discovered that Siffert had only suffered a leg fracture in the initial crash but because three fire extinguishers failed to work properly no rescuers could reach Siffert for five minutes and he died of smoke inhalation.[5] A fire marshall stated that if the fire extinguishers worked correctly then they could have reached Siffert within 20 seconds.[6]This accident led to a rapid overhaul of safety, both in-car and on circuit. On-board fire extinguishers (using BCF—bromochlorodifluoromethane, an aircraft product) became mandatory and also piped air for the drivers, direct into their helmets.His funeral in Switzerland was attended by 50,000 people and a Gulf-Porsche 917 of Team John Wyer led the hearse and procession through the streets of Fribourg. Benoit was a period Formula 1 sports reporter and knew Siffert well. He was also present at Siffert's tragic last Brands Hatch race in 1971. The night before the race, Benoit took pictures of Siffert, his wife Simone and his mother Maria as well as a friend Jean Tinguely at an evening victory celebration.[7] He then also took the last picture of Siffert alive as he sat waiting in his BRM in the pole position on the starting line five minutes before the start of the race.","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2007–08 A1GP season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007-08_A1_Grand_Prix_season"},{"link_name":"Brands Hatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brands_Hatch"},{"link_name":"A1 Team Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A1_Team_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"1968 British Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_British_Grand_Prix"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Siffert_20150828_175746.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Legacy","text":"In the final round of the 2007–08 A1GP season, at Brands Hatch, the A1 Team Switzerland car carried the message Jo 'Seppi' Siffert - 40th Anniversary - Brands Hatch. This commemorated his 1968 British Grand Prix victory at Brands Hatch.Jo Siffert memorial bust outside Palexpo complexe (Geneva Feb.1997)","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Racing record"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Career summary","text":"‡ Graded drivers not eligible for European Formula Two Championship points","title":"Racing record"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:F1_driver_results_legend_2"},{"link_name":"^1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_1"},{"link_name":"1969 German Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969_German_Grand_Prix"}],"sub_title":"Complete Formula One World Championship results","text":"(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)Notes^1 – Formula Two cars occupied fifth to tenth positions in the 1969 German Grand Prix, however drivers of these cars were not eligible for championship points. The points for fifth and sixth were awarded to the drivers of the eleventh and twelfth placed cars.","title":"Racing record"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:F1_driver_results_legend_3"}],"sub_title":"Complete Formula One Non-Championship results","text":"(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)","title":"Racing record"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Complete 24 Hours of Le Mans results","title":"Racing record"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Motorsport_driver_results_legend"}],"sub_title":"Complete European Formula Two Championship results","text":"(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)‡ Graded drivers not eligible for European Formula Two Championship points","title":"Racing record"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Targa Florio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targa_Florio"},{"link_name":"Coppa Cittá di Enna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coppa_Citt%C3%A1_di_Enna"},{"link_name":"12 hours of Sebring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_hours_of_Sebring"},{"link_name":"24 hours of Daytona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24_hours_of_Daytona"},{"link_name":"6 Hours of Nürburgring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_Hours_of_N%C3%BCrburgring"},{"link_name":"6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_Hours_of_Spa-Francorchamps"},{"link_name":"1000 km of Zeltweg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_km_of_Zeltweg"},{"link_name":"1000 km of Monza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_km_of_Monza"},{"link_name":"1000 km of Buenos Aires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_km_of_Buenos_Aires"},{"link_name":"6 Hours of Watkins Glen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_Hours_of_Watkins_Glen"},{"link_name":"1000 km of Brands Hatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000_km_of_Brands_Hatch"}],"text":"Targa Florio: 1st, 1970\nCoppa Cittá di Enna: 1st, 1968\n12 hours of Sebring: 1st, 1968\n24 hours of Daytona: 1st, 1968\n6 Hours of Nürburgring: 1st, 1968, 1969\n6 Hours of Spa-Francorchamps: 1st, 1969, 1970\n1000 km of Zeltweg: 1st, 1968, 1969, 1970\n1000 km of Monza: 1st, 1969\n1000 km of Buenos Aires: 1st, 1971\n6 Hours of Watkins Glen: 1st, 1969\n1000 km of Brands Hatch: 1st, 1968","title":"Other results"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Whitelock, Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Whitelock&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"184584016X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/184584016X"},{"link_name":"\"The Formula One Archives\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.silhouet.com/motorsport/archive/f1/title.html"},{"link_name":"\"F2 Register - The Formula 1, Non-Championship Races\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20071011020230/http://www.formula2.net/"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.formula2.net"}],"text":"Lareida, Men (director) (2005). Jo Siffert. Live Fast, Die Young (DVD). Hugofilm.F1 Results include information from the following sources:Whitelock, Mark (2006). 1½-litre Grand Prix Racing 1961-1965. Veloce Publishing Ltd. ISBN 184584016X.\n\"The Formula One Archives\".\n\"F2 Register - The Formula 1, Non-Championship Races\". Archived from the original on 11 October 2007.","title":"Sources"}]
[{"image_text":"Siffert at the wheel of a Porsche 906 in practice for the 1966 1000 km Nürburgring race","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Porsche_906_mit_J._Siffert_am_03.06.1966.jpg/250px-Porsche_906_mit_J._Siffert_am_03.06.1966.jpg"},{"image_text":"Siffert in the Porsche 908.03 at the 1970 1,000 km Nürburgring","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Porsche_908_-_Josef_Siffert_1970-05-31.jpg/220px-Porsche_908_-_Josef_Siffert_1970-05-31.jpg"},{"image_text":"Siffert at the wheel of a Porsche 908","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/1971-05-29_Joseph_Siffert%2C_Porsche_908-3_%28Gegengerade%29.jpg/220px-1971-05-29_Joseph_Siffert%2C_Porsche_908-3_%28Gegengerade%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Siffert at the 1969 Dutch Grand Prix.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Siffert_at_1969_Dutch_Grand_Prix.jpg/220px-Siffert_at_1969_Dutch_Grand_Prix.jpg"},{"image_text":"Jo Siffert memorial bust outside Palexpo complexe (Geneva Feb.1997)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Siffert_20150828_175746.jpg/220px-Siffert_20150828_175746.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"No ordinary Jo\". Motor Sport Magazine. 7 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/november-2011/64/no-ordinary-jo","url_text":"\"No ordinary Jo\""}]},{"reference":"\"8W – What? – R R C Walker Racing Team\". Retrieved 19 April 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.forix.com/8w/walker.html","url_text":"\"8W – What? – R R C Walker Racing Team\""}]},{"reference":"Turner, Kevin (24 October 2021). \"The 10 greatest drives of lost legend Jo Siffert\". Autosport. Retrieved 24 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.autosport.com/f1/news/the-10-greatest-drives-of-lost-legend-jo-siffert/6703802/","url_text":"\"The 10 greatest drives of lost legend Jo Siffert\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autosport","url_text":"Autosport"}]},{"reference":"Benoit, Roger (24 December 2005). \"Jo Siffert (7. Juli 1936 - 24. Oktober 1971)\". blick.ch (in German). Der Blick. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 20 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110712212439/http://www.blick.ch/sport/formel1/artikel29805","url_text":"\"Jo Siffert (7. Juli 1936 - 24. Oktober 1971)\""},{"url":"http://www.blick.ch/sport/formel1/artikel29805","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Faulty Fire Equipment Killed Driver\". The Spokesman-Review. 27 November 1971. Retrieved 23 July 2020 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://newspapers.com/clip/55938539/","url_text":"\"Faulty Fire Equipment Killed Driver\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Fire Extinguishers Are Blamed In Siffert Death\". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 27 November 1971. Retrieved 23 July 2020 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://newspapers.com/clip/55938511/","url_text":"\"Fire Extinguishers Are Blamed In Siffert Death\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"Benoit, Roger (24 December 2005). \"Jo Siffert (7. Juli 1936 – 24. Oktober 1971) Das Scheckheft des Todes\". blick.ch (in German). Der Blick. Archived from the original on 8 July 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090708005630/http://www.blick.ch/sport/formel1/artikel29807","url_text":"\"Jo Siffert (7. Juli 1936 – 24. Oktober 1971) Das Scheckheft des Todes\""},{"url":"http://www.blick.ch/sport/formel1/artikel29807","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Profile for racing driver Jo Siffert\". MotorSportMagazine. Retrieved 4 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/database/drivers/jo-siffert","url_text":"\"Profile for racing driver Jo Siffert\""}]},{"reference":"\"All Results of Jo Siffert\". RacingSportCars. Retrieved 19 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.racingsportscars.com/driver/results/Jo-Siffert-CH.html","url_text":"\"All Results of Jo Siffert\""}]},{"reference":"Lareida, Men (director) (2005). Jo Siffert. Live Fast, Die Young (DVD). Hugofilm.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Whitelock, Mark (2006). 1½-litre Grand Prix Racing 1961-1965. Veloce Publishing Ltd. ISBN 184584016X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Whitelock&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Whitelock, Mark"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/184584016X","url_text":"184584016X"}]},{"reference":"\"The Formula One Archives\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.silhouet.com/motorsport/archive/f1/title.html","url_text":"\"The Formula One Archives\""}]},{"reference":"\"F2 Register - The Formula 1, Non-Championship Races\". Archived from the original on 11 October 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071011020230/http://www.formula2.net/","url_text":"\"F2 Register - The Formula 1, Non-Championship Races\""},{"url":"http://www.formula2.net/","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_regulations_in_the_United_Kingdom
Battery regulations in the United Kingdom
["1 Rules","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Battery regulations in the United Kingdom" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In a similar vein to packaging, electronic equipment and vehicles, the concept of extended producer responsibility was applied to battery regulations in the UK through the transposition of the EU Battery Directive into UK legislation. The Directive required member states to have put regulations in place by 26 September 2008. Although the UK managed to introduce the single market requirements by that date, they failed to implement the collection and recycling requirements. Following a consultation, the government laid the new Regulations before Parliament on 16 April 2009, which came into force on 5 May 2009. Responsibility for the financing of waste battery collection and treatment was applied to producers from 1 January 2010, whilst retailers were obliged to offer free take back of portable batteries to consumers from 1 February 2010. The new Regulations have included some significant changes from the consultation. Only those that place more than one tonne per year onto the market will now have to register through Compliance Schemes and be required to finance collection etc. Those below a tonne will now have to register with one of the environmental Agencies for an annual fee of £30 creating a huge disparity between the two classes of producer as the larger ones are likely to have costs that will run into several thousands of pounds. The threshold for retail involvement has also changed, removing a 280m2 minimum floor space requirement but upping the total weight of batteries sold from 16 kg to 32 kg. This means that any retail premises selling more than approximately 24 AA batteries a week will be required to offer in-store take back. The requirements also apply to industrial and automotive batteries, but given the current value of those and their hazardous nature, there is little change to the current commercial processes that already see them all recovered anyway. The Directive requires member states to be collecting 25% of portable batteries by the end of 2012. The UK is believed to be collecting around 4%, so this is not without its challenges. Whether the system being proposed will achieve that remains to be seen, but an increase of these proportions has taken several years longer in other EU countries such as the Netherlands. Rules In summary, for portable batteries, the regulations require the following: Large portable battery producers will have to register with a batteries compliance scheme by mid-October each year, paying an Agency fee of £680 plus a proportion of the scheme's £118k annual registration fee. Small producers - those who place one tonne or less onto the market - will have to register with one of the Agencies by mid-October. Data from producers for the quantity of portable batteries placed onto the UK market in 2009 must be supplied to the Agencies by 31 January 2010. For large producers, this will have a collection target applied - 10% in 2010 - which compliance schemes will have to meet on behalf of their members by setting up collection schemes with retailers, local authorities etc. The target for 2011 is 18% and 2012 is 25%, but the 2010 and 2011 targets are not mandatory. Large producers will have to supply data to their scheme quarterly for onward submission to the Agencies. Small producers will only have to supply data once a year. All retailers that sell more than 32 kg a year will have to offer in-store take back of batteries, which schemes will then have to collect and recycle. This equates to approximately 25 AA batteries a week. Schemes will have to pay £17k to get approved then £118k per year to register their members plus another £680 per year per member Schemes will have to demonstrate how they intend to communicate the battery recycling message to consumers Drone See also Battery recycling References ^ "Consultation on the Implementation of the Batteries and Accumulators Directive (2006/66/EC) - Waste Battery Collection and Recycling Provisions - BERR". www.berr.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 17 April 2009. Retrieved 22 February 2022. ^ "The Waste Batteries and Accumulators Regulations 2009". Statutory Instruments. 2009. Archived from the original (DOC) on March 3, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2023. External links Batteries at the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) EC Directive on Batteries and Accumulators and Waste Batteries and Accumulators at the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills vteBattery regulations in EuropeSovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom States with limitedrecognition Abkhazia Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies andother entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"extended producer responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility"},{"link_name":"Battery Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_Directive"},{"link_name":"UK legislation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_legislation"},{"link_name":"single market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_market"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"AA batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AA_battery"},{"link_name":"EU countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_Union_member_states"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"}],"text":"In a similar vein to packaging, electronic equipment and vehicles, the concept of extended producer responsibility was applied to battery regulations in the UK through the transposition of the EU Battery Directive into UK legislation. The Directive required member states to have put regulations in place by 26 September 2008. Although the UK managed to introduce the single market requirements by that date, they failed to implement the collection and recycling requirements. Following a consultation,[1] the government laid the new Regulations before Parliament on 16 April 2009,[2] which came into force on 5 May 2009. Responsibility for the financing of waste battery collection and treatment was applied to producers from 1 January 2010, whilst retailers were obliged to offer free take back of portable batteries to consumers from 1 February 2010.The new Regulations have included some significant changes from the consultation. Only those that place more than one tonne per year onto the market will now have to register through Compliance Schemes and be required to finance collection etc. Those below a tonne will now have to register with one of the environmental Agencies for an annual fee of £30 creating a huge disparity between the two classes of producer as the larger ones are likely to have costs that will run into several thousands of pounds. The threshold for retail involvement has also changed, removing a 280m2 minimum floor space requirement but upping the total weight of batteries sold from 16 kg to 32 kg. This means that any retail premises selling more than approximately 24 AA batteries a week will be required to offer in-store take back. The requirements also apply to industrial and automotive batteries, but given the current value of those and their hazardous nature, there is little change to the current commercial processes that already see them all recovered anyway.The Directive requires member states to be collecting 25% of portable batteries by the end of 2012. The UK is believed to be collecting around 4%, so this is not without its challenges. Whether the system being proposed will achieve that remains to be seen, but an increase of these proportions has taken several years longer in other EU countries such as the Netherlands.","title":"Battery regulations in the United Kingdom"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"local authorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government"},{"link_name":"Drone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drone_strikes_in_Pakistan"}],"text":"In summary, for portable batteries, the regulations require the following:Large portable battery producers will have to register with a batteries compliance scheme by mid-October each year, paying an Agency fee of £680 plus a proportion of the scheme's £118k annual registration fee.\nSmall producers - those who place one tonne or less onto the market - will have to register with one of the Agencies by mid-October.\nData from producers for the quantity of portable batteries placed onto the UK market in 2009 must be supplied to the Agencies by 31 January 2010.\nFor large producers, this will have a collection target applied - 10% in 2010 - which compliance schemes will have to meet on behalf of their members by setting up collection schemes with retailers, local authorities etc. The target for 2011 is 18% and 2012 is 25%, but the 2010 and 2011 targets are not mandatory.\nLarge producers will have to supply data to their scheme quarterly for onward submission to the Agencies. Small producers will only have to supply data once a year.\nAll retailers that sell more than 32 kg a year will have to offer in-store take back of batteries, which schemes will then have to collect and recycle. This equates to approximately 25 AA batteries a week.\nSchemes will have to pay £17k to get approved then £118k per year to register their members plus another £680 per year per member\nSchemes will have to demonstrate how they intend to communicate the battery recycling message to consumersDrone","title":"Rules"}]
[]
[{"title":"Battery recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_recycling"}]
[{"reference":"\"Consultation on the Implementation of the Batteries and Accumulators Directive (2006/66/EC) - Waste Battery Collection and Recycling Provisions - BERR\". www.berr.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 17 April 2009. Retrieved 22 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090417220856/http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/sectors/sustainability/batteries/page49501.html","url_text":"\"Consultation on the Implementation of the Batteries and Accumulators Directive (2006/66/EC) - Waste Battery Collection and Recycling Provisions - BERR\""},{"url":"http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/sectors/sustainability/batteries/page49501.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The Waste Batteries and Accumulators Regulations 2009\". Statutory Instruments. 2009. Archived from the original (DOC) on March 3, 2016. Retrieved December 22, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303191955/http://www.360environmental.co.uk/documents/BatteriesRegulations16April.doc","url_text":"\"The Waste Batteries and Accumulators Regulations 2009\""},{"url":"http://www.360environmental.co.uk/documents/BatteriesRegulations16April.doc","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN
ESPN
["1 History","2 Programming","3 Related channels","3.1 ESPN on ABC","3.2 ESPN2","3.3 ESPNews","3.4 ESPN Deportes","3.5 ESPNU","3.6 Longhorn Network","3.7 SEC Network","3.8 ACC Network","3.9 ESPN+","3.10 Other services","3.11 Former services","4 International channels","5 ESPN Bet","6 Criticism","7 Awards","8 See also","9 References","10 Bibliography","11 External links"]
American television and radio sports network This article is about the U.S. television channel. For the company and other channels of the same name, see ESPN Inc. For the railroad, see East Penn Railroad. For the gene, see ESPN (gene). Television channel ESPNCountryUnited StatesHeadquartersBristol, ConnecticutProgrammingLanguage(s)EnglishPicture format2160p 4K UHD(downscaled to letterboxed 480i for the SDTV feed)OwnershipOwnerThe Walt Disney Company (80%)Hearst Communications (20%)ParentESPN Inc.Sister channels List 24Kitchen ABC A&E ACC Network Disney Channel Disney Jr. Disney XD ESPN on ABC ESPN2 ESPN3 ESPN+ ESPNews ESPNU ESPNW ESPN Deportes Freeform FX FXX FXM History Lifetime LMN Longhorn Network National Geographic Nat Geo Wild SEC Network Vice HistoryLaunchedSeptember 7, 1979; 44 years ago (1979-09-07)LinksWebsitewww.espn.com AvailabilityStreaming mediaESPN+espn.com/espnplus(U.S. pay-TV subscribers only)Service(s)DirecTV Stream, FuboTV, Hulu with Live TV, Sling TV, YouTube TV ESPN (an abbreviation of its original name, the Entertainment and Sports Programming Network) is an American international basic cable sports channel owned by The Walt Disney Company (80% and operational control) and Hearst Communications (20%) through the joint venture ESPN Inc. The company was founded in 1979 by Bill Rasmussen, Scott Rasmussen and Ed Eagan. ESPN broadcasts primarily from studio facilities located in Bristol, Connecticut. The network also operates offices and auxiliary studios in Miami, Orlando, New York City, Las Vegas, Seattle, Charlotte, Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles. James Pitaro has been chairman since March 5, 2018, following the resignation of John Skipper on December 18, 2017. As of November 2021, ESPN reached approximately 76 million television households in the United States—a drop of 24% from nearly a decade prior. As of June 2023, the channel's reach had been reduced to 72.5 million homes. In addition to the flagship channel and its seven related channels in the United States, ESPN broadcasts in more than 200 countries. It operates regional channels in Africa, Australia, Latin America, and the Netherlands. In Canada, it owns a 20% interest in The Sports Network (TSN) and its five sister networks. Despite the network's success, criticism of ESPN includes accusations of biased coverage, conflict of interest, and controversies with individual broadcasters and analysts. History Main article: History of ESPN Headquarters in Bristol, Connecticut Bill Rasmussen came up with the concept of ESPN in May 1978, after he was fired from his job with the World Hockey Association's New England Whalers. Rasmussen and his ESPN co-founder Ed Eagan, joined by Rasmussen's son Scott (who had also been let go by the Whalers), first rented office space in Plainville, Connecticut. However, the plan to base ESPN there was put on hold because of a local ordinance prohibiting buildings from bearing rooftop satellite dishes. Available land to build their own facility on was quickly found in Bristol, Connecticut (where the channel remains headquartered to this day), with funding to buy the property provided by Getty Oil, which purchased 85% of the company from Bill Rasmussen on February 22, 1979, in an attempt to diversify the company's holdings. This helped the credibility of the fledgling company; however, there were still many doubters about the viability of their sports channel concept. Another event that helped build ESPN's credibility was securing an advertising agreement with Anheuser-Busch in the spring of 1979; the company invested $1 million to be the "exclusive beer advertised on the network." ESPN's first logo, used from 1979 to 1985 ESPN launched on September 7, 1979, beginning with the first telecast of what would become the channel's flagship program, SportsCenter. Taped in front of a small live audience inside the Bristol studios, it was broadcast to 1.4 million cable subscribers throughout the United States. ESPN's next big step forward came when the channel acquired the rights to broadcast coverage of the early rounds of the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. It first aired its games in March 1980, helping bring attention to what is today known as "March Madness." The channel's tournament coverage also launched the broadcasting career of Dick Vitale, who at the time he joined ESPN had just been fired as head coach of the Detroit Pistons. In April of that year ESPN began televising the NFL Draft, bringing it also to a mass audience and over time creating a television "event". That same month the network began broadcasting Top Rank Boxing on ESPN, marking the beginning of its involvement with televised professional boxing. The show lasted 16 years, and ESPN has since shown boxing live intermittently with other shows including ESPN Friday Night Fights and others. For a period during the 1980s, the network had boxing tournaments, crowning champions in different boxing weight divisions as "ESPN champions". The next major stepping stone for ESPN came throughout a couple of months in 1984. During this period, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) purchased 100% of ESPN from the Rasmussens and Getty Oil. Under Getty ownership, the channel was unable to compete for the television rights to major sports events contracts as its majority corporate parent would not provide the funding, leading ESPN to lose out for broadcast deals with the National Hockey League (to USA Network) and NCAA Division I college football (to TBS). For years, the NFL, NBA, and Major League Baseball refused to consider cable as a means of broadcasting some of their games. However, with the backing of ABC, ESPN's ability to compete for major sports contracts greatly increased, and gave it credibility within the sports broadcasting industry. Later that year, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma (1984) that the NCAA could no longer monopolize the rights to negotiate the contracts for college football games, allowing each school to negotiate broadcast deals on their own. ESPN took full advantage and began to broadcast a large number of NCAA football games, creating an opportunity for fans to be able to view multiple games each weekend (instead of just one), the same deal that the NCAA had previously negotiated with TBS. ESPN's breakthrough moment occurred in 1987 when it secured a contract with the NFL to broadcast eight games during that year's regular season – all of which aired on Sunday nights, marking the first broadcasts of Sunday NFL primetime games. ESPN's Sunday Night Football games would become the highest-rated NFL telecasts for the next 17 years (before losing the rights to NBC in 2006). The channel's decision to broadcast NFL games on Sunday evenings resulted in a decline in viewership for the daytime games shown on the major broadcast networks, marking the first time that ESPN had been a legitimate competitor to NBC and CBS, which had long dominated the sports television market. In 1992, ESPN launched ESPN Radio, a national sports talk radio network providing analysis and commentary programs (including shows such as Mike and Mike in the Morning and The Herd) as well as audio play-by-play of sporting events (including some simulcasted with the ESPN television channel). On October 10, 1993, ESPN2 – a secondary channel that originally was programmed with a separate lineup of niche sports popular with males 18–49 years old (with snowboarding and the World Series of Poker as its headliners) as well as serving as an overflow channel for ESPN – launched on cable systems reaching to 10 million subscribers. It became the fastest-growing cable channel in the U.S. during the 1990s, eventually expanding its national reach to 75 million subscribers. Ownership of ABC, and thus control of ESPN, was acquired by Capital Cities Communications in 1985. ESPN's parent company renamed themselves as Capital Cities/ABC Inc. Capital Cities/ABC Inc. was then acquired by The Walt Disney Company in 1996 and was re-branded as Walt Disney Television. Challenges began to appear in the 2000s. ESPN began to shed viewers, more than 10 million over a period of several years in the 2010s even while paying big money for the broadcast rights to such properties as the NFL, NBA and College Football Playoff. On April 26, 2017, approximately 100 ESPN employees were notified that their positions with the sports network had been terminated, among them athletes-turned-analysts Trent Dilfer and Danny Kanell, and noted journalists like NFL beat reporter Ed Werder and Major League Baseball expert Jayson Stark. Further cost-cutting measures taken included moving the studio operations of ESPNU to Bristol from Charlotte, North Carolina, reducing its longtime MLB studio show Baseball Tonight to Sundays as a lead-in to the primetime game and adding the MLB Network-produced Intentional Talk to ESPN2's daily lineup. On April 12, 2018, ESPN began a supplemental over-the-top streaming service known as ESPN+. After having last carried national-televised NHL games in 2004, ESPN and ABC agreed in March 2021 on a seven-year contract to televise games, with some airing on ESPN+ and Hulu. The contract also awarded four of the seven Stanley Cup Finals to both ESPN and ABC. All other nationally televised games would air on TBS and TNT under a separate deal the league struck with Turner Sports the following month. On August 8, 2023, ESPN and Penn Entertainment announced a deal to brand Penn's sportsbooks with ESPN branding. Penn's existing Barstool Sportsbook would be rebranded as ESPN Bet in fall 2023. On February 6, 2024, ESPN announced a joint venture with Fox Sports and TNT Sports to offer Venu Sports, including the three organizations' main linear sports channels and associated media rights, beginning in fall 2024. Additionally, the company plans to launch a "flagship" standalone streaming offering, including the ESPN and ESPN2 linear channels, in late summer or fall 2025. Programming Main articles: List of programs broadcast by ESPN, List of ESPN sports properties, and List of UFC events Alongside its live sports broadcasts, ESPN also airs a variety of sports highlight, talk, and documentary-styled shows. These include: Around the Horn – Competitive debating between four sports writers across the country College GameDay (basketball) – Weekly college basketball show airing from the Saturday Primetime game of the week site College GameDay (football) – Weekly college football preview show airing from the site of a major college football game E:60 – An investigative newsmagazine program focusing on American and international sports First Take – A daily morning talk show with Stephen A. Smith and Molly Qerim (moved from ESPN2 on January 3, 2017) Get Up! – A daily morning show, focusing on the previous night's game results and the burning sports issues of the day Monday Night Countdown – Weekly recap show aired on Monday evenings during the NFL season, also serves as the pre-game show for Monday Night Football Pardon the Interruption – A daily afternoon talk show where Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon debate an array of sports topics SportsCenter – The flagship program of ESPN, a daily sports news program delivering the latest sports news and highlights Sunday NFL Countdown – Weekly preview show that airs on Sunday mornings during the NFL season The Pat McAfee Show – A daily afternoon talk show with news, opinion, and analysis Many of ESPN's documentary programs (such as 30 for 30 and Nine for IX) are produced by ESPN Films, a film division created in March 2008 as a restructuring of ESPN Original Entertainment, a programming division that was originally formed in 2001. 30 for 30 started airing in 2009 and continues airing to this day. Each episode is through the eyes of a well known filmmaker and has featured some of the biggest directors in Hollywood. The 30 for 30 film O.J.: Made in America won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 2017, the first such Oscar for ESPN. Ultimate Fighting Championship signed a five-year contract with ESPN starting 2019 on ESPN and ESPN+ which estimate every quarter 2 event on UFC on ESPN and 6 events on UFC Fight Night on ESPN+. In March 2019, ESPN announced a new betting-themed daily program, Daily Wager, hosted by the network's gambling analyst Doug Kezirian. The program was ESPN's first regularly scheduled program solely dedicated to gaming-related content. On May 14, 2019, ESPN announced a deal with casino operator Caesars Entertainment to establish an ESPN-branded studio at The LINQ Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas to produce betting-themed content. In order to help offset the impact of COVID-19 on its business, Walt Disney CEO Bob Chapek indicated during a 4th quarter fiscal year 2021 earnings conference that the company would increase its presence in online sports betting, including in partnership with third parties. In 2023, The Pat McAfee Show moved to ESPN as part of a five-year $85 million deal. The show replaced the Noon ET airing of SportsCenter and This Just In with Max Kellerman. Related channels ESPN on ABC Main article: ESPN on ABC Since September 2006, ESPN has been integrated with the sports division of sister broadcast network ABC, with sports events televised on that network airing under the banner ESPN on ABC; much of ABC's sports coverage since the rebranding has become increasingly limited to secondary coverage of sporting events whose broadcast rights are held by ESPN (such as NBA games, NHL games, and the X Games and its related qualifying events) as well as a limited array of events not broadcast on ESPN (most notably, the NBA Finals). ESPN2 Main article: ESPN2 ESPN2 was launched on October 1, 1993. It carried a broad mix of event coverage from conventional sports—including auto racing, college basketball and NHL hockey—to extreme sports—such as BMX, skateboarding and motocross. The "ESPN BottomLine", a ticker displaying sports news and scores during all programming that is now used by all of ESPN's networks, originated on ESPN2 in 1995. In the late 1990s, ESPN2 was gradually reformatted to serve as a secondary outlet for ESPN's mainstream sports programming. ESPNews Main article: ESPNews ESPNews is a subscription television network that was launched on November 1, 1996, originally focusing solely on sports news, highlights, and press conferences. Since August 2010, the network has gradually incorporated encores of ESPN's various sports debate and entertainment shows and video simulcasts of ESPN Radio shows, in addition to sports news programming. Since the 2013 cancellation of Highlight Express, programming consists mainly of rebroadcasts of SportsCenter. ESPNews also serves as an overflow feed due to programming conflicts caused by sporting events on the other ESPN networks. ESPN Deportes Main article: ESPN Deportes ESPN Deportes (Spanish pronunciation: , "ESPN Sports") is a subscription television network that was originally launched in July 2001 to provide Spanish simulcasts of certain Major League Baseball telecasts from ESPN. It became a 24-hour sports channel in January 2004. ESPNU Main article: ESPNU ESPNU is a subscription television network that launched on March 4, 2005, that focuses on college athletics including basketball, football, baseball, college swimming, and ice hockey. Longhorn Network Main article: Longhorn Network The Longhorn Network is a subscription television network that was launched on August 26, 2011, focusing on events from the Texas Longhorns varsity sports teams of the University of Texas at Austin. It features events from the 20 sports sanctioned by the Texas athletic department, along with original programming (including historical, academic and cultural content). SEC Network Main article: SEC Network SEC Network is a subscription television network that launched on August 14, 2014, focusing on the coverage of sporting events sanctioned by the Southeastern Conference. Created as a result of a 20-year broadcast partnership between the two entities, the network is a joint venture between the conference and ESPN Inc., which operates the network. ACC Network Main article: ACC Network Launching on August 22, 2019, the ACC Network is a subscription television network that focuses on the sporting events of the Atlantic Coast Conference as part of a current agreement extending to the 2036–37 academic term as a joint venture of network operator ESPN Inc. and the ACC. ESPN+ Main article: ESPN+ ESPN+ is an American over-the-top subscription video streaming service available in the United States, owned by the ESPN division of the Walt Disney Company, in partnership with ESPN Inc. Other services ESPN HD ESPN launched its high definition simulcast feed, originally branded as ESPNHD, on March 30, 2003, with a broadcast of the Texas Rangers and the Los Angeles Angels (then the Anaheim Angels). All studio shows based in Bristol and at L. A. Live, along with most live event telecasts on ESPN, are broadcast in high definition. ESPN is one of the few television networks with an all-digital infrastructure. Archived non-HD programming is presented in 4:3 standard definition with stylized pillarboxing. Pardon the Interruption and Around the Horn began airing in HD on September 27, 2010, with the relocation of the production of both shows into the facility housing the Washington, D.C., bureau for ABC News. ESPN broadcasts HD programming in the 720p resolution format, because ABC executives proposed a progressive scan signal that resolves fluid and high-speed motion in sports better, particularly during slow-motion replays. The network's Digital Center itself natively holds 2160p UHD/4K operations and equipment. In 2011, ESPNHD began to downplay its distinct promotional logo in preparation for the conversion of its standard definition feed from a 4:3 full-screen to a letterboxed format (via the application of the AFD #10 display flag), which occurred on June 1 of that year. WatchESPN WatchESPN was a website for desktop computers, as well as an application for smartphones and tablet computers that allowed subscribers of participating pay-TV providers to watch live streams of programming from ESPN and its sister networks (except for ESPN Classic), including most sporting events, on computers, mobile devices, Apple TV, Roku and Xbox Live via their TV Everywhere login provided by their cable provider. The service originally launched on October 25, 2010, as ESPN Networks, a streaming service that provided a live stream of ESPN exclusive to Time Warner Cable subscribers. ESPN3, an online streaming service providing live streams and replays of global sports events that launched in 2005 as a separate website, was incorporated into the WatchESPN platform on August 31, 2011. Likewise, ESPN+ was launched in April 2018 as an add-on subscription for $4.99 per month. On June 1, 2019, WatchESPN was discontinued with the service's full merger into the ESPN app. ESPN Events ESPN Regional Television (formerly branded as ESPN Plus) is the network's syndication arm, which produces collegiate sporting events for free-to-air television stations throughout the United States (primarily those affiliated with networks such as The CW and MyNetworkTV or independent stations). ESPN Plus syndicates college football and basketball games from the American Athletic Conference, Big 12 Conference, Mid-American Conference, Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference, Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference. ESPN on Snapchat ESPN distributes various content on Snapchat Discover, including a Snapchat-only version of SportsCenter. ESPN MVP ESPN MVP (initially known as Mobile ESPN) was a 2005 attempt at operating a mobile virtual network operator with exclusive mobile content, first as a phone feature, then after its termination into a Verizon Wireless paid service. Technologies developed for it have since been transferred to the network's successful mobile strategy in the smartphone era. Former services ESPN Classic Main article: ESPN Classic ESPN Classic was a subscription television network that launched in 1995 as Classic Sports Network, founded by Brian Bedol and Steve Greenberg. ESPN Inc. purchased Classic Sports Network in 1997 for $175 million, rebranding the channel to its current name the following year. The channel broadcasts notable archived sporting events (originally including events from past decades, but now focusing mainly on events from the 1990s and later), sports documentaries and sports-themed movies. It was discontinued on December 31, 2021. International channels Main article: ESPN International ESPN owns and operates regional channels in Brazil, Caribbean, Latin America, Netherlands, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa. In Canada, ESPN is a minority owner of The Sports Network (TSN) and the French-language Réseau des sports (RDS). ESPN also has a minority stake in J Sports in Japan. ESPN Bet ESPN moved into the sports betting scene in November 2023 with plans to launch their sportsbook app "ESPN Bet" on November 14. In a partnership with Penn Entertainment, ESPN Bet began in 17 states. Once live, ESPN featured betting odds from their own sportsbook on their content. Criticism Main article: Criticism of ESPN ESPN has been criticized for focusing too much on men's college and professional sports, and very little on women's sports or extreme sports. Baseball, ice hockey, and soccer fans have also criticized ESPN for not giving their respective sports more coverage. Other criticism has focused on ethnicity in ESPN's varying mediated forms, as well as carriage fees and issues regarding the exportation of ESPN content. Some critics argue that ESPN's success is their ability to provide other enterprise and investigative sports news while competing with other hard sports-news-producing outlets such as Yahoo! Sports and Fox Sports. Some scholars have challenged ESPN's journalistic integrity, calling for an expanded standard of professionalism to prevent biased coverage and conflicts of interest. On October 8, 2019, Deadspin reported that an internal memo was sent to ESPN employees instructing them to avoid any political discussions regarding the People's Republic of China and Hong Kong in the aftermath of a tweet by Rockets general manager Daryl Morey. Awards This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (March 2022) National Hispanic Media Coalition's "Outstanding Commitment and Outreach to the Latino Community", 2016 ESPN has won 232 Sports Emmy Awards in 35 years of eligibility. In 2024, ESPN apologized for submitting fake names for Sports Emmy award consideration over many years, and returned 37 trophies that had been awarded to ineligible recipients to the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. See also List of ESPN personalities List of past ESPN personalities ESPN on ABC ESPN2 ESPN+ ESPN Films Maxx Zoom Wieden+Kennedy References ^ Couch, Teri (January 2, 1980). "ESPN, Inc.: 1979 in Review". ESPN.com. 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"ESPN Apologizes for Decades-Long Emmy Awards Scheme". Sports Illustrated. Retrieved January 12, 2024. Bibliography McGuire, John; Armfield, Greg G.; Earnheardt, Adam C., eds. (2015). The ESPN Effect: The Making of a Sports Media Empire. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-2600-0. Miller, James Andrew; Shales, Tom (2011). Those Guys Have All the Fun: Inside the World of ESPN. New York: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-04300-7. Vogan, Travis (2015). ESPN: The Making of a Sports Media Empire. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03976-8. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to ESPN. Official website vteESPN Inc.Executives George Bodenheimer Edwin Durso Chuck Pagano Norby Williamson James Pitaro U.S. networksStreaming ESPN+ ESPN3 Venu Sports (33.33%) Linear TV ESPN ESPN2 ESPNU ESPNews Deportes ACC Network SEC Network Longhorn Network Part-time ACC Network Xtra ESPN on ABC SEC Network + Radio ESPN Radio Deportes Xtra InternationalJapan J Sports (3%) Latin AmericaPanregional ESPN (Latin America) Brazil ESPN (Brazil) Caribbean ESPN Caribbean Netherlands ESPN (Netherlands) Oceania ESPN Australia Sub-Saharan Africa ESPN Africa Co-owned Canadiansports networks TSN 1 2 3 4 5 RDS RDS2 RDS Info Ventures ESPN.com ESPN Deportes.com ESPN Broadband ESPN Events ESPN Films ESPN Deportes La Revista ESPN Books ESPY Awards ESPN Integration ESPN PPV Defunct ventures Arena Football League (minority stake, 2006–2009) ESPN 3D (2010–2013) ESPN America (2002–2013) ESPN Classic (U.S.) (1995–2021) ESPN Classic (UK) (2006–2013) ESPN Classic Canada (2001–2023) ESPN College Extra (2015–2023) ESPN Full Court (2007–2015) ESPN GamePlan (1992–2015) ESPN Goal Line & Bases Loaded (2010–2020) Grantland (2011–2015) ESPN HS (1997–2012) ESPN The Magazine (1998–2019) ESPN MVP (2005–2006) ESPNscrum (2007–2015) ESPN Star Sports (equity stake, 1996–2012; incl. 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TrueHoop Notable personalities Current personalities Former personalities ESPNews personalities ESPNU personalities ESPN Radio personalities Presidents of ESPN Miscellaneous History Programs Criticism This is SportsCenter ESPN Armory ESPN Zone ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex ESPN BottomLine ESPN8 The Ocho X Games Fox Sports International Owners: Walt Disney Company (80%); Hearst Communications (20%) vteThe Walt Disney Company Timeline Assets Acquisitions Criticism Logo Headquarters CompanyofficialsKey Founders Walt Disney Roy O. Disney CEO Bob Iger Board ofdirectors Mark Parker (chair) Mary Barra Safra Catz Francis deSouza Michael Froman Bob Iger Maria Elena Lagomasino EntertainmentStudios Walt Disney Pictures Disneynature Walt Disney Animation Studios Pixar Marvel Studios Lucasfilm 20th Century Studios 20th Century Animation 20th Century Family Searchlight Pictures Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures Disney Music Group Walt Disney Records Hollywood Records S-Curve Records Disney Theatrical Group Disney Theatrical Productions GeneralEntertainmentDisney BrandedTelevision Disney Channel Disney Junior Disney XD Production Disney Television Animation It's a Laugh Productions ABC EntertainmentGroup ABC ABC News ABC Audio ABC News Radio Lincoln Square Productions ABC News Live ABC Daytime Entertainment Disney Television Studios 20th Television 20th Television Animation Searchlight Television ABC Signature ABC Family Worldwide Freeform BVS Entertainment Onyx Collective FX Networks FX FXX FXM FX Entertainment FX Productions Other units BabyTV (US distribution) A&E Networks (50%) Streaming Disney+ Star Hulu Star+ Distribution Disney–ABC Domestic Television Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment Other ABC TV Stations Localish Movies Anywhere International Disney Branded Television EMEA France Italy CIS Portugal India Disney Star Disney+ Hotstar Star Studios Latin America Argentina Patagonik Film Group (33.3%) Brazil Rede Telecine (12.5%) ExperiencesParks andresorts Disneyland Resort Disneyland Paris Hong Kong Disneyland Resort (43%) Shanghai Disney Resort (43%) Walt Disney Attractions Japan Walt Disney World Imagineering (The Muppets Studio) Experiences Adventures by Disney National Geographic Expeditions Disney Cruise Line Disney Vacation Club ConsumerProducts Disney Store (Outside US & Canada) Disney Publishing Worldwide Disney English NG Media Marvel Comics Disney Online Games & Interactive Experiences ESPN Inc. (80%) ESPN ESPN2 ESPN on ABC ESPN Deportes ESPNews ESPNU ESPN+ ESPN PPV ESPN Classic ESPN Events ESPN Films ESPN International ACC Network Longhorn Network SEC Network Other assets Buena Vista D23 Disney Institute Disney Programs Disney College Program Disney International Programs Disney University National Geographic Partners (73%) National Geographic National Geographic Wild Reedy Creek Energy Services Former/defunctunits andpredecessors ABC Kids Baby Einstein Blue Network Blue Sky Studios American Broadcasting-Paramount Theatres Caravan Pictures Capital Cities/ABC CBS/Fox Video Cinergi Pictures Circle 7 Animation Disney Interactive Studios DIC Entertainment Disney Digital Network Disney Store (US & Canada) Disney's One Too Endemol Shine Group Fox 2000 Pictures Fox Animation Studios Fox Networks Group Fox Sports Networks FoxNext GMTV Hollywood Pictures Jetix Jetix Animation Concepts Marvel Entertainment New World Pictures Four Star Television Metromedia Miramax Books Dimension Films Talk MTM Enterprises Playhouse Disney Radio Disney Saban Entertainment SIP Animation Créativité et Développement Fox Children's Productions Marvel Productions DePatie–Freleng Enterprises Toon Disney Touchstone Pictures Touchstone Television TeleColombia Tata Play Walt Disney Television Related Acquisition of 21st Century Fox Florida's Parental Rights in Education Act Reedy Creek Improvement Act Disney v. DeSantis Disney Lorcana Grand Central Creative Campus Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic Disney–Charter dispute Potential acquisition by Apple Retlaw Enterprises Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination Category vteHearst CommunicationsDaily newspapers The Advocate Times Union Beaumont Enterprise Connecticut Post The Courier (Conroe, Texas) Edwardsville Intelligencer Greenwich Time The Hour Houston Chronicle Huron Daily Tribune Journal-Courier Laredo Morning Times Manistee News Advocate The Middletown Press Midland Daily News Midland Reporter-Telegram New Haven Register The News-Times The Pioneer Plainview Daily Herald The Register Citizen San Antonio Express-News San Francisco Chronicle seattlepi.com SFGATE The Telegraph Connecticut Magazine Weekly newspapers Cleveland Advocate Eastex Advocate Examiner Newspapers (Bellaire, Memorial, River Oaks, West University) The Lake Houston Observer The Potpourri (Magnolia and Tomball) Sugar Land Sun The Villager (The Woodlands, Texas) La Voz de Houston MagazinesUnited States Autoweek Best Products Bicycling Bring a Trailer Car and Driver Cosmopolitan Country Living Delish Elle Elle Decor Esquire First Finds Food Network Magazine Good Housekeeping Harper's Bazaar House Beautiful HGTV Men's Health Oprah Daily Popular Mechanics Prevention Redbook Road & Track Runner's World Seventeen Shondaland The Pioneer Woman Town & Country Woman's Day Women's Health International Bicycling Car and Driver Cosmopolitan Country Living Delish Elle Elle Decor Esquire Good Housekeeping Harper's Bazaar House Beautiful Men's Health Prevention Runner's World Women's Health Best (UK) Digital Spy (UK) Inside Soap (UK) Prima (UK) RED (UK) Gente (Italy) Marie Claire (Italy) Marie Claire Maison (Italy) JAN (Netherlands) Quest (Netherlands) Quest Junior (Netherlands) Quote (Netherlands) Fotogramas (Spanin) 25Ans (Japan) 25Ans Wedding (Japan) ELLE Girl (Japan) Fujingaho (Japan) Hodinkee (Japan) Men's Club (Japan) Modern Living (Japan) Richesse (Japan) Hearst Television(Hearst MediaProduction Group)Stations affiliatedABC KETV KHBS / KHOG KMBC KOAT KOCO KSBW-DT2 WAPT WCVB / WMUR WISN WJCL WMTW WPBF WTAE WZVN 1 The CW KCWE KHBS-DT2 / KHOG-DT2 KQCA WCWG WKCF WNNE WPXT NBC KCRA KSBW WBAL WBBH WDSU WESH WGAL WLWT WPTZ WVTM WXII WYFF CBS KCCI WLKY Other Independent WMOR MyNetworkTV KQCA2 Radio stations WBAL WIYY Entertainment& syndication A&E Networks (50%) ESPN Inc. (20%) King Features Syndicate NorthSouth Productions (50%) Reed Brennan Media Associates Business media Black Book First Databank Fitch Ratings BMI Research Motor Real estate Hearst Tower Hearst Service Center Hearst Ranch 1 Owned by Montclair Communications and operated by Hearst under an LMA. 2 Carries the network in a secondary status. vteSports broadcasting in the United StatesSports broadcasting contracts in the United StatesBroadcast NetworksOccasional coverage CBS Sports ESPN on ABC Fox Sports NBC Sports Scripps Sports (Ion Sports) Telemundo Deportes CW Sports TUDN on Univision Cable NetworksGeneral beIN Sports beIN Sports en Español CBS Sports Network ESPN ESPN2 ESPNews ESPN Deportes FS1 FS2 Fox Deportes Next Level Sports TUDN (Univision Sports) TyC Sports Pro league affiliated MLB Network Extra InningsO Strike ZoneP NBA TV NBA League PassO NFL Network NFL RedZoneP NHL Network NHL Center IceO College specific ACC Network Big Ten Network ESPNU Pac-12 Network SEC Network Sport specific Fox Soccer PlusP Golf Channel MAVTV Racetrack Television Network Rev'n Tennis Channel Willow Sports betting FanDuel TV FanDuel Racing Outdoor The Cowboy Channel The Action Channel Outdoor Channel Sportsman Channel World Fishing Network Pursuit Channel Occasional coverage AXS TV CBS Sports: Nickelodeon NBC Sports: CNBC USA Network Universo Prime Video: MGM+ TNT Sports: HBO TBS TNT TruTV Streaming ServicesGeneral DAZN ESPN+ FloSports Red Bull TV SoonerSports.tv Stadium Venu Sports Pro league affiliated MLB.tvO MLS Season PassO NBA League PassO NFL+ (NFL RedZoneP) NFL Sunday TicketO NHL.TVO Sport specific T2 Sports betting FanDuel TV+ Outdoor Cowboy Channel+ MyOutdoorTV Ring sports TrillerNet Triller TV+ TrillerPass Honor Club TNA+ UFC Fight Pass WWE Network Occasional coverage Apple TV+ Max (TNT Sports) Netflix Paramount+ (CBS Sports) Peacock (NBC Sports) Prime Video (MGM+) The Roku Channel Tubi (Fox Sports) vteRegional sports broadcasting in the United StatesFenway Sports Group NESN SportsNet Pittsburgh MSG Entertainment MSG Network MSGSN MSG Western NY NBC Sports Regional Networks Bay Area Boston California Chicago Philadelphia SportsNet New York (part ownership) Sinclair Broadcast Group Nevada Sports Net Marquee Sports Network (part-ownership) YES Network (part-ownership) Bally Sports Detroit Miami Florida Sun Midwest Indiana Kansas City North Cleveland Ohio Great Lakes Southeast South Southwest Oklahoma New Orleans San Diego Los Angeles West SoCal Wisconsin Spectrum Sports Hawaii Kansas City Los Angeles Spectrum SportsNet SportsNet LA SportsNet New York (part ownership) Gray Television Arizona's Family Sports Peachtree Sports Network Silver State Sports & Entertainment Network Independent Altitude Sports BYU TV Sports Chicago Sports Network Cyclones.tv LFSN Longhorn Network MASN Monumental Sports Network Root Sports Northwest Space City Home Network Buckeye Cable Sports Midco Sports Nevada Sports Net Scripps Sports (local broadcast) SWX Right Now vteDefunct television sports networks in the United StatesNational America One American Sports Classics American Sports Network Back9Network Baseball Network CNN/SI ESPN 3D ESPN Classic ESPN Goal Line & Bases Loaded ESPN Events Football Network Fox Soccer Lorimar Sports Network Mizlou NBCSN NHL Network NewSport One World Sports ONTV Olympic Channel Speed SportsChannel America Stadium College Sports Sports Network Universal Sports Network Regional 4SD ACC RSN Arizona Sports Programming Network/Cox Sports AT&T SportsNet Root Sports Utah AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain Bally Sports Arizona Carolinas SE Comcast SportsNet Southeast Southwest Cox Sports Empire Fox Sports Networks Carolinas Chicago Houston Tennessee GiantsVision Hawkvision MountainWest NBC Sports Northwest Oregon Sports Network PASS Sports Prime Sports Prime Sports Upper Midwest PRISM Royals Sports San Diego Cable Sports Network Spectrum Spectrum Sports Carolinas Florida New York Ohio Texas Wisconsin SportsChannel Cincinnati Los Angeles Philadelphia Sports Time Sportsvision Sportsvue Victory Sports One Syndication Raycom Sports (ACC Network) Big 12 Network SEC TV TVS Out-of-market ESPN College Extra ESPN Full Court ESPN GamePlan NCAA Mega March Madness MLS Direct Kick NASCAR Hot Pass O. Out-of-market sports packagesP. Premium channel Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany Israel United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ESPN Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Inc."},{"link_name":"East Penn Railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Penn_Railroad"},{"link_name":"ESPN (gene)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espin_(protein)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ESPN_meaning-2"},{"link_name":"basic cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_cable"},{"link_name":"sports channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_channel"},{"link_name":"The Walt Disney Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"Hearst Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearst_Communications"},{"link_name":"ESPN Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Inc."},{"link_name":"Bill Rasmussen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Rasmussen"},{"link_name":"Scott Rasmussen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Rasmussen"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ESPN_meaning-2"},{"link_name":"Bristol, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Miami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami"},{"link_name":"Orlando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orlando,_Florida"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas,_Nevada"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"},{"link_name":"Charlotte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"James Pitaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Pitaro"},{"link_name":"John Skipper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Skipper"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ESPN&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ESPN&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ESPN_Inc-6"},{"link_name":"The Sports Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sports_Network"},{"link_name":"criticism of ESPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_ESPN"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"conflict of interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"This article is about the U.S. television channel. For the company and other channels of the same name, see ESPN Inc. For the railroad, see East Penn Railroad. For the gene, see ESPN (gene).Television channelESPN (an abbreviation of its original name, the Entertainment and Sports Programming Network[2]) is an American international basic cable sports channel owned by The Walt Disney Company (80% and operational control) and Hearst Communications (20%) through the joint venture ESPN Inc. The company was founded in 1979 by Bill Rasmussen, Scott Rasmussen and Ed Eagan.[2]ESPN broadcasts primarily from studio facilities located in Bristol, Connecticut. The network also operates offices and auxiliary studios in Miami, Orlando, New York City, Las Vegas, Seattle, Charlotte, Washington, D.C., and Los Angeles. James Pitaro has been chairman since March 5, 2018, following the resignation of John Skipper on December 18, 2017.[3]As of November 2021[update], ESPN reached approximately 76 million television households in the United States—a drop of 24% from nearly a decade prior.[4] As of June 2023[update], the channel's reach had been reduced to 72.5 million homes.[5] In addition to the flagship channel and its seven related channels in the United States, ESPN broadcasts in more than 200 countries.[6] It operates regional channels in Africa, Australia, Latin America, and the Netherlands. In Canada, it owns a 20% interest in The Sports Network (TSN) and its five sister networks. Despite the network's success, criticism of ESPN includes accusations of biased coverage,[7] conflict of interest, and controversies with individual broadcasters and analysts.[citation needed]","title":"ESPN"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ESPN_HQ.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bristol, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Bill Rasmussen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Rasmussen"},{"link_name":"World Hockey Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Hockey_Association"},{"link_name":"New England Whalers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartford_Whalers"},{"link_name":"Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Rasmussen"},{"link_name":"Plainville, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainville,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"satellite dishes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_dish"},{"link_name":"Bristol, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Getty Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getty_Oil"},{"link_name":"Anheuser-Busch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anheuser-Busch"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ESPN%27s_Old_Logo.png"},{"link_name":"SportsCenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SportsCenter"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-8"},{"link_name":"NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament"},{"link_name":"March Madness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_men%27s_basketball_tournament"},{"link_name":"Dick Vitale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick_Vitale"},{"link_name":"Detroit Pistons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Pistons"},{"link_name":"NFL Draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League_Draft"},{"link_name":"Top Rank Boxing on ESPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing_on_ESPN"},{"link_name":"professional boxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_boxing"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"ESPN Friday Night Fights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Friday_Night_Fights"},{"link_name":"American Broadcasting Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-8"},{"link_name":"National Hockey League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_League"},{"link_name":"USA Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USA_Network"},{"link_name":"NCAA Division I college football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_Division_I_college_football"},{"link_name":"TBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TBS_(U.S._TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"NFL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League"},{"link_name":"NBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"Major League Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-B-11"},{"link_name":"U.S. Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCAA_v._Board_of_Regents_of_the_University_of_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"NCAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Collegiate_Athletic_Association"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-B-11"},{"link_name":"that year's regular season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_NFL_season"},{"link_name":"Sunday Night Football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Sunday_Night_Football"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C-12"},{"link_name":"ESPN Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Radio"},{"link_name":"sports talk radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_talk_radio"},{"link_name":"Mike and Mike in the Morning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_and_Mike_in_the_Morning"},{"link_name":"The Herd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Herd_with_Colin_Cowherd"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-8"},{"link_name":"ESPN2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN2"},{"link_name":"snowboarding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowboarding"},{"link_name":"World Series of Poker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Series_of_Poker"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A-8"},{"link_name":"Capital Cities Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_Cities_Communications"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"The Walt Disney Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Walt_Disney_Company"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Walt Disney Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_Television"},{"link_name":"NBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA"},{"link_name":"College Football Playoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Football_Playoff"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Trent Dilfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trent_Dilfer"},{"link_name":"Danny Kanell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_Kanell"},{"link_name":"NFL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL"},{"link_name":"Ed Werder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Werder"},{"link_name":"Major League Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball"},{"link_name":"Jayson Stark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jayson_Stark"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Charlotte, North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Baseball Tonight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_Tonight"},{"link_name":"primetime game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_Night_Baseball"},{"link_name":"MLB Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLB_Network"},{"link_name":"Intentional Talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intentional_Talk"},{"link_name":"ESPN2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN2"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"over-the-top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-the-top_content"},{"link_name":"ESPN+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN%2B"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-espnplusapril-19"},{"link_name":"ESPN+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN%2B"},{"link_name":"Hulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulu"},{"link_name":"TBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TBS_(American_TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"TNT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_(American_TV_network)"},{"link_name":"Turner Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turner_Sports"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Penn Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penn_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Fox Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Sports_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"TNT Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNT_Sports_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Venu Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venu_Sports"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Headquarters in Bristol, ConnecticutBill Rasmussen came up with the concept of ESPN in May 1978, after he was fired from his job with the World Hockey Association's New England Whalers. Rasmussen and his ESPN co-founder Ed Eagan, joined by Rasmussen's son Scott (who had also been let go by the Whalers), first rented office space in Plainville, Connecticut. However, the plan to base ESPN there was put on hold because of a local ordinance prohibiting buildings from bearing rooftop satellite dishes. Available land to build their own facility on was quickly found in Bristol, Connecticut (where the channel remains headquartered to this day), with funding to buy the property provided by Getty Oil, which purchased 85% of the company from Bill Rasmussen on February 22, 1979, in an attempt to diversify the company's holdings. This helped the credibility of the fledgling company; however, there were still many doubters about the viability of their sports channel concept. Another event that helped build ESPN's credibility was securing an advertising agreement with Anheuser-Busch in the spring of 1979; the company invested $1 million to be the \"exclusive beer advertised on the network.\"[8][9]ESPN's first logo, used from 1979 to 1985ESPN launched on September 7, 1979, beginning with the first telecast of what would become the channel's flagship program, SportsCenter. Taped in front of a small live audience inside the Bristol studios, it was broadcast to 1.4 million cable subscribers throughout the United States.[8]ESPN's next big step forward came when the channel acquired the rights to broadcast coverage of the early rounds of the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament. It first aired its games in March 1980, helping bring attention to what is today known as \"March Madness.\" The channel's tournament coverage also launched the broadcasting career of Dick Vitale, who at the time he joined ESPN had just been fired as head coach of the Detroit Pistons.In April of that year ESPN began televising the NFL Draft, bringing it also to a mass audience and over time creating a television \"event\". That same month the network began broadcasting Top Rank Boxing on ESPN, marking the beginning of its involvement with televised professional boxing.[10] The show lasted 16 years, and ESPN has since shown boxing live intermittently with other shows including ESPN Friday Night Fights and others. For a period during the 1980s, the network had boxing tournaments, crowning champions in different boxing weight divisions as \"ESPN champions\".The next major stepping stone for ESPN came throughout a couple of months in 1984. During this period, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) purchased 100% of ESPN from the Rasmussens and Getty Oil.[8] Under Getty ownership, the channel was unable to compete for the television rights to major sports events contracts as its majority corporate parent would not provide the funding, leading ESPN to lose out for broadcast deals with the National Hockey League (to USA Network) and NCAA Division I college football (to TBS). For years, the NFL, NBA, and Major League Baseball refused to consider cable as a means of broadcasting some of their games.[11] However, with the backing of ABC, ESPN's ability to compete for major sports contracts greatly increased, and gave it credibility within the sports broadcasting industry.Later that year, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in NCAA v. Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma (1984) that the NCAA could no longer monopolize the rights to negotiate the contracts for college football games, allowing each school to negotiate broadcast deals on their own. ESPN took full advantage and began to broadcast a large number of NCAA football games, creating an opportunity for fans to be able to view multiple games each weekend (instead of just one), the same deal that the NCAA had previously negotiated with TBS.[11] ESPN's breakthrough moment occurred in 1987 when it secured a contract with the NFL to broadcast eight games during that year's regular season – all of which aired on Sunday nights, marking the first broadcasts of Sunday NFL primetime games. ESPN's Sunday Night Football games would become the highest-rated NFL telecasts for the next 17 years (before losing the rights to NBC in 2006).[12] The channel's decision to broadcast NFL games on Sunday evenings resulted in a decline in viewership for the daytime games shown on the major broadcast networks, marking the first time that ESPN had been a legitimate competitor to NBC and CBS, which had long dominated the sports television market.In 1992, ESPN launched ESPN Radio, a national sports talk radio network providing analysis and commentary programs (including shows such as Mike and Mike in the Morning and The Herd) as well as audio play-by-play of sporting events (including some simulcasted with the ESPN television channel).[8]On October 10, 1993, ESPN2 – a secondary channel that originally was programmed with a separate lineup of niche sports popular with males 18–49 years old (with snowboarding and the World Series of Poker as its headliners) as well as serving as an overflow channel for ESPN – launched on cable systems reaching to 10 million subscribers.[8] It became the fastest-growing cable channel in the U.S. during the 1990s, eventually expanding its national reach to 75 million subscribers.[8]Ownership of ABC, and thus control of ESPN, was acquired by Capital Cities Communications in 1985.[13] ESPN's parent company renamed themselves as Capital Cities/ABC Inc. Capital Cities/ABC Inc. was then acquired by The Walt Disney Company in 1996[14] and was re-branded as Walt Disney Television.Challenges began to appear in the 2000s. ESPN began to shed viewers, more than 10 million over a period of several years in the 2010s even while paying big money for the broadcast rights to such properties as the NFL, NBA and College Football Playoff.[15]On April 26, 2017, approximately 100 ESPN employees were notified that their positions with the sports network had been terminated, among them athletes-turned-analysts Trent Dilfer and Danny Kanell, and noted journalists like NFL beat reporter Ed Werder and Major League Baseball expert Jayson Stark.[16] Further cost-cutting measures taken included moving the studio operations of ESPNU to Bristol from Charlotte, North Carolina,[17] reducing its longtime MLB studio show Baseball Tonight to Sundays as a lead-in to the primetime game and adding the MLB Network-produced Intentional Talk to ESPN2's daily lineup.[18]On April 12, 2018, ESPN began a supplemental over-the-top streaming service known as ESPN+.[19]After having last carried national-televised NHL games in 2004, ESPN and ABC agreed in March 2021 on a seven-year contract to televise games, with some airing on ESPN+ and Hulu. The contract also awarded four of the seven Stanley Cup Finals to both ESPN and ABC. All other nationally televised games would air on TBS and TNT under a separate deal the league struck with Turner Sports the following month.[20]On August 8, 2023, ESPN and Penn Entertainment announced a deal to brand Penn's sportsbooks with ESPN branding. Penn's existing Barstool Sportsbook would be rebranded as ESPN Bet in fall 2023.[21][22]On February 6, 2024, ESPN announced a joint venture with Fox Sports and TNT Sports to offer Venu Sports, including the three organizations' main linear sports channels and associated media rights, beginning in fall 2024.[23] Additionally, the company plans to launch a \"flagship\" standalone streaming offering, including the ESPN and ESPN2 linear channels, in late summer or fall 2025.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Around the Horn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Around_the_Horn"},{"link_name":"College GameDay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_GameDay_(basketball_TV_program)"},{"link_name":"college basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_basketball"},{"link_name":"Saturday Primetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Primetime"},{"link_name":"College GameDay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_GameDay_(football_TV_program)"},{"link_name":"E:60","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E:60"},{"link_name":"investigative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigative_journalism"},{"link_name":"newsmagazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsmagazine"},{"link_name":"First Take","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Take_(talk_show)"},{"link_name":"Stephen A. Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Smith"},{"link_name":"Molly Qerim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molly_Qerim"},{"link_name":"Get Up!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Get_Up_(TV_program)"},{"link_name":"Monday Night Countdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monday_Night_Countdown"},{"link_name":"NFL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Football_League"},{"link_name":"Monday Night Football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monday_Night_Football"},{"link_name":"Pardon the Interruption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardon_the_Interruption"},{"link_name":"Tony Kornheiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Kornheiser"},{"link_name":"Michael Wilbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Wilbon"},{"link_name":"SportsCenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SportsCenter"},{"link_name":"Sunday NFL Countdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday_NFL_Countdown"},{"link_name":"The Pat McAfee Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pat_McAfee_Show"},{"link_name":"30 for 30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_for_30"},{"link_name":"Nine for IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_for_IX"},{"link_name":"ESPN Films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Films"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"O.J.: Made in America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O.J.:_Made_in_America"},{"link_name":"Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Documentary_Feature"},{"link_name":"2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/89th_Academy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Ultimate Fighting Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate_Fighting_Championship"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Caesars Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesars_Entertainment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"The LINQ Hotel & Casino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_LINQ_Hotel_%26_Casino"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"The Pat McAfee Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pat_McAfee_Show"},{"link_name":"SportsCenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SportsCenter"},{"link_name":"This Just In with Max Kellerman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Just_In_with_Max_Kellerman"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Alongside its live sports broadcasts, ESPN also airs a variety of sports highlight, talk, and documentary-styled shows. These include:Around the Horn – Competitive debating between four sports writers across the country\nCollege GameDay (basketball) – Weekly college basketball show airing from the Saturday Primetime game of the week site\nCollege GameDay (football) – Weekly college football preview show airing from the site of a major college football game\nE:60 – An investigative newsmagazine program focusing on American and international sports\nFirst Take – A daily morning talk show with Stephen A. Smith and Molly Qerim (moved from ESPN2 on January 3, 2017)\nGet Up! – A daily morning show, focusing on the previous night's game results and the burning sports issues of the day\nMonday Night Countdown – Weekly recap show aired on Monday evenings during the NFL season, also serves as the pre-game show for Monday Night Football\nPardon the Interruption – A daily afternoon talk show where Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon debate an array of sports topics\nSportsCenter – The flagship program of ESPN, a daily sports news program delivering the latest sports news and highlights\nSunday NFL Countdown – Weekly preview show that airs on Sunday mornings during the NFL season\nThe Pat McAfee Show – A daily afternoon talk show with news, opinion, and analysisMany of ESPN's documentary programs (such as 30 for 30 and Nine for IX) are produced by ESPN Films, a film division created in March 2008 as a restructuring of ESPN Original Entertainment, a programming division that was originally formed in 2001. 30 for 30 started airing in 2009 and continues airing to this day. Each episode is through the eyes of a well known filmmaker and has featured some of the biggest directors in Hollywood.[25] The 30 for 30 film O.J.: Made in America won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 2017, the first such Oscar for ESPN.[26]Ultimate Fighting Championship signed a five-year contract with ESPN starting 2019[27] on ESPN and ESPN+ which estimate every quarter 2 event on UFC on ESPN and 6 events on UFC Fight Night on ESPN+.[28]In March 2019, ESPN announced a new betting-themed daily program, Daily Wager, hosted by the network's gambling analyst Doug Kezirian.[29] The program was ESPN's first regularly scheduled program solely dedicated to gaming-related content. On May 14, 2019, ESPN announced a deal with casino operator Caesars Entertainment to establish an ESPN-branded studio at The LINQ Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas to produce betting-themed content.[30]In order to help offset the impact of COVID-19 on its business, Walt Disney CEO Bob Chapek indicated during a 4th quarter fiscal year 2021 earnings conference that the company would increase its presence in online sports betting, including in partnership with third parties.[31][32]In 2023, The Pat McAfee Show moved to ESPN as part of a five-year $85 million deal. The show replaced the Noon ET airing of SportsCenter and This Just In with Max Kellerman.[33][34]","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"ESPN on ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_on_ABC"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"NBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Basketball_Association"},{"link_name":"NHL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_League"},{"link_name":"X Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Games"},{"link_name":"NBA Finals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBA_Finals"}],"sub_title":"ESPN on ABC","text":"Since September 2006, ESPN has been integrated with the sports division of sister broadcast network ABC, with sports events televised on that network airing under the banner ESPN on ABC;[35] much of ABC's sports coverage since the rebranding has become increasingly limited to secondary coverage of sporting events whose broadcast rights are held by ESPN (such as NBA games, NHL games, and the X Games and its related qualifying events) as well as a limited array of events not broadcast on ESPN (most notably, the NBA Finals).","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"auto racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_racing"},{"link_name":"college basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_basketball"},{"link_name":"NHL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hockey_League"},{"link_name":"extreme sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_sports"},{"link_name":"BMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMX"},{"link_name":"skateboarding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skateboarding"},{"link_name":"motocross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motocross"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-baltimoresun-espn2-36"},{"link_name":"ESPN BottomLine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_BottomLine"},{"link_name":"ticker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_ticker"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USA-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Deadspin-last_days-38"}],"sub_title":"ESPN2","text":"ESPN2 was launched on October 1, 1993. It carried a broad mix of event coverage from conventional sports—including auto racing, college basketball and NHL hockey—to extreme sports—such as BMX, skateboarding and motocross.[36] The \"ESPN BottomLine\", a ticker displaying sports news and scores during all programming that is now used by all of ESPN's networks, originated on ESPN2 in 1995.[37] In the late 1990s, ESPN2 was gradually reformatted to serve as a secondary outlet for ESPN's mainstream sports programming.[38]","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"press conferences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_conference"},{"link_name":"simulcasts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulcast"},{"link_name":"ESPN Radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Radio"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"ESPNews","text":"ESPNews is a subscription television network that was launched on November 1, 1996, originally focusing solely on sports news, highlights, and press conferences. Since August 2010, the network has gradually incorporated encores of ESPN's various sports debate and entertainment shows and video simulcasts of ESPN Radio shows, in addition to sports news programming. Since the 2013 cancellation of Highlight Express,[39] programming consists mainly of rebroadcasts of SportsCenter. ESPNews also serves as an overflow feed due to programming conflicts caused by sporting events on the other ESPN networks.","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[i.es.piˈen deˈpoɾtes]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Spanish"}],"sub_title":"ESPN Deportes","text":"ESPN Deportes (Spanish pronunciation: [i.es.piˈen deˈpoɾtes], \"ESPN Sports\") is a subscription television network that was originally launched in July 2001 to provide Spanish simulcasts of certain Major League Baseball telecasts from ESPN. It became a 24-hour sports channel in January 2004.","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"college athletics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_athletics"},{"link_name":"baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_baseball"},{"link_name":"ice hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_ice_hockey"}],"sub_title":"ESPNU","text":"ESPNU is a subscription television network that launched on March 4, 2005, that focuses on college athletics including basketball, football, baseball, college swimming, and ice hockey.","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Texas Longhorns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Longhorns"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Longhorn Network","text":"The Longhorn Network is a subscription television network that was launched on August 26, 2011, focusing on events from the Texas Longhorns varsity sports teams of the University of Texas at Austin.[40] It features events from the 20 sports sanctioned by the Texas athletic department, along with original programming (including historical, academic and cultural content).","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Southeastern Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeastern_Conference"},{"link_name":"joint venture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_venture"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-secdigitalnetwork1-42"}],"sub_title":"SEC Network","text":"SEC Network is a subscription television network that launched on August 14, 2014, focusing on the coverage of sporting events sanctioned by the Southeastern Conference. Created as a result of a 20-year broadcast partnership between the two entities, the network is a joint venture between the conference and ESPN Inc., which operates the network.[41][42]","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Atlantic Coast Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Coast_Conference"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"ACC Network","text":"Launching on August 22, 2019, the ACC Network is a subscription television network that focuses on the sporting events of the Atlantic Coast Conference as part of a current agreement extending to the 2036–37 academic term as a joint venture of network operator ESPN Inc. and the ACC.[43]","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"ESPN+","text":"ESPN+ is an American over-the-top subscription video streaming service available in the United States, owned by the ESPN division of the Walt Disney Company, in partnership with ESPN Inc.","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"high definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-definition_television"},{"link_name":"simulcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulcast"},{"link_name":"Texas Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Rangers_(baseball)"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Angels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Angels"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"4:3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4:3"},{"link_name":"standard definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard-definition_television"},{"link_name":"stylized pillarboxing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillarbox#Stylized_pillarboxing_on_television"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"ABC News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_News"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"720p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/720p"},{"link_name":"progressive scan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_scan"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"2160p","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4K_resolution"},{"link_name":"UHD/4K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultra-high-definition_television"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"4:3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4:3"},{"link_name":"AFD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_Format_Description"},{"link_name":"WatchESPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WatchESPN"},{"link_name":"desktop computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer"},{"link_name":"application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_app"},{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"tablet computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer"},{"link_name":"Apple TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_TV"},{"link_name":"Roku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roku"},{"link_name":"Xbox Live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_Live"},{"link_name":"TV Everywhere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_Everywhere"},{"link_name":"Time Warner Cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Warner_Cable"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phillips1-49"},{"link_name":"ESPN3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN3"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nagle-51"},{"link_name":"ESPN+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN%2B"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"ESPN Events","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Events"},{"link_name":"syndication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_syndication"},{"link_name":"The CW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_CW"},{"link_name":"MyNetworkTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MyNetworkTV"},{"link_name":"independent stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_station_(North_America)"},{"link_name":"American Athletic Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Athletic_Conference"},{"link_name":"Big 12 Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_12_Conference"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Mid-American Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-American_Conference"},{"link_name":"Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metro_Atlantic_Athletic_Conference"},{"link_name":"Sun Belt Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Belt_Conference"},{"link_name":"Western Athletic Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Athletic_Conference"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Snapchat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapchat"},{"link_name":"Snapchat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapchat"},{"link_name":"SportsCenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SportsCenter"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"ESPN MVP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_MVP"},{"link_name":"mobile virtual network operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_virtual_network_operator"},{"link_name":"Verizon Wireless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verizon_Wireless"},{"link_name":"smartphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Other services","text":"ESPN HDESPN launched its high definition simulcast feed, originally branded as ESPNHD, on March 30, 2003, with a broadcast of the Texas Rangers and the Los Angeles Angels (then the Anaheim Angels).[44] All studio shows based in Bristol and at L. A. Live, along with most live event telecasts on ESPN, are broadcast in high definition. ESPN is one of the few television networks with an all-digital infrastructure. Archived non-HD programming is presented in 4:3 standard definition with stylized pillarboxing. Pardon the Interruption and Around the Horn began airing in HD on September 27, 2010, with the relocation of the production of both shows into the facility housing the Washington, D.C., bureau for ABC News.[45]ESPN broadcasts HD programming in the 720p resolution format, because ABC executives proposed a progressive scan signal that resolves fluid and high-speed motion in sports better, particularly during slow-motion replays.[46] The network's Digital Center itself natively holds 2160p UHD/4K operations and equipment.[47][48] In 2011, ESPNHD began to downplay its distinct promotional logo in preparation for the conversion of its standard definition feed from a 4:3 full-screen to a letterboxed format (via the application of the AFD #10 display flag), which occurred on June 1 of that year.WatchESPNWatchESPN was a website for desktop computers, as well as an application for smartphones and tablet computers that allowed subscribers of participating pay-TV providers to watch live streams of programming from ESPN and its sister networks (except for ESPN Classic), including most sporting events, on computers, mobile devices, Apple TV, Roku and Xbox Live via their TV Everywhere login provided by their cable provider. The service originally launched on October 25, 2010, as ESPN Networks, a streaming service that provided a live stream of ESPN exclusive to Time Warner Cable subscribers.[49] ESPN3, an online streaming service providing live streams and replays of global sports events that launched in 2005 as a separate website,[50] was incorporated into the WatchESPN platform on August 31, 2011.[51] Likewise, ESPN+ was launched in April 2018 as an add-on subscription for $4.99 per month.[52] On June 1, 2019, WatchESPN was discontinued with the service's full merger into the ESPN app.[citation needed]ESPN EventsESPN Regional Television (formerly branded as ESPN Plus) is the network's syndication arm, which produces collegiate sporting events for free-to-air television stations throughout the United States (primarily those affiliated with networks such as The CW and MyNetworkTV or independent stations). ESPN Plus syndicates college football and basketball games from the American Athletic Conference, Big 12 Conference,[53] Mid-American Conference, Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference, Sun Belt Conference and the Western Athletic Conference.[citation needed]ESPN on SnapchatESPN distributes various content on Snapchat Discover, including a Snapchat-only version of SportsCenter.[citation needed]ESPN MVPESPN MVP (initially known as Mobile ESPN) was a 2005 attempt at operating a mobile virtual network operator with exclusive mobile content, first as a phone feature, then after its termination into a Verizon Wireless paid service. Technologies developed for it have since been transferred to the network's successful mobile strategy in the smartphone era.[citation needed]","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brian Bedol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Bedol"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"}],"sub_title":"Former services","text":"ESPN ClassicESPN Classic was a subscription television network that launched in 1995 as Classic Sports Network, founded by Brian Bedol and Steve Greenberg. ESPN Inc. purchased Classic Sports Network in 1997 for $175 million,[54] rebranding the channel to its current name the following year. The channel broadcasts notable archived sporting events (originally including events from past decades, but now focusing mainly on events from the 1990s and later), sports documentaries and sports-themed movies. It was discontinued on December 31, 2021.","title":"Related channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Caribbean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania"},{"link_name":"Sub-Saharan Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa"},{"link_name":"The Sports Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sports_Network"},{"link_name":"Réseau des sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9seau_des_sports"},{"link_name":"J Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J_Sports"}],"text":"ESPN owns and operates regional channels in Brazil, Caribbean, Latin America, Netherlands, Oceania and Sub-Saharan Africa. In Canada, ESPN is a minority owner of The Sports Network (TSN) and the French-language Réseau des sports (RDS). ESPN also has a minority stake in J Sports in Japan.","title":"International channels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sports betting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_betting"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"text":"ESPN moved into the sports betting scene in November 2023 with plans to launch their sportsbook app \"ESPN Bet\" on November 14.[55] In a partnership with Penn Entertainment, ESPN Bet began in 17 states.[56] Once live, ESPN featured betting odds from their own sportsbook on their content.","title":"ESPN Bet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball"},{"link_name":"ice hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-afterword-60"},{"link_name":"Yahoo! Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Sports"},{"link_name":"Fox Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fox_Sports"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ethics-62"},{"link_name":"Deadspin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadspin"},{"link_name":"People's Republic of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"text":"ESPN has been criticized for focusing too much on men's college and professional sports, and very little on women's sports or extreme sports.[57] Baseball, ice hockey, and soccer fans have also criticized ESPN for not giving their respective sports more coverage.[58][59] Other criticism has focused on ethnicity in ESPN's varying mediated forms, as well as carriage fees and issues regarding the exportation of ESPN content.[60] Some critics argue that ESPN's success is their ability to provide other enterprise and investigative sports news while competing with other hard sports-news-producing outlets such as Yahoo! Sports and Fox Sports.[61] Some scholars have challenged ESPN's journalistic integrity, calling for an expanded standard of professionalism to prevent biased coverage and conflicts of interest.[62]On October 8, 2019, Deadspin reported that an internal memo was sent to ESPN employees instructing them to avoid any political discussions regarding the People's Republic of China and Hong Kong in the aftermath of a tweet by Rockets general manager Daryl Morey.[63]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Television_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"text":"National Hispanic Media Coalition's \"Outstanding Commitment and Outreach to the Latino Community\", 2016[64]ESPN has won 232 Sports Emmy Awards in 35 years of eligibility.\n[65] In 2024, ESPN apologized for submitting fake names for Sports Emmy award consideration over many years, and returned 37 trophies that had been awarded to ineligible recipients to the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences.[66]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4331-2600-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-2600-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-316-04300-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-04300-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-252-03976-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-03976-8"}],"text":"McGuire, John; Armfield, Greg G.; Earnheardt, Adam C., eds. (2015). The ESPN Effect: The Making of a Sports Media Empire. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-2600-0.\nMiller, James Andrew; Shales, Tom (2011). Those Guys Have All the Fun: Inside the World of ESPN. New York: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0-316-04300-7.\nVogan, Travis (2015). ESPN: The Making of a Sports Media Empire. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03976-8.","title":"Bibliography"}]
[{"image_text":"Headquarters in Bristol, Connecticut","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/ESPN_HQ.jpg/220px-ESPN_HQ.jpg"},{"image_text":"ESPN's first logo, used from 1979 to 1985","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/ESPN%27s_Old_Logo.png/220px-ESPN%27s_Old_Logo.png"}]
[{"title":"List of ESPN personalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ESPN_personalities"},{"title":"List of past ESPN personalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_past_ESPN_personalities"},{"title":"ESPN on ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_on_ABC"},{"title":"ESPN2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN2"},{"title":"ESPN+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN%2B"},{"title":"ESPN Films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESPN_Films"},{"title":"Maxx Zoom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxx_Zoom"},{"title":"Wieden+Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wieden%2BKennedy"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier
Digital object identifier
["1 Nomenclature and syntax","1.1 Display","2 Content","3 Features and benefits","4 Comparison with other identifier schemes","5 Resolution","6 IDF organizational structure","7 Standardization","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 External links"]
ISO standard unique string identifier for a digital object For the use of digital object identifiers on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Digital Object Identifier. Digital object identifierFull nameDigital object identifierAcronymDOIOrganisationInternational DOI FoundationIntroduced2000; 24 years ago (2000)Example10.1000/182Websitewww.doi.org/the-identifier/what-is-a-doi/ A digital object identifier (DOI) is a persistent identifier or handle used to uniquely identify various objects, standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). DOIs are an implementation of the Handle System; they also fit within the URI system (Uniform Resource Identifier). They are widely used to identify academic, professional, and government information, such as journal articles, research reports, data sets, and official publications. A DOI aims to resolve to its target, the information object to which the DOI refers. This is achieved by binding the DOI to metadata about the object, such as a URL where the object is located. Thus, by being actionable and interoperable, a DOI differs from ISBNs or ISRCs which are identifiers only. The DOI system uses the indecs Content Model for representing metadata. The DOI for a document remains fixed over the lifetime of the document, whereas its location and other metadata may change. Referring to an online document by its DOI should provide a more stable link than directly using its URL. But if its URL changes, the publisher must update the metadata for the DOI to maintain the link to the URL. It is the publisher's responsibility to update the DOI database. If they fail to do so, the DOI resolves to a dead link, leaving the DOI useless. The developer and administrator of the DOI system is the International DOI Foundation (IDF), which introduced it in 2000. Organizations that meet the contractual obligations of the DOI system and are willing to pay to become a member of the system can assign DOIs. The DOI system is implemented through a federation of registration agencies coordinated by the IDF. By late April 2011 more than 50 million DOI names had been assigned by some 4,000 organizations, and by April 2013 this number had grown to 85 million DOI names assigned through 9,500 organizations. Nomenclature and syntax A DOI is a type of Handle System handle, which takes the form of a character string divided into two parts, a prefix and a suffix, separated by a slash. prefix/suffix The prefix identifies the registrant of the identifier and the suffix is chosen by the registrant and identifies the specific object associated with that DOI. Most legal Unicode characters are allowed in these strings, which are interpreted in a case-insensitive manner. The prefix usually takes the form 10.NNNN, where NNNN is a number greater than or equal to 1000, whose limit depends only on the total number of registrants. The prefix may be further subdivided with periods, like 10.NNNN.N. For example, in the DOI name 10.1000/182, the prefix is 10.1000 and the suffix is 182. The "10" part of the prefix distinguishes the handle as part of the DOI namespace, as opposed to some other Handle System namespace, and the characters 1000 in the prefix identify the registrant; in this case the registrant is the International DOI Foundation itself. 182 is the suffix, or item ID, identifying a single object (in this case, the latest version of the DOI Handbook). DOI names can identify creative works (such as texts, images, audio or video items, and software) in both electronic and physical forms, performances, and abstract works such as licenses, parties to a transaction, etc. The names can refer to objects at varying levels of detail: thus DOI names can identify a journal, an individual issue of a journal, an individual article in the journal, or a single table in that article. The choice of level of detail is left to the assigner, but in the DOI system it must be declared as part of the metadata that is associated with a DOI name, using a data dictionary based on the indecs Content Model. Display The official DOI Handbook explicitly states that DOIs should be displayed on screens and in print in the format doi:10.1000/182. Contrary to the DOI Handbook, CrossRef, a major DOI registration agency, recommends displaying a URL (for example, https://doi.org/10.1000/182) instead of the officially specified format (for example, doi:10.1000/182) This URL is persistent (there is a contract that ensures persistence in the DOI.ORG domain), so it is a PURL—providing the location of an HTTP proxy server which will redirect web accesses to the correct online location of the linked item. The CrossRef recommendation is primarily based on the assumption that the DOI is being displayed without being hyperlinked to its appropriate URL—the argument being that without the hyperlink it is not as easy to copy-and-paste the full URL to actually bring up the page for the DOI, thus the entire URL should be displayed, allowing people viewing the page containing the DOI to copy-and-paste the URL, by hand, into a new window/tab in their browser in order to go to the appropriate page for the document the DOI represents. Since DOI is a namespace within the Handle System, it is semantically correct to represent it as the URI info:doi/10.1000/182. Content Major content of the DOI system currently includes: Scholarly materials (journal articles, books, ebooks, etc.) through Crossref, a consortium of around 3,000 publishers; Airiti, a leading provider of Chinese and Taiwanese electronic academic journals; and the Japan Link Center (JaLC) an organization providing link management and DOI assignment for electronic academic journals in Japanese. Research datasets through DataCite, a consortium of leading research libraries, technical information providers, and scientific data centers; European Union official publications through the EU publications office; The Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure project at Tsinghua University and the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ISTIC), two initiatives sponsored by the Chinese government. Permanent global identifiers for both commercial and non-commercial audio/visual content titles, edits, and manifestations through the Entertainment ID Registry, commonly known as EIDR. In the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's publication service OECD iLibrary, each table or graph in an OECD publication is shown with a DOI name that leads to an Excel file of data underlying the tables and graphs. Further development of such services is planned. Other registries include Crossref and the multilingual European DOI Registration Agency (mEDRA). Since 2015, RFCs can be referenced as doi:10.17487/rfc.... Features and benefits The IDF designed the DOI system to provide a form of persistent identification, in which each DOI name permanently and unambiguously identifies the object to which it is associated (although when the publisher of a journal changes, sometimes all the DOIs will be changed, with the old DOIs no longer working). It also associates metadata with objects, allowing it to provide users with relevant pieces of information about the objects and their relationships. Included as part of this metadata are network actions that allow DOI names to be resolved to web locations where the objects they describe can be found. To achieve its goals, the DOI system combines the Handle System and the indecs Content Model with a social infrastructure. The Handle System ensures that the DOI name for an object is not based on any changeable attributes of the object such as its physical location or ownership, that the attributes of the object are encoded in its metadata rather than in its DOI name, and that no two objects are assigned the same DOI name. Because DOI names are short character strings, they are human-readable, may be copied and pasted as text, and fit into the URI specification. The DOI name-resolution mechanism acts behind the scenes, so that users communicate with it in the same way as with any other web service; it is built on open architectures, incorporates trust mechanisms, and is engineered to operate reliably and flexibly so that it can be adapted to changing demands and new applications of the DOI system. DOI name-resolution may be used with OpenURL to select the most appropriate among multiple locations for a given object, according to the location of the user making the request. However, despite this ability, the DOI system has drawn criticism from librarians for directing users to non-free copies of documents, that would have been available for no additional fee from alternative locations. The indecs Content Model as used within the DOI system associates metadata with objects. A small kernel of common metadata is shared by all DOI names and can be optionally extended with other relevant data, which may be public or restricted. Registrants may update the metadata for their DOI names at any time, such as when publication information changes or when an object moves to a different URL. The International DOI Foundation (IDF) oversees the integration of these technologies and operation of the system through a technical and social infrastructure. The social infrastructure of a federation of independent registration agencies offering DOI services was modelled on existing successful federated deployments of identifiers such as GS1 and ISBN. Comparison with other identifier schemes A DOI name differs from commonly used Internet pointers to material, such as the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), in that it identifies an object itself as a first-class entity, rather than the specific place where the object is located at a certain time. It implements the Uniform Resource Identifier (Uniform Resource Name) concept and adds to it a data model and social infrastructure. A DOI name also differs from standard identifier registries such as the ISBN, ISRC, etc. The purpose of an identifier registry is to manage a given collection of identifiers, whereas the primary purpose of the DOI system is to make a collection of identifiers actionable and interoperable, where that collection can include identifiers from many other controlled collections. The DOI system offers persistent, semantically interoperable resolution to related current data and is best suited to material that will be used in services outside the direct control of the issuing assigner (e.g., public citation or managing content of value). It uses a managed registry (providing social and technical infrastructure). It does not assume any specific business model for the provision of identifiers or services and enables other existing services to link to it in defined ways. Several approaches for making identifiers persistent have been proposed. The comparison of persistent identifier approaches is difficult because they are not all doing the same thing. Imprecisely referring to a set of schemes as "identifiers" does not mean that they can be compared easily. Other "identifier systems" may be enabling technologies with low barriers to entry, providing an easy to use labeling mechanism that allows anyone to set up a new instance (examples include Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL), URLs, Globally Unique Identifiers (GUIDs), etc.), but may lack some of the functionality of a registry-controlled scheme and will usually lack accompanying metadata in a controlled scheme. The DOI system does not have this approach and should not be compared directly to such identifier schemes. Various applications using such enabling technologies with added features have been devised that meet some of the features offered by the DOI system for specific sectors (e.g., ARK). A DOI name does not depend on the object's location and, in this way, is similar to a Uniform Resource Name (URN) or PURL but differs from an ordinary URL. URLs are often used as substitute identifiers for documents on the Internet although the same document at two different locations has two URLs. By contrast, persistent identifiers such as DOI names identify objects as first class entities: two instances of the same object would have the same DOI name. Resolution DOI name resolution is provided through the Handle System, developed by Corporation for National Research Initiatives, and is freely available to any user encountering a DOI name. Resolution redirects the user from a DOI name to one or more pieces of typed data: URLs representing instances of the object, services such as e-mail, or one or more items of metadata. To the Handle System, a DOI name is a handle, and so has a set of values assigned to it and may be thought of as a record that consists of a group of fields. Each handle value must have a data type specified in its <type> field, which defines the syntax and semantics of its data. While a DOI persistently and uniquely identifies the object to which it is assigned, DOI resolution may not be persistent, due to technical and administrative issues. To resolve a DOI name, it may be input to a DOI resolver, such as doi.org. Another approach, which avoids typing or cutting-and-pasting into a resolver is to include the DOI in a document as a URL which uses the resolver as an HTTP proxy, such as https://doi.org/ (preferred) or http://dx.doi.org/, both of which support HTTPS. For example, the DOI 10.1000/182 can be included in a reference or hyperlink as https://doi.org/10.1000/182. This approach allows users to click on the DOI as a normal hyperlink. Indeed, as previously mentioned, this is how CrossRef recommends that DOIs always be represented (preferring HTTPS over HTTP), so that if they are cut-and-pasted into other documents, emails, etc., they will be actionable. Other DOI resolvers and HTTP Proxies include the Handle System and PANGAEA. At the beginning of the year 2016, a new class of alternative DOI resolvers was started by http://doai.io. This service is unusual in that it tries to find a non-paywalled (often author archived) version of a title and redirects the user to that instead of the publisher's version. Since then, other open-access favoring DOI resolvers have been created, notably https://oadoi.org/ in October 2016 (later Unpaywall). While traditional DOI resolvers solely rely on the Handle System, alternative DOI resolvers first consult open access resources such as BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine). An alternative to HTTP proxies is to use one of a number of add-ons and plug-ins for browsers, thereby avoiding the conversion of the DOIs to URLs, which depend on domain names and may be subject to change, while still allowing the DOI to be treated as a normal hyperlink. A disadvantage of this approach for publishers is that, at least at present, most users will be encountering the DOIs in a browser, mail reader, or other software which does not have one of these plug-ins installed. IDF organizational structure Logo of the foundation The International DOI Foundation (IDF), a non-profit organisation created in 1997, is the governance body of the DOI system. It safeguards all intellectual property rights relating to the DOI system, manages common operational features, and supports the development and promotion of the DOI system. The IDF ensures that any improvements made to the DOI system (including creation, maintenance, registration, resolution and policymaking of DOI names) are available to any DOI registrant. It also prevents third parties from imposing additional licensing requirements beyond those of the IDF on users of the DOI system. The IDF is controlled by a Board elected by the members of the Foundation, with an appointed Managing Agent who is responsible for co-ordinating and planning its activities. Membership is open to all organizations with an interest in electronic publishing and related enabling technologies. The IDF holds annual open meetings on the topics of DOI and related issues. Registration agencies, appointed by the IDF, provide services to DOI registrants: they allocate DOI prefixes, register DOI names, and provide the necessary infrastructure to allow registrants to declare and maintain metadata and state data. Registration agencies are also expected to actively promote the widespread adoption of the DOI system, to cooperate with the IDF in the development of the DOI system as a whole, and to provide services on behalf of their specific user community. A list of current RAs is maintained by the International DOI Foundation. The IDF is recognized as one of the federated registrars for the Handle System by the DONA Foundation (of which the IDF is a board member), and is responsible for assigning Handle System prefixes under the top-level 10 prefix. Registration agencies generally charge a fee to assign a new DOI name; parts of these fees are used to support the IDF. The DOI system overall, through the IDF, operates on a not-for-profit cost recovery basis. Standardization The DOI system is an international standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization in its technical committee on identification and description, TC46/SC9. The Draft International Standard ISO/DIS 26324, Information and documentation – Digital Object Identifier System met the ISO requirements for approval. The relevant ISO Working Group later submitted an edited version to ISO for distribution as an FDIS (Final Draft International Standard) ballot, which was approved by 100% of those voting in a ballot closing on 15 November 2010. The final standard was published on 23 April 2012. DOI is a registered URI under the info URI scheme specified by IETF RFC 4452. info:doi/ is the infoURI Namespace of Digital Object Identifiers. The DOI syntax is a NISO standard, first standardized in 2000, ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2005 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier. The maintainers of the DOI system have deliberately not registered a DOI namespace for URNs, stating that: URN architecture assumes a DNS-based Resolution Discovery Service (RDS) to find the service appropriate to the given URN scheme. However no such widely deployed RDS schemes currently exist.... DOI is not registered as a URN namespace, despite fulfilling all the functional requirements, since URN registration appears to offer no advantage to the DOI System. It requires an additional layer of administration for defining DOI as a URN namespace (the string urn:doi:10.1000/1 rather than the simpler doi:10.1000/1) and an additional step of unnecessary redirection to access the resolution service, already achieved through either http proxy or native resolution. If RDS mechanisms supporting URN specifications become widely available, DOI will be registered as a URN.— International DOI Foundation, Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications See also arXiv Bibcode DataCite Digital identity Metadata standard Object identifier ORCID PMID Publisher Item Identifier (PII) Permalink Scientific literature Universally unique identifier (UUID) Notes ^ Other registries are identified by other strings at the start of the prefix. References ^ a b "ISO 26324:2012(en), Information and documentation – Digital object identifier system". ISO. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2016. ^ "The Handle System". Handle.Net Registry. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. ^ "Factsheets". DOI. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. ^ Witten, Ian H.; Bainbridge, David & Nichols, David M. (2010). How to Build a Digital Library (2nd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 352–253. ISBN 978-0-12-374857-7. ^ Langston, Marc; Tyler, James (2004). "Linking to Journal Articles in an Online Teaching Environment: The Persistent Link, DOI, and OpenURL". The Internet and Higher Education. 7 (1): 51–58. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2003.11.004. ^ "How the "Digital Object Identifier" Works". BusinessWeek. 23 July 2001. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 20 April 2010. Assuming the publishers do their job of maintaining the databases, these centralized references, unlike current web links, should never become outdated or broken ^ Liu, Jia (2021). "Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Under the Context of Research Data Librarianship". Journal of eScience Librarianship. 10 (2): Article e1180. doi:10.7191/jeslib.2021.1180. ^ Paskin, Norman (2010), "Digital Object Identifier (DOI) System", Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences (3rd ed.), Taylor and Francis, pp. 1586–1592 ^ a b Davidson, Lloyd A.; Douglas, Kimberly (December 1998). "Digital Object Identifiers: Promise and problems for scholarly publishing". Journal of Electronic Publishing. 4 (2). doi:10.3998/3336451.0004.203. ^ "Welcome to the DOI System". Doi.org. 28 June 2010. Archived from the original on 13 August 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "DOI News, April 2011: 1. DOI System exceeds 50 million assigned identifiers". Doi.org. 20 April 2011. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2011. ^ "doi info & guidelines". CrossRef.org. Publishers International Linking Association, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 21 October 2002. Retrieved 10 June 2016. All DOI prefixes begin with "10" to distinguish the DOI from other implementations of the Handle System followed by a four-digit number or string (the prefix can be longer if necessary). ^ "Factsheet—Key Facts on Digital Object Identifier System". International DOI Foundation. 6 June 2016. Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016. Over 18,000 DOI name prefixes within the DOI System ^ "DOI Handbook—2 Numbering". International DOI Foundation. 1 February 2016. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2016. The registrant code may be further divided into sub-elements for administrative convenience if desired. Each sub-element of the registrant code shall be preceded by a full stop. ^ "Frequently asked questions about the DOI system: 6. What can a DOI name be assigned to?". DOI Foundation. 3 July 2018. Archived from the original on 16 February 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2018. ^ "DOI Handbook – Numbering". doi.org. 13 February 2014. Section 2.6.1 Screen and print presentation. Archived from the original on 30 June 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2014. ^ "DOI Display Guidelines". Archived from the original on 24 November 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2016. ^ "New Crossref DOI display guidelines are on the way". Archived from the original on 19 October 2016. Retrieved 19 October 2016. ^ Powell, Andy (June 1998). "Resolving DOI Based URNs Using Squid: An Experimental System at UKOLN". D-Lib Magazine. doi:10.1045/june98-powell. ISSN 1082-9873. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010. ^ ChrissieCW. "Crossref Revises DOI Display Guidelines - Crossref". crossref.org. Archived from the original on 25 April 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2018. ^ "Japan Link Center(JaLC)". japanlinkcenter.org. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2022. ^ Green, T. (2009). "We Need Publishing Standards for Datasets and Data Tables". Research Information. doi:10.1787/603233448430. ^ "multilingual European DOI Registration Agency". mEDRA.org. 2003. Archived from the original on 1 February 2018. Retrieved 2 February 2018. ^ Levine, John R. (2015). "Assigning Digital Object Identifiers to RFCs § DOIs for RFCs". IAB. doi:10.17487/rfc7669. RFC 7669. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 2 February 2018. ^ Timmer, John (6 March 2010). "DOIs and their discontents". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 8 March 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013. ^ DeRisi, Susanne; Kennison, Rebecca; and Twyman, Nick (2003). "Editorial: The what and whys of DOIs". PLoS Biology. 1 (2): e57. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0000057. PMC 261894. PMID 14624257. ^ Franklin, Jack (2003). "Open access to scientific and technical information: the state of the art". In Grüttemeier, Herbert; Mahon, Barry (eds.). Open access to scientific and technical information: state of the art and future trends. IOS Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-1-58603-377-4. Archived from the original on 7 August 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2022. ^ "DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications". Doi.org. 18 May 2010. Archived from the original on 26 June 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "DOI System and standard identifier registries". Doi.org. Archived from the original on 26 June 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ International DOI Foundation (7 August 2014). "Resolution". DOI Handbook. Archived from the original on 31 March 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2015. ^ a b "DOAI". CAPSH (Committee for the Accessibility of Publications in Sciences and Humanities). Archived from the original on 25 August 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2016. ^ Schonfeld, Roger C. (3 March 2016). "Co-opting 'Official' Channels through Infrastructures for Openness". The Scholarly Kitchen. Archived from the original on 19 October 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2016. ^ a b Piwowar, Heather (25 October 2016). "Introducing oaDOI: resolve a DOI straight to OA". Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2017. ^ "DOI System Tools". Archived from the original on 8 February 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017. ^ "Chapter 7: The International DOI Foundation". DOI Handbook. Doi.org. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015. ^ "Multi-Primary Administrators". DONA Foundation. Archived from the original on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017. ^ "Digital object identifier (DOI) becomes an ISO standard". International Organization for Standardization. 10 May 2012. Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2012. ^ "Standards and Specifications". Overviews & Standards. Doi.org. 28 June 2010. Archived from the original on 26 June 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "Standards and Specifications: 1. ISO TC46/SC9 Standards". Overviews & Standards. Doi.org. 18 November 2010. Archived from the original on 4 July 2011. Retrieved 3 July 2011. ^ "About "info" URIs – Frequently Asked Questions". Info-uri.info. Archived from the original on 27 September 2010. Retrieved 7 August 2010. ^ "ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2005 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier" (PDF). National Information Standards Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 25 June 2021. External links Wikidata has the property: DOI (P356) (see uses) Official website Short DOI – DOI Foundation service for converting long DOIs to shorter equivalents Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications CrossRef DOI lookup vteInternational numbering standardsStandards ISO 2108: International Standard Book Number (ISBN) ISO 3297: International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) ISO 3901: International Standard Recording Code (ISRC) ISO 6166: International Securities Identification Number (ISIN) ISO/IEC 7812: Issuer Identification Number (IIN) ISO 9362: Business Entity Identifier (BIC) ISO 10957: International Standard Music Number (ISMN) ISO 13616: International Bank Account Number (IBAN) ISO 15511: International Standard Identifier for Libraries... (ISIL) ISO 15706: International Standard Audiovisual Number (ISAN) ISO 15707: International Standard Musical Work Code (ISWC) ISO 17316: International Standard Link Identifier (ISLI) ISO 17442: Legal Entity Identifier (LEI) ISO 21047: International Standard Text Code (ISTC) ISO 26324: Digital Object Identifier System (DOI) ISO 27729: International Standard Name Identifier (ISNI) ISO 27730: International Standard Collection Identifier (ISCI) CAE/IPI Virtual International Authority File (VIAF) vteISO standards by standard numberList of ISO standards – ISO romanizations – IEC standards1–9999 1 2 3 4 6 7 9 16 17 31 -0 -1 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 68-1 128 216 217 226 228 233 259 261 262 302 306 361 500 518 519 639 -1 -2 -3 -5 -6 646 657 668 690 704 732 764 838 843 860 898 965 999 1000 1004 1007 1073-1 1073-2 1155 1413 1538 1629 1745 1989 2014 2015 2022 2033 2047 2108 2145 2146 2240 2281 2533 2709 2711 2720 2788 2848 2852 2921 3029 3103 3166 -1 -2 -3 3297 3307 3601 3602 3864 3901 3950 3977 4031 4157 4165 4217 4909 5218 5426 5427 5428 5725 5775 5776 5800 5807 5964 6166 6344 6346 6373 6385 6425 6429 6438 6523 6709 6943 7001 7002 7010 7027 7064 7098 7185 7200 7498 -1 7637 7736 7810 7811 7812 7813 7816 7942 8000 8093 8178 8217 8373 8501-1 8571 8583 8601 8613 8632 8651 8652 8691 8805/8806 8807 8820-5 8859 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -8-I -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 8879 9000/9001 9036 9075 9126 9141 9227 9241 9293 9314 9362 9407 9496 9506 9529 9564 9592/9593 9594 9660 9797-1 9897 9899 9945 9984 9985 9995 10000–19999 10006 10007 10116 10118-3 10160 10161 10165 10179 10206 10218 10279 10303 -11 -21 -22 -28 -238 10383 10585 10589 10628 10646 10664 10746 10861 10957 10962 10967 11073 11170 11172 11179 11404 11544 11783 11784 11785 11801 11889 11898 11940 (-2) 11941 11941 (TR) 11992 12006 12052 12182 12207 12234-2 12620 13211 -1 -2 13216 13250 13399 13406-2 13450 13485 13490 13567 13568 13584 13616 13816 13818 14000 14031 14224 14289 14396 14443 14496 -2 -3 -6 -10 -11 -12 -14 -17 -20 14617 14644 14649 14651 14698 14764 14882 14971 15022 15189 15288 15291 15292 15398 15408 15444 -3 -9 15445 15438 15504 15511 15686 15693 15706 -2 15707 15897 15919 15924 15926 15926 WIP 15930 15938 16023 16262 16355-1 16485 16612-2 16750 16949 (TS) 17024 17025 17100 17203 17369 17442 17506 17799 18004 18014 18181 18245 18629 18916 19005 19011 19092 -1 -2 19114 19115 19125 19136 19407 19439 19500 19501 19502 19503 19505 19506 19507 19508 19509 19510 19600 19752 19757 19770 19775-1 19794-5 19831 20000–29999 20000 20022 20121 20400 20802 20830 21000 21001 21047 21122 21500 21827 22000 22275 22300 22301 22395 22537 23000 23003 23008 23009 23090-3 23092 23094-1 23094-2 23270 23271 23360 23941 24517 24613 24617 24707 24728 25178 25964 26000 26262 26300 26324 27000 series 27000 27001 27002 27005 27006 27729 28000 29110 29148 29199-2 29500 30000+ 30170 31000 32000 37001 38500 39075 40500 42010 45001 50001 55000 56000 80000 Category Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wikipedia:Digital Object Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Digital_Object_Identifier"},{"link_name":"persistent identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_identifier"},{"link_name":"handle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_(computing)"},{"link_name":"International Organization for Standardization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iso-1"},{"link_name":"Handle System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Uniform Resource Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier"},{"link_name":"journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal"},{"link_name":"metadata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata"},{"link_name":"URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URL"},{"link_name":"interoperable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperability"},{"link_name":"ISBNs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN"},{"link_name":"ISRCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Recording_Code"},{"link_name":"indecs Content Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indecs_Content_Model"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_rot"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dd-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"For the use of digital object identifiers on Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Digital Object Identifier.A digital object identifier (DOI) is a persistent identifier or handle used to uniquely identify various objects, standardized by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).[1] DOIs are an implementation of the Handle System;[2][3] they also fit within the URI system (Uniform Resource Identifier). They are widely used to identify academic, professional, and government information, such as journal articles, research reports, data sets, and official publications.A DOI aims to resolve to its target, the information object to which the DOI refers. This is achieved by binding the DOI to metadata about the object, such as a URL where the object is located. Thus, by being actionable and interoperable, a DOI differs from ISBNs or ISRCs which are identifiers only. The DOI system uses the indecs Content Model for representing metadata.The DOI for a document remains fixed over the lifetime of the document, whereas its location and other metadata may change. Referring to an online document by its DOI should provide a more stable link than directly using its URL. But if its URL changes, the publisher must update the metadata for the DOI to maintain the link to the URL.[4][5][6] It is the publisher's responsibility to update the DOI database. If they fail to do so, the DOI resolves to a dead link, leaving the DOI useless.[7]The developer and administrator of the DOI system is the International DOI Foundation (IDF), which introduced it in 2000.[8] Organizations that meet the contractual obligations of the DOI system and are willing to pay to become a member of the system can assign DOIs.[9] The DOI system is implemented through a federation of registration agencies coordinated by the IDF.[10] By late April 2011 more than 50 million DOI names had been assigned by some 4,000 organizations,[11] and by April 2013 this number had grown to 85 million DOI names assigned through 9,500 organizations.","title":"Digital object identifier"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"character string","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"case-insensitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case-insensitive"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CrossRefDOI-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DOIKeyFacts-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2.2.2-14"},{"link_name":"[A]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"performances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-doifaq2-16"},{"link_name":"data dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dictionary"},{"link_name":"indecs Content Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indecs_Content_Model"}],"text":"A DOI is a type of Handle System handle, which takes the form of a character string divided into two parts, a prefix and a suffix, separated by a slash.prefix/suffixThe prefix identifies the registrant of the identifier and the suffix is chosen by the registrant and identifies the specific object associated with that DOI. Most legal Unicode characters are allowed in these strings, which are interpreted in a case-insensitive manner. The prefix usually takes the form 10.NNNN, where NNNN is a number greater than or equal to 1000, whose limit depends only on the total number of registrants.[12][13] The prefix may be further subdivided with periods, like 10.NNNN.N.[14]For example, in the DOI name 10.1000/182, the prefix is 10.1000 and the suffix is 182. The \"10\" part of the prefix distinguishes the handle as part of the DOI namespace, as opposed to some other Handle System namespace,[A] and the characters 1000 in the prefix identify the registrant; in this case the registrant is the International DOI Foundation itself. 182 is the suffix, or item ID, identifying a single object (in this case, the latest version of the DOI Handbook).DOI names can identify creative works (such as texts, images, audio or video items, and software) in both electronic and physical forms, performances, and abstract works[15] such as licenses, parties to a transaction, etc.The names can refer to objects at varying levels of detail: thus DOI names can identify a journal, an individual issue of a journal, an individual article in the journal, or a single table in that article. The choice of level of detail is left to the assigner, but in the DOI system it must be declared as part of the metadata that is associated with a DOI name, using a data dictionary based on the indecs Content Model.","title":"Nomenclature and syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-C4WDefault-2811140-17"},{"link_name":"CrossRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrossRef"},{"link_name":"doi:10.1000/182","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1000/182"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"PURL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PURL"},{"link_name":"HTTP proxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_server"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dd-9"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Handle System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System"}],"sub_title":"Display","text":"The official DOI Handbook explicitly states that DOIs should be displayed on screens and in print in the format doi:10.1000/182.[16]Contrary to the DOI Handbook, CrossRef, a major DOI registration agency, recommends displaying a URL (for example, https://doi.org/10.1000/182) instead of the officially specified format (for example, doi:10.1000/182)[17][18] This URL is persistent (there is a contract that ensures persistence in the DOI.ORG domain), so it is a PURL—providing the location of an HTTP proxy server which will redirect web accesses to the correct online location of the linked item.[9][19]The CrossRef recommendation is primarily based on the assumption that the DOI is being displayed without being hyperlinked to its appropriate URL—the argument being that without the hyperlink it is not as easy to copy-and-paste the full URL to actually bring up the page for the DOI, thus the entire URL should be displayed, allowing people viewing the page containing the DOI to copy-and-paste the URL, by hand, into a new window/tab in their browser in order to go to the appropriate page for the document the DOI represents.[20]Since DOI is a namespace within the Handle System, it is semantically correct to represent it as the URI info:doi/10.1000/182.","title":"Nomenclature and syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scholarly materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature"},{"link_name":"Crossref","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossref"},{"link_name":"Airiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airiti"},{"link_name":"Japan Link Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Japan_Link_Center&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"DataCite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DataCite"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"EU publications office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publications_Office_(European_Union)"},{"link_name":"Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNKI"},{"link_name":"Tsinghua University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsinghua_University"},{"link_name":"Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Institute_of_Scientific_and_Technical_Information_of_China&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"EIDR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EIDR"},{"link_name":"Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development"},{"link_name":"OECD iLibrary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD_iLibrary"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Crossref","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossref"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"RFCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Major content of the DOI system currently includes:Scholarly materials (journal articles, books, ebooks, etc.) through Crossref, a consortium of around 3,000 publishers; Airiti, a leading provider of Chinese and Taiwanese electronic academic journals; and the Japan Link Center (JaLC)[21] an organization providing link management and DOI assignment for electronic academic journals in Japanese.\nResearch datasets through DataCite, a consortium of leading research libraries, technical information providers, and scientific data centers;\nEuropean Union official publications through the EU publications office;\nThe Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure project at Tsinghua University and the Institute of Scientific and Technical Information of China (ISTIC), two initiatives sponsored by the Chinese government.\nPermanent global identifiers for both commercial and non-commercial audio/visual content titles, edits, and manifestations through the Entertainment ID Registry, commonly known as EIDR.In the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development's publication service OECD iLibrary, each table or graph in an OECD publication is shown with a DOI name that leads to an Excel file of data underlying the tables and graphs. Further development of such services is planned.[22]Other registries include Crossref and the multilingual European DOI Registration Agency (mEDRA).[23] Since 2015, RFCs can be referenced as doi:10.17487/rfc....[24]","title":"Content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"persistent identification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_identifier"},{"link_name":"metadata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata"},{"link_name":"Handle System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System"},{"link_name":"indecs Content Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indecs_Content_Model"},{"link_name":"URI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier"},{"link_name":"open architectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_architecture"},{"link_name":"trust mechanisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_trust"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"OpenURL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenURL"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"indecs Content Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indecs_Content_Model"},{"link_name":"GS1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GS1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN"}],"text":"The IDF designed the DOI system to provide a form of persistent identification, in which each DOI name permanently and unambiguously identifies the object to which it is associated (although when the publisher of a journal changes, sometimes all the DOIs will be changed, with the old DOIs no longer working). It also associates metadata with objects, allowing it to provide users with relevant pieces of information about the objects and their relationships. Included as part of this metadata are network actions that allow DOI names to be resolved to web locations where the objects they describe can be found. To achieve its goals, the DOI system combines the Handle System and the indecs Content Model with a social infrastructure.The Handle System ensures that the DOI name for an object is not based on any changeable attributes of the object such as its physical location or ownership, that the attributes of the object are encoded in its metadata rather than in its DOI name, and that no two objects are assigned the same DOI name. Because DOI names are short character strings, they are human-readable, may be copied and pasted as text, and fit into the URI specification. The DOI name-resolution mechanism acts behind the scenes, so that users communicate with it in the same way as with any other web service; it is built on open architectures, incorporates trust mechanisms, and is engineered to operate reliably and flexibly so that it can be adapted to changing demands and new applications of the DOI system.[25] DOI name-resolution may be used with OpenURL to select the most appropriate among multiple locations for a given object, according to the location of the user making the request.[26] However, despite this ability, the DOI system has drawn criticism from librarians for directing users to non-free copies of documents, that would have been available for no additional fee from alternative locations.[27]The indecs Content Model as used within the DOI system associates metadata with objects. A small kernel of common metadata is shared by all DOI names and can be optionally extended with other relevant data, which may be public or restricted. Registrants may update the metadata for their DOI names at any time, such as when publication information changes or when an object moves to a different URL.The International DOI Foundation (IDF) oversees the integration of these technologies and operation of the system through a technical and social infrastructure. The social infrastructure of a federation of independent registration agencies offering DOI services was modelled on existing successful federated deployments of identifiers such as GS1 and ISBN.","title":"Features and benefits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Uniform Resource Locator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Locator"},{"link_name":"first-class entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_class_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Uniform Resource Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier"},{"link_name":"Uniform Resource Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN"},{"link_name":"ISRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Recording_Code"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"semantically interoperable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_interoperability"},{"link_name":"Persistent Uniform Resource Locator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Uniform_Resource_Locator"},{"link_name":"Globally Unique Identifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globally_Unique_Identifier"},{"link_name":"ARK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archival_Resource_Key"},{"link_name":"Uniform Resource Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Name"}],"text":"A DOI name differs from commonly used Internet pointers to material, such as the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), in that it identifies an object itself as a first-class entity, rather than the specific place where the object is located at a certain time. It implements the Uniform Resource Identifier (Uniform Resource Name) concept and adds to it a data model and social infrastructure.[28]A DOI name also differs from standard identifier registries such as the ISBN, ISRC, etc. The purpose of an identifier registry is to manage a given collection of identifiers, whereas the primary purpose of the DOI system is to make a collection of identifiers actionable and interoperable, where that collection can include identifiers from many other controlled collections.[29]The DOI system offers persistent, semantically interoperable resolution to related current data and is best suited to material that will be used in services outside the direct control of the issuing assigner (e.g., public citation or managing content of value). It uses a managed registry (providing social and technical infrastructure). It does not assume any specific business model for the provision of identifiers or services and enables other existing services to link to it in defined ways. Several approaches for making identifiers persistent have been proposed. The comparison of persistent identifier approaches is difficult because they are not all doing the same thing. Imprecisely referring to a set of schemes as \"identifiers\" does not mean that they can be compared easily. Other \"identifier systems\" may be enabling technologies with low barriers to entry, providing an easy to use labeling mechanism that allows anyone to set up a new instance (examples include Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL), URLs, Globally Unique Identifiers (GUIDs), etc.), but may lack some of the functionality of a registry-controlled scheme and will usually lack accompanying metadata in a controlled scheme. The DOI system does not have this approach and should not be compared directly to such identifier schemes. Various applications using such enabling technologies with added features have been devised that meet some of the features offered by the DOI system for specific sectors (e.g., ARK).A DOI name does not depend on the object's location and, in this way, is similar to a Uniform Resource Name (URN) or PURL but differs from an ordinary URL. URLs are often used as substitute identifiers for documents on the Internet although the same document at two different locations has two URLs. By contrast, persistent identifiers such as DOI names identify objects as first class entities: two instances of the same object would have the same DOI name.","title":"Comparison with other identifier schemes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Handle System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System"},{"link_name":"Corporation for National Research Initiatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporation_for_National_Research_Initiatives"},{"link_name":"doi.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/"},{"link_name":"cutting-and-pasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cut-and-paste"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"hyperlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink"},{"link_name":"https://doi.org/10.1000/182","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1000/182"},{"link_name":"hyperlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink"},{"link_name":"Handle System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handle_System"},{"link_name":"PANGAEA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PANGAEA_(data_library)"},{"link_name":"non-paywalled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paywall"},{"link_name":"author archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-archiving"},{"link_name":"publisher's version","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publisher%27s_version"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-capsh-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-impactstory-34"},{"link_name":"Unpaywall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpaywall"},{"link_name":"BASE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASE_(search_engine)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-capsh-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-impactstory-34"},{"link_name":"browsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"mail reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_reader"}],"text":"DOI name resolution is provided through the Handle System, developed by Corporation for National Research Initiatives, and is freely available to any user encountering a DOI name. Resolution redirects the user from a DOI name to one or more pieces of typed data: URLs representing instances of the object, services such as e-mail, or one or more items of metadata. To the Handle System, a DOI name is a handle, and so has a set of values assigned to it and may be thought of as a record that consists of a group of fields. Each handle value must have a data type specified in its <type> field, which defines the syntax and semantics of its data. While a DOI persistently and uniquely identifies the object to which it is assigned, DOI resolution may not be persistent, due to technical and administrative issues.To resolve a DOI name, it may be input to a DOI resolver, such as doi.org.Another approach, which avoids typing or cutting-and-pasting into a resolver is to include the DOI in a document as a URL which uses the resolver as an HTTP proxy, such as https://doi.org/ (preferred)[30] or http://dx.doi.org/, both of which support HTTPS. For example, the DOI 10.1000/182 can be included in a reference or hyperlink as https://doi.org/10.1000/182. This approach allows users to click on the DOI as a normal hyperlink. Indeed, as previously mentioned, this is how CrossRef recommends that DOIs always be represented (preferring HTTPS over HTTP), so that if they are cut-and-pasted into other documents, emails, etc., they will be actionable.Other DOI resolvers and HTTP Proxies include the Handle System and PANGAEA. At the beginning of the year 2016, a new class of alternative DOI resolvers was started by http://doai.io. This service is unusual in that it tries to find a non-paywalled (often author archived) version of a title and redirects the user to that instead of the publisher's version.[31][32] Since then, other open-access favoring DOI resolvers have been created, notably https://oadoi.org/ in October 2016[33] (later Unpaywall). While traditional DOI resolvers solely rely on the Handle System, alternative DOI resolvers first consult open access resources such as BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).[31][33]An alternative to HTTP proxies is to use one of a number of add-ons and plug-ins for browsers, thereby avoiding the conversion of the DOIs to URLs,[34] which depend on domain names and may be subject to change, while still allowing the DOI to be treated as a normal hyperlink. A disadvantage of this approach for publishers is that, at least at present, most users will be encountering the DOIs in a browser, mail reader, or other software which does not have one of these plug-ins installed.","title":"Resolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DOI_Foundation.svg"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"intellectual property rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"not-for-profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not-for-profit"}],"text":"Logo of the foundationThe International DOI Foundation (IDF), a non-profit organisation created in 1997, is the governance body of the DOI system.[35] It safeguards all intellectual property rights relating to the DOI system, manages common operational features, and supports the development and promotion of the DOI system. The IDF ensures that any improvements made to the DOI system (including creation, maintenance, registration, resolution and policymaking of DOI names) are available to any DOI registrant. It also prevents third parties from imposing additional licensing requirements beyond those of the IDF on users of the DOI system.The IDF is controlled by a Board elected by the members of the Foundation, with an appointed Managing Agent who is responsible for co-ordinating and planning its activities. Membership is open to all organizations with an interest in electronic publishing and related enabling technologies. The IDF holds annual open meetings on the topics of DOI and related issues.Registration agencies, appointed by the IDF, provide services to DOI registrants: they allocate DOI prefixes, register DOI names, and provide the necessary infrastructure to allow registrants to declare and maintain metadata and state data. Registration agencies are also expected to actively promote the widespread adoption of the DOI system, to cooperate with the IDF in the development of the DOI system as a whole, and to provide services on behalf of their specific user community. A list of current RAs is maintained by the International DOI Foundation. The IDF is recognized as one of the federated registrars for the Handle System by the DONA Foundation (of which the IDF is a board member), and is responsible for assigning Handle System prefixes under the top-level 10 prefix.[36]Registration agencies generally charge a fee to assign a new DOI name; parts of these fees are used to support the IDF. The DOI system overall, through the IDF, operates on a not-for-profit cost recovery basis.","title":"IDF organizational structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Organization for Standardization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iso-1"},{"link_name":"info URI scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Info_URI_scheme"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4452","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4452"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"NISO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NISO"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"URNs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URN"},{"link_name":"Resolution Discovery Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Resolution_Discovery_Service&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.doi.org/factsheets/DOIIdentifierSpecs.html"}],"text":"The DOI system is an international standard developed by the International Organization for Standardization in its technical committee on identification and description, TC46/SC9.[37] The Draft International Standard ISO/DIS 26324, Information and documentation – Digital Object Identifier System met the ISO requirements for approval. The relevant ISO Working Group later submitted an edited version to ISO for distribution as an FDIS (Final Draft International Standard) ballot,[38] which was approved by 100% of those voting in a ballot closing on 15 November 2010.[39] The final standard was published on 23 April 2012.[1]DOI is a registered URI under the info URI scheme specified by IETF RFC 4452. info:doi/ is the infoURI Namespace of Digital Object Identifiers.[40]The DOI syntax is a NISO standard, first standardized in 2000, ANSI/NISO Z39.84-2005 Syntax for the Digital Object Identifier.[41]The maintainers of the DOI system have deliberately not registered a DOI namespace for URNs, stating that:URN architecture assumes a DNS-based Resolution Discovery Service (RDS) to find the service appropriate to the given URN scheme. However no such widely deployed RDS schemes currently exist.... DOI is not registered as a URN namespace, despite fulfilling all the functional requirements, since URN registration appears to offer no advantage to the DOI System. It requires an additional layer of administration for defining DOI as a URN namespace (the string urn:doi:10.1000/1 rather than the simpler doi:10.1000/1) and an additional step of unnecessary redirection to access the resolution service, already achieved through either http proxy or native resolution. If RDS mechanisms supporting URN specifications become widely available, DOI will be registered as a URN.— International DOI Foundation, Factsheet: DOI System and Internet Identifier Specifications","title":"Standardization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"}],"text":"^ Other registries are identified by other strings at the start of the prefix.","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"Logo of the foundation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/DOI_Foundation.svg/220px-DOI_Foundation.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv"},{"title":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode"},{"title":"DataCite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DataCite"},{"title":"Digital identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_identity"},{"title":"Metadata standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata_standard"},{"title":"Object identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_identifier"},{"title":"ORCID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ORCID"},{"title":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID"},{"title":"Publisher Item Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publisher_Item_Identifier"},{"title":"Permalink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permalink"},{"title":"Scientific literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_literature"},{"title":"Universally unique identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universally_unique_identifier"}]
[{"reference":"\"ISO 26324:2012(en), Information and documentation – Digital object identifier system\". ISO. Archived from the original on 17 June 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:26324:ed-1:v1:en","url_text":"\"ISO 26324:2012(en), Information and documentation – Digital object identifier system\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO","url_text":"ISO"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160617031837/https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:26324:ed-1:v1:en","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Handle System\". Handle.Net Registry. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://handle.net/","url_text":"\"The Handle System\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230107070646/http://www.handle.net/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Factsheets\". DOI. Archived from the original on 25 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.doi.org/factsheets.html","url_text":"\"Factsheets\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221225082146/http://www.doi.org/factsheets.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Witten, Ian H.; Bainbridge, David & Nichols, David M. (2010). How to Build a Digital Library (2nd ed.). Morgan Kaufmann. pp. 352–253. ISBN 978-0-12-374857-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374857-7","url_text":"978-0-12-374857-7"}]},{"reference":"Langston, Marc; Tyler, James (2004). \"Linking to Journal Articles in an Online Teaching Environment: The Persistent Link, DOI, and OpenURL\". The Internet and Higher Education. 7 (1): 51–58. doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2003.11.004.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.iheduc.2003.11.004","url_text":"10.1016/j.iheduc.2003.11.004"}]},{"reference":"\"How the \"Digital Object Identifier\" Works\". BusinessWeek. 23 July 2001. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 20 April 2010. Assuming the publishers do their job of maintaining the databases, these centralized references, unlike current web links, should never become outdated or broken","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101002070758/http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_30/b3742032.htm","url_text":"\"How the \"Digital Object Identifier\" Works\""},{"url":"http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_30/b3742032.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Liu, Jia (2021). \"Digital Object Identifier (DOI) Under the Context of Research Data Librarianship\". 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DOI System exceeds 50 million assigned identifiers\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110727193513/https://www.doi.org/news/DOINewsApr11.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"doi info & guidelines\". CrossRef.org. Publishers International Linking Association, Inc. 2013. Archived from the original on 21 October 2002. Retrieved 10 June 2016. All DOI prefixes begin with \"10\" to distinguish the DOI from other implementations of the Handle System followed by a four-digit number or string (the prefix can be longer if necessary).","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021021021703/http://www.crossref.org/01company/15doi_info.html","url_text":"\"doi info & guidelines\""},{"url":"http://www.crossref.org/01company/15doi_info.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Factsheet—Key Facts on Digital Object Identifier System\". International DOI Foundation. 6 June 2016. Archived from the original on 5 June 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ettercap_(software)
Ettercap (software)
["1 Functionality","2 Features","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
Network traffic analysis and interception software This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Ettercap" software – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) EttercapOriginal author(s)Ettercap Dev. Team, ALoR, NaGAInitial releaseJanuary 25, 2001Stable release0.8.3.1  / 1 August 2020 Repositorygithub.com/Ettercap/ettercap Written inCOperating systemCross-platformAvailable inEnglishTypeComputer securityLicenseGNU General Public LicenseWebsitewww.ettercap-project.org Ettercap is a free and open source network security tool for man-in-the-middle attacks on a LAN. It can be used for computer network protocol analysis and security auditing. It runs on various Unix-like operating systems including Linux, Mac OS X, BSD and Solaris, and on Microsoft Windows. It is capable of intercepting traffic on a network segment, capturing passwords, and conducting active eavesdropping against a number of common protocols. Its original developers later founded Hacking Team. Functionality Ettercap works by putting the network interface into promiscuous mode and by ARP poisoning the target machines. Thereby it can act as a 'man in the middle' and unleash various attacks on the victims. Ettercap has plugin support so that the features can be extended by adding new plugins. Features Ettercap supports active and passive dissection of many protocols (including ciphered ones) and provides many features for network and host analysis. Ettercap offers four modes of operation: IP-based: packets are filtered based on IP source and destination. MAC-based: packets are filtered based on MAC address, useful for sniffing connections through a gateway. ARP-based: uses ARP poisoning to sniff on a switched LAN between two hosts (full-duplex). PublicARP-based: uses ARP poisoning to sniff on a switched LAN from a victim host to all other hosts (half-duplex). In addition, the software also offers the following features: Character injection into an established connection: characters can be injected into a server (emulating commands) or to a client (emulating replies) while maintaining a live connection. SSH1 support: the sniffing of a username and password, and even the data of an SSH1 connection. Ettercap is the first software capable of sniffing an SSH connection in full duplex. HTTPS support: the sniffing of HTTP SSL secured data—even when the connection is made through a proxy. Remote traffic through a GRE tunnel: the sniffing of remote traffic through a GRE tunnel from a remote Cisco router, and perform a man-in-the-middle attack on it. Plug-in support: creation of custom plugins using Ettercap's API. Password collectors for: TELNET, FTP, POP, IMAP, rlogin, SSH1, ICQ, SMB, MySQL, HTTP, NNTP, X11, Napster, IRC, RIP, BGP, SOCKS 5, IMAP 4, VNC, LDAP, NFS, SNMP, MSN, YMSG Packet filtering/dropping: setting up a filter that searches for a particular string (or hexadecimal sequence) in the TCP or UDP payload and replaces it with a custom string/sequence of choice, or drops the entire packet. TCP/IP stack fingerprinting: determine the OS of the victim host and its network adapter. Kill a connection: killing connections of choice from the connections-list. Passive scanning of the LAN: retrieval of information about hosts on the LAN, their open ports, the version numbers of available services, the type of the host (gateway, router or simple PC) and estimated distances in number of hops. Hijacking of DNS requests. Ettercap also has the ability to actively or passively find other poisoners on the LAN. See also Free and open-source software portal ArpON arpwatch References ^ "Release 0.8.3.1". 1 August 2020. Retrieved 2 August 2020. ^ "The men behind ettercapNG". Linux.com. 2004-11-09. Retrieved 2021-08-20. ^ Jeffries, Adrianne (2013-09-13). "Meet Hacking Team, the company that helps the police hack you". The Verge. Retrieved 2021-08-20. External links Official website An article "Реагирование на инциденты информационной безопасности" An article "Ettercap: универсальный анализатор трафика"
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It can be used for computer network protocol analysis and security auditing. It runs on various Unix-like operating systems including Linux, Mac OS X, BSD and Solaris, and on Microsoft Windows. It is capable of intercepting traffic on a network segment, capturing passwords, and conducting active eavesdropping against a number of common protocols. Its original developers later founded Hacking Team.[2][3]","title":"Ettercap (software)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"promiscuous mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promiscuous_mode"},{"link_name":"ARP poisoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arp_poisoning"}],"text":"Ettercap works by putting the network interface into promiscuous mode and by ARP poisoning the target machines. Thereby it can act as a 'man in the middle' and unleash various attacks on the victims. Ettercap has plugin support so that the features can be extended by adding new plugins.","title":"Functionality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"protocols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_(computing)"},{"link_name":"MAC address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MAC_address"},{"link_name":"ARP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_Resolution_Protocol"},{"link_name":"ARP poisoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARP_poisoning"},{"link_name":"server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"client","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"sniffing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_sniffer"},{"link_name":"SSH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell"},{"link_name":"SSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Sockets_Layer"},{"link_name":"proxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_server"},{"link_name":"GRE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic_Routing_Encapsulation"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_Systems"},{"link_name":"router","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)"},{"link_name":"man-in-the-middle attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack"},{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Programming_Interface"},{"link_name":"TELNET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TELNET"},{"link_name":"FTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"POP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Office_Protocol"},{"link_name":"IMAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMAP"},{"link_name":"rlogin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rlogin"},{"link_name":"SSH1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell"},{"link_name":"ICQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICQ"},{"link_name":"SMB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_Message_Block"},{"link_name":"MySQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQL"},{"link_name":"HTTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"NNTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_News_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"X11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System"},{"link_name":"Napster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napster"},{"link_name":"IRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat"},{"link_name":"RIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_Information_Protocol"},{"link_name":"BGP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol"},{"link_name":"SOCKS 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOCKS"},{"link_name":"IMAP 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol"},{"link_name":"VNC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Network_Computing"},{"link_name":"LDAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol"},{"link_name":"NFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_File_System_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"SNMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Network_Management_Protocol"},{"link_name":"MSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSN_Messenger"},{"link_name":"YMSG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Messenger_Protocol"},{"link_name":"TCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol"},{"link_name":"UDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol"},{"link_name":"TCP/IP stack fingerprinting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP_stack_fingerprinting"},{"link_name":"OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"LAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network"},{"link_name":"ports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP_and_UDP_port"},{"link_name":"services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_service"},{"link_name":"gateway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_(computer_networking)"},{"link_name":"router","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)"},{"link_name":"PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"hops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hop_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"DNS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System"}],"text":"Ettercap supports active and passive dissection of many protocols (including ciphered ones) and provides many features for network and host analysis. Ettercap offers four modes of operation:IP-based: packets are filtered based on IP source and destination.\nMAC-based: packets are filtered based on MAC address, useful for sniffing connections through a gateway.\nARP-based: uses ARP poisoning to sniff on a switched LAN between two hosts (full-duplex).\nPublicARP-based: uses ARP poisoning to sniff on a switched LAN from a victim host to all other hosts (half-duplex).In addition, the software also offers the following features:Character injection into an established connection: characters can be injected into a server (emulating commands) or to a client (emulating replies) while maintaining a live connection.\nSSH1 support: the sniffing of a username and password, and even the data of an SSH1 connection. Ettercap is the first software capable of sniffing an SSH connection in full duplex.\nHTTPS support: the sniffing of HTTP SSL secured data—even when the connection is made through a proxy.\nRemote traffic through a GRE tunnel: the sniffing of remote traffic through a GRE tunnel from a remote Cisco router, and perform a man-in-the-middle attack on it.\nPlug-in support: creation of custom plugins using Ettercap's API.\nPassword collectors for: TELNET, FTP, POP, IMAP, rlogin, SSH1, ICQ, SMB, MySQL, HTTP, NNTP, X11, Napster, IRC, RIP, BGP, SOCKS 5, IMAP 4, VNC, LDAP, NFS, SNMP, MSN, YMSG\nPacket filtering/dropping: setting up a filter that searches for a particular string (or hexadecimal sequence) in the TCP or UDP payload and replaces it with a custom string/sequence of choice, or drops the entire packet.\nTCP/IP stack fingerprinting: determine the OS of the victim host and its network adapter.\nKill a connection: killing connections of choice from the connections-list.\nPassive scanning of the LAN: retrieval of information about hosts on the LAN, their open ports, the version numbers of available services, the type of the host (gateway, router or simple PC) and estimated distances in number of hops.\nHijacking of DNS requests.Ettercap also has the ability to actively or passively find other poisoners on the LAN.","title":"Features"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RWE
RWE
["1 History","1.1 Pre-World War I","1.2 Interwar years and World War II","1.3 Developments since World War II","2 Financial data","3 Operations","4 Fuel mix disclosure","5 Criticism and controversies","6 Sponsorship","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
German multinational energy company For other uses, see RWE (disambiguation). RWE AGCompany typeAktiengesellschaftTraded asFWB: RWEFWB: RWEA (ADR)DAX component (RWE)ISINDE0007037129IndustryElectricity generationFounded25 April 1898 HeadquartersEssen, GermanyArea servedAsia-Pacific Europe United StatesKey peopleMarkus Krebber (President and CEO), Manfred Schneider (Chairman of the supervisory board)ProductsElectricityRevenue€13.125 billion (2019)Operating income€1.267 billion (2019)Net income€1.210 billion (2019)Total assets€39.846 billion (2019)Total equity€5.738 billion (2019)OwnerQatar Investment Authority (9.09%)Number of employees19,792 (2019)Websitewww.group.rwe/en RWE AG is a German multinational energy company headquartered in Essen. It generates and trades electricity in the Asia-Pacific region, Europe and the United States. In July 2020, RWE completed a far-reaching asset swap deal with E.ON first announced in 2018, whereby the international renewable generation portfolio of E.ON and Innogy were transferred to RWE. History Pre-World War I Share of the Rheinisch-Westfälische Elektrizitätswerk AG, issued 16 February 1900 The company was founded in Essen in 1898, as Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk Aktiengesellschaft (Rhenish-Westphalian Power Plant) by Elektrizitäts-Actien-Gesellschaft vorm. W. Lahmeyer & Company (EAG) and others. The full name was used until 1990 when it was renamed to RWE AG. Its first power station started operating in Essen in 1900. In 1902, EAG sold its shares to a consortium formed by Ruhr industrialists Hugo Stinnes and August Thyssen. In 1906, it expanded its operations beyond Essen by acquiring Elektrizitätswerk Berggeist AG in Brühl, and Bergische Elektrizitätswerke GmbH, Solingen. During the same year, it also acquired shareholdings in the tramway companies Bochum-Gelsenkirchener Straßenbahn AG and Rheinische Bahngesellschaft AG. In 1908, RWE signed demarcation contracts with Städtische Elektrizitätswerk Dortmund and Elektrizitätswerk Westfalen AG. Together they created Westfälische Verbands-Elektrizitätswerk AG. RWE contributed to the newly established company by its power station in Dortmund–Kruckel and the supply grid in Witten/Dortmund. Later all these companies formed Vereinigte Elektrizitätswerke Westfalen AG (VEW). In 1909, RWE opened the Reisholz Power Plant and acquired a stake in the tram company Süddeutsche Eisenbahngesellschaft AG. RWE also started to build its own gas supply network in 1909. Deliveries of coal gas to the Bergisches Land region started in 1912. In 1914, RWE opened Vorgebirgszentrale power plant in Hürth. By 1920, the plant had installed capacity of 190 megawatts, which made it the largest in Europe. Before World War I, municipalities of Essen, Mülheim an der Ruhr, and Gelsenkirchen, became shareholders in RWE. By the 1920s, Bonn, Cologne, Krefeld, Duisburg, and Düsseldorf also became shareholders and municipalities owned the majority of RWE's shares. In 1925, the Prussian state became a shareholder in RWE. In 1929, municipalities and the Rhine Province combined their shareholdings into a holding company Kommunale Aufnahmegruppe für Aktien GmbH. Interwar years and World War II In the 1920s the RWE started the construction of a national power transmission grid in Germany. In the front a 220/110 kV pylon in the typical three-level design of the company. In 1920, RWE acquired Niedersächsische Kraftwerke AG, located in Osnabrück. In 1922, it expanded its coal business by acquiring three anthracite mines in Essen and a majority stake in the lignite company Braunkohlen- und Briketwerke Roddergrube AG. In 1923, it acquired its founder company EAG. Three years later, the company acquired a stake in Rheinische Elektrizitäts-Aktiengesellschaft (Rheinelektra) and became a shareholder in the newly established Ruhrgas gas company in exchange of its gas grid. In 1927, RWE and Prussia swapped their holdings in the Brunswick and Cologne coalfields and RWE became an owner of Braunkohlen-Industrie AG Zukunft. In 1932, RWE acquired a majority stake in the coal company Rheinische Aktiengesellschaft für Braunkohlenbergbau (Rheinbraun). In 1936, it acquired Niederrheinische Braunkohlenwerke AG, an operator of the Frimmersdorf Power Plant. On 1 May 1933, the executive board including Ernst Henke joined the NSDAP as a unified body. Since autumn 1943, the Essen state police had been investigating Wilhelm Ricken, RWE's technical director and designated general director, for "subversion of the military". The then First Mayor of Essen, Just Dillgardt, who was also second chairman of RWE's supervisory board, had reported Ricken to the state police. Previously, he had received a tip from the then commercial director and fellow board member of Ricken, Friedrich Praedel. This "board member" of RWE is said to have pushed Dillgardt to press charges. Wilhelm Ricken was then arrested on 20 October 1943, and sentenced to death on 8 March 1944, by the Volksgerichtshof (People's Court), partly because of his statement that "the war would end like 1918". On 2 May 1944, Wilhelm Ricken was executed in Berlin-Plötzensee. In 2015, a "stumbling block" was placed at this final address in Essen to commemorate Ricken's fate. Developments since World War II During World War II, the infrastructure owned by RWE was severely damaged but mostly repaired by 1948. In 1952, the company was excluded from the Allies' control. In 1957, RWE acquired the coal company Neurath AG. RWE and the Bavarian state-owned 'Bayernwerk' joined forces to build Germany's first industrial nuclear reactor. The Kahl experimental nuclear power plant (15 megawatts), constructed right next to RWE's Dettingen hard coal fired power plant, supplied its first electricity in 1962. Until its closure in 1985, this plant would serve as a source of important findings which supported the design and operation of commercial nuclear reactors. RWE's nuclear operations started in 1961, when RWE and Bayernwerk (now part of E.ON) started to build the first German industrial nuclear reactor—the Kahl Nuclear Power Plant. In 1962, they started to build the Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant. In 1965, at the request of the surrounding municipalities, the Karnap power plant in Essen started to burn domestic waste. In 1969, RWE acquired a stake in Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks-Aktiengesellschaft which allowed its expansion into the oil industry. However, in 1974, it was sold to VEBA AG. In 1971, founded Gesellschaft für elektrischen Straßenverkehr, a company to develop an electric car for commercial scale production. The prototype presented in 1983 was produced in cooperation with Volkswagen and named City-Stromer. In 1988, RWE again expanded into the oil industry by acquiring Deutsche Texaco, formerly known as Deutsche Erdoel AG, which was renamed RWE-DEA AG für Mineralöl und Chemie (RWE-DEA). RWE was reorganized to hold energy, mining and raw materials; petroleum and chemicals; waste management; mechanical and plant engineering; and construction divisions. In the 1990s, RWE acquired a number of assets in the former East Germany, including stakes in the mining company Lausitzer Braunkohle AG (LAUBAG) and the power company VEAG. In 2000, RWE and VEW merged to create a "new" RWE, and stakes in LAUBAG and VEAG (now both merged into Vattenfall Europe) were sold to avoid competition violation. In 2001, RWE took over the British company Thames Water. In 2002, it acquired American Water Works Company, based in New Jersey, which became a subsidiary of Thames Water. In 2006, RWE sold Thames Water to Kemble Water Limited, a consortium led by Macquarie Group. RWE previously owned American Water, the United States' largest investor-owned water utility, but this was divested in 2008. In 2002, RWE acquired the British electricity and gas utility company Innogy for £3 billion (US$4.3 billion). Innogy was subsequently renamed RWE npower plc. As a result of the assets swap with RAG AG, RWE gave away its stake in the power company STEAG. It received almost full control of the renewable energy company Harpen AG. The full control of Harpen was achieved in 2005. In 2003, RWE also achieved full control over Thyssengas. In the same year, it decided to divest its American coal company Consol Energy. RWE CEO Jürgen Großmann meeting with Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev in 2011 In 2011, RWE unbundled its transmission system by selling its majority stake in the transmission system operator Amprion (RWE Transportnetz Strom GmbH), but keeping 25.1% in the company. On 14 August 2012, RWE AG announced that the company would cut 2,400 more jobs to reduce costs. Previously the company had announced to eliminate 5,000 jobs and 3,000 jobs through divestments as anticipated of closing all nuclear reactors by 2022. In August 2013, RWE completed the disposal of NET4GAS, the Czech gas transmission network operator, for €1.6 billion to a consortium consisting of Allianz and Borealis. The company (named Transgas A.S. then) was privatized to RWE in 2002. In the 2000s, RWE also acquired energy companies in Poland (STOEN S.A.) and Slovenia (VSE a.s). It also owned RWE Dea (now DEA AG), which produced some of the oil and gas RWE sold (annual production is around 2 million m3 of crude oil (about 365,000 BOE) ) and 3 billion m3 of natural gas (about 18 million BOE, 49,300 BOE) a day. In March 2015, RWE closed the sale of RWE Dea to a group led by Russian billionaire Mikhail Fridman despite opposition from UK regulators. The $5.6 billion deal, announced in 2014, required approval from 14 countries where RWE Dea operates in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. On 1 April 2016, RWE transferred its renewable, network and retail businesses into a separate company named Innogy, which is listed at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange. The new entity combined RWE subsidiaries RWE Innogy, RWE Deutschland, RWE Effizienz, RWE Vertrieb and RWE Energiedienstleistungen. In March 2018, it was announced that E.ON will acquire Innogy in a complex €43 billion deal of assets swap with RWE. As a result, RWE will take a 16.7% stake in E.ON. Following the purchase of E.ON's renewables business and nuclear electricity generation assets, RWE is expected to become Europe's third-largest renewable energy provider behind Spain's Iberdrola and Italy's Enel, and the second-largest in the market for offshore wind power. On 1 December 2023, it was agreed that RWE would part of an £11 billion investment in the UK's Dogger Bank wind farm project. The German government received EU approval in late 2023 for a €2.6 billion compensation payment to RWE to phase out lignite in the Rhine region. No details of the deal, or its timing, have been released. Financial data Financial data in € millions Year Revenue Net Income Employees 2013 54,070 66,341 2014 48,468 61,715 2015 48,599 59,350 2016 45,833 59,073 2017 44,585 59,333 2018 13,406 17,748 2019 13,125 -660 19,792 2020 13,896 1,051 19,630 2021 24,761 721 18,867 2022 38,366 2,717 18,310 2023 28,566 1,450 20,315 Operations RWE-owned Roscoe wind farm in Texas, US RWE operates in Asia-Pacific, Europe and the United States. The group is organized around four core areas: Offshore Wind Onshore Wind/Solar Hydro/Biomass/Gas Supply & Trading In addition to these core areas, there is a Coal/Nuclear segment. In the UK, RWE fully owns RWE Generation UK plc., which operates a number of natural gas and renewable energy power stations across the UK. RWE's last coal-fired power station in the UK, Aberthaw Power Station in South Wales, was closed in March 2020. The company owns the gas-fired power stations Staythorpe in Nottinghamshire, Pembroke in West Wales, Little Barford in Bedfordshire, Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, and Didcot 'B' Station in Oxfordshire. It has previously closed its Didcot 'A' Power Station in Oxfordshire, Littlebrook Power Station in Kent, Fawley Power Station in Hampshire, and Tilbury Power Station in Essex. RWE jointly owns one third of the Urenco Group with E.ON. The remaining stakes are held by the British and Dutch governments, with one-third each. Fuel mix disclosure In 2019, RWE produced a total of 153.2 TWh of electricity from the following sources: 33.2% natural gas, 32% lignite, 13.8% nuclear power, 10.7% renewables, 9.3% hard coal and 1.2% pumped storage. In 2019, the company generated 88.1 Mt of CO2. Electricity production at the German branch of RWE had the following environmental implications in 2006: 700 μg/kWh radioactive waste and 752 g/kWh CO2 emissions. In 2007, the company ranked between the 28th and the 29th place of emitters by country. Criticism and controversies Hambach surface mine (grey); remaining and occupied Hambach Forest more southern (northeast of Morschenich) Barricade RWE has long been among the top targets of climate activists, in part as a result of a long-running, high-profile battle to preserve a forest in western Germany that is threatened by the planned expansion of one of the group's coal mines. RWE also operates some of the largest coal-fired power stations in Europe. In 2018, RWE was the largest producer of carbon dioxide emissions in Europe. Since 2012, environmentalists have protested against RWE because of the Hambach surface mine situated in the area of Hambach Forest. In November 2017, in the lawsuit filed by Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland (BUND), the German arm of Friends of the Earth, the Higher Administrative Court in Münster ruled to end the tree cutting. According to BUND, Hambach Forest is a habitat type 9160 of annex I of the European Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992). Opponents also argue that an environmental impact assessment study for the mine was never conducted. The Administrative Court in Cologne denied the necessity of such a study in November 2017, because the permission for the mining operations was given in the 1970s, long before environmental impact assessment studies became mandatory. In October 2018, an estimated 50,000 protesters turned out against the company's planned continued forest clear-cutting for its open-pit coal mine expansion while a court order delayed the process until at least late 2020, to explore if it violated EU environmental regulations. In September 2021, it was revealed that RWE are among a number of fossil fuel companies suing governments for enacting green policies against climate change. RWE are suing the Dutch government for $1.6bn following their move to phase out and shut down coal power plants. Sponsorship Between 2000 and 2007, RWE was the main kit sponsor of German Bundesliga club Bayer 04 Leverkusen. See also Germany portalEnergy portalCompanies portalClimate change portal Gesellschaft für Nuklear-Service Rheinisches Braunkohlerevier Lützerath bleibt! References ^ a b c d e f "RWE: Our energy for a sustainable life - Annual Report 2019" (PDF). RWE. Retrieved 19 October 2020. ^ RWE. "Introducing RWE AG". www.group.rwe. Retrieved 20 October 2020. ^ "RWE finalises Eon asset swap deal". July 2020. ^ a b c d e f g "RWE AG History". FundingUniverse. Retrieved 7 April 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Chronicle 1898-1920". RWE. Retrieved 7 April 2018. ^ "History of RWE AG – FundingUniverse". www.fundinguniverse.com. Retrieved 20 October 2020. ^ a b c "Chronicle 1921-1930". RWE. Retrieved 8 April 2018. ^ a b "Chronicle 1931-1945". RWE. Retrieved 8 April 2018. ^ a b "WILHELM RICKEN - Stolperstein, Essen, Germany - Stolpersteine on Waymarking.com". www.waymarking.com. Retrieved 25 November 2019. ^ a b "Chronicle 1959-1967". RWE. Retrieved 8 April 2018. ^ a b "Chronicle 1968-1980". RWE. Retrieved 8 April 2018. ^ a b c d e f g "Chronicle 2000-2008". RWE. Retrieved 8 April 2018. ^ "RWE's £4bn buys Thames Water". The Scotsman. 26 September 2000. Retrieved 24 February 2016. ^ "Thames Water to be sold for £8bn". BBC News. 16 October 2006. Retrieved 24 February 2016. ^ "Innogy agrees to German takeover". BBC News. 22 March 2002. Retrieved 25 December 2012. ^ "RWE Is Set to Buy Innogy". The New York Times. 18 March 2002. Retrieved 25 December 2012. ^ "RWE has no plans to sell stake in power network Amprion". Reuters. 27 February 2018. Retrieved 8 April 2018. ^ "RWE Announces 2,400 More Job Cuts as Power Demand Slumps". Bloomberg News. 14 August 2012. ^ RWE Annual Report 2013 (PDF). RWE AG. p. 23. ^ "RWE Dea". oilvoice.com. Retrieved 20 October 2010. ^ "Germany's RWE closes $5 billion oil, gas unit sale despite UK opposition". Petro Global News. Retrieved 2 March 2015. ^ Chazan, Guy (7 October 2016). "Lacklustre market debut for Innogy". Financial Times. Retrieved 8 October 2016. ^ "RWE renewables spinoff Innogy volatile in market debut". Deutsche Welle. 7 October 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2016. ^ "RWE renewables subsidiary launched". Windpower Monthly. 1 April 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2016. ^ Massoudi, Arash; Buck, Tobias (11 March 2018). "Eon to acquire Innogy in €43bn deal with RWE". Financial Times. Retrieved 11 March 2018. ^ Nina Chestney (8 April 2019), UK competition authority clears RWE purchase of stake in E.ON Reuters. ^ a b c Tobias Buck (September 30, 2019), RWE aims to be carbon neutral by 2040 Financial Times. ^ "Sunak wraps up 11-hour Cop28 trip with new deal for UK wind farm". The Independent. 1 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023. ^ "EU approves Germany's payments for early coal exit". Deutsche Welle. 11 December 2023. ^ "RWE Bilanz, Gewinn und Umsatz | RWE Geschäftsbericht | 703712". wallstreet-online.de. Retrieved 5 November 2018. ^ RWE. "RWE locations worldwide". www.group.rwe. Retrieved 20 October 2020. ^ correspondent, Jillian Ambrose Energy (1 August 2019). "German utilities firm RWE to close its last UK coal plant in 2020". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 21 October 2020. ^ "Our sites in the UK". RWE. Retrieved 25 October 2017. ^ Powerhouse of the Uranium Enrichment Industry Seeks an Exit 27 May 2013 NYT ^ "RWE: Our energy for a sustainable life" (PDF). ^ "RWE electricity label 2006". ^ http://www.rwe.com/web/cms/mediablob/en/614918/data/594840/4/rwe/responsibility/cr-reports/CR-Key-Figures-2010.xls ^ Press release Carbon Market Data: "RWE, Enel and E.ON top the list of European CO2 emitters" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 April 2009. ^ "Action Map of the Wood – Hambach Forest". ^ "Clash in German forest as red line is crossed". Deutsche Welle. 1 December 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2018. ^ "Save the "Hambacher Forst" - Stop coal mining" (PDF). BUND - Friends of the Earth Germany. Retrieved 15 April 2018. ^ "German activists lose bid to halt Hambach mine expansion | DW | 24.11.2017". DW.COM. Retrieved 25 November 2019. ^ "Germany: Court Orders Halt to Destruction of Forest Near Coal Mine". Democracy Now!. Retrieved 9 October 2018. ^ "RWE agrees to leave Hambach Forest untouched until 2020 – NRW state premier". Clean Energy Wire. 20 February 2019. Retrieved 25 November 2019. ^ "Fossil fuel firms sue governments across the world for £13bn as climate policies threaten profits". 16 September 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2021. ^ "NEWS IN BRIEF: 20 YEARS OF SHIRT ADVERTISING – BAYER CROSS MAKES WAY FOR CHAMELEON". Bayer04. Retrieved 5 May 2023. Further reading Energy in South East Europe: Corporate Profiles on major investment firms in South East Europe (April 2004) (PDF) of the EU to the 2004 enlargement of the European Union. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to RWE. Official website Documents and clippings about RWE in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW vteRWEDivisions andsubsidiariesCurrent Amprion Elektriciteits Produktiemaatschappij Zuid-Nederland Essent RWE Supply & Trading CZ Former American Water1 Npower RWE Dea Thames Water1 Joint ventures and holdingsCurrent Deutsche Gesellschaft zum Bau und Betrieb von Endlagern für Abfallstoffe Forewind Gesellschaft für Nuklear-Service (28%) Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant (75%) Innogy (75%) Nabucco Gas Pipeline International (16.67%) Rostock Power Station (24.6%) Urenco Group Former Horizon Nuclear Power1 Places and facilitiesGermany Biblis Nuclear Power Plant Innogy Nordsee 1 Garzweiler surface mine Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant Hambach surface mine Lingen Nuclear Power Plant Mittelplate Mülheim-Kärlich Nuclear Power Plant Neurath Power Station Niederaussem Power Station Nordsee-Ost offshore wind farm Rostock Power Station RWE Tower United Kingdom Aberthaw power stations Atlantic Array Didcot power stations Dogger Bank Wind Farm Great Yarmouth Power Station Greater Gabbard wind farm Gwynt y Môr Knabs Ridge wind farm Little Barford Power Station Littlebrook Power Station North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm Pembroke Power Station Rhyl Flats Staythorpe Power Station Tilbury power stations Triton Knoll (proposed wind farm) Other Amercentrale Gazela Pipeline Gjøa oilfield Nabucco pipeline Nakhchivan field People Fritz Vahrenholt Other Advanced Plant Management System 1Sold 2Decommissioned Category Commons Links to related articles vte DAX companies of Germany Adidas Airbus Allianz BASF Bayer Beiersdorf BMW Brenntag Commerzbank Continental Covestro Daimler Truck Deutsche Bank Deutsche Börse Deutsche Telekom DHL Group E.ON Fresenius Hannover Rück HeidelbergCement Henkel Infineon Technologies Mercedes-Benz Merck MTU Aero Engines Munich Re Porsche AG Porsche SE Qiagen RWE Rheinmetall SAP Sartorius Siemens Siemens Energy Siemens Healthineers Symrise Volkswagen Vonovia Zalando Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Other IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RWE (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RWE_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"energy company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_company"},{"link_name":"Essen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essen"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"E.ON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.ON"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"For other uses, see RWE (disambiguation).RWE AG is a German multinational energy company headquartered in Essen. It generates and trades electricity in the Asia-Pacific region, Europe and the United States.[2]In July 2020, RWE completed a far-reaching asset swap deal with E.ON first announced in 2018, whereby the international renewable generation portfolio of E.ON and Innogy were transferred to RWE.[3]","title":"RWE"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RWE_1900.jpg"},{"link_name":"Essen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essen"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundingUniverse-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"Hugo Stinnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Stinnes"},{"link_name":"August Thyssen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Thyssen"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"Brühl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%BChl_(Rhineland)"},{"link_name":"Solingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solingen"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundingUniverse-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"coal gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_gas"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"Hürth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCrth"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Mülheim an der Ruhr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BClheim_an_der_Ruhr"},{"link_name":"Gelsenkirchen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelsenkirchen"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundingUniverse-4"},{"link_name":"Bonn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonn"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"link_name":"Krefeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krefeld"},{"link_name":"Duisburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duisburg"},{"link_name":"Düsseldorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%BCsseldorf"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"Prussian state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussian_state"},{"link_name":"Rhine Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine_Province"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history2-7"}],"sub_title":"Pre-World War I","text":"Share of the Rheinisch-Westfälische Elektrizitätswerk AG, issued 16 February 1900The company was founded in Essen in 1898, as Rheinisch-Westfälisches Elektrizitätswerk Aktiengesellschaft (Rhenish-Westphalian Power Plant) by Elektrizitäts-Actien-Gesellschaft vorm. W. Lahmeyer & Company (EAG) and others.[4][5] The full name was used until 1990 when it was renamed to RWE AG.[6] Its first power station started operating in Essen in 1900.[5] In 1902, EAG sold its shares to a consortium formed by Ruhr industrialists Hugo Stinnes and August Thyssen.[5]In 1906, it expanded its operations beyond Essen by acquiring Elektrizitätswerk Berggeist AG in Brühl, and Bergische Elektrizitätswerke GmbH, Solingen. During the same year, it also acquired shareholdings in the tramway companies Bochum-Gelsenkirchener Straßenbahn AG and Rheinische Bahngesellschaft AG.[5]In 1908, RWE signed demarcation contracts with Städtische Elektrizitätswerk Dortmund and Elektrizitätswerk Westfalen AG.[4] Together they created Westfälische Verbands-Elektrizitätswerk AG. RWE contributed to the newly established company by its power station in Dortmund–Kruckel and the supply grid in Witten/Dortmund. Later all these companies formed Vereinigte Elektrizitätswerke Westfalen AG (VEW).[5]In 1909, RWE opened the Reisholz Power Plant and acquired a stake in the tram company Süddeutsche Eisenbahngesellschaft AG.[5] RWE also started to build its own gas supply network in 1909. Deliveries of coal gas to the Bergisches Land region started in 1912.[5] In 1914, RWE opened Vorgebirgszentrale power plant in Hürth. By 1920, the plant had installed capacity of 190 megawatts, which made it the largest in Europe.[5]Before World War I, municipalities of Essen, Mülheim an der Ruhr, and Gelsenkirchen, became shareholders in RWE.[4] By the 1920s, Bonn, Cologne, Krefeld, Duisburg, and Düsseldorf also became shareholders and municipalities owned the majority of RWE's shares.[5] In 1925, the Prussian state became a shareholder in RWE. In 1929, municipalities and the Rhine Province combined their shareholdings into a holding company Kommunale Aufnahmegruppe für Aktien GmbH.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hoogspanningsmasten_in_een_veld_nabij_Koblenz,_Bestanddeelnr_254-1007.jpg"},{"link_name":"Osnabrück","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osnabr%C3%BCck"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-5"},{"link_name":"anthracite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthracite"},{"link_name":"lignite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignite"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history2-7"},{"link_name":"Ruhrgas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhrgas"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_State_of_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history2-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundingUniverse-4"},{"link_name":"Frimmersdorf Power Plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frimmersdorf_Power_Plant"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history3-8"},{"link_name":"Ernst Henke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Henke"},{"link_name":"NSDAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Party"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"stumbling block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stolperstein"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"}],"sub_title":"Interwar years and World War II","text":"In the 1920s the RWE started the construction of a national power transmission grid in Germany. In the front a 220/110 kV pylon in the typical three-level design of the company.In 1920, RWE acquired Niedersächsische Kraftwerke AG, located in Osnabrück.[5] In 1922, it expanded its coal business by acquiring three anthracite mines in Essen and a majority stake in the lignite company Braunkohlen- und Briketwerke Roddergrube AG.[7] In 1923, it acquired its founder company EAG. Three years later, the company acquired a stake in Rheinische Elektrizitäts-Aktiengesellschaft (Rheinelektra) and became a shareholder in the newly established Ruhrgas gas company in exchange of its gas grid. In 1927, RWE and Prussia swapped their holdings in the Brunswick and Cologne coalfields and RWE became an owner of Braunkohlen-Industrie AG Zukunft.[7]In 1932, RWE acquired a majority stake in the coal company Rheinische Aktiengesellschaft für Braunkohlenbergbau (Rheinbraun).[4] In 1936, it acquired Niederrheinische Braunkohlenwerke AG, an operator of the Frimmersdorf Power Plant.[8]On 1 May 1933, the executive board including Ernst Henke joined the NSDAP as a unified body.Since autumn 1943, the Essen state police had been investigating Wilhelm Ricken, RWE's technical director and designated general director, for \"subversion of the military\". The then First Mayor of Essen, Just Dillgardt, who was also second chairman of RWE's supervisory board, had reported Ricken to the state police. Previously, he had received a tip from the then commercial director and fellow board member of Ricken, Friedrich Praedel. This \"board member\" of RWE is said to have pushed Dillgardt to press charges. Wilhelm Ricken was then arrested on 20 October 1943, and sentenced to death on 8 March 1944, by the Volksgerichtshof (People's Court), partly because of his statement that \"the war would end like 1918\". On 2 May 1944, Wilhelm Ricken was executed in Berlin-Plötzensee.[9]In 2015, a \"stumbling block\" was placed at this final address in Essen to commemorate Ricken's fate.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundingUniverse-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history3-8"},{"link_name":"Allies'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundingUniverse-4"},{"link_name":"nuclear reactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor"},{"link_name":"E.ON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.ON"},{"link_name":"Kahl Nuclear Power Plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kahl_Nuclear_Power_Plant"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history5-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history5-10"},{"link_name":"VEBA AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VEBA_AG"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history6-11"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen"},{"link_name":"City-Stromer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen_Golf_Mk2#Golf_Mk2_citySTROMer"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history6-11"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FundingUniverse-4"},{"link_name":"East Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"Vattenfall Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vattenfall_Europe"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history10-12"},{"link_name":"Thames Water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_Water"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history10-12"},{"link_name":"Macquarie Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macquarie_Group"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"American Water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Water_(company)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"RAG AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAG_AG"},{"link_name":"STEAG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEAG"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history10-12"},{"link_name":"Consol Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consol_Energy"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history10-12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ilham_Aliyev_met_with_CEO_of_RWE,_Jurgen_Grossman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Azerbaijan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan"},{"link_name":"Ilham Aliyev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilham_Aliyev"},{"link_name":"Amprion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amprion"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history10-12"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-270218reuters-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Allianz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allianz"},{"link_name":"Borealis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borealis_AG"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history10-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history10-12"},{"link_name":"DEA AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_AG"},{"link_name":"BOE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel_of_oil_equivalent"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Fridman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Fridman"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Innogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innogy"},{"link_name":"Frankfurt Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft071016-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dw071016-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wp010416-24"},{"link_name":"E.ON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.ON"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft1110318-25"},{"link_name":"Iberdrola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberdrola"},{"link_name":"Enel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enel"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft.com-27"},{"link_name":"Dogger Bank wind farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogger_Bank_Wind_Farm"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Developments since World War II","text":"During World War II, the infrastructure owned by RWE was severely damaged but mostly repaired by 1948.[4][8] In 1952, the company was excluded from the Allies' control. In 1957, RWE acquired the coal company Neurath AG.[4]RWE and the Bavarian state-owned 'Bayernwerk' joined forces to build Germany's first industrial nuclear reactor. The Kahl experimental nuclear power plant (15 megawatts), constructed right next to RWE's Dettingen hard coal fired power plant, supplied its first electricity in 1962. Until its closure in 1985, this plant would serve as a source of important findings which supported the design and operation of commercial nuclear reactors.RWE's nuclear operations started in 1961, when RWE and Bayernwerk (now part of E.ON) started to build the first German industrial nuclear reactor—the Kahl Nuclear Power Plant. In 1962, they started to build the Gundremmingen Nuclear Power Plant.[10] In 1965, at the request of the surrounding municipalities, the Karnap power plant in Essen started to burn domestic waste.[10]In 1969, RWE acquired a stake in Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks-Aktiengesellschaft which allowed its expansion into the oil industry. However, in 1974, it was sold to VEBA AG.[11]In 1971, founded Gesellschaft für elektrischen Straßenverkehr, a company to develop an electric car for commercial scale production. The prototype presented in 1983 was produced in cooperation with Volkswagen and named City-Stromer.[11]In 1988, RWE again expanded into the oil industry by acquiring Deutsche Texaco, formerly known as Deutsche Erdoel AG, which was renamed RWE-DEA AG für Mineralöl und Chemie (RWE-DEA). RWE was reorganized to hold energy, mining and raw materials; petroleum and chemicals; waste management; mechanical and plant engineering; and construction divisions.[4]In the 1990s, RWE acquired a number of assets in the former East Germany, including stakes in the mining company Lausitzer Braunkohle AG (LAUBAG) and the power company VEAG. In 2000, RWE and VEW merged to create a \"new\" RWE, and stakes in LAUBAG and VEAG (now both merged into Vattenfall Europe) were sold to avoid competition violation.[12]In 2001, RWE took over the British company Thames Water.[13] In 2002, it acquired American Water Works Company, based in New Jersey, which became a subsidiary of Thames Water.[12] In 2006, RWE sold Thames Water to Kemble Water Limited, a consortium led by Macquarie Group.[14] RWE previously owned American Water, the United States' largest investor-owned water utility, but this was divested in 2008.In 2002, RWE acquired the British electricity and gas utility company Innogy for £3 billion (US$4.3 billion). Innogy was subsequently renamed RWE npower plc.[15][16]As a result of the assets swap with RAG AG, RWE gave away its stake in the power company STEAG. It received almost full control of the renewable energy company Harpen AG. The full control of Harpen was achieved in 2005.[12] In 2003, RWE also achieved full control over Thyssengas. In the same year, it decided to divest its American coal company Consol Energy.[12]RWE CEO Jürgen Großmann meeting with Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev in 2011In 2011, RWE unbundled its transmission system by selling its majority stake in the transmission system operator Amprion (RWE Transportnetz Strom GmbH), but keeping 25.1% in the company.[12][17]On 14 August 2012, RWE AG announced that the company would cut 2,400 more jobs to reduce costs. Previously the company had announced to eliminate 5,000 jobs and 3,000 jobs through divestments as anticipated of closing all nuclear reactors by 2022.[18]In August 2013, RWE completed the disposal of NET4GAS, the Czech gas transmission network operator, for €1.6 billion to a consortium consisting of Allianz and Borealis.[19] The company (named Transgas A.S. then) was privatized to RWE in 2002.[12] In the 2000s, RWE also acquired energy companies in Poland (STOEN S.A.) and Slovenia (VSE a.s).[12]It also owned RWE Dea (now DEA AG), which produced some of the oil and gas RWE sold (annual production is around 2 million m3 of crude oil (about 365,000 BOE) ) and 3 billion m3 of natural gas (about 18 million BOE, 49,300 BOE) a day.[20] In March 2015, RWE closed the sale of RWE Dea to a group led by Russian billionaire Mikhail Fridman despite opposition from UK regulators. The $5.6 billion deal, announced in 2014, required approval from 14 countries where RWE Dea operates in Europe, the Middle East and Africa.[21]On 1 April 2016, RWE transferred its renewable, network and retail businesses into a separate company named Innogy, which is listed at the Frankfurt Stock Exchange.[22][23] The new entity combined RWE subsidiaries RWE Innogy, RWE Deutschland, RWE Effizienz, RWE Vertrieb and RWE Energiedienstleistungen.[24]In March 2018, it was announced that E.ON will acquire Innogy in a complex €43 billion deal of assets swap with RWE. As a result, RWE will take a 16.7% stake in E.ON.[25] Following the purchase of E.ON's renewables business and nuclear electricity generation assets, RWE is expected to become Europe's third-largest renewable energy provider behind Spain's Iberdrola and Italy's Enel,[26] and the second-largest in the market for offshore wind power.[27]On 1 December 2023, it was agreed that RWE would part of an £11 billion investment in the UK's Dogger Bank wind farm project.[28]The German government received EU approval in late 2023 for a €2.6 billion compensation payment to RWE to phase out lignite in the Rhine region. No details of the deal, or its timing, have been released.[29]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Financial data"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roscoe_Wind_Farm_at_Sunrise.JPG"},{"link_name":"Roscoe wind farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscoe_Wind_Farm"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Aberthaw Power Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberthaw_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Staythorpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staythorpe_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"Pembroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembroke_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"Little Barford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Barford_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"Great Yarmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Yarmouth_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"Didcot 'B' Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didcot_power_stations#Didcot_B"},{"link_name":"Didcot 'A' Power Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Didcot_power_stations#Didcot_A"},{"link_name":"Littlebrook Power Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlebrook_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"Fawley Power Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fawley_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"Tilbury Power Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilbury_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Urenco Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urenco_Group"},{"link_name":"E.ON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E.ON"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Government"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_government"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"RWE-owned Roscoe wind farm in Texas, USRWE operates in Asia-Pacific, Europe and the United States.[31] The group is organized around four core areas:Offshore Wind\nOnshore Wind/Solar\nHydro/Biomass/Gas\nSupply & TradingIn addition to these core areas, there is a Coal/Nuclear segment.In the UK, RWE fully owns RWE Generation UK plc., which operates a number of natural gas and renewable energy power stations across the UK. RWE's last coal-fired power station in the UK, Aberthaw Power Station in South Wales, was closed in March 2020.[32] The company owns the gas-fired power stations Staythorpe in Nottinghamshire, Pembroke in West Wales, Little Barford in Bedfordshire, Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, and Didcot 'B' Station in Oxfordshire. It has previously closed its Didcot 'A' Power Station in Oxfordshire, Littlebrook Power Station in Kent, Fawley Power Station in Hampshire, and Tilbury Power Station in Essex.[33]RWE jointly owns one third of the Urenco Group with E.ON. The remaining stakes are held by the British and Dutch governments, with one-third each.[34]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas"},{"link_name":"lignite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lignite"},{"link_name":"nuclear power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power"},{"link_name":"renewables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy"},{"link_name":"hard coal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_coal"},{"link_name":"pumped storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity"},{"link_name":"Mt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"radioactive waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_waste"},{"link_name":"CO2 emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"In 2019, RWE produced a total of 153.2 TWh of electricity from the following sources: 33.2% natural gas, 32% lignite, 13.8% nuclear power, 10.7% renewables, 9.3% hard coal and 1.2% pumped storage. In 2019, the company generated 88.1 Mt of CO2.[35] Electricity production at the German branch of RWE had the following environmental implications in 2006: 700 μg/kWh radioactive waste and 752 g/kWh CO2 emissions.[36][37][38] In 2007, the company ranked between the 28th and the 29th place of emitters by country.","title":"Fuel mix disclosure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hambach_surface_mine_and_Hambach_Forest.png"},{"link_name":"Hambach surface mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hambach_surface_mine"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hangingbarricade_(27065382544).jpg"},{"link_name":"coal mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal_mine"},{"link_name":"coal-fired power stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coal-fired_power_station"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft.com-27"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_emissions"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ft.com-27"},{"link_name":"Hambach surface mine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hambach_surface_mine"},{"link_name":"Hambach Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hambach_Forest"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bund_f%C3%BCr_Umwelt_und_Naturschutz_Deutschland"},{"link_name":"Friends of the Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friends_of_the_Earth"},{"link_name":"Münster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnster"},{"link_name":"Habitats Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitats_Directive"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"environmental impact assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment"},{"link_name":"Cologne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-44"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"Hambach surface mine (grey); remaining and occupied Hambach Forest more southern (northeast of Morschenich)[39]BarricadeRWE has long been among the top targets of climate activists, in part as a result of a long-running, high-profile battle to preserve a forest in western Germany that is threatened by the planned expansion of one of the group's coal mines. RWE also operates some of the largest coal-fired power stations in Europe.[27]In 2018, RWE was the largest producer of carbon dioxide emissions in Europe.[27]Since 2012, environmentalists have protested against RWE because of the Hambach surface mine situated in the area of Hambach Forest.[40] In November 2017, in the lawsuit filed by Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland (BUND), the German arm of Friends of the Earth, the Higher Administrative Court in Münster ruled to end the tree cutting. According to BUND, Hambach Forest is a habitat type 9160 of annex I of the European Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992).[41]Opponents also argue that an environmental impact assessment study for the mine was never conducted. The Administrative Court in Cologne denied the necessity of such a study in November 2017, because the permission for the mining operations was given in the 1970s, long before environmental impact assessment studies became mandatory.[42] In October 2018, an estimated 50,000 protesters turned out against the company's planned continued forest clear-cutting for its open-pit coal mine expansion while a court order delayed the process until at least late 2020, to explore if it violated EU environmental regulations.[43][44]In September 2021, it was revealed that RWE are among a number of fossil fuel companies suing governments for enacting green policies against climate change. RWE are suing the Dutch government for $1.6bn following their move to phase out and shut down coal power plants.[45]","title":"Criticism and controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bundesliga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesliga"},{"link_name":"Bayer 04 Leverkusen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_04_Leverkusen"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"text":"Between 2000 and 2007, RWE was the main kit sponsor of German Bundesliga club Bayer 04 Leverkusen.[46]","title":"Sponsorship"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160305063904/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/seerecon/infrastructure/sectors/energy/documents/profiles/corpprof-rwe.pdf"},{"link_name":"2004 enlargement of the European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_enlargement_of_the_European_Union"}],"text":"Energy in South East Europe: Corporate Profiles on major investment firms in South East Europe (April 2004) (PDF) of the EU to the 2004 enlargement of the European Union.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Share of the Rheinisch-Westfälische Elektrizitätswerk AG, issued 16 February 1900","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/RWE_1900.jpg/220px-RWE_1900.jpg"},{"image_text":"In the 1920s the RWE started the construction of a national power transmission grid in Germany. In the front a 220/110 kV pylon in the typical three-level design of the company.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Hoogspanningsmasten_in_een_veld_nabij_Koblenz%2C_Bestanddeelnr_254-1007.jpg/220px-Hoogspanningsmasten_in_een_veld_nabij_Koblenz%2C_Bestanddeelnr_254-1007.jpg"},{"image_text":"RWE CEO Jürgen Großmann meeting with Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev in 2011","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Ilham_Aliyev_met_with_CEO_of_RWE%2C_Jurgen_Grossman.jpg/220px-Ilham_Aliyev_met_with_CEO_of_RWE%2C_Jurgen_Grossman.jpg"},{"image_text":"RWE-owned Roscoe wind farm in Texas, US","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Roscoe_Wind_Farm_at_Sunrise.JPG/220px-Roscoe_Wind_Farm_at_Sunrise.JPG"},{"image_text":"Hambach surface mine (grey); remaining and occupied Hambach Forest more southern (northeast of Morschenich)[39]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Hambach_surface_mine_and_Hambach_Forest.png/220px-Hambach_surface_mine_and_Hambach_Forest.png"},{"image_text":"Barricade","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Hangingbarricade_%2827065382544%29.jpg/220px-Hangingbarricade_%2827065382544%29.jpg"}]
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premier\""},{"Link":"https://news.sky.com/story/fossil-fuel-companies-are-suing-governments-across-the-world-for-more-than-18bn-12409573","external_links_name":"\"Fossil fuel firms sue governments across the world for £13bn as climate policies threaten profits\""},{"Link":"https://www.bayer04.de/en-us/news/bayer04/%7B%7B%20vm.common.getSiteCanonicalTag()%20%7C%20trustUrl%20%7D%7D","external_links_name":"\"NEWS IN BRIEF: 20 YEARS OF SHIRT ADVERTISING – BAYER CROSS MAKES WAY FOR CHAMELEON\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305063904/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/archives/seerecon/infrastructure/sectors/energy/documents/profiles/corpprof-rwe.pdf","external_links_name":"PDF"},{"Link":"https://www.group.rwe/en","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/co/019394","external_links_name":"Documents and clippings about RWE"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000123252858","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/804145858099823021903","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12356556f","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12356556f","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/2123397-4","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007344040405171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n81062680","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=kn20010710595&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/032558791","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GARP_VLAN_Registration_Protocol
Multiple Registration Protocol
["1 History","2 Multiple MAC Registration Protocol","3 Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol","3.1 Legacy GVRP details","4 Multiple Stream Registration Protocol","5 See also","6 References"]
Registration of attribute valuse such as VLAN and multicast group membership Multiple Registration Protocol (MRP), which replaced Generic Attribute Registration Protocol (GARP), is a generic registration framework defined by the IEEE 802.1ak amendment to the IEEE 802.1Q standard. MRP allows bridges, switches or other similar devices to register and de-register attribute values, such as VLAN identifiers and multicast group membership across a large local area network. MRP operates at the data link layer. History GARP was defined by the IEEE 802.1 working group to provide a generic framework allowing bridges (or other devices like switches) to register and de-register attribute values such as VLAN identifiers and multicast group membership. GARP defines the architecture, rules of operation, state machines and variables for the registration and de-registration of attribute values. GARP was used by two applications: GARP VLAN Registration Protocol (GVRP) for registering VLAN trunking between multilayer switches, and by the GARP Multicast Registration Protocol (GMRP). The latter two were both mostly enhancements for VLAN-aware switches per definition in IEEE 802.1Q. Multiple Registration Protocol (MRP) was introduced in order to replace GARP, with the IEEE 802.1ak amendment in 2007. The two GARP applications were also modified in order to use MRP. GMRP was replaced by Multiple MAC Registration Protocol (MMRP) and GVRP was replaced by Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol (MVRP). This change essentially moved the definitions of GARP, GVRP, and GMRP into an 802.1Q based environment, implying they were already VLAN aware. This also allowed for significant streamlining of the underlying protocol without much change to the interface of the applications themselves. The new protocol and applications fixed a problem with the old GARP-based GVRP-based system, where a simple registration or a failover could take an extremely long time to converge on a large network, incurring a significant bandwidth degradation. It is expected GARP will be removed from IEEE 802.1D at some point in the future. Multiple MAC Registration Protocol Multiple MAC Registration Protocol is a data link layer (layer 2) protocol to register group MAC addresses (i.e. multicast) on multiple switches. It is an MRP application, originally defined in IEEE 802.1ak-2007 and subsequently included in 802.1Q. It replaced the 802.1D based GMRP. The purpose of MMRP is to allow multicast traffic in bridged LANs to be confined to areas of the network where it is required. Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol MVRP, which replaced GVRP, is a standards-based Layer 2 network protocol, for automatic configuration of VLAN information on switches. It was defined in the 802.1ak amendment to 802.1Q-2005. Within a layer 2 network, MVRP provides a method to dynamically share VLAN information and configure the needed VLANs. For example, in order to add a switch port to a VLAN, only the end port, or the VLAN-supporting network device connected to the switchport, need be reconfigured, and all necessary VLAN trunks are dynamically created on the other MVRP-enabled switches. Without using MVRP, either a manual configuration of VLAN trunks or use of a manufacturer's proprietary method is necessary. It is through MVRP that dynamic VLAN entries will be updated in the filtering database. In short, MVRP helps to maintain VLAN configuration dynamically based on current network configurations. 802.1Q allows for: Dynamic configuration and distribution of VLAN membership information by means of the MVRP Static configuration of VLAN membership information via management mechanisms, which allow configuration of static VLAN registration entries. Combined static and dynamic configuration, in which some VLANs are configured via management mechanisms and for other VLANs, MVRP is relied on to establish the configuration. MVRP defines a MRP application that provides the VLAN registration service. MVRP makes use of MRP Attribute Declaration (MAD) and MRP Attribute Propagation (MAP), which provide the common state machine descriptions and the common information propagation mechanisms defined for use in MRP-based applications. MVRP provides a mechanism for dynamic maintenance of the contents of dynamic VLAN registration entries for each VLAN, and for propagating the information they contain to other bridges. This information allows MVRP-aware devices to establish and update dynamically their knowledge of the set of VLANs that currently have active members, and through which ports those members can be reached. The main purpose of MVRP is to allow switches to automatically discover some of the VLAN information that would otherwise need to be manually configured. Legacy GVRP details The replaced GVRP was essentially the same thing, but it used the services of the 802.1D based GARP application. GVRP made use of GARP Information Declaration (GID) and GARP Information Propagation (GIP), which correspond to the MAP and MAD in MRP. It was defined in the original release of 802.1D-1998 until it was replaced by MVRP. It was replaced because the non-VLAN aware GARP had serious deficiencies when operating in large VLAN networks. Multiple Stream Registration Protocol This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (August 2019) MSRP is the base for the Stream Reservation Protocol first defined in Audio Video Bridging specifications. See also VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP): a similar but proprietary protocol from Cisco References ^ "Configuring MVRP" (PDF). Cisco. Retrieved 2015-05-15. ^ a b "802.1ak - Multiple Registration Protocol". IEEE. Retrieved 2010-11-17. ^ See footnote in Annex E of IEEE 802.1ak IEEE 802.1D standard (PDF) IEEE 802.1Q Standard (PDF) IEEE 802.1ak standard (PDF) and its corrigendum vteIEEE standardsCurrent 488 693 730 754 Revision 854 828 829 896 1003 1014 1016 1076 1149.1 1154 1164 1275 1278 1284 1355 1394 1451 1497 1516 1541 1547 1584 1588 1596 1603 1613 1619 1666 1667 1675 1685 1722 1733 1800 1801 1815 1849 1850 1855 1900 1901 1902 1904 1905 2030 2050 11073 12207 14764 16085 16326 29148 42010 802 series802 .2 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10 .12 .14 .16 WiMAX · d · e .17 .18 .20 .21 .22 .24 802.1 D p Q Qav Qat Qay w X ab ad AE ag ah ak aq AS AX (LACP) az BA 802.3 (Ethernet) -1983 a b d e i j u x y z ab ac ad ae af ah ak an aq at au av az ba bt bu by bz ca cb cc cd ce cg ch ck cm cn cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dd de df 802.11 (Wi-Fi) -1997 legacy mode a b c d e f g h i j k n (Wi-Fi 4) p r s u v w y z aa ac (Wi-Fi 5) ad (WiGig) ae af ah ai aj ak aq ax (Wi-Fi 6) ay az ba bb bc bd be (Wi-Fi 7) bf bh bi bk bn (Wi-Fi 8) 802.15 .1 (Bluetooth) .2 .3 .4 (Zigbee) .4a .4b .4c .4d .4e .4f .4g .4z .5 .6 .7 Proposed P1363 P1619 P1699 P1823 P1906.1 Superseded 754-1985 830 1219 1233 1362 1364 1471 See also IEEE Standards Association Category:IEEE standards
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 802.1Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.1Q"},{"link_name":"bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridge"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch"},{"link_name":"VLAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLAN"},{"link_name":"multicast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast"},{"link_name":"local area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network"},{"link_name":"data link layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_link_layer"}],"text":"Multiple Registration Protocol (MRP), which replaced Generic Attribute Registration Protocol (GARP), is a generic registration framework defined by the IEEE 802.1ak amendment to the IEEE 802.1Q standard. MRP allows bridges, switches or other similar devices to register and de-register attribute values, such as VLAN identifiers and multicast group membership across a large local area network. MRP operates at the data link layer.","title":"Multiple Registration Protocol"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 802.1Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.1Q"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-802.1ak_homepage-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"GARP was defined by the IEEE 802.1 working group to provide a generic framework allowing bridges (or other devices like switches) to register and de-register attribute values such as VLAN identifiers and multicast group membership. GARP defines the architecture, rules of operation, state machines and variables for the registration and de-registration of attribute values. GARP was used by two applications: GARP VLAN Registration Protocol (GVRP) for registering VLAN trunking between multilayer switches, and by the GARP Multicast Registration Protocol (GMRP). The latter two were both mostly enhancements for VLAN-aware switches per definition in IEEE 802.1Q.Multiple Registration Protocol (MRP) was introduced in order to replace GARP, with the IEEE 802.1ak amendment in 2007. The two GARP applications were also modified in order to use MRP. GMRP was replaced by Multiple MAC Registration Protocol (MMRP) and GVRP was replaced by Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol (MVRP). This change essentially moved the definitions of GARP, GVRP, and GMRP into an 802.1Q based environment, implying they were already VLAN aware. This also allowed for significant streamlining of the underlying protocol without much change to the interface of the applications themselves.[1]The new protocol and applications fixed a problem with the old GARP-based GVRP-based system, \nwhere a simple registration or a failover could take an extremely long time to converge on a large network,[2] incurring a significant bandwidth degradation.It is expected GARP will be removed from IEEE 802.1D at some point in the future.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Multiple MAC Registration Protocol is a data link layer (layer 2) protocol to register group MAC addresses (i.e. multicast) on multiple switches. It is an MRP application, originally defined in IEEE 802.1ak-2007 and subsequently included in 802.1Q. It replaced the 802.1D based GMRP. The purpose of MMRP is to allow multicast traffic in bridged LANs to be confined to areas of the network where it is required.","title":"Multiple MAC Registration Protocol"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Layer 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_link_layer"},{"link_name":"network protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_protocol"},{"link_name":"VLAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLAN"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch"},{"link_name":"802.1Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.1Q"}],"text":"MVRP, which replaced GVRP, is a standards-based Layer 2 network protocol, for automatic configuration of VLAN information on switches. It was defined in the 802.1ak amendment to 802.1Q-2005.Within a layer 2 network, MVRP provides a method to dynamically share VLAN information and configure the needed VLANs. For example, in order to add a switch port to a VLAN, only the end port, or the VLAN-supporting network device connected to the switchport, need be reconfigured, and all necessary VLAN trunks are dynamically created on the other MVRP-enabled switches. Without using MVRP, either a manual configuration of VLAN trunks or use of a manufacturer's proprietary method is necessary.It is through MVRP that dynamic VLAN entries will be updated in the filtering database. In short, MVRP helps to maintain VLAN configuration dynamically based on current network configurations.802.1Q allows for:Dynamic configuration and distribution of VLAN membership information by means of the MVRP\nStatic configuration of VLAN membership information via management mechanisms, which allow configuration of static VLAN registration entries.\nCombined static and dynamic configuration, in which some VLANs are configured via management mechanisms and for other VLANs, MVRP is relied on to establish the configuration.MVRP defines a MRP application that provides the VLAN registration service. MVRP makes use of MRP Attribute Declaration (MAD) and MRP Attribute Propagation (MAP), which provide the common state machine descriptions and the common information propagation mechanisms defined for use in MRP-based applications. MVRP provides a mechanism for dynamic maintenance of the contents of dynamic VLAN registration entries for each VLAN, and for propagating the information they contain to other bridges. This information allows MVRP-aware devices to establish and update dynamically their knowledge of the set of VLANs that currently have active members, and through which ports those members can be reached. The main purpose of MVRP is to allow switches to automatically discover some of the VLAN information that would otherwise need to be manually configured.","title":"Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-802.1ak_homepage-2"}],"sub_title":"Legacy GVRP details","text":"The replaced GVRP was essentially the same thing, but it used the services of the 802.1D based GARP application. GVRP made use of GARP Information Declaration (GID) and GARP Information Propagation (GIP), which correspond to the MAP and MAD in MRP. It was defined in the original release of 802.1D-1998 until it was replaced by MVRP.It was replaced because the non-VLAN aware GARP had serious deficiencies when operating in large VLAN networks.[2]","title":"Multiple VLAN Registration Protocol"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stream Reservation Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_Reservation_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Audio Video Bridging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_Video_Bridging"}],"text":"MSRP is the base for the Stream Reservation Protocol first defined in Audio Video Bridging specifications.","title":"Multiple Stream Registration Protocol"}]
[]
[{"title":"VLAN Trunking Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VLAN_Trunking_Protocol"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_Designer
Neural Designer
["1 Features","2 Related tools","3 See also","4 References"]
Neural DesignerDeveloper(s)ArtelnicsWritten inC++Operating systemMicrosoft Windows, OS X, LinuxTypeData mining, machine learning, predictive analyticsLicenseProprietary softwareWebsitewww.neuraldesigner.com Neural Designer is a software tool for machine learning based on neural networks, a main area of artificial intelligence research, and contains a graphical user interface which simplifies data entry and interpretation of results. In 2015, Neural Designer was chosen by the European Commission, within the Horizon 2020 program, as a disruptive technology in the ICT field. Features Neural Designer performs descriptive, diagnostic, predictive and prescriptive data analytics. It implements deep architectures with multiple non-linear layers and contains utilities to solve function regression, pattern recognition, time series and autoencoding problems. The input to Neural Designer is a data set, and its output is a predictive model. That result takes the form of an explicit mathematical expression, which can be exported to any computer language or system. Related tools Weka: free machine learning and data mining software. RapidMiner: free and commercial machine learning framework implemented in Java. KNIME: free and commercial machine learning and data mining software. See also Artificial intelligence Artificial neural network Comparison of deep learning software Data mining Deep learning Machine learning Predictive analytics References ^ "European Commission : CORDIS : Projects and Results : A high performance solution for predictive analytics". European Commission. May 2015. vteDeep learning software Comparison Open source Apache MXNet Apache SINGA Caffe Deeplearning4j DeepSpeed Dlib Keras Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit ML.NET OpenNN PyTorch TensorFlow Theano Torch ONNX OpenVINO MindSpore Proprietary Apple Core ML IBM Watson Neural Designer Wolfram Mathematica MATLAB Deep Learning Toolbox Category
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudong
Pudong
["1 History","2 Government","3 Demographics","4 Subdistricts and towns","5 Education","5.1 Universities and higher education","5.2 Primary and secondary schools","6 Economy","6.1 Businesses","7 Transportation","7.1 Metro","8 Gallery","9 Twin towns — sister cities","10 Climate","11 See also","12 References","13 Further reading","14 External links"]
Coordinates: 31°14′05″N 121°30′23″E / 31.23472°N 121.50639°E / 31.23472; 121.50639District in Shanghai, People's Republic of China This article is about the district in Shanghai. For the airport situated here, see Shanghai Pudong International Airport. District & State-level new area in Shanghai, People's Republic of ChinaPudong 浦东新区District & State-level new areaPudong New AreaLujiazui from the BundLocation within ShanghaiCoordinates: 31°14′05″N 121°30′23″E / 31.23472°N 121.50639°E / 31.23472; 121.50639CountryPeople's Republic of ChinaMunicipalityShanghaiDistrict Gov't Established1993Government • CPC Pudong District SecretaryZhu Zhisong • District GovernorHang Yingwei (杭迎偉)Area • Total1,210.4 km2 (467.3 sq mi)Population (2020) • Total5,681,512 • Density4,700/km2 (12,000/sq mi)GDP  • TotalCN¥ 1.6 trillionUS$ 237.78 billion (2022) • Per capitaCN¥ 281,180US$ 41,755 (2022)Time zoneUTC+08:00 (China Standard Time)Postal code200120Area code021WebsitePudong.gov.cn Pudong"Pudong" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese charactersSimplified Chinese浦东Traditional Chinese浦東PostalPootungLiteral meaning"East of the Pu "TranscriptionsStandard MandarinHanyu PinyinPǔdōngWade–GilesP'u3-tung1IPAWuRomanizationPhu上-ton平 Pudong is a district of Shanghai located east of the Huangpu, the river which flows through central Shanghai. The name Pudong was originally applied to the Huangpu's east bank, directly across from the west bank or Puxi, the historic city center. It now refers to the broader Pudong New Area, a state-level new area which extends all the way to the East China Sea. The traditional area of Pudong is now home to the Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone and the Shanghai Stock Exchange and many of Shanghai's best-known buildings, such as the Oriental Pearl Tower, the Jin Mao Tower, the Shanghai World Financial Center, and the Shanghai Tower. These modern skyscrapers directly face Puxi's historic Bund, a remnant of former foreign concessions in China. The rest of the new area includes the Port of Shanghai, the Shanghai Expo and Century Park, Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, Shanghai Pudong International Airport, the Jiuduansha Wetland Nature Reserve, Nanhui New City, and the Shanghai Disney Resort. History Pudong—literally "The East Bank of the Huangpu River"—originally referred only to the less-developed land across from Shanghai's Old City and foreign concessions. The area was mainly farmland and only slowly developed, with warehouses and wharfs near the shore administered by the districts of Puxi on the west bank: Huangpu, Yangpu, and Nanshi. Pudong was originally established as a county in 1958 until 1961 which the county was split among Huangpu, Yangpu, Nanshi, Wusong and Chuansha County. Premier Li Peng announced the policy of Pudong's opening and development on April 18, 1990. On October 1, 1992, the original area of Pudong County and Chuansha County merged and established Pudong New Area. In 1993, the Chinese government set up a Special Economic Zone in Chuansha, creating the Pudong New Area. Deng Xiaoping had initiated its development three years earlier to build further confidence in Reform and Opening Up.: 158  Pudong's description as a New Area served to distinguish it from existing SEZs.: 158  It had even more open policies than existing SEZs, in terms of attracting foreign direct investment and developing the local economy.: 158  The western tip of the Pudong district was designated as the Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone and has become a financial hub of modern China. Several landmark buildings were constructed, including the Oriental Pearl Tower, and the supertall Jin Mao Building (420.5 m or 1,380 ft), Shanghai World Financial Center (494 m or 1,621 ft) and Shanghai Tower (632 m or 2,073 ft), the world's first trio of adjacent supertall skyscrapers. These buildings—all along Century Avenue and visible from the historic Bund—now form the most common skyline of Shanghai. In official discourses on urbanization in China, Pudong is considered the paradigmatic example of the 1990s approach to urbanization.: 157  On May 6, 2009, it was disclosed that the State Council had approved the proposal to merge Nanhui District with Pudong and comprise the majority of eastern Shanghai. In 2010, Pudong was host to the main venues of the Shanghai Expo, whose grounds now form a public park. Pudong New Area consist of the original Pudong County (northeastern portion of Shanghai County), Chuansha County, and Nanhui County. Government Districts of the Direct-Controlled Municipality of Shanghai are administratively on the same level as prefecture-level cities. However, the government of Pudong has a status equivalent to that of a sub-provincial city, which is a half-level above a prefecture-level city. This is due to Pudong's size and importance as the financial hub of China. The Pudong Communist Party Secretary is the top office of the district, followed by the district governor of Pudong. The Pudong party chief is customarily also a member of the Shanghai Party Standing Committee. On April 27, 2015, the People's Government of Pudong New Area is working with China (Shanghai) Pilot Free-Trade Zone Administrative Committee. Demographics Pudong is bounded by the Huangpu River in the west and the East China Sea in the east. Pudong is distinguished from Puxi ("West Bank"), the older part of Shanghai. It has an area of 1,210.4 square kilometres (467.3 sq mi) and, according to the 2020 census, a population of 5,681,512 inhabitants, accounting for around 22.8 percent of Shanghai and 1.85 million more than in 2010. Pudong's resident population growth is well above national average because it is a popular immigration destination. The 2020 census shows a 8% increase in the last decade, or an annual pace of 0.8%. Excluding immigrants, the birth rate in 2010 was 0.806% while the death rate is 0.729, resulting a net growth of 0.077%. The total fertility rate is 1.03, well below the replacement level. The district actually has a negative registered household population growth if immigrants are excluded, thus the growth is purely driven by immigration. The 2020 census shows a population density of 3,006/km2. About 3/4 of the population live in the northern part and part of city center called "Northern Territory". 1/4 live in the "Southern Territory" that was the Nanhui District. The Northern Territory has a 6,667 population density, while the Southern Territory has 1,732/km2. Suburbs saw a greater increase in population during 2000–2010 with the help of the city's suburb expansion policy. Some counties in the traditional city center saw a population decrease. Subdistricts and towns Further information: List of township-level divisions of Shanghai Name Chinese (S) Hanyu Pinyin Shanghainese Romanization Population (2010) Area (km2) Weifang Xincun Subdistrict 潍坊新村街道 Wéifāng Xīncūn Jiēdào vij vaon sin tsen ka do 100,548 3.89 Lujiazui Subdistrict 陆家嘴街道 Lùjiāzuǐ Jiēdào loq ka tzyu ka do 112,507 6.89 Zhoujiadu Subdistrict 周家渡街道 Zhōujiādù Jiēdào tzoe ka du ka do 144,668 5.52 Tangqiao Subdistrict 塘桥街道 Tángqiáo Jiēdào daon djio ka do 76,916 3.86 Shanggang Xincun Subdistrict 上钢新村街道 Shànggāng Xīncūn Jiēdào zaon kaon sin tsen ka do 104,932 7.54 Nanmatou Road Subdistrict 南码头路街道 Nánmǎtóulù Jiēdào neu mau doe lu ka do 107,130 4.22 Hudong Xincun Subdistrict 沪东新村街道 Hùdōng Xīncūn Jiēdào wu ton sin tsen ka do 112,031 5.51 Jinyang Xincun Subdistrict 金杨新村街道 Jīnyáng Xīncūn Jiēdào cin yan sin tsen ka do 206,017 8.02 Yangjing Subdistrict 洋泾街道 Yángjīng Jiēdào yan cin ka do 146,237 7.38 Puxing Road Subdistrict 浦兴路街道 Pǔxìnglù Jiēdào phu xin lu ka do 177,468 6.25 Dongming Road Subdistrict 东明路街道 Dōngmínglù Jiēdào ton min lu ka do 121,449 5.95 Huamu Subdistrict 花木街道 Huāmù Jiēdào hau moq ka do 221,327 20.93 Chuanshaxin Town* (Chwansha) 川沙新镇 Chuānshāxīn Zhèn tseu sa sau sin tzen 420,045 148.05 Gaoqiao town 高桥镇 Gāoqiáo Zhèn ko djio tzen 184,486 38.73 Beicai town 北蔡镇 Běicài Zhèn poq tsa tzen 276,547 24.91 Heqing town 合庆镇 Héqìng Zhèn req chin tzen 132,038 41.97 Tang town 唐镇 Tángzhèn daon tzen 129,267 32.16 Caolu town 曹路镇 Cáolù Zhèn dzo lu tzen 186,012 45.58 Jinqiao town 金桥镇 Jīnqiáo Zhèn cin djio tzen 81,537 25.28 Gaohang town 高行镇 Gāoháng Zhèn ko raon tzen 137,625 22.85 Gaodong town 高东镇 Gāodōng Zhèn ko ton tzen 110,552 36.24 Zhangjiang town 张江镇 Zhāngjiāng Zhèn tzan kaon tzen 165,297 42.10 Sanlin town 三林镇 Sānlín Zhèn se lin tzen 360,516 34.19 Huinan town 惠南镇 Huìnán Zhèn we neu tzen 213,845 65.24 Zhoupu town 周浦镇 Zhōupǔ Zhèn tzoe phu tzen 147,329 42.60 Xinchang town 新场镇 Xīnchǎng Zhèn sin dzan tzen 84,183 54.30 Datuan Town 大团镇 Dàtuán Zhèn da deu tzen 71,162 50.45 Kangqiao town 康桥镇 Kāngqiáo Zhèn khaon djio tzen 174,672 41.25 Hangtou town 航头镇 Hángtóu Zhèn raon doe tzen 110,060 60.40 Zhuqiao town 祝桥镇 Zhùqiáo Zhèn tzoq djio tzen 104,945 146.28 Nicheng town 泥城镇 Níchéng Zhèn gnij zen tzen 62,519 61.50 Xuanqiao town 宣桥镇 Xuānqiáo Zhèn si djio tzen 59,567 45.78 Shuyuan town 书院镇 Shūyuàn Zhèn syu yeu tzen 59,323 66.90 Wanxiang Town 万祥镇 Wànxiáng Zhèn ve zian tzen 24,346 23.35 Laogang town 老港镇 Lǎogǎng Zhèn lo kaon tzen 37,408 38.90 Nanhui Xincheng Town** 南汇新城镇 Nánhuì Xīnchéng Zhèn neu we sin zen tzen 47,381 67.76 Luchaogang Farm 芦潮港农场 Lúcháogǎng Nóngchǎng lu dzo kaon non dzan 688 9.40 Donghai Farm 东海农场 Dōnghǎi Nóngchǎng ton he non dzan 508 15.20 Chaoyang Farm 朝阳农场 Cháoyáng Nóngchǎng dzo yan non dzan 862 10.67 Waigaoqiao Free-trade Zone 外高桥保税区 Wàigāoqiáo Bǎoshuìqū nga ko djio po seu chiu 1,349 10.00 Jinqiao Export Processing Zone 金桥经济技术开发区 Jīnqiáo Jīngjì Jìshù Kāifāqū cin djio cin tzij djij dzeq khe faq chiu 5,514 67.79 Zhangjiang Hi-tech Park 张江高科技园区 Zhāngjiāng Gāo Kējì Yuánqū tzan kaon ko khu djij yeu chiu 23,617 75.90 * – Liuzao town merged into Chuanshaxin town. ** – Luchaogang town and Shengang Subdistrict merged and form Nanhui Xincheng town. Education Universities and higher education New York University Shanghai Shanghai Maritime University Shanghai Dianji University Shanghai Fisheries University China Executive Leadership Academy in Pudong Fudan University in Zhangjiang New York University Shanghai ShanghaiTech University Primary and secondary schools This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2015) Public schools: No. 2 High School Attached to East China Normal University Jianping High School Dongchang High School of ECNU Pudong Foreign Languages School of Shanghai International Studies University Shanghai Jincai Experimental Junior Middle School International schools: Dulwich College Shanghai French School of Shanghai Pudong Campus Nord Anglia International School Shanghai Pudong German School Shanghai Pudong Campus Shanghai American School Pudong Campus Shanghai Japanese School (SJS) Pudong Campus (elementary and junior high), and SJS Senior High School Wellington College International Shanghai Concordia International School Shanghai Pudong Campus Other private schools: Shanghai Gold Apple Bilingual School Shanghai Shangde Experimental School Shanghai Pinghe School Economy This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Pudong aerial view. With the Nanhui District merger in May 2009, the size of Pudong's economy grew. The district's 2022 gross domestic product amounts to an estimated CN¥1.601 trillion (US$238 billion), with services comprising 74.7% of economic output. Its GDP per capita was CN¥281,180, corresponding to around US$41,755 by nominal values and US$68,647 by purchasing power parity values. . The area is divided into four distinct economic districts. Apart from Lujiazui Trade and Finance Zone, there is Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade zone in mainland China covering approximately 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) in north-east Pudong. The Jinqiao Export Processing Zone is another major industrial area in Pudong covering 19 square kilometres (7.3 sq mi) Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park is a special area for technology-oriented businesses. The Pudong area continues to experience rapid development, especially in the commercial sector, with 1.3 million square meters of prime office space reaching completion in 2008, more than the previous two years combined. Pudong has also attracted considerable fixed asset and real estate investment, reporting 87.268 billion RMB in fixed asset investment and 27.997 billion RMB in real estate investment in 2008. Pudong area of Shanghai, at night The newest Disney resort, with a Disneyland included, is located in Pudong, which is open to tourists in June 2016. Businesses Bao Steel has its head office in the Bao Steel Tower (simplified Chinese: 宝钢大厦; traditional Chinese: 寶鋼大廈; pinyin: Bǎogāng Dàshà) in Pudong. Comac has its head office in Pudong. The headquarters of Yangtze River Express, a cargo airline, are in the Pufa Tower (浦发大厦; 浦发大廈; Pǔfā Dàshà) in Pudong. Hang Seng Bank has its mainland offices in the Hang Seng Bank Tower in Pudong. Kroll has an office in the Hang Seng Bank Tower. Google has its Shanghai offices in the Shanghai World Financial Center. Skyscrapers in Pudong Transportation The Shanghai Pudong International Airport opened its doors in 1999, shortening the travel time for visitors. In the same year, Line 2 of the Shanghai Metro commenced services. An extension brought the line further east, where it serves the airport. Other lines, namely Lines 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13 and 16 also have sections that serve parts of Pudong. A magnetic levitation train began operating in 2004, moving passengers between the airport and Longyang Road Metro station. Ships on the Huangpu River with Pudong in view Pudong is connected to Puxi by several tunnels and four major bridges. The first of these bridges were the Nanpu Bridge (1991) and the Yangpu Bridge (1993). The Xupu Bridge opened in 1996. The latest of these is Lupu Bridge, which is the world's second longest arch bridge and was completed in 2002. Currently there are five tunnels that link the two sides, Dapu Rd. Tunnel, the first tunnel across the Huangpu River, Yan'an Rd. Tunnel, running east–west, and Dalian Rd. Tunnel, running north–south, Fuxing Rd. Tunnel, complementing the Yan'an Rd. Tunnel, Waihuan Tunnel, one part of Shanghai Outer Ring Express. Two new tunnels linking Lujiazui to Puxi are under construction. Roads in Pudong have no particular longitudinal or latitudinal orientation. Major thoroughfares Pudong Avenue, Zhangyang Road and Yanggao Road run east–west until Yangpu Bridge before turning gradually to become north–south. Century Avenue crosses all three major roads and extends from Lujiazui to Century Park. Yanggao Road extends south to the A20, Shanghai's outer Ring road, which runs east–west from Xupu Bridge and then north–south beginning at the interchange near Renxi Village, when the east–west expressway turns into Yingbin Avenue, headed for Pudong International Airport. Metro Pudong is currently served by ten metro lines and one tram line operated by Shanghai Metro and one maglev line operated by Shanghai Maglev Train and one suburban line operated by China Railway:      Line 2 - Lujiazui  14 , Dongchang Road, Century Avenue  4  6  9 , Shanghai Science and Technology Museum, Century Park, Longyang Road  7  16  18  Maglev , Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, Jinke Road, Guanglan Road, Tangzhen, Middle Chuangxin Road, East Huaxia Road, Chuansha, Lingkong Road, Yuandong Avenue, Haitiansan Road, Pudong International Airport  Maglev       Line 4 - Pudong Avenue  14 , Century Avenue  2  6  9 , Pudian Road (4), Lancun Road  6 , Tangqiao      Line 6 - Gangcheng Road  10 , North Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, Hangjin Road, South Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, Zhouhai Road, Wuzhou Avenue, Dongjing Road, Jufeng Road  12 , Wulian Road, Boxing Road, Jinqiao Road, Yunshan Road  14 , Deping Road, Beiyangjing Road, Minsheng Road  18 , Yuanshen Stadium, Century Avenue  2  4  9 , Pudian Road (6)), Lancun Road  4 , Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Linyi Xincun, West Gaoke Road  7 , Dongming Road  13 , Gaoqing Road, West Huaxia Road, Shangnan Road, South Lingyan Road, Oriental Sports Center  8   11       Line 7 - Houtan, Changqing Road  13 , Yaohua Road  8 , Yuntai Road, West Gaoke Road  6 , South Yanggao Road, Jinxiu Road, Fanghua Road, Longyang Road  2  16  18  Maglev , Huamu Road      Line 8 - China Art Museum, Yaohua Road  7 , Chengshan Road  13 , Yangsi, Oriental Sports Center  6   11 , Lingzhao Xincun Station      Line 9 - Shangcheng Road, Century Avenue  2  4  6 , Middle Yanggao Road  18 , Fangdian Road, Lantian Road  14 , Taierzhuang Road, Jinqiao, Jinji Road, Jinhai Road  12 , Gutang Road, Minlei Road, Caolu      Line 10 - Shuangjiang Road, West Gaoqiao, Gaoqiao, Gangcheng Road  6 , Jilong Road      Line 11 - Disney Resort, Kangxin Highway, Xiuyan Road, Luoshan Road  16 , Yuqiao  18 , Pusan Road, East Sanlin, Sanlin, Oriental Sports Center  6  8       Line 12 - Donglu Road, Jufeng Road  6 , North Yanggao Road, Jinjing Road, Shenjiang Road, Jinhai Road      Line 13 - Shibo Avenue, Changqing Road  7 , Chengshan Road  8 , Dongming Road  6 , Huapeng Road, Xianan Road, Beicai, Chenchun Road, Lianxi Road  18 , Middle Huaxia Road  16 , Zhongke Road, Xuelin Road, Zhangjiang Road      Line 14 - Lujiazui  2 , South Pudong Road, Pudong Avenue  4 , Yuanshen Road, Changyi Road  18 , Xiepu Road, Longju Road, Yunshan Road  6 , Lantian Road  9 , Huangyang Road, Yunshun Road, Pudong Football Stadium, Jinyue Road, Guiqiao Road  9       Line 16 - Longyang Road  2  7  18  Maglev , Middle Huaxia Road  13 , Luoshan Road  11 , East Zhoupu, Heshahangcheng, East Hangtou, Xinchang, Wild Animal Park, Huinan, East Huinan, Shuyuan, Lingang Avenue, Dishui Lake      Line 18 - Changyi Road  14 , Minsheng Road  6 , Middle Yanggao Road  9 , Yingchun Road, Longyang Road  2  7  16  Maglev , Fangxin Road, Beizhong Road, Lianxi Road  13 , Yuqiao  11 , Kangqiao, Zhoupu, Fanrong Road, Shenmei Road, Hetao Road, Xiasha, Hangtou      Shanghai maglev train - Longyang Road  2  7  16  18 , Pudong International Airport 2       Pudong railway - Luchaogang, Situan Gallery The Oriental Pearl tower at night Lujiazui Pudong from the Bund Jin Mao building Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone, Pudong Lujiazui skyline, Pudong CITIC Pacific HQ & Mandarin Oriental Pudong at night (video) Pudong at night with Oriental Pearl Tower Huangpu River at night. “Better City, Better Life” is the theme of Expo 2010. Shanghai Oriental Pearl Tower View of the Oriental Pearl Tower Lujiazui at night Lujiazui at night Satellite image of Shanghai's Pudong district. Twin towns — sister cities See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in China Pudong is twinned with: Beverly Hills, California Kuopio Climate Pudong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The average annual temperature in Pudong is 17.1 °C (62.8 °F). The temperatures are highest on average in July, at around 28.6 °C (83.5 °F), and lowest in January, at around 4.9 °C (40.8 °F). Climate data for Pudong (1997–2020 normals, extremes 1981–2010) Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 21.5(70.7) 26.3(79.3) 29.0(84.2) 33.6(92.5) 33.3(91.9) 37.2(99.0) 40.0(104.0) 40.5(104.9) 36.5(97.7) 33.2(91.8) 29.2(84.6) 22.4(72.3) 40.5(104.9) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 8.9(48.0) 10.7(51.3) 15.1(59.2) 20.7(69.3) 25.4(77.7) 28.0(82.4) 32.8(91.0) 32.3(90.1) 28.4(83.1) 23.6(74.5) 18.1(64.6) 11.6(52.9) 21.3(70.3) Daily mean °C (°F) 5.1(41.2) 6.7(44.1) 10.6(51.1) 15.9(60.6) 20.9(69.6) 24.2(75.6) 28.7(83.7) 28.5(83.3) 24.7(76.5) 19.7(67.5) 13.9(57.0) 7.6(45.7) 17.2(63.0) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.1(35.8) 3.4(38.1) 6.9(44.4) 11.8(53.2) 17.1(62.8) 21.2(70.2) 25.5(77.9) 25.6(78.1) 21.7(71.1) 16.2(61.2) 10.4(50.7) 4.3(39.7) 13.9(56.9) Record low °C (°F) −6.5(20.3) −4.4(24.1) −2.3(27.9) 2.5(36.5) 9.1(48.4) 14.1(57.4) 19.9(67.8) 19.5(67.1) 13.4(56.1) 6.8(44.2) 0.6(33.1) −4.5(23.9) −6.5(20.3) Average precipitation mm (inches) 77.2(3.04) 69.8(2.75) 85.1(3.35) 87.1(3.43) 91.1(3.59) 231.1(9.10) 154.2(6.07) 227.0(8.94) 136.3(5.37) 78.1(3.07) 70.4(2.77) 57.1(2.25) 1,364.5(53.73) Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) 10.6 10.8 12.2 11.0 11.3 14.4 12.2 13.3 10.7 7.5 9.7 9.0 132.7 Average snowy days 2.0 1.7 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.8 5.1 Average relative humidity (%) 73 74 72 71 74 82 78 79 77 73 75 71 75 Mean monthly sunshine hours 107.1 111.1 147.0 168.4 173.1 120.0 189.8 191.4 156.8 152.3 122.7 123.4 1,763.1 Percent possible sunshine 33 35 39 43 41 28 44 47 43 44 39 40 40 Source: China Meteorological Administration See also Shanghai Premier League, amateur football (soccer) league based in Pudong References ^ a b "【直击引领区】2022年浦东GDP超1.6万亿元". ^ a b c d Hu, Richard (2023). Reinventing the Chinese City. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-21101-7. ^ 上海自贸区空间扩大4倍 将与浦东新区合署办公. People's Daily. April 27, 2015. Retrieved April 27, 2015. ^ a b "上海发布第七次全国人口普查主要数据，浦东常住人口568万人占上海22.8%". Pudong District People's Government. 20 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2023. ^ Population analysis of Pudong, 2011 http://rkjsw.sh.gov.cn/dr/qxinfo/310115/2012227/000000003500038000944464363.html?openpath=spfp/qxinfo/310115 Archived 2015-01-09 at the Wayback Machine ^ Census Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China; Population and Employment Statistics Division of the National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China (2012). 中国2010人口普查分乡、镇、街道资料 (1 ed.). Beijing: China Statistics Print. ISBN 978-7-5037-6660-2. ^ "Contact Us." Dulwich College Shanghai. Retrieved on October 12, 2013. "DCS MAIN CAMPUS 266 LanAn Rd, JinQiao, PuDong, 201206 地址：上海市浦东金桥蓝桉路266号，201206" and "DUCKS 425 LanAn Rd, Jin Qiao, PuDong 201206 地址：上海市浦东金桥蓝桉路425号，201206" ^ "Home Archived 2014-05-17 at the Wayback Machine." French School of Shanghai. Retrieved on 23 May 2014. "Campus de Pudong : 1555, Jufeng Lu, Pudong District 201208 Shanghai (Chine)" ^ "Kontakte." German School of Shanghai Pudong. Retrieved on 23 May 2014. "DS Shanghai Pudong 1100 Jufeng Lu 201206 Shanghai - VR China" - Chinese address: "上海德国学校浦东校园201206上海市巨峰路1100号综合楼" ^ Home page. Shanghai American School. Retrieved on February 19, 2014. "Puxi Campus 258 Jinfeng Road Huacao Town, Minhang Dist. Shanghai, China 201107 6221-1445" and "Pudong Campus Shanghai Links Executive Community 1600 Lingbai Road Sanjiagang, Pudong Shanghai, China 201201 6221-1445" ^ "Shanghai Japanese School Pudong Campus." Shanghai Japanese School. Retrieved on February 18, 2014. "上海日本人学校　浦東校 〒200127　上海市浦東新区錦康路277号" ^ "Home Archived 2014-02-22 at the Wayback Machine." SJS Senior High School. Retrieved on February 18, 2014. "〒200127 上海市浦東新区錦康路277号" ^ "Contact Us." Wellington College International Shanghai. Retrieved on September 30, 2015. "Wellington College No. 1500 Yao Long Road (near the Oriental Sports Center) Pudong, Shanghai 200126 上海惠灵顿国际学校 上海市浦东新区 耀龙路1500号 (靠东方体育中心) 邮编：200126" ^ "Concordia International School Shanghai". Home Page. Retrieved 16 November 2019. ^ Knight Frank China Knight Frank China, Shanghai Commercial Market Quarterly Report, Q4 2009 ^ Knight Frank China Knight Frank China, Shanghai Commercial Market Quarterly Report, Q1 2009 ^ "." THE WALT DISNEY COMPANY REACHES ANOTHER MAJOR MILESTONE ON SHANGHAI THEME PARK PROJECT. Retrieved on July 7, 2010. ^ "Contact Us." Baosteel. Retrieved on November 10, 2012. "ADD:Baosteel Tower, Pu Dian Road 370, Pudong New District, Shanghai, 200122, P.R. China Postal Code:200122" - Chinese: "上海市浦东新区浦电路370号宝钢大厦" ^ "Contact Us." Comac. Retrieved on November 10, 2012. "25 Zhangyang Road, Shanghai" - Chinese Archived 2019-08-05 at the Wayback Machine: "上海市张杨路25号" ^ "Yangtze River Express Airlines Company Limited Archived 2016-05-02 at the Wayback Machine." HNA Group. Retrieved on February 24, 2014. "Address: Pufa Tower, 588 Pudong South Road, Pudong New Area, Shanghai" - Address in Chinese Archived 2014-03-01 at the Wayback Machine: "地址：上海市浦东新区浦东南路588号浦发大厦 邮编：200120" ^ "Mainland Service Network." Hang Seng Bank. Retrieved on 11 September 2011. "Hang Seng Bank（China）Limited Address: 34/F & 36/F, Hang Seng Bank Tower, 1000 Lujiazui Ring Road, Pudong, Shanghai, China" ^ "Office locations Archived 2011-08-10 at the Wayback Machine." Kroll Inc. Retrieved on 14 August 2011. "Shanghai Room 3031, 30F 1000 Lujiazui Ring Road, Hang Seng Bank Tower Pudong New Area Shanghai 200120 China" ^ "Google locations." Google. Retrieved on May 25, 2016. "Google Shanghai 60F, Shanghai World Financial Center 100 Century Avenue, Pudong New Area Shanghai 200120, China" ^ "Sister Cities Committee". City of Beverly Hills. 2019-07-01. Retrieved 2019-07-01. ^ "Vice Chairman of Shanghai visited Kuopio". Kuopio Innovation. 2013-06-04. Retrieved 2015-12-01. ^ 中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 26 August 2023. ^ 中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 26 August 2023. Further reading Kris Olds, “Globalizing Shanghai: The ‘Global Intelligence Corps’ and the Building of Pudong," Cities 12, no. 3 (1997) 109–23. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pudong New Area. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Pudong. Pudong government website Pudong business site Pudong Photos Links to related articles vteCities along the YangtzeProvince-levelCities (from upper reaches to lower reaches)Yunnan Lijiang (Sichuan see below) Dongchuan Sichuan Panzhihua (Yunnan see above) Yibin Luzhou Chongqing Jiangjin Central Chongqing Fuling Wanzhou Hubei Yichang Yidu Zhijiang Songzi Jingzhou Shishou (Hunan see below) Honghu Chibi Wuhan Ezhou Huangshi Huanggang Wuxue Hunan Yueyang Linxiang Jiangxi Ruichang Jiujiang Anhui Anqing Chizhou Tongling Wuhu Ma'anshan Jiangsu Nanjing Yizheng Jurong Zhenjiang Yangzhou Taizhou Yangzhong Taixing Danyang Changzhou Jingjiang Jiangyin Zhangjiagang Rugao Nantong Changshu Taicang Haimen Qidong Shanghai Baoshan Pudong Major cities along the Pearl River · Major cities along the Yellow River vteNew Areas in ChinaState-level Binhai* Dianzhong Fuzhou Gui'an Harbin Jiangbei Jinpu Lanzhou Liangjiang Nansha Pudong* Tianfu West Coast* Xiangjiang Xiong'an Xixian Zhengzhou Airport Zhoushan Archipelago East Coast Cangzhou Bohai Fuzhou Jinshan Longyan New Area Ningbo Hangzhou Bay Qinghuangdao Beidaihe Suzhou Industrial Park New District Shenzhen Dapeng Tianjin Beibu Zhenjiang New Area Zhongshan Cuiheng Zhuhai Hengqin Nanping Wuyi Central China Anyang New Area Ganzhou Zhangkang Kaifeng New Area Luoyang New Area Ma'anshan Binjiang Bowang Xiushan Zhengpugang Nanchang Honggutan Xinyu New Area Zhengzhou Zhengbian Zhengdong Northeast China Dalian Jinzhou Pulandianwan Shenyang Hunnan Shenbei* Western China Chongqing New North Guiyang/Anshun Gui'an Lhasa Liuwu Suining Hedong Xi'an Qujiang Defunct Ordos Kangbashi Shanghai Juyuan Shenzhen Guangming Longhua Pingshan Tianjin Hebei Wuxi New Area Note: with " * " are administrative divisions registered in the Ministry of Civil Affairs while other New Areas are established as economic management areas. vtePudongAreas Gaoqiao Lujiazui Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park EducationPublic highschools No. 2 High School Attached to East China Normal University Jianping High School Dongchang High School of ECNU Pudong Foreign Languages School of Shanghai International Studies University Private schools Concordia International School Shanghai Dulwich College Shanghai Harrow International School Shanghai Nord Anglia International School Shanghai Pudong Shanghai American School Pudong Campus The SMIC Private School Shanghai Gold Apple Bilingual School Shanghai Japanese School Pudong campus Shanghai Pinghe School Shanghai Shangde Experimental School Wellington College International Shanghai Colleges anduniversities China Executive Leadership Academy in Pudong Fudan University Zhangjiang Campus New York University Shanghai Shanghai Maritime University Landmarks Century Avenue Century Park Jin Mao Tower Grand Hyatt Shanghai Jiuduansha Oriental Art Center Oriental Pearl Tower Shanghai Detention Center Shanghai Disney Resort More information Shanghai Expo Park Shanghai New International Expo Center Shanghai Science and Technology Museum Shanghai Tower Shanghai World Financial Center Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park Gigafactory Shanghai TransportAviation Shanghai Pudong International Airport Maglev Shanghai Maglev Train Shanghai Metrostations Century Avenue Century Park Changqing Road China Art Museum Chuansha Dongchang Road East Huaxia Road Fanghua Road (formerly Hunan Road) Guanglan Road Haitiansan Road Houtan Huamu Road Jinke Road Jinxiu Road Lancun Road Lingkong Road Lingzhao Xincun Longyang Road Lujiazui Middle Chuangxin Road (formerly Tang Town East) Oriental Sports Center Pudian Road (Line 4) Pudian Road (Line 6) Pudong Avenue Pudong International Airport Shanghai Science and Technology Museum South Yanggao Road Tangqiao Tangzhen West Gaoke Road (formerly Hi-Tech West Road) Yangsi station Yaohua Road Yuandong Avenue Yuntai Road This list is incomplete.German School Shanghai and French School of Shanghai formerly had campuses in Pudong. vteEconomic Development Zones of ChinaSpecial Economic Zones Hainan Province Kashgar Shantou Shenzhen Xiamen Zhuhai Open Coastal Cities Dalian Qinhuangdao Tianjin Yantai Qingdao Lianyungang Nantong Shanghai Ningbo Wenzhou Fuzhou Guangzhou Zhanjiang Beihai vteShanghai Culture Economy Geography History Timeline Politics AdministrativedivisionsCurrent Huangpu Xuhui Changning Jing'an Putuo Hongkou Yangpu Minhang Baoshan Jiading Pudong Shanghai Free-Trade Zone Jinshan Songjiang Qingpu Fengxian Chongming Defunct Nanshi Luwan Wusong Nanhui Zhabei Chuansha County Shanghai County SEZ Pudong Lujiazui Financial and Trade Zone Shanghai Free-Trade Zone Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone Yangshan Free Trade Port Area Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park Culture anddemographicsArchitect Shikumen Longtang Culture Haipai Opera LGBT culture Other Shanghainese people List of people from Shanghai Shanghailanders Shanghainese language Shanghainese cuisine TouristattractionsAreas Historic Old City French Concession International Settlement People's Square Xujiahui Qibao Jinshanzui Fishing Village European-style boroughs Thames Town Holland Village Scandinavian Venice Town German Town Canada Water Town Zhujiajiao Jinze Dianshan Lake Fengjing Beach Jinshan Beach Bund Beach Streets Historic The Bund Wukang Road Duolun Road Dongmen Road Zhouqiao Old Street Shopping Nanjing Road Huaihai Road Xintiandi Xujiahui North Sichuan Road Tianzifang M50 Art district Thoroughfare Yan'an Road Century Avenue Hengshan Road Henan Road Mall 1933 Old Millfun Tianzifang Union Building Xujiahui Shopping City Global Harbor Grand Gateway HKRI Taikoo Hui IAPM Mall Jing An Kerry Centre K11 Longemont Shopping Centre Ciros Plaza Plaza 66 Raffles City IFC Mall The River Mall Super Brand Mall Amusement Circus World Disney Resort Film Studio Great World Haichang Ocean Park Happy Valley Jinjiang Action Park Ocean Aquarium Zoo Cultural Oriental Art Concert Hall Shanghai Grand Theatre Opera Theater Yue Opera House Tianchan Dramatic Arts Grand Theatre Library Museums Art Art Contemporary Art Power Station Rockbund Art Long Poster Art Yuz OV Museum Shanghai Aerospace Enthusiasts Film Revolution History Jewish Refugees Natural History Planetarium Science and Technology Urban Planning C. Y. Tung Maritime Postal Bamboo Carving Madame Tussauds Open House Waterworks Science and Technology Transport Railway Metro Maglev Auto Protected Historical and Cultural Site Party's First National Congress Former Residence of: Sun Yat-Sen Lu Xun Zhou Enlai Zhang Wentian Soong Ching-ling Moller Villa Tomb of Lu Xun Xu Guangqi People's Heroes Memorial Tower Urban parks Public Century Park Gongqing Forest Park Park of the Old City Expo Park Huangpu Park Fuxing Park Jing'an Park Lu Xun Park People's Park Zhongshan Park Dongping National Forest Park Jiuduansha Wetland Nature Reserve Shanghai Greenway Jinshan Binhai Park Admission Ancient Chinese gardens Guyi Garden Yu Garden Zuibaichi Qiuxia Garden Guilin Park Botanical Garden Hotels Peace Shanghai Jinjiang Broadway Grand Hyatt Park InterContinental Expo center Shanghai New National Places ofworshipBuddhist Jade Buddha Temple Jing'an Temple Longhua Temple Longhua Pagoda Zhenru Temple Yuanming Jiangtang Baoshan Temple Chenxiang Pavilion Hongfu Temple Yuanjin Temple Xilin Chan Temple Yuanying Pagoda Huzhu Pagoda Songjiang Square Pagoda Donglin Temple Fahua Pagoda Christian Holy Trinity Church Sheshan Basilica St Ignatius Cathedral St Joseph's Church St Nicholas' Church St Peter's Church Other City God Temple Wen Miao Mazu Cultural Palace Jiading Confucian Temple Songjiang Mosque SkyscrapersPudong Oriental Pearl Tower Jin Mao Tower Shanghai World Financial Center Shanghai Tower Bocom Financial Towers Shanghai IFC One Lujiazui Bank of Shanghai Puxi K11 Shimao International Plaza Plaza 66 White Magnolia Plaza Shanghai Wheelock Square Tomorrow Square Grand Gateway Shanghai SportsvenuesFootball Shanghai Hongkou Pudong Jinshan Yuanshen Zhabei Indoor Jiangwan Luwan Shanghai Indoor Mercedes-Benz Int'l Gym Oriental Other Tennis Qizhong Motorsport circuit International Street Tianma Cycling Tour of Chongming Island Golf BMW Masters Sheshan Golf Club Horse racing Shanghai Race Club SportsteamsFootball Shenhua Port Jiading Huilong Other Basketball Sharks TransportAirports Hongqiao Pudong Closed Longhua Jiangwan Railwaystation Shanghai Shanghai South Shanghai Hongqiao Ports Port of Shanghai Yangshan Modes Shanghai rail transit Suburban Rail Shanghai Metro Maglev Train Zhangjiang Tram Songjiang Tram Buses in Shanghai Shanghai Ferry Shanghai Public Transport Card Bridges Yangtze River Chonghai Chongqi Yangtze East China Sea Donghai Huangpu River Fengpu Lupu Minpu Nanpu Songpu Waibaidu Xupu Yangpu Stone arch Fangsheng Puji Wan'an Tunnels Bund Tunnel Bund Sightseeing Tunnel Dapu Road Tunnel Shanghai Yangtze River Tunnel and Bridge UniversitiesNational Donghua East Normal East Science and Technology Finance and Economics Fudan International Studies Naval Medical Shanghai Jiaotong Tongji Municipal East Political Science and Law Electric Power Engineering Sciences Fisheries Finance International Business and Economics Leadership Lixin Maritime Music Normal Ocean Open Poly Political Science and Law Dianji Shanghai Science and Technology Sport Tech Theatre Technology Visual Art Private Europe Business German New York Sanda Category Authority control databases International FAST VIAF National Israel United States Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shanghai Pudong International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Pudong_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_administrative_divisions_of_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Huangpu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangpu_River"},{"link_name":"bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_(geography)"},{"link_name":"Puxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puxi"},{"link_name":"state-level new area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_areas"},{"link_name":"East China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"Oriental Pearl Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Pearl_Tower"},{"link_name":"Jin Mao Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jin_Mao_Tower"},{"link_name":"Shanghai World Financial Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_World_Financial_Center"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Tower"},{"link_name":"Puxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puxi"},{"link_name":"Bund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bund_(Shanghai)"},{"link_name":"foreign concessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concessions_in_China"},{"link_name":"Port of Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Expo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Expo_Park"},{"link_name":"Century Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Park_(Shanghai)"},{"link_name":"Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiang_Hi-Tech_Park"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Pudong International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Pudong_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Jiuduansha Wetland Nature Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiuduansha_Wetland_Nature_Reserve"},{"link_name":"Nanhui New City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanhui_New_City"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Disney Resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Disney_Resort"}],"text":"District in Shanghai, People's Republic of ChinaThis article is about the district in Shanghai. For the airport situated here, see Shanghai Pudong International Airport.District & State-level new area in Shanghai, People's Republic of ChinaPudong is a district of Shanghai located east of the Huangpu, the river which flows through central Shanghai. The name Pudong was originally applied to the Huangpu's east bank, directly across from the west bank or Puxi, the historic city center. It now refers to the broader Pudong New Area, a state-level new area which extends all the way to the East China Sea.The traditional area of Pudong is now home to the Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone and the Shanghai Stock Exchange and many of Shanghai's best-known buildings, such as the Oriental Pearl Tower, the Jin Mao Tower, the Shanghai World Financial Center, and the Shanghai Tower. These modern skyscrapers directly face Puxi's historic Bund, a remnant of former foreign concessions in China. The rest of the new area includes the Port of Shanghai, the Shanghai Expo and Century Park, Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, Shanghai Pudong International Airport, the Jiuduansha Wetland Nature Reserve, Nanhui New City, and the Shanghai Disney Resort.","title":"Pudong"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Old City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_City_of_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"foreign concessions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_International_Settlement"},{"link_name":"Puxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puxi"},{"link_name":"Huangpu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangpu_District,_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Yangpu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangpu_District"},{"link_name":"Nanshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanshi_District,_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Huangpu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangpu_District,_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Yangpu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangpu_District"},{"link_name":"Nanshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanshi_District,_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Wusong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wusong_District"},{"link_name":"Chuansha County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuansha_County"},{"link_name":"Li Peng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Peng"},{"link_name":"Special Economic Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_economic_zones_of_China"},{"link_name":"Deng Xiaoping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping"},{"link_name":"Reform and Opening Up","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_and_opening_up"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-2"},{"link_name":"foreign direct investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_China"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-2"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui"},{"link_name":"supertall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyscraper"},{"link_name":"skyline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyline"},{"link_name":"urbanization in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization_in_China"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-2"},{"link_name":"State Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Council_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Nanhui District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanhui_District"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Expo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Expo"},{"link_name":"public park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Expo_Park"},{"link_name":"Chuansha County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuansha_County"},{"link_name":"Nanhui County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanhui_District"}],"text":"Pudong—literally \"The East Bank of the Huangpu River\"—originally referred only to the less-developed land across from Shanghai's Old City and foreign concessions. The area was mainly farmland and only slowly developed, with warehouses and wharfs near the shore administered by the districts of Puxi on the west bank: Huangpu, Yangpu, and Nanshi. Pudong was originally established as a county in 1958 until 1961 which the county was split among Huangpu, Yangpu, Nanshi, Wusong and Chuansha County. Premier Li Peng announced the policy of Pudong's opening and development on April 18, 1990. On October 1, 1992, the original area of Pudong County and Chuansha County merged and established Pudong New Area.In 1993, the Chinese government set up a Special Economic Zone in Chuansha, creating the Pudong New Area. Deng Xiaoping had initiated its development three years earlier to build further confidence in Reform and Opening Up.[2]: 158  Pudong's description as a New Area served to distinguish it from existing SEZs.[2]: 158  It had even more open policies than existing SEZs, in terms of attracting foreign direct investment and developing the local economy.[2]: 158The western tip of the Pudong district was designated as the Lujiazui Finance and Trade Zone and has become a financial hub of modern China. Several landmark buildings were constructed, including the Oriental Pearl Tower, and the supertall Jin Mao Building (420.5 m or 1,380 ft), Shanghai World Financial Center (494 m or 1,621 ft) and Shanghai Tower (632 m or 2,073 ft), the world's first trio of adjacent supertall skyscrapers. These buildings—all along Century Avenue and visible from the historic Bund—now form the most common skyline of Shanghai.In official discourses on urbanization in China, Pudong is considered the paradigmatic example of the 1990s approach to urbanization.[2]: 157On May 6, 2009, it was disclosed that the State Council had approved the proposal to merge Nanhui District with Pudong and comprise the majority of eastern Shanghai. In 2010, Pudong was host to the main venues of the Shanghai Expo, whose grounds now form a public park.Pudong New Area consist of the original Pudong County (northeastern portion of Shanghai County), Chuansha County, and Nanhui County.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_(China)"},{"link_name":"Direct-Controlled Municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct-administered_municipalities_of_China"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"prefecture-level cities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefecture-level_city"},{"link_name":"sub-provincial city","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-provincial_division"},{"link_name":"Party Standing Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party_Provincial_Standing_Committee"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Districts of the Direct-Controlled Municipality of Shanghai are administratively on the same level as prefecture-level cities. However, the government of Pudong has a status equivalent to that of a sub-provincial city, which is a half-level above a prefecture-level city. This is due to Pudong's size and importance as the financial hub of China. The Pudong Communist Party Secretary is the top office of the district, followed by the district governor of Pudong. The Pudong party chief is customarily also a member of the Shanghai Party Standing Committee.[citation needed]On April 27, 2015, the People's Government of Pudong New Area is working with China (Shanghai) Pilot Free-Trade Zone Administrative Committee.[3]","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Huangpu River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangpu_River"},{"link_name":"East China Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_China_Sea"},{"link_name":"Puxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puxi"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"2020 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Chinese_census"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"total fertility rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_fertility_rate"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"}],"text":"Pudong is bounded by the Huangpu River in the west and the East China Sea in the east. Pudong is distinguished from Puxi (\"West Bank\"), the older part of Shanghai. It has an area of 1,210.4 square kilometres (467.3 sq mi) and, according to the 2020 census, a population of 5,681,512 inhabitants, accounting for around 22.8 percent of Shanghai and 1.85 million more than in 2010. Pudong's resident population growth is well above national average because it is a popular immigration destination. The 2020 census shows a 8% increase in the last decade, or an annual pace of 0.8%.[4]Excluding immigrants, the birth rate in 2010 was 0.806% while the death rate is 0.729, resulting a net growth of 0.077%. The total fertility rate is 1.03, well below the replacement level.[5] The district actually has a negative registered household population growth if immigrants are excluded, thus the growth is purely driven by immigration.The 2020 census shows a population density of 3,006/km2.[4] About 3/4 of the population live in the northern part and part of city center called \"Northern Territory\". 1/4 live in the \"Southern Territory\" that was the Nanhui District. The Northern Territory has a 6,667 population density, while the Southern Territory has 1,732/km2. Suburbs saw a greater increase in population during 2000–2010 with the help of the city's suburb expansion policy. Some counties in the traditional city center saw a population decrease.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of township-level divisions of Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_township-level_divisions_of_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Liuzao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liuzao,_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Chuanshaxin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chuanshaxin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Luchaogang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luchaogang"},{"link_name":"Shengang Subdistrict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shengang_Subdistrict&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nanhui Xincheng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanhui_New_City"}],"text":"Further information: List of township-level divisions of Shanghai* – Liuzao town merged into Chuanshaxin town.\n** – Luchaogang town and Shengang Subdistrict merged and form Nanhui Xincheng town.","title":"Subdistricts and towns"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NYUShanghai.jpg"},{"link_name":"New York University Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Maritime University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Maritime_University"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Dianji University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Dianji_University"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Fisheries University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Fisheries_University"},{"link_name":"China Executive Leadership Academy in Pudong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Executive_Leadership_Academy_in_Pudong"},{"link_name":"Fudan University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudan_University"},{"link_name":"New York University Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"ShanghaiTech University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ShanghaiTech_University"}],"sub_title":"Universities and higher education","text":"New York University ShanghaiShanghai Maritime University\nShanghai Dianji University\nShanghai Fisheries University\nChina Executive Leadership Academy in Pudong\nFudan University in Zhangjiang\nNew York University Shanghai\nShanghaiTech University","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"No. 2 High School Attached to East China Normal University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No._2_High_School_Attached_to_East_China_Normal_University"},{"link_name":"Jianping High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jianping_High_School"},{"link_name":"Dongchang High School of ECNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dongchang_High_School_of_ECNU&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pudong Foreign Languages School of Shanghai International Studies University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pudong_Foreign_Languages_School_of_Shanghai_International_Studies_University&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Jincai Experimental Junior Middle School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Jincai_Experimental_Junior_Middle_School"},{"link_name":"Dulwich College Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulwich_College_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"French School of Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_School_of_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Nord Anglia International School Shanghai Pudong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord_Anglia_International_School_Shanghai_Pudong"},{"link_name":"German School Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_School_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Shanghai American School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_American_School"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Japanese School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Japanese_School"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Wellington College International Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_College_International_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Concordia International School Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordia_International_School_Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Gold Apple Bilingual School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Gold_Apple_Bilingual_School"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Shangde Experimental School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shanghai_Shangde_Experimental_School&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Pinghe School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Pinghe_School"}],"sub_title":"Primary and secondary schools","text":"Public schools:No. 2 High School Attached to East China Normal University\nJianping High School\nDongchang High School of ECNU\nPudong Foreign Languages School of Shanghai International Studies University\nShanghai Jincai Experimental Junior Middle SchoolInternational schools:Dulwich College Shanghai[7]\nFrench School of Shanghai Pudong Campus[8]\nNord Anglia International School Shanghai Pudong\nGerman School Shanghai Pudong Campus[9]\nShanghai American School Pudong Campus[10]\nShanghai Japanese School (SJS) Pudong Campus (elementary and junior high),[11] and SJS Senior High School[12]\nWellington College International Shanghai[13]\nConcordia International School Shanghai Pudong Campus[14]Other private schools:Shanghai Gold Apple Bilingual School\nShanghai Shangde Experimental School\nShanghai Pinghe School","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanghai_-_Planet_Imagery.jpg"},{"link_name":"gross domestic product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product"},{"link_name":"purchasing power parity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pudonggdp-1"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui"},{"link_name":"Waigaoqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waigaoqiao"},{"link_name":"mainland China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainland_China"},{"link_name":"Jinqiao Export Processing Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jinqiao_Export_Processing_Zone&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiang_Hi-Tech_Park"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pudong_area_of_Shanghai,_at_night.jpg"},{"link_name":"Disney resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Disney_Resort"},{"link_name":"Disneyland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Disneyland_Park"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Pudong aerial view.With the Nanhui District merger in May 2009, the size of Pudong's economy grew. The district's 2022 gross domestic product amounts to an estimated CN¥1.601 trillion (US$238 billion), with services comprising 74.7% of economic output. Its GDP per capita was CN¥281,180, corresponding to around US$41,755 by nominal values and US$68,647 by purchasing power parity values.[1]. The area is divided into four distinct economic districts. Apart from Lujiazui Trade and Finance Zone, there is Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade zone in mainland China covering approximately 10 square kilometres (3.9 sq mi) in north-east Pudong. The Jinqiao Export Processing Zone is another major industrial area in Pudong covering 19 square kilometres (7.3 sq mi) Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park is a special area for technology-oriented businesses.The Pudong area continues to experience rapid development, especially in the commercial sector, with 1.3 million square meters of prime office space reaching completion in 2008, more than the previous two years combined.[15] Pudong has also attracted considerable fixed asset and real estate investment, reporting 87.268 billion RMB in fixed asset investment and 27.997 billion RMB in real estate investment in 2008.[16]Pudong area of Shanghai, at nightThe newest Disney resort, with a Disneyland included, is located in Pudong, which is open to tourists in June 2016.[17]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bao Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bao_Steel"},{"link_name":"simplified Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Comac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comac"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Yangtze River Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangtze_River_Express"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Hang Seng Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang_Seng_Bank"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Kroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kroll_Inc."},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Shanghai World Financial Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_World_Financial_Center"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pudong_Shanghai_November_2017_panorama.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pudong_Shanghai_November_2017_panorama.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Businesses","text":"Bao Steel has its head office in the Bao Steel Tower (simplified Chinese: 宝钢大厦; traditional Chinese: 寶鋼大廈; pinyin: Bǎogāng Dàshà) in Pudong.[18] Comac has its head office in Pudong.[19] The headquarters of Yangtze River Express, a cargo airline, are in the Pufa Tower (浦发大厦; 浦发大廈; Pǔfā Dàshà) in Pudong.[20]Hang Seng Bank has its mainland offices in the Hang Seng Bank Tower in Pudong.[21] Kroll has an office in the Hang Seng Bank Tower.[22] Google has its Shanghai offices in the Shanghai World Financial Center.[23]Skyscrapers in Pudong","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shanghai Pudong International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Pudong_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Line 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Metro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Pudong_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_4,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_8,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_11,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_12,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_13,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16,_Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"magnetic levitation train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Maglev_Train"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Huangpu_River-The_Bund.JPG"},{"link_name":"Puxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puxi"},{"link_name":"bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge"},{"link_name":"Nanpu Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanpu_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Yangpu Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangpu_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Xupu Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xupu_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Lupu Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupu_Bridge"},{"link_name":"arch bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_bridge"},{"link_name":"Fuxing Rd.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fuxing_Rd.&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui"},{"link_name":"Puxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puxi"},{"link_name":"Yangpu Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangpu_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui"},{"link_name":"Xupu Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xupu_Bridge"}],"text":"The Shanghai Pudong International Airport opened its doors in 1999, shortening the travel time for visitors.In the same year, Line 2 of the Shanghai Metro commenced services. An extension brought the line further east, where it serves the airport. Other lines, namely Lines 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13 and 16 also have sections that serve parts of Pudong. A magnetic levitation train began operating in 2004, moving passengers between the airport and Longyang Road Metro station.Ships on the Huangpu River with Pudong in viewPudong is connected to Puxi by several tunnels and four major bridges. The first of these bridges were the Nanpu Bridge (1991) and the Yangpu Bridge (1993). The Xupu Bridge opened in 1996. The latest of these is Lupu Bridge, which is the world's second longest arch bridge and was completed in 2002. Currently there are five tunnels that link the two sides, Dapu Rd. Tunnel, the first tunnel across the Huangpu River, Yan'an Rd. Tunnel, running east–west, and Dalian Rd. Tunnel, running north–south, Fuxing Rd. Tunnel, complementing the Yan'an Rd. Tunnel, Waihuan Tunnel, one part of Shanghai Outer Ring Express. Two new tunnels linking Lujiazui to Puxi are under construction.Roads in Pudong have no particular longitudinal or latitudinal orientation. Major thoroughfares Pudong Avenue, Zhangyang Road and Yanggao Road run east–west until Yangpu Bridge before turning gradually to become north–south. Century Avenue crosses all three major roads and extends from Lujiazui to Century Park. Yanggao Road extends south to the A20, Shanghai's outer Ring road, which runs east–west from Xupu Bridge and then north–south beginning at the interchange near Renxi Village, when the east–west expressway turns into Yingbin Avenue, headed for Pudong International Airport.","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shanghai Metro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Metro"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Maglev Train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Maglev_Train"},{"link_name":"China Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Railway"},{"link_name":"Line 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui_Station"},{"link_name":"14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_14_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Dongchang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongchang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Century Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_4_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Science and Technology Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Science_and_Technology_Museum_Station"},{"link_name":"Century Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Park_Station_(Shanghai)"},{"link_name":"Longyang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longyang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Maglev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_maglev_train"},{"link_name":"Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiang_Hi-Tech_Park_Station"},{"link_name":"Jinke Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinke_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Guanglan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanglan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Tangzhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangzhen_Station"},{"link_name":"Middle Chuangxin Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chuangxin_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"East Huaxia Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Huaxia_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Chuansha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuansha_Station"},{"link_name":"Lingkong Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingkong_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Yuandong Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuandong_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"Haitiansan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haitiansan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Pudong International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudong_International_Airport_Station"},{"link_name":"Maglev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_maglev_train"},{"link_name":"Line 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_4_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Pudong Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudong_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_14_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Century Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Pudian Road (4)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudian_Road_Station_(Line_4)"},{"link_name":"Lancun Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancun_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Tangqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangqiao_Station"},{"link_name":"Line 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Gangcheng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangcheng_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_10_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"North Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Waigaoqiao_Free_Trade_Zone_Station"},{"link_name":"Hangjin Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangjin_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"South Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Waigaoqiao_Free_Trade_Zone_Station"},{"link_name":"Zhouhai Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhouhai_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Wuzhou Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wuzhou_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"Dongjing Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongjing_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Jufeng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jufeng_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_12_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Wulian Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulian_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Boxing Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Jinqiao Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinqiao_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Yunshan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunshan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_14_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Deping Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deping_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Beiyangjing Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beiyangjing_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Minsheng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minsheng_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yuanshen Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanshen_Stadium_Station"},{"link_name":"Century Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_4_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Pudian Road (6))","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudian_Road_Station_(Line_6)"},{"link_name":"Lancun Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancun_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_4_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Children's Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Children%27s_Medical_Center_Station"},{"link_name":"Linyi Xincun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linyi_Xincun_Station"},{"link_name":"West Gaoke Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Gaoke_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Dongming Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongming_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_13_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Gaoqing Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaoqing_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"West Huaxia Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Huaxia_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Shangnan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangnan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"South Lingyan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Lingyan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Oriental Sports Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Sports_Center_Station"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_8_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_11_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Line 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Houtan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houtan_Station"},{"link_name":"Changqing Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changqing_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_13_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yaohua Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaohua_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_8_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yuntai Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuntai_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"West Gaoke Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Gaoke_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"South Yanggao Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Yanggao_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Jinxiu Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinxiu_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Fanghua Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanghua_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Longyang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longyang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Maglev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_maglev_train"},{"link_name":"Huamu Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huamu_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Line 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_8_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"China Art Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Art_Museum_Station"},{"link_name":"Yaohua Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaohua_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Chengshan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengshan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_13_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yangsi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangsi_Station"},{"link_name":"Oriental Sports Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Sports_Center_Station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_11_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Lingzhao Xincun Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingzhao_Xincun_Station"},{"link_name":"Line 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Shangcheng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangcheng_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Century Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_4_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Middle Yanggao Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Yanggao_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Fangdian Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangdian_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Lantian Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantian_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_14_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Taierzhuang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taierzhuang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Jinqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinqiao_Station"},{"link_name":"Jinji Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinji_Road_station_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Jinhai Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinhai_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_12_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Gutang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Minlei Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minlei_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Caolu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caolu_Station"},{"link_name":"Line 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_10_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Shuangjiang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuangjiang_Road_station"},{"link_name":"West Gaoqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Gaoqiao_station"},{"link_name":"Gaoqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaoqiao_station_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Gangcheng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangcheng_Road_station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Jilong Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jilong_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Line 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_11_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Disney Resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Resort_Station"},{"link_name":"Kangxin Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxin_Highway_Station"},{"link_name":"Xiuyan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiuyan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Luoshan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoshan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yuqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuqiao_Station"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Pusan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"East Sanlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Sanlin_Station"},{"link_name":"Sanlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanlin_Station"},{"link_name":"Oriental Sports Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Sports_Center_Station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_8_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Line 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_12_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Donglu Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donglu_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Jufeng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jufeng_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"North Yanggao Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Yanggao_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Jinjing Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinjing_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Shenjiang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenjiang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Jinhai Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinhai_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"Line 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_13_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Shibo Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibo_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"Changqing Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changqing_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Chengshan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengshan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_8_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Dongming Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dongming_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Huapeng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huapeng_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Xianan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xianan_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Beicai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beicai_station"},{"link_name":"Chenchun Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenchun_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Lianxi Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lianxi_Road_station"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Middle Huaxia Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Huaxia_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Zhongke Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhongke_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Xuelin Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuelin_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Zhangjiang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhangjiang_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Line 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_14_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui_station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"South Pudong Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Pudong_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Pudong Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudong_Avenue_station"},{"link_name":"4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_4_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yuanshen Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuanshen_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Changyi Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changyi_Road_station"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Xiepu Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiepu_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Longju Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longju_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Yunshan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunshan_Road_station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Lantian Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantian_Road_station"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Huangyang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huangyang_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Yunshun Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunshun_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Pudong Football Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudong_Football_Stadium_station"},{"link_name":"Jinyue Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinyue_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Guiqiao Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guiqiao_Road_station"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Line 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Longyang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longyang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Maglev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_maglev_train"},{"link_name":"Middle Huaxia Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Huaxia_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_13_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Luoshan Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luoshan_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_11_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"East Zhoupu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Zhoupu_Station"},{"link_name":"Heshahangcheng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heshahangcheng_Station"},{"link_name":"East Hangtou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Hangtou_Station"},{"link_name":"Xinchang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinchang_Station"},{"link_name":"Wild Animal Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Animal_Park_Station"},{"link_name":"Huinan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huinan_Station"},{"link_name":"East Huinan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Huinan_Station"},{"link_name":"Shuyuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuyuan_Station"},{"link_name":"Lingang Avenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingang_Avenue_Station"},{"link_name":"Dishui Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dishui_Lake_Station"},{"link_name":"Line 18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Changyi Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changyi_Road_station"},{"link_name":"14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_14_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Minsheng Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minsheng_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_6_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Middle Yanggao Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Yanggao_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_9_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yingchun Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yingchun_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Longyang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longyang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Maglev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_maglev_train"},{"link_name":"Fangxin Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fangxin_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Beizhong Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beizhong_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Lianxi Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lianxi_Road_station"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_13_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Yuqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuqiao_station"},{"link_name":"11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_11_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Kangqiao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangqiao_station"},{"link_name":"Zhoupu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhoupu_station"},{"link_name":"Fanrong Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanrong_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Shenmei Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenmei_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Hetao Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetao_Road_station"},{"link_name":"Xiasha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiasha_station_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Hangtou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangtou_station"},{"link_name":"Shanghai maglev train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_maglev_train"},{"link_name":"Longyang Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longyang_Road_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_7_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_16_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_18_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Pudong International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudong_International_Airport_Station"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_2_(Shanghai_Metro)"},{"link_name":"Pudong railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pudong_railway"},{"link_name":"Luchaogang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luchaogang_Railway_Station&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Situan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Situan_Railway_Station&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Metro","text":"Pudong is currently served by ten metro lines and one tram line operated by Shanghai Metro and one maglev line operated by Shanghai Maglev Train and one suburban line operated by China Railway:Line 2 - Lujiazui  14 , Dongchang Road, Century Avenue  4  6  9 , Shanghai Science and Technology Museum, Century Park, Longyang Road  7  16  18  Maglev , Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park, Jinke Road, Guanglan Road, Tangzhen, Middle Chuangxin Road, East Huaxia Road, Chuansha, Lingkong Road, Yuandong Avenue, Haitiansan Road, Pudong International Airport  Maglev \n     Line 4 - Pudong Avenue  14 , Century Avenue  2  6  9 , Pudian Road (4), Lancun Road  6 , Tangqiao\n     Line 6 - Gangcheng Road  10 , North Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, Hangjin Road, South Waigaoqiao Free Trade Zone, Zhouhai Road, Wuzhou Avenue, Dongjing Road, Jufeng Road  12 , Wulian Road, Boxing Road, Jinqiao Road, Yunshan Road  14 , Deping Road, Beiyangjing Road, Minsheng Road  18 , Yuanshen Stadium, Century Avenue  2  4  9 , Pudian Road (6)), Lancun Road  4 , Shanghai Children's Medical Center, Linyi Xincun, West Gaoke Road  7 , Dongming Road  13 , Gaoqing Road, West Huaxia Road, Shangnan Road, South Lingyan Road, Oriental Sports Center  8   11 \n     Line 7 - Houtan, Changqing Road  13 , Yaohua Road  8 , Yuntai Road, West Gaoke Road  6 , South Yanggao Road, Jinxiu Road, Fanghua Road, Longyang Road  2  16  18  Maglev , Huamu Road\n     Line 8 - China Art Museum, Yaohua Road  7 , Chengshan Road  13 , Yangsi, Oriental Sports Center  6   11 , Lingzhao Xincun Station\n     Line 9 - Shangcheng Road, Century Avenue  2  4  6 , Middle Yanggao Road  18 , Fangdian Road, Lantian Road  14 , Taierzhuang Road, Jinqiao, Jinji Road, Jinhai Road  12 , Gutang Road, Minlei Road, Caolu\n     Line 10 - Shuangjiang Road, West Gaoqiao, Gaoqiao, Gangcheng Road  6 , Jilong Road\n     Line 11 - Disney Resort, Kangxin Highway, Xiuyan Road, Luoshan Road  16 , Yuqiao  18 , Pusan Road, East Sanlin, Sanlin, Oriental Sports Center  6  8 \n     Line 12 - Donglu Road, Jufeng Road  6 , North Yanggao Road, Jinjing Road, Shenjiang Road, Jinhai Road\n     Line 13 - Shibo Avenue, Changqing Road  7 , Chengshan Road  8 , Dongming Road  6 , Huapeng Road, Xianan Road, Beicai, Chenchun Road, Lianxi Road  18 , Middle Huaxia Road  16 , Zhongke Road, Xuelin Road, Zhangjiang Road\n     Line 14 - Lujiazui  2 , South Pudong Road, Pudong Avenue  4 , Yuanshen Road, Changyi Road  18 , Xiepu Road, Longju Road, Yunshan Road  6 , Lantian Road  9 , Huangyang Road, Yunshun Road, Pudong Football Stadium, Jinyue Road, Guiqiao Road  9 \n     Line 16 - Longyang Road  2  7  18  Maglev , Middle Huaxia Road  13 , Luoshan Road  11 , East Zhoupu, Heshahangcheng, East Hangtou, Xinchang, Wild Animal Park, Huinan, East Huinan, Shuyuan, Lingang Avenue, Dishui Lake\n     Line 18 - Changyi Road  14 , Minsheng Road  6 , Middle Yanggao Road  9 , Yingchun Road, Longyang Road  2  7  16  Maglev , Fangxin Road, Beizhong Road, Lianxi Road  13 , Yuqiao  11 , Kangqiao, Zhoupu, Fanrong Road, Shenmei Road, Hetao Road, Xiasha, Hangtou\n     Shanghai maglev train - Longyang Road  2  7  16  18 , Pudong International Airport 2 \n     Pudong railway - Luchaogang, Situan","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Oriental_Pearl_Radio_%26_Television_Tower_at_night.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Oriental_Pearl_TV_Tower_at_the_Pudong_end_(36273763372).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanghai_-_Pudong_-_Lujiazui.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shaghai_Jin_Mao.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pudong_district_roads_traffic_skyscrapers,_Shanghai.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lujiazui_skyline,_Pudong,_Shanghai.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanghai_citic.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanghaipudong.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oriental Pearl Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Pearl_Tower"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanghai_(Huang_Pu_River_at_Night)_046.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2010_Oriental_Pearl_Tower,_Shanghai_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanghai_Oriental_Pearl_Tower-20150516-RM-130617.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oriental Pearl Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriental_Pearl_Tower"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lujiazui_at_night,_Shanghai.JPG"},{"link_name":"Lujiazui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lujiazui"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Night_view_from_the_Bund.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shanghai_China_9Mar2018_SkySat.jpg"}],"text":"The Oriental Pearl tower at night\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLujiazui\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPudong from the Bund\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJin Mao building\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLujiazui Finance and Trade Zone, Pudong\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLujiazui skyline, Pudong\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCITIC Pacific HQ & Mandarin Oriental\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPudong at night (video)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPudong at night with Oriental Pearl Tower\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHuangpu River at night. “Better City, Better Life” is the theme of Expo 2010.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShanghai Oriental Pearl Tower\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tView of the Oriental Pearl Tower\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLujiazui at night\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLujiazui at night\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSatellite image of Shanghai's Pudong district.","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of twin towns and sister cities in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_China"},{"link_name":"twinned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_city"},{"link_name":"Beverly Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverly_Hills,_California"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BevHills-24"},{"link_name":"Kuopio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuopio"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pudong-25"}],"text":"See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in ChinaPudong is twinned with:Beverly Hills, California[24]\n Kuopio[25]","title":"Twin towns — sister cities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"humid subtropical climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate"},{"link_name":"Köppen climate classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification"},{"link_name":"precipitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation"},{"link_name":"relative humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_humidity"},{"link_name":"sunshine hours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine_duration"},{"link_name":"possible sunshine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunshine_duration"},{"link_name":"China Meteorological Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Meteorological_Administration"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cma_graphical-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Pudong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa). The average annual temperature in Pudong is 17.1 °C (62.8 °F). The temperatures are highest on average in July, at around 28.6 °C (83.5 °F), and lowest in January, at around 4.9 °C (40.8 °F).Climate data for Pudong (1997–2020 normals, extremes 1981–2010)\n\n\nMonth\n\nJan\n\nFeb\n\nMar\n\nApr\n\nMay\n\nJun\n\nJul\n\nAug\n\nSep\n\nOct\n\nNov\n\nDec\n\nYear\n\n\nRecord high °C (°F)\n\n21.5(70.7)\n\n26.3(79.3)\n\n29.0(84.2)\n\n33.6(92.5)\n\n33.3(91.9)\n\n37.2(99.0)\n\n40.0(104.0)\n\n40.5(104.9)\n\n36.5(97.7)\n\n33.2(91.8)\n\n29.2(84.6)\n\n22.4(72.3)\n\n40.5(104.9)\n\n\nMean daily maximum °C (°F)\n\n8.9(48.0)\n\n10.7(51.3)\n\n15.1(59.2)\n\n20.7(69.3)\n\n25.4(77.7)\n\n28.0(82.4)\n\n32.8(91.0)\n\n32.3(90.1)\n\n28.4(83.1)\n\n23.6(74.5)\n\n18.1(64.6)\n\n11.6(52.9)\n\n21.3(70.3)\n\n\nDaily mean °C (°F)\n\n5.1(41.2)\n\n6.7(44.1)\n\n10.6(51.1)\n\n15.9(60.6)\n\n20.9(69.6)\n\n24.2(75.6)\n\n28.7(83.7)\n\n28.5(83.3)\n\n24.7(76.5)\n\n19.7(67.5)\n\n13.9(57.0)\n\n7.6(45.7)\n\n17.2(63.0)\n\n\nMean daily minimum °C (°F)\n\n2.1(35.8)\n\n3.4(38.1)\n\n6.9(44.4)\n\n11.8(53.2)\n\n17.1(62.8)\n\n21.2(70.2)\n\n25.5(77.9)\n\n25.6(78.1)\n\n21.7(71.1)\n\n16.2(61.2)\n\n10.4(50.7)\n\n4.3(39.7)\n\n13.9(56.9)\n\n\nRecord low °C (°F)\n\n−6.5(20.3)\n\n−4.4(24.1)\n\n−2.3(27.9)\n\n2.5(36.5)\n\n9.1(48.4)\n\n14.1(57.4)\n\n19.9(67.8)\n\n19.5(67.1)\n\n13.4(56.1)\n\n6.8(44.2)\n\n0.6(33.1)\n\n−4.5(23.9)\n\n−6.5(20.3)\n\n\nAverage precipitation mm (inches)\n\n77.2(3.04)\n\n69.8(2.75)\n\n85.1(3.35)\n\n87.1(3.43)\n\n91.1(3.59)\n\n231.1(9.10)\n\n154.2(6.07)\n\n227.0(8.94)\n\n136.3(5.37)\n\n78.1(3.07)\n\n70.4(2.77)\n\n57.1(2.25)\n\n1,364.5(53.73)\n\n\nAverage precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)\n\n10.6\n\n10.8\n\n12.2\n\n11.0\n\n11.3\n\n14.4\n\n12.2\n\n13.3\n\n10.7\n\n7.5\n\n9.7\n\n9.0\n\n132.7\n\n\nAverage snowy days\n\n2.0\n\n1.7\n\n0.6\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0.8\n\n5.1\n\n\nAverage relative humidity (%)\n\n73\n\n74\n\n72\n\n71\n\n74\n\n82\n\n78\n\n79\n\n77\n\n73\n\n75\n\n71\n\n75\n\n\nMean monthly sunshine hours\n\n107.1\n\n111.1\n\n147.0\n\n168.4\n\n173.1\n\n120.0\n\n189.8\n\n191.4\n\n156.8\n\n152.3\n\n122.7\n\n123.4\n\n1,763.1\n\n\nPercent possible sunshine\n\n33\n\n35\n\n39\n\n43\n\n41\n\n28\n\n44\n\n47\n\n43\n\n44\n\n39\n\n40\n\n40\n\n\nSource: China Meteorological Administration[26][27]","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Kris Olds, “Globalizing Shanghai: The ‘Global Intelligence Corps’ and the Building of Pudong,\" Cities 12, no. 3 (1997) 109–23.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"New York University Shanghai","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/NYUShanghai.jpg/220px-NYUShanghai.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pudong aerial view.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Shanghai_-_Planet_Imagery.jpg/310px-Shanghai_-_Planet_Imagery.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pudong area of Shanghai, at night","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pudong_area_of_Shanghai%2C_at_night.jpg/220px-Pudong_area_of_Shanghai%2C_at_night.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ships on the Huangpu River with Pudong in view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Huangpu_River-The_Bund.JPG/220px-Huangpu_River-The_Bund.JPG"}]
[{"title":"Shanghai Premier League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Premier_League"}]
[{"reference":"\"【直击引领区】2022年浦东GDP超1.6万亿元\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pudong.gov.cn/ylqxcbd/20230203/751502.html","url_text":"\"【直击引领区】2022年浦东GDP超1.6万亿元\""}]},{"reference":"Hu, Richard (2023). Reinventing the Chinese City. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-21101-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University_Press","url_text":"Columbia University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-21101-7","url_text":"978-0-231-21101-7"}]},{"reference":"上海自贸区空间扩大4倍 将与浦东新区合署办公. People's Daily. April 27, 2015. Retrieved April 27, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.ifeng.com/a/20150428/43646093_0.shtml","url_text":"上海自贸区空间扩大4倍 将与浦东新区合署办公"}]},{"reference":"\"上海发布第七次全国人口普查主要数据，浦东常住人口568万人占上海22.8%\". Pudong District People's Government. 20 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pudong.gov.cn/006006/20211210/87369.html","url_text":"\"上海发布第七次全国人口普查主要数据，浦东常住人口568万人占上海22.8%\""}]},{"reference":"Census Office of the State Council of the People's Republic of China; Population and Employment Statistics Division of the National Bureau of Statistics of the People's Republic of China (2012). 中国2010人口普查分乡、镇、街道资料 (1 ed.). Beijing: China Statistics Print. ISBN 978-7-5037-6660-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-5037-6660-2","url_text":"978-7-5037-6660-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Concordia International School Shanghai\". Home Page. Retrieved 16 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.concordiashanghai.org/","url_text":"\"Concordia International School Shanghai\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sister Cities Committee\". City of Beverly Hills. 2019-07-01. Retrieved 2019-07-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://beverlyhills.org/citymanager/committees/sistercitiescommittee/","url_text":"\"Sister Cities Committee\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vice Chairman of Shanghai visited Kuopio\". Kuopio Innovation. 2013-06-04. Retrieved 2015-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kuopioinnovation.fi/news/215/102/Vice-Chairman-of-Shanghai-visited-Kuopio/d,sisasivu","url_text":"\"Vice Chairman of Shanghai visited Kuopio\""}]},{"reference":"中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 26 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://data.cma.cn/data/weatherBk.html","url_text":"中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Meteorological_Administration","url_text":"China Meteorological Administration"}]},{"reference":"中国气象数据网 (in Simplified Chinese). China Meteorological Administration. Retrieved 26 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://experience.arcgis.com/template/e724038fda394e9d9b7921f10fd1aa55/page/%E7%BA%AF%E8%A1%A8%E6%A0%BC%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1-(%E5%AF%B9%E6%AF%948110%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96)/?org=UQmaps","url_text":"中国气象数据网"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Meteorological_Administration","url_text":"China Meteorological Administration"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_theory
Communication theory
["1 Models and Elements of Communication Theory","2 Epistemology in Communication Theory","2.1 Interpretive Empirical Epistemology","2.2 Metric Empirical or Post-Positivist Epistemology","2.3 Rhetorical Epistemology","2.4 Critical Epistemology","2.5 New modes of Communication","3 Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline","3.1 Information Theory","3.2 Interpersonal Communication","3.3 Organizational Communication","3.4 Sociocultural Communication","3.5 Political Communication","3.6 Computer-Mediated Communication","3.7 Rhetoric and Speech","3.8 Critical Perspectives on Media and Communication","4 Axiology","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
Proposed description of communication phenomena This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see Communication Theory (journal). Communication PortalHistory General aspects Communication theory Information Semiotics Language Logic Sociology Fields Discourse analysis Linguistics Mass communication Organizational communication Pragmatics Semiotics Sociolinguistics Disciplines Public speaking Discourse Culture Argumentation Persuasion Research Rhetoric Categories Outline vte Communication theory is a proposed description of communication phenomena, the relationships among them, a storyline describing these relationships, and an argument for these three elements. Communication theory provides a way of talking about and analyzing key events, processes, and commitments that together form communication. Theory can be seen as a way to map the world and make it navigable; communication theory gives us tools to answer empirical, conceptual, or practical communication questions. Communication is defined in both commonsense and specialized ways. Communication theory emphasizes its symbolic and social process aspects as seen from two perspectives—as exchange of information (the transmission perspective), and as work done to connect and thus enable that exchange (the ritual perspective). Sociolinguistic research in the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated that the level to which people change their formality of their language depends on the social context that they are in. This had been explained in terms of social norms that dictated language use. The way that we use language differs from person to person. Communication theories have emerged from multiple historical points of origin, including classical traditions of oratory and rhetoric, Enlightenment-era conceptions of society and the mind, and post-World War II efforts to understand propaganda and relationships between media and society. Prominent historical and modern foundational communication theorists include Kurt Lewin, Harold Lasswell, Paul Lazarsfeld, Carl Hovland, James Carey, Elihu Katz, Kenneth Burke, John Dewey, Jurgen Habermas, Marshall McLuhan, Theodor Adorno, Antonio Gramsci, Jean-Luc Nancy, Robert E. Park, George Herbert Mead, Joseph Walther, Claude Shannon and Stuart Hall—although some of these theorists may not explicitly associate themselves with communication as a discipline or field of study. Models and Elements of Communication Theory Main article: Models of communication One key activity in communication theory is the development of models and concepts used to describe communication. In the Linear Model, communication works in one direction: a sender encodes some message and sends it through a channel for a receiver to decode. In comparison, the Interactional Model of communication is bidirectional. People send and receive messages in a cooperative fashion as they continuously encode and decode information. The Transactional Model assumes that information is sent and received simultaneously through a noisy channel, and further considers a frame of reference or experience each person brings to the interaction. Some of the basic elements of communication studied in communication theory are: Source: Shannon calls this element the "information source", which "produces a message or sequence of messages to be communicated to the receiving terminal." Sender: Shannon calls this element the "transmitter", which "operates on the message in some way to produce a signal suitable for transmission over the channel." In Aristotle, this element is the "speaker" (orator). Channel: For Shannon, the channel is "merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver." Receiver: For Shannon, the receiver "performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter, reconstructing the message from the signal." Destination: For Shannon, the destination is "the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended". Message: from Latin mittere, "to send". The message is a concept, information, communication, or statement that is sent in a verbal, written, recorded, or visual form to the recipient. Feedback Entropic elements, positive and negative Epistemology in Communication Theory Communication theories vary substantially in their epistemology, and articulating this philosophical commitment is part of the theorizing process. Although the various epistemic positions used in communication theories can vary, one categorization scheme distinguishes among interpretive empirical, metric empirical or post-positivist, rhetorical, and critical epistemologies. Communication theories may also fall within or vary by distinct domains of interest, including information theory, rhetoric and speech, interpersonal communication, organizational communication, sociocultural communication, political communication, computer-mediated communication, and critical perspectives on media and communication. Interpretive Empirical Epistemology Interpretive empirical epistemology or interpretivism seeks to develop subjective insight and understanding of communication phenomena through the grounded study of local interactions. When developing or applying an interpretivist theory, the researcher themself is a vital instrument. Theories characteristic of this epistemology include structuration and symbolic interactionism, and frequently associated methods include discourse analysis and ethnography. Metric Empirical or Post-Positivist Epistemology A metric empirical or post-positivist epistemology takes an axiomatic and sometimes causal view of phenomena, developing evidence about association or making predictions, and using methods oriented to measurement of communication phenomena. Post-positivist theories are generally evaluated by their accuracy, consistency, fruitfulness, and parsimoniousness. Theories characteristic of a post-positivist epistemology may originate from a wide range of perspectives, including pragmatist, behaviorist, cognitivist, structuralist, or functionalist. Although post-positivist work may be qualitative or quantitative, statistical analysis is a common form of evidence and scholars taking this approach often seek to develop results that can be reproduced by others. Rhetorical Epistemology A rhetorical epistemology lays out a formal, logical, and global view of phenomena with particular concern for persuasion through speech. A rhetorical epistemology often draws from Greco-Roman foundations such as the works of Aristotle and Cicero although recent work also draws from Michel Foucault, Kenneth Burke, Marxism, second-wave feminism, and cultural studies. Rhetoric has changed overtime. Fields of rhetoric and composition have grown to become more interested in alternative types of rhetoric. Critical Epistemology A critical epistemology is explicitly political and intentional with respect to its standpoint, articulating an ideology and criticizing phenomena with respect to this ideology. A critical epistemology is driven by its values and oriented to social and political change. Communication theories associated with this epistemology include deconstructionism, cultural Marxism, third-wave feminism, and resistance studies. New modes of Communication During the mid-1970's, presiding paradigm had passed in regards to the development in communication. More specifically the increase in a participatory approach which challenged studies like diffusionism which had dominated the 1950s. There is no valid reason for studying people as an aggregation of specific individuals that have their social experience unified and cancelled out with the means of allowing only the attributes of socio-economic status, age and sex, representative of them except by assuming that the audience is a mass. Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline Approaches to theory also vary by perspective or subdiscipline. The communication theory as a field model proposed by Robert Craig has been an influential approach to breaking down the field of communication theory into perspectives, each with its own strengths, weaknesses, and trade-offs. Information Theory Main articles: Information Theory and A Mathematical Theory of Communication In information theory, communication theories examine the technical process of information exchange while typically using mathematics. This perspective on communication theory originated from the development of information theory in the early 1920s. Limited information-theoretic ideas had been developed at Bell Labs, all implicitly assuming events of equal probability. The history of information theory as a form of communication theory can be traced through a series of key papers during this time. Harry Nyquist's 1924 paper, Certain Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed, contains a theoretical section quantifying "intelligence" and the "line speed" at which it can be transmitted by a communication system. Ralph Hartley's 1928 paper, Transmission of Information, uses the word "information" as a measurable quantity, reflecting the receiver's ability to distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other. The natural unit of information was therefore the decimal digit, much later renamed the hartley in his honour as a unit or scale or measure of information. Alan Turing in 1940 used similar ideas as part of the statistical analysis of the breaking of the German second world war Enigma ciphers. The main landmark event that opened the way to the development of the information theory form of communication theory was the publication of an article by Claude Shannon (1916–2001) in the Bell System Technical Journal in July and October 1948 under the title "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". Shannon focused on the problem of how best to encode the information that a sender wants to transmit. He also used tools in probability theory, developed by Norbert Wiener. They marked the nascent stages of applied communication theory at that time. Shannon developed information entropy as a measure for the uncertainty in a message while essentially inventing the field of information theory. "The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point." In 1949, in a declassified version of Shannon's wartime work on the mathematical theory of cryptography ("Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems"), he proved that all theoretically unbreakable ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad. He is also credited with the introduction of sampling theory, which is concerned with representing a continuous-time signal from a (uniform) discrete set of samples. This theory was essential in enabling telecommunications to move from analog to digital transmissions systems in the 1960s and later. In 1951, Shannon made his fundamental contribution to natural language processing and computational linguistics with his article "Prediction and Entropy of Printed English" (1951), providing a clear quantifiable link between cultural practice and probabilistic cognition. Interpersonal Communication Main article: Interpersonal Communication Theories in interpersonal communication are concerned with the ways in which very small groups of people communicate with one another. It also provides the framework in which we view the world around us. Although interpersonal communication theories have their origin in mass communication studies of attitude and response to messages, since the 1970s, interpersonal communication theories have taken on a distinctly personal focus. Interpersonal theories examine relationships and their development, non-verbal communication, how we adapt to one another during conversation, how we develop the messages we seek to convey, and how deception works. Organizational Communication Main article: Organizational Communication Organizational communication theories address not only the ways in which people use communication in organizations, but also how they use communication to constitute that organization, developing structures, relationships, and practices to achieve their goals. Although early organization communication theories were characterized by a so-called container model (the idea that an organization is a clearly bounded object inside which communication happens in a straightforward manner following hierarchical lines), more recent theories have viewed the organization as a more fluid entity with fuzzy boundaries. Studies within the field of organizational communication mention communication as a facilitating act and a precursor to organizational activity as cooperative systems. Given that its object of study is the organization, it is perhaps not surprising that organization communication scholarship has important connections to theories of management, with Management Communication Quarterly serving as a key venue for disseminating scholarly work. However, theories in organizational communication retain a distinct identity through their critical perspective toward power and attention to the needs and interests of workers, rather than privileging the will of management. Organizational communication can be distinguished by its orientation to four key problematics: voice (who can speak within an organization), rationality (how decisions are made and whose ends are served), organization (how is the organization itself structured and how does it function), and the organization-society relationship (how the organization may alternately serve, exploit, and reflect society as a whole). Sociocultural Communication This line of theory examines how social order is both produced and reproduced through communication. Communication problems in the sociocultural tradition may be theorized in terms of misalignment, conflict, or coordination failure. Theories in this domain explore dynamics such as micro and macro level phenomena, structure versus agency, the local versus the global, and communication problems which emerge due to gaps of space and time, sharing some kinship with sociological and anthropological perspectives but distinguished by keen attention to communication as constructed and constitutive. Political Communication Main article: Political communication Political communication theories are concerned with the public exchange of messages among political actors of all kinds. This scope is in contrast to theories of political science which look inside political institutions to understand decision-making processes. Early political communication theories examined the roles of mass communication (i.e. television and newspapers) and political parties on political discourse. However, as the conduct of political discourse has expanded, theories of political communication have likewise developed, to now include models of deliberation and sensemaking, and discourses about a wide range of political topics: the role of the media (e.g. as a gatekeeper, framer, and agenda-setter); forms of government (e.g. democracy, populism, and autocracy); social change (e.g. activism and protests); economic order (e.g. capitalism, neoliberalism and socialism); human values (e.g. rights, norms, freedom, and authority.); and propaganda, disinformation, and trust. Two of the important emerging areas for theorizing about political communication are the examination of civic engagement and international comparative work (given that much of political communication has been done in the United States). Computer-Mediated Communication Main article: Computer-mediated communication Theories of computer-mediated communication or CMC emerged as a direct response to the rapid emergence of novel mediating communication technologies in the form of computers. CMC scholars inquire as to what may be lost and what may be gained when we shift many of our formerly unmediated and entrained practices (that is, activities that were necessarily conducted in a synchronized, ordered, dependent fashion) into mediated and disentrained modes. For example, a discussion that once required a meeting can now be an e-mail thread, an appointment confirmation that once involved a live phone call can now be a click on a text message, a collaborative writing project that once required an elaborate plan for drafting, circulating, and annotating can now take place in a shared document. CMC theories fall into three categories: cues-filtered-out theories, experiential/perceptual theories, and adaptation to/exploitation of media. Cues-filtered-out theories have often treated face-to-face interaction as the gold standard against which mediated communication should be compared, and includes such theories as social presence theory, media richness theory, and the Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE). Experiential/perceptual theories are concerned with how individuals perceive the capacity of technologies, such as whether the technology creates psychological closeness (electronic propinquity theory). Adaptation/exploitation theories consider how people may creatively expand or make use of the limitations in CMC systems, including social information processing theory (SIP) and the idea of the hyperpersonal (when people make use of the limitations of the mediated channel to create a selective view of themselves with their communication partner, developing an impression that exceeds reality). Theoretical work from Joseph Walther has been highly influential in the development of CMC. Theories in this area often examine the limitations and capabilities of new technologies, taking up an 'affordances' perspective inquiring what the technology may "request, demand, encourage, discourage, refuse, and allow." Recently the theoretical and empirical focus of CMC has shifted more explicitly away from the 'C' (i.e. Computer) and toward the 'M' (i.e. Mediation). Rhetoric and Speech Main articles: Rhetoric and Public Speaking Theories in rhetoric and speech are often concerned with discourse as an art, including practical consideration of the power of words and our ability to improve our skills through practice. Rhetorical theories provide a way of analyzing speeches when read in an exegetical manner (close, repeated reading to extract themes, metaphors, techniques, argument, meaning, etc.); for example with respect to their relationship to power or justice, or their persuasion, emotional appeal, or logic. Critical Perspectives on Media and Communication Main article: Cultural Studies Critical social theory in communication, while sharing some traditions with rhetoric, is explicitly oriented toward "articulating, questioning, and transcending presuppositions that are judged to be untrue, dishonest, or unjust."(p. 147) Some work bridges this distinction to form critical rhetoric. Critical theories have their roots in the Frankfurt School, which brought together anti-establishment thinkers alarmed by the rise of Nazism and propaganda, including the work of Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno. Modern critical perspectives often engage with emergent social movements such as post-colonialism and queer theory, seeking to be reflective and emancipatory. One of the influential bodies of theory in this area comes from the work of Stuart Hall, who questioned traditional assumptions about the monolithic functioning of mass communication with his Encoding/Decoding Model of Communication and offered significant expansions of theories of discourse, semiotics, and power through media criticism and explorations of linguistic codes and cultural identity. Axiology Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development. Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches. The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations. The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings. The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development. References ^ a b c Miller, Katherine (2005). Communication theories : perspectives, processes, and contexts (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072937947. ^ Carey, James W. (2009). Communication as culture : essays on media and society (Rev. ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415989763. ^ "Communication Theory", The SAGE Encyclopedia of Online Education, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 2016, doi:10.4135/9781483318332.n73, ISBN 9781483318356, retrieved March 17, 2022 ^ a b Peters, John Durham (December 1, 1993). "Genealogical Notes on 'The Field'". Journal of Communication. 43 (4): 132–139. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01313.x. ^ Cohen, Herman (1994). The history of speech communication : the emergence of a discipline, 1914-1945. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association. ISBN 0944811140. ^ a b Schramm, Wilbur (September 1, 1983). "The Unique Perspective of Communication: A Retrospective View". Journal of Communication. 33 (3): 6–17. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1983.tb02401.x. ^ Rogers, Everett M. (1997). A history of comm. study : a biographical approach. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0684840014. ^ Butchart, Garnet C. (2019). Embodiment, Relation, Community: A Continental Philosophy of Communication. Penn State University. ISBN 978-0-271-08325-4. ^ The Evolution of Human Communication: From Theory to Practice. EtrePress. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 14, 2021. ^ Communication process (PDF). Center for Literacy Studies of the University of Tennessee. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 27, 2011. Retrieved November 15, 2011. ^ a b c d e f g h Shannon, Claude Elwood (2011) . A Mathematical Theory of Communication (PDF). The Bell System Technical Journal. p. 55. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 15, 1998. Retrieved November 4, 2011. ^ Richard Whately; Douglas Ehninger; David Potter (1963). Elements of Rhetoric: Comprising an Analysis of the Laws of Moral Evidence. Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-2974-8. Retrieved November 7, 2011. ^ a b c d e f Anderson, James A. (1996). Communication theory : epistemological foundations. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 9781572300835. ^ Craig, Robert T. (May 2007). "Pragmatism in the Field of Communication Theory". Communication Theory. 17 (2): 125–145. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2007.00292.x. ^ Weinstein, Susanna J. (2006). "Rhetoric Before and Beyond the Greeks (review)". Rhetoric & Public Affairs. 9 (2): 321–324. doi:10.1353/rap.2006.0065. ISSN 1534-5238. S2CID 161508066. ^ Waisbord, Silvio (July 2008). "The institutional challenges of participatory communication in international aid". Social Identities. 14 (4): 505–522. doi:10.1080/13504630802212009. ISSN 1350-4630. S2CID 5406561. ^ Berger, Arthur (1995). Essentials of Mass Communication Theory. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications. doi:10.4135/9781483345420. ISBN 978-0-8039-7357-2. ^ Management Effectiveness and Communication, MBA 665, Online Resources, Communication Models. Bob Jones University. 2008. Archived from the original on October 22, 2015. Retrieved November 5, 2011. ^ Berger, Charles R. (September 1, 2005). "Interpersonal Communication: Theoretical Perspectives, Future Prospects". Journal of Communication. 55 (3): 415–447. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02680.x. ^ Littlejohn, Stephen W.; Foss, Karen A. (2009). Encyclopedia of communication theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif. ISBN 978-1-4129-5937-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Putnam, Linda L.; Mumby, Dennis K. (2014). The Sage handbook of organizational communication : advances in theory, research, and methods (Third ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN 9781412987721.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Cooren, François; Kuhn, Timothy; Cornelissen, Joep P.; Clark, Timothy (2011). "Communication, Organizing and Organization: An Overview and Introduction to the Special Issue". Organization Studies. 32 (9). Sage Journals: 1149–1170. doi:10.1177/0170840611410836. S2CID 146480897. Retrieved March 28, 2023. ^ Multiagent Systems: A Modern Approach to Distributed Artificial Intelligence (PDF). MIT Press. 1999. pp. 299–305. ISBN 0-262-23203-0. Retrieved March 28, 2023. ^ Rooney, David; McKenna, Bernard; Barker, James R. (November 2011). "History of Ideas in Management Communication Quarterly". Management Communication Quarterly. 25 (4): 583–611. doi:10.1177/0893318911405623. S2CID 146702568. ^ Mumby, Dennis K.; Stohl, Cynthia (August 1996). "Disciplining Organizational Communication Studies". Management Communication Quarterly. 10 (1): 50–72. doi:10.1177/0893318996010001004. S2CID 145811767. ^ a b c Craig, Robert T. (May 1999). "Communication Theory as a Field". Communication Theory. 9 (2): 119–161. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x. ^ a b c The international encyclopedia of communication. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2008. ISBN 9781405131995. ^ Blumler, Jay G.; Kavanagh, Dennis (July 1999). "The Third Age of Political Communication: Influences and Features". Political Communication. 16 (3): 209–230. doi:10.1080/105846099198596. ^ Bennett, W. Lance (2021). The disinformation age : politics, technology, and disruptive communication in the United States. New York, NY. ISBN 9781108914628.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Bennett, W Lance; Pfetsch, Barbara (April 1, 2018). "Rethinking Political Communication in a Time of Disrupted Public Spheres". Journal of Communication. 68 (2): 243–253. doi:10.1093/joc/jqx017. ^ a b The Sage handbook of interpersonal communication (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. 2011. pp. 443–480. ISBN 9781412974745. ^ Walther, Joseph B. (February 1996). "Computer-Mediated Communication: Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction". Communication Research. 23 (1): 3–43. doi:10.1177/009365096023001001. S2CID 152119884. ^ Davis, Jenny L. (2020). How artifacts afford : the power and politics of everyday things. Cambridge, MA. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-262-35888-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Carr, Caleb T (March 23, 2020). "CMC Is Dead, Long Live CMC!: Situating Computer-Mediated Communication Scholarship Beyond the Digital Age". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 25 (1): 9–22. doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmz018. ^ Condit, Celeste Michelle (2016). Contemporary rhetorical theory : a reader (Second ed.). New York. ISBN 9781462526581.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Jasinski, James (September 2001). "The status of theory and method in rhetorical criticism". Western Journal of Communication. 65 (3): 249–270. doi:10.1080/10570310109374705. S2CID 151981343. ^ Mckerrow, Raymie E. (June 1989). "Critical rhetoric: Theory and praxis". Communication Monographs. 56 (2): 91–111. doi:10.1080/03637758909390253. ^ Bronner, Stephen Eric (2011). Critical Theory : a Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0199730070. ^ During, Simon (2007). The cultural studies reader (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415374132. ^ Rutherford, Jonathan, ed. (1990). Identity : community, culture, difference. London: Lawrence & Wishart. ISBN 9781909831803. ^ Hall, Stuart; Evans, Jessica; Nixon, Sean, eds. (2013). Representation (Second ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN 9781849205634.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Miller 2005a. ^ Goykhman, Oskar Yakovlevich; Goncharova, Liubov Markovna; Kitanina, Ella Anatolyevna; Nesterova, Tatyana Vyacheslavovna (2020). "Axiological Approach in The Development of Communicative Competences in University Students". SHS Web of Conferences. 79: 02009. doi:10.1051/shsconf/20207902009. ISSN 2261-2424. Retrieved September 25, 2023. ^ Miller 2005a, p. 30. ^ Miller 2005a, pp. 30–31. ^ Miller 2005a, p. 31. Further reading Chandler, Daniel. Transmission Model of Communication (1994). Daniel Chandler, 1994. Web. October 10, 2009. Cooren, F. (2012). Communication theory at the center: Ventriloquism and the communicative constitution of reality, Journal of Communication, Volume 62, Issue 1, 1 February 2012, 1–20. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01622.x Dainton, M., Zelley, E. D. (2019). Applying communication theory for professional life: A practical introduction. 4th ed., Page 17. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=NjtEDwAAQBAJ&dq=Dainton+2004+Communication+Theory+Sage+Publication&pg=PP1 Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York, NY: Anchor/Doubleday, 1959. 73. Lanham, Richard A. Analyzing Prose' 2nd (2003): 7, 10. Littlejohn, S. W.,Theories of human communication. 7th edition, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2002. Emory A Griffin, A first look at communication theory. 3rd edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-022822-1 Miller, K., Communication Theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005. Pierce, T., Corey, A. M., The Evolution of Human Communication: From Theory to Practice. 2nd edition, Ontario: Etrepress, 2019. Retrieved from https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/ Archived January 15, 2021, at the Wayback Machine Werner, E., "Cooperating Agents: A Unified Theory of Communication and Social Structure", Distributed Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 2, L. Gasser and M. Huhns, eds., Morgan Kaufmann and Pitman Press, 1989. Abstract Werner, E., "Toward a Theory of Communication and Cooperation for Multiagent Planning", Theoretical Aspects of Reasoning About Knowledge: Proceedings of the Second Conference, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, pp. 129–143, 1988. Abstract PDF Robert, Craig T. "Communication." Encyclopedia of Rhetoric (2001): 125. Rothwell, J. Dan. "In the Company of Others: an introduction to communication." 3rd Edition, New York, NY; Oxford University Press, 2010. 11–15. A First Look At Communication Theory by Em Griffin (Published by McGraw-Hill) Communication Theory: Epistemological Foundations by James A. Anderson Communication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media (5th Edition) by Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard Theories of Human Communication (9th Edition) by Stephen W. Littlejohn and Karen A. Foss Communication: Theories and Applications by Mark V. Redmond Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts by Katherine Miller Communication Theory: Media, Technology and Society by David Holmes Building Communication Theory by Dominic A. Infante, Andrew S. Rancer, and Deanna F. Womack The Communication Theory Reader by Paul Cobley Clarifying Communications Theories: A Hands-On Approach by Gerald Stone, Michael Singletary, and Virginia P. Richmond An Introduction to Communication Theory by Don W. Stacks, Sidney R. Hill, and Mark, III Hickson Introducing Communication Theory by Richard West and Lynn H. Turner Miller, Katherine (2005a). Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-293794-7. External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Communication Theory Library resources about Communication theory Resources in your library Resources in other libraries American Communication Association Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication Central States Communication Association Eastern Communication Association International Communication Association National Communication Association Southern States Communication Association Western States Communication Association vteCommunication studies History Outline Topics and terminology Biocommunication Broadcasting Communication Computer-mediated communication Conversation History of communication Information Intercultural Interpersonal Intrapersonal Journalism Mass media Meaning Media ecology Meta-communication Models of communication New media Nonverbal communication Nonviolent communication Propaganda Reading Speech Symbol Telecommunication Text and conversation theory Writing Subfields Closed-loop Communication design Communication theory Communicology Crisis Climate Cross-cultural Developmental Discourse analysis Environmental Global Health International Mass Media studies Mediated cross-border Organizational Political Risk Science Technical Visual Scholars Adorno Barthes Bateson Benjamin Burke Castells Chomsky Craig Ellul Fisher Flusser Gasset Gerbner Goffman Habermas Horkheimer Huxley Innis Jakobson Janis Johnson Kincaid Lippman Luhmann Marcuse McLuhan Mead Morgan Ong Packard Peirce Postman Quebral Richards Rogers Schramm Shannon Tankard Tannen Wertheimer Category vteSocial sciences Outline History Index Primary Anthropology archaeology cultural social physical Economics microeconomics macroeconomics econometrics mathematical Geography physical human technical integrated History cultural auxiliary sciences economic human military political social Law jurisprudence legal history legal systems public law private law Linguistics semiotics Political science international relations comparative philosophy public policy public administration Psychology abnormal cognitive developmental personality social Sociology criminology demography internet rural urban Interdisciplinary Administration business public Anthrozoology Area studies Business studies Cognitive science Communication studies Community studies Criminology Cultural studies Development studies Education Environmental social science studies Food studies Gender studies Global studies Historical sociology History of technology Human ecology Information science International studies Linguistics Management Media studies Philosophies science economics history psychology social science Planning land use regional urban Political ecology Political economy Political sociology Public health Regional science Science and technology studies Science studies historical Quantum social science Social work Vegan studies List List of social science journals Other categorizations Behavioral sciences Geisteswissenschaft Human science Humanities Category Commons Society portal Wikiversity Authority control databases: National Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Communication Theory (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_Theory_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-miller2005-1"},{"link_name":"Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication"},{"link_name":"commonsense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonsense_knowledge_(artificial_intelligence)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carey2009-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peters1993-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cohen1994-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schramm1983-6"},{"link_name":"Kurt Lewin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Lewin"},{"link_name":"Harold Lasswell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Lasswell"},{"link_name":"Paul Lazarsfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Lazarsfeld"},{"link_name":"Carl Hovland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Hovland"},{"link_name":"James Carey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_W._Carey"},{"link_name":"Elihu Katz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elihu_Katz"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Burke"},{"link_name":"John Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey"},{"link_name":"Jurgen Habermas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurgen_Habermas"},{"link_name":"Marshall McLuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan"},{"link_name":"Theodor Adorno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Adorno"},{"link_name":"Antonio Gramsci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci"},{"link_name":"Jean-Luc Nancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Luc_Nancy"},{"link_name":"Robert E. Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_E._Park"},{"link_name":"George Herbert Mead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead"},{"link_name":"Joseph Walther","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Walther"},{"link_name":"Claude Shannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon"},{"link_name":"Stuart Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peters1993-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schramm1983-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rogers1997-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-butchart2019-8"}],"text":"This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see Communication Theory (journal).Communication theory is a proposed description of communication phenomena, the relationships among them, a storyline describing these relationships, and an argument for these three elements. Communication theory provides a way of talking about and analyzing key events, processes, and commitments that together form communication. Theory can be seen as a way to map the world and make it navigable; communication theory gives us tools to answer empirical, conceptual, or practical communication questions.[1]Communication is defined in both commonsense and specialized ways. Communication theory emphasizes its symbolic and social process aspects as seen from two perspectives—as exchange of information (the transmission perspective), and as work done to connect and thus enable that exchange (the ritual perspective).[2]Sociolinguistic research in the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated that the level to which people change their formality of their language depends on the social context that they are in. This had been explained in terms of social norms that dictated language use. The way that we use language differs from person to person.[3]Communication theories have emerged from multiple historical points of origin, including classical traditions of oratory and rhetoric, Enlightenment-era conceptions of society and the mind, and post-World War II efforts to understand propaganda and relationships between media and society.[4][5][6] Prominent historical and modern foundational communication theorists include Kurt Lewin, Harold Lasswell, Paul Lazarsfeld, Carl Hovland, James Carey, Elihu Katz, Kenneth Burke, John Dewey, Jurgen Habermas, Marshall McLuhan, Theodor Adorno, Antonio Gramsci, Jean-Luc Nancy, Robert E. Park, George Herbert Mead, Joseph Walther, Claude Shannon and Stuart Hall—although some of these theorists may not explicitly associate themselves with communication as a discipline or field of study.[4][6][7][8]","title":"Communication theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_source"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rhetoric-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"concept","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept"},{"link_name":"statement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/statement"}],"text":"One key activity in communication theory is the development of models and concepts used to describe communication. In the Linear Model, communication works in one direction: a sender encodes some message and sends it through a channel for a receiver to decode. In comparison, the Interactional Model of communication is bidirectional. People send and receive messages in a cooperative fashion as they continuously encode and decode information. The Transactional Model assumes that information is sent and received simultaneously through a noisy channel, and further considers a frame of reference or experience each person brings to the interaction.[9]Some of the basic elements of communication studied in communication theory are:[10]Source: Shannon calls this element the \"information source\", which \"produces a message or sequence of messages to be communicated to the receiving terminal.\"[11]\nSender: Shannon calls this element the \"transmitter\", which \"operates on the message in some way to produce a signal suitable for transmission over the channel.\"[11] In Aristotle, this element is the \"speaker\" (orator).[12]\nChannel: For Shannon, the channel is \"merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver.\"[11]\nReceiver: For Shannon, the receiver \"performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter, reconstructing the message from the signal.\"[11]\nDestination: For Shannon, the destination is \"the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended\".[11]\nMessage: from Latin mittere, \"to send\". The message is a concept, information, communication, or statement that is sent in a verbal, written, recorded, or visual form to the recipient.\nFeedback\nEntropic elements, positive and negative","title":"Models and Elements of Communication Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"epistemology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-miller2005-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anderson1996-13"}],"text":"Communication theories vary substantially in their epistemology, and articulating this philosophical commitment is part of the theorizing process.[1] Although the various epistemic positions used in communication theories can vary, one categorization scheme distinguishes among interpretive empirical, metric empirical or post-positivist, rhetorical, and critical epistemologies.[13] Communication theories may also fall within or vary by distinct domains of interest, including information theory, rhetoric and speech, interpersonal communication, organizational communication, sociocultural communication, political communication, computer-mediated communication, and critical perspectives on media and communication.","title":"Epistemology in Communication Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"structuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuration"},{"link_name":"symbolic interactionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism"},{"link_name":"discourse analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discourse_analysis"},{"link_name":"ethnography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anderson1996-13"}],"sub_title":"Interpretive Empirical Epistemology","text":"Interpretive empirical epistemology or interpretivism seeks to develop subjective insight and understanding of communication phenomena through the grounded study of local interactions. When developing or applying an interpretivist theory, the researcher themself is a vital instrument. Theories characteristic of this epistemology include structuration and symbolic interactionism, and frequently associated methods include discourse analysis and ethnography.[13]","title":"Epistemology in Communication Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anderson1996-13"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-miller2005-1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-craig2007-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anderson1996-13"}],"sub_title":"Metric Empirical or Post-Positivist Epistemology","text":"A metric empirical or post-positivist epistemology takes an axiomatic and sometimes causal view of phenomena, developing evidence about association or making predictions, and using methods oriented to measurement of communication phenomena.[13] \nPost-positivist theories are generally evaluated by their accuracy, consistency, fruitfulness, and parsimoniousness.[1] Theories characteristic of a post-positivist epistemology may originate from a wide range of perspectives, including pragmatist, behaviorist, cognitivist, structuralist, or functionalist.[14][13] Although post-positivist work may be qualitative or quantitative, statistical analysis is a common form of evidence and scholars taking this approach often seek to develop results that can be reproduced by others.","title":"Epistemology in Communication Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michel Foucault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Foucault"},{"link_name":"Kenneth Burke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Burke"},{"link_name":"Marxism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism"},{"link_name":"second-wave feminism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-wave_feminism"},{"link_name":"cultural studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anderson1996-13"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-15"}],"sub_title":"Rhetorical Epistemology","text":"A rhetorical epistemology lays out a formal, logical, and global view of phenomena with particular concern for persuasion through speech.\nA rhetorical epistemology often draws from Greco-Roman foundations such as the works of Aristotle and Cicero although recent work also draws from Michel Foucault, Kenneth Burke, Marxism, second-wave feminism, and cultural studies.[13] Rhetoric has changed overtime. Fields of rhetoric and composition have grown to become more interested in alternative types of rhetoric.[15]","title":"Epistemology in Communication Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"deconstructionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstructionism"},{"link_name":"cultural Marxism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxist_cultural_analysis"},{"link_name":"third-wave feminism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third-wave_feminism"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anderson1996-13"}],"sub_title":"Critical Epistemology","text":"A critical epistemology is explicitly political and intentional with respect to its standpoint, articulating an ideology and criticizing phenomena with respect to this ideology. A critical epistemology is driven by its values and oriented to social and political change. Communication theories associated with this epistemology include deconstructionism, cultural Marxism, third-wave feminism, and resistance studies.[13]","title":"Epistemology in Communication Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-17"}],"sub_title":"New modes of Communication","text":"During the mid-1970's, presiding paradigm had passed in regards to the development in communication. More specifically the increase in a participatory approach which challenged studies like diffusionism which had dominated the 1950s.[16] There is no valid reason for studying people as an aggregation of specific individuals that have their social experience unified and cancelled out with the means of allowing only the attributes of socio-economic status, age and sex, representative of them except by assuming that the audience is a mass.[17]","title":"Epistemology in Communication Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communication theory as a field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_theory_as_a_field"},{"link_name":"Robert Craig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_T._Craig"}],"text":"Approaches to theory also vary by perspective or subdiscipline. The communication theory as a field model proposed by Robert Craig has been an influential approach to breaking down the field of communication theory into perspectives, each with its own strengths, weaknesses, and trade-offs.","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"Harry Nyquist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Nyquist"},{"link_name":"Ralph Hartley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Hartley"},{"link_name":"hartley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartley_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Alan Turing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing"},{"link_name":"Enigma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis_of_the_Enigma"},{"link_name":"Claude Shannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon"},{"link_name":"Bell System Technical Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_System_Technical_Journal"},{"link_name":"A Mathematical Theory of Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mathematical_Theory_of_Communication"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"probability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory"},{"link_name":"Norbert Wiener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Wiener"},{"link_name":"information entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_entropy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shannon-11"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_Theory_of_Secrecy_Systems"},{"link_name":"one-time pad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-time_pad"},{"link_name":"sampling theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist%E2%80%93Shannon_sampling_theorem"},{"link_name":"natural language processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing"},{"link_name":"computational linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics"}],"sub_title":"Information Theory","text":"In information theory, communication theories examine the technical process of information exchange while typically using mathematics. [11] This perspective on communication theory originated from the development of information theory in the early 1920s.[18] Limited information-theoretic ideas had been developed at Bell Labs, all implicitly assuming events of equal probability. The history of information theory as a form of communication theory can be traced through a series of key papers during this time. Harry Nyquist's 1924 paper, Certain Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed, contains a theoretical section quantifying \"intelligence\" and the \"line speed\" at which it can be transmitted by a communication system. Ralph Hartley's 1928 paper, Transmission of Information, uses the word \"information\" as a measurable quantity, reflecting the receiver's ability to distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other. The natural unit of information was therefore the decimal digit, much later renamed the hartley in his honour as a unit or scale or measure of information. Alan Turing in 1940 used similar ideas as part of the statistical analysis of the breaking of the German second world war Enigma ciphers. The main landmark event that opened the way to the development of the information theory form of communication theory was the publication of an article by Claude Shannon (1916–2001) in the Bell System Technical Journal in July and October 1948 under the title \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\".[11] Shannon focused on the problem of how best to encode the information that a sender wants to transmit. He also used tools in probability theory, developed by Norbert Wiener.They marked the nascent stages of applied communication theory at that time. Shannon developed information entropy as a measure for the uncertainty in a message while essentially inventing the field of information theory. \"The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point either exactly or approximately a message selected at another point.\"[11] In 1949, in a declassified version of Shannon's wartime work on the mathematical theory of cryptography (\"Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems\"), he proved that all theoretically unbreakable ciphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad. He is also credited with the introduction of sampling theory, which is concerned with representing a continuous-time signal from a (uniform) discrete set of samples. This theory was essential in enabling telecommunications to move from analog to digital transmissions systems in the 1960s and later. In 1951, Shannon made his fundamental contribution to natural language processing and computational linguistics with his article \"Prediction and Entropy of Printed English\" (1951), providing a clear quantifiable link between cultural practice and probabilistic cognition.","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc2009-20"}],"sub_title":"Interpersonal Communication","text":"Theories in interpersonal communication are concerned with the ways in which very small groups of people communicate with one another. It also provides the framework in which we view the world around us. Although interpersonal communication theories have their origin in mass communication studies of attitude and response to messages, since the 1970s, interpersonal communication theories have taken on a distinctly personal focus. Interpersonal theories examine relationships and their development, non-verbal communication, how we adapt to one another during conversation, how we develop the messages we seek to convey, and how deception works.[19][20]","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-orgcomm2014-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Management Communication Quarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_Communication_Quarterly"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rooney2011-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Organizational Communication","text":"Organizational communication theories address not only the ways in which people use communication in organizations, but also how they use communication to constitute that organization, developing structures, relationships, and practices to achieve their goals. Although early organization communication theories were characterized by a so-called container model (the idea that an organization is a clearly bounded object inside which communication happens in a straightforward manner following hierarchical lines), more recent theories have viewed the organization as a more fluid entity with fuzzy boundaries.[21] Studies within the field of organizational communication mention communication as a facilitating act and a precursor to organizational activity as cooperative systems.[22][23]Given that its object of study is the organization, it is perhaps not surprising that organization communication scholarship has important connections to theories of management, with Management Communication Quarterly serving as a key venue for disseminating scholarly work.[24] However, theories in organizational communication retain a distinct identity through their critical perspective toward power and attention to the needs and interests of workers, rather than privileging the will of management.Organizational communication can be distinguished by its orientation to four key problematics: voice (who can speak within an organization), rationality (how decisions are made and whose ends are served), organization (how is the organization itself structured and how does it function), and the organization-society relationship (how the organization may alternately serve, exploit, and reflect society as a whole).[25]","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-craig1999-26"}],"sub_title":"Sociocultural Communication","text":"This line of theory examines how social order is both produced and reproduced through communication. Communication problems in the sociocultural tradition may be theorized in terms of misalignment, conflict, or coordination failure. Theories in this domain explore dynamics such as micro and macro level phenomena, structure versus agency, the local versus the global, and communication problems which emerge due to gaps of space and time, sharing some kinship with sociological and anthropological perspectives \nbut distinguished by keen attention to communication as constructed and constitutive.[26]","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc2008-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blumler1999-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bennett2021-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bennett2018-30"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc2008-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc2008-27"}],"sub_title":"Political Communication","text":"Political communication theories are concerned with the public exchange of messages among political actors of all kinds. This scope is in contrast to theories of political science which look inside political institutions to understand decision-making processes.[27]\nEarly political communication theories examined the roles of mass communication (i.e. television and newspapers) and political parties on political discourse.[28] However, as the conduct of political discourse has expanded, \ntheories of political communication have likewise developed, to now include models of deliberation and sensemaking, and discourses about a wide range of political topics: the role of the media (e.g. as a gatekeeper, framer, and agenda-setter); forms of government (e.g. democracy, populism, and autocracy); social change (e.g. activism and protests); economic order (e.g. capitalism, neoliberalism and socialism); human values (e.g. rights, norms, freedom, and authority.); and propaganda, disinformation, and trust.[29][30][27]\nTwo of the important emerging areas for theorizing about political communication are the examination of civic engagement and international comparative work (given that much of political communication has been done in the United States).[27]","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-interp2011-31"},{"link_name":"social information processing theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_information_processing_theory"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-walther1996-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-interp2011-31"},{"link_name":"Joseph Walther","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Walther"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-davis2011-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-carr2020-34"}],"sub_title":"Computer-Mediated Communication","text":"Theories of computer-mediated communication or CMC emerged as a direct response to the rapid emergence of novel mediating communication technologies in the form of computers. CMC scholars inquire as to what may be lost and what may be gained when we shift many of our formerly unmediated and entrained practices (that is, activities that were necessarily conducted in a synchronized, ordered, dependent fashion) into mediated and disentrained modes. For example, a discussion that once required a meeting can now be an e-mail thread, an appointment confirmation that once involved a live phone call can now be a click on a text message, a collaborative writing project that once required an elaborate plan for drafting, circulating, and annotating can now take place in a shared document.CMC theories fall into three categories: cues-filtered-out theories, experiential/perceptual theories, and adaptation to/exploitation of media. Cues-filtered-out theories have often treated face-to-face interaction as the gold standard against which mediated communication should be compared, and includes such theories as social presence theory, media richness theory, and the Social Identity model of Deindividuation Effects (SIDE). Experiential/perceptual theories are concerned with how individuals perceive the capacity of technologies, such as whether the technology creates psychological closeness (electronic propinquity theory).[31] \nAdaptation/exploitation theories consider how people may creatively expand or make use of the limitations in CMC systems, including social information processing theory (SIP) and the idea of the hyperpersonal (when people make use of the limitations of the mediated channel to create a selective view of themselves with their communication partner, developing an impression that exceeds reality).[32][31] Theoretical work from Joseph Walther has been highly influential in the development of CMC.\nTheories in this area often examine the limitations and capabilities of new technologies, taking up an 'affordances' perspective inquiring what the technology may \"request, demand, encourage, discourage, refuse, and allow.\"[33] Recently the theoretical and empirical focus of CMC has shifted more explicitly away from the 'C' (i.e. Computer) and toward the 'M' (i.e. Mediation).[34]","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-craig1999-26"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-porrovecchio2016-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jasinski2991-36"}],"sub_title":"Rhetoric and Speech","text":"Theories in rhetoric and speech are often concerned with discourse as an art, including practical consideration of the power of words and our ability to improve our skills through practice.[26] Rhetorical theories provide a way of analyzing speeches when read in an exegetical manner (close, repeated reading to extract themes, metaphors, techniques, argument, meaning, etc.); for example with respect to their relationship to power or justice, or their persuasion, emotional appeal, or logic.[35][36]","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-craig1999-26"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mckerrow1989-37"},{"link_name":"Frankfurt School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt_School"},{"link_name":"Max Horkheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Horkheimer"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bronner2011-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-during2007-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rutherford1990-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hall1997-41"}],"sub_title":"Critical Perspectives on Media and Communication","text":"Critical social theory in communication, while sharing some traditions with rhetoric, is explicitly oriented toward \"articulating, questioning, and transcending presuppositions that are judged to be untrue, dishonest, or unjust.\"[26](p. 147) Some work bridges this distinction to form critical rhetoric.[37] Critical theories have their roots in the Frankfurt School, which brought together anti-establishment thinkers alarmed by the rise of Nazism and propaganda, including the work of Max Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno.[38] Modern critical perspectives often engage with emergent social movements such as post-colonialism and queer theory, seeking to be reflective and emancipatory.[39] One of the influential bodies of theory in this area comes from the work of Stuart Hall, who questioned traditional assumptions about the monolithic functioning of mass communication with his Encoding/Decoding Model of Communication and offered significant expansions of theories of discourse, semiotics, and power through media criticism and explorations of linguistic codes and cultural identity.[40][41]","title":"Communication Theory by Perspective/Subdiscipline"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Axiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiology"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller2005a-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller2005a30-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller2005a30%E2%80%9331-45"},{"link_name":"critical theorists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_theorists"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller2005a31-46"}],"text":"Axiology is concerned with how values inform research and theory development.[42] Most communication theory is guided by one of three axiological approaches.[43] The first approach recognizes that values will influence theorists' interests but suggests that those values must be set aside once actual research begins. Outside replication of research findings is particularly important in this approach to prevent individual researchers' values from contaminating their findings and interpretations.[44] The second approach rejects the idea that values can be eliminated from any stage of theory development. Within this approach, theorists do not try to divorce their values from inquiry. Instead, they remain mindful of their values so that they understand how those values contextualize, influence or skew their findings.[45] The third approach not only rejects the idea that values can be separated from research and theory, but rejects the idea that they should be separated. This approach is often adopted by critical theorists who believe that the role of communication theory is to identify oppression and produce social change. In this axiological approach, theorists embrace their values and work to reproduce those values in their research and theory development.[46]","title":"Axiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transmission Model of Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20100106130649/http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/short/trans.html"},{"link_name":"https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01622.x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01622.x"},{"link_name":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NjtEDwAAQBAJ&dq=Dainton+2004+Communication+Theory+Sage+Publication&pg=PP1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=NjtEDwAAQBAJ&dq=Dainton+2004+Communication+Theory+Sage+Publication&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"McGraw-Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-022822-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-022822-1"},{"link_name":"https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210115131249/https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Morgan Kaufmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann"},{"link_name":"Pitman Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pitman_Press&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Abstract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20070317161730/http://cellnomica.netfirms.com/Abstracts/CoopAgentsUnifiedTheory.htm"},{"link_name":"Abstract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20061203061548/http://cellnomica.netfirms.com/Abstracts/AbsTARK88.htm"},{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.tark.org/proceedings/tark_mar7_88/p129-werner.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-07-293794-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-293794-7"}],"text":"Chandler, Daniel. Transmission Model of Communication (1994). Daniel Chandler, 1994. Web. October 10, 2009.\nCooren, F. (2012). Communication theory at the center: Ventriloquism and the communicative constitution of reality, Journal of Communication, Volume 62, Issue 1, 1 February 2012, 1–20. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01622.x\nDainton, M., Zelley, E. D. (2019). Applying communication theory for professional life: A practical introduction. 4th ed., Page 17. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=NjtEDwAAQBAJ&dq=Dainton+2004+Communication+Theory+Sage+Publication&pg=PP1\nGoffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York, NY: Anchor/Doubleday, 1959. 73.\nLanham, Richard A. Analyzing Prose' 2nd (2003): 7, 10.\nLittlejohn, S. W.,Theories of human communication. 7th edition, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2002.\nEmory A Griffin, A first look at communication theory. 3rd edition, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997. ISBN 0-07-022822-1\nMiller, K., Communication Theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.\nPierce, T., Corey, A. M., The Evolution of Human Communication: From Theory to Practice. 2nd edition, Ontario: Etrepress, 2019. Retrieved from https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/ Archived January 15, 2021, at the Wayback Machine\nWerner, E., \"Cooperating Agents: A Unified Theory of Communication and Social Structure\", Distributed Artificial Intelligence, Vol. 2, L. Gasser and M. Huhns, eds., Morgan Kaufmann and Pitman Press, 1989. Abstract\nWerner, E., \"Toward a Theory of Communication and Cooperation for Multiagent Planning\", Theoretical Aspects of Reasoning About Knowledge: Proceedings of the Second Conference, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, pp. 129–143, 1988. Abstract PDF\nRobert, Craig T. \"Communication.\" Encyclopedia of Rhetoric (2001): 125.\nRothwell, J. Dan. \"In the Company of Others: an introduction to communication.\" 3rd Edition, New York, NY; Oxford University Press, 2010. 11–15.\nA First Look At Communication Theory by Em Griffin (Published by McGraw-Hill)\nCommunication Theory: Epistemological Foundations by James A. Anderson\nCommunication Theories: Origins, Methods and Uses in the Mass Media (5th Edition) by Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard\nTheories of Human Communication (9th Edition) by Stephen W. Littlejohn and Karen A. Foss\nCommunication: Theories and Applications by Mark V. Redmond\nCommunication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts by Katherine Miller\nCommunication Theory: Media, Technology and Society by David Holmes\nBuilding Communication Theory by Dominic A. Infante, Andrew S. Rancer, and Deanna F. Womack\nThe Communication Theory Reader by Paul Cobley\nClarifying Communications Theories: A Hands-On Approach by Gerald Stone, Michael Singletary, and Virginia P. Richmond\nAn Introduction to Communication Theory by Don W. Stacks, Sidney R. Hill, and Mark, III Hickson\nIntroducing Communication Theory by Richard West and Lynn H. Turner\nMiller, Katherine (2005a). Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-293794-7.","title":"Further reading"}]
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null
[{"reference":"Miller, Katherine (2005). Communication theories : perspectives, processes, and contexts (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072937947.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0072937947","url_text":"0072937947"}]},{"reference":"Carey, James W. (2009). Communication as culture : essays on media and society (Rev. ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415989763.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415989763","url_text":"9780415989763"}]},{"reference":"\"Communication Theory\", The SAGE Encyclopedia of Online Education, Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, 2016, doi:10.4135/9781483318332.n73, ISBN 9781483318356, retrieved March 17, 2022","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483318332.n73","url_text":"\"Communication Theory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781483318332.n73","url_text":"10.4135/9781483318332.n73"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781483318356","url_text":"9781483318356"}]},{"reference":"Peters, John Durham (December 1, 1993). \"Genealogical Notes on 'The Field'\". Journal of Communication. 43 (4): 132–139. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01313.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-2466.1993.tb01313.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01313.x"}]},{"reference":"Cohen, Herman (1994). The history of speech communication : the emergence of a discipline, 1914-1945. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association. ISBN 0944811140.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0944811140","url_text":"0944811140"}]},{"reference":"Schramm, Wilbur (September 1, 1983). \"The Unique Perspective of Communication: A Retrospective View\". Journal of Communication. 33 (3): 6–17. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1983.tb02401.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-2466.1983.tb02401.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1460-2466.1983.tb02401.x"}]},{"reference":"Rogers, Everett M. (1997). A history of comm. study : a biographical approach. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0684840014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0684840014","url_text":"0684840014"}]},{"reference":"Butchart, Garnet C. (2019). Embodiment, Relation, Community: A Continental Philosophy of Communication. Penn State University. ISBN 978-0-271-08325-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.psupress.org/books/titles/978-0-271-08325-4.html","url_text":"Embodiment, Relation, Community: A Continental Philosophy of Communication"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-08325-4","url_text":"978-0-271-08325-4"}]},{"reference":"The Evolution of Human Communication: From Theory to Practice. EtrePress. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 14, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210115131249/https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/","url_text":"The Evolution of Human Communication: From Theory to Practice"},{"url":"https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Communication process (PDF). Center for Literacy Studies of the University of Tennessee. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 27, 2011. Retrieved November 15, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111027032938/http://www.cls.utk.edu/pdf/ls/Week1_Lesson7.pdf","url_text":"Communication process"},{"url":"http://www.cls.utk.edu/pdf/ls/Week1_Lesson7.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Shannon, Claude Elwood (2011) [July and October 1948]. A Mathematical Theory of Communication (PDF). The Bell System Technical Journal. p. 55. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 15, 1998. Retrieved November 4, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/19980715013250/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf","url_text":"A Mathematical Theory of Communication"},{"url":"http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Richard Whately; Douglas Ehninger; David Potter (1963). Elements of Rhetoric: Comprising an Analysis of the Laws of Moral Evidence. Southern Illinois University Press. ISBN 978-0-8093-2974-8. Retrieved November 7, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bYbgnLDdOkQC&q=Ehninger,+Aristotles&pg=PA8","url_text":"Elements of Rhetoric: Comprising an Analysis of the Laws of Moral Evidence"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8093-2974-8","url_text":"978-0-8093-2974-8"}]},{"reference":"Anderson, James A. (1996). Communication theory : epistemological foundations. New York: Guilford Press. ISBN 9781572300835.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781572300835","url_text":"9781572300835"}]},{"reference":"Craig, Robert T. (May 2007). \"Pragmatism in the Field of Communication Theory\". Communication Theory. 17 (2): 125–145. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2007.00292.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2885.2007.00292.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1468-2885.2007.00292.x"}]},{"reference":"Weinstein, Susanna J. (2006). \"Rhetoric Before and Beyond the Greeks (review)\". Rhetoric & Public Affairs. 9 (2): 321–324. doi:10.1353/rap.2006.0065. ISSN 1534-5238. S2CID 161508066.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Frap.2006.0065","url_text":"10.1353/rap.2006.0065"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1534-5238","url_text":"1534-5238"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161508066","url_text":"161508066"}]},{"reference":"Waisbord, Silvio (July 2008). \"The institutional challenges of participatory communication in international aid\". Social Identities. 14 (4): 505–522. doi:10.1080/13504630802212009. ISSN 1350-4630. 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ISBN 978-0-8039-7357-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781483345420","url_text":"10.4135/9781483345420"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8039-7357-2","url_text":"978-0-8039-7357-2"}]},{"reference":"Management Effectiveness and Communication, MBA 665, Online Resources, Communication Models. Bob Jones University. 2008. Archived from the original on October 22, 2015. Retrieved November 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151022091846/http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/Handouts/Communication%20Models.htm","url_text":"Management Effectiveness and Communication, MBA 665, Online Resources, Communication Models"},{"url":"http://www.shkaminski.com/Classes/Handouts/Communication%20Models.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Berger, Charles R. (September 1, 2005). \"Interpersonal Communication: Theoretical Perspectives, Future Prospects\". Journal of Communication. 55 (3): 415–447. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02680.x.","urls":[{"url":"http://tede.metodista.br/jspui/handle/tede/1578","url_text":"\"Interpersonal Communication: Theoretical Perspectives, Future Prospects\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1460-2466.2005.tb02680.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1460-2466.2005.tb02680.x"}]},{"reference":"Littlejohn, Stephen W.; Foss, Karen A. (2009). Encyclopedia of communication theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif. ISBN 978-1-4129-5937-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5937-7","url_text":"978-1-4129-5937-7"}]},{"reference":"Putnam, Linda L.; Mumby, Dennis K. (2014). The Sage handbook of organizational communication : advances in theory, research, and methods (Third ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN 9781412987721.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412987721","url_text":"9781412987721"}]},{"reference":"Cooren, François; Kuhn, Timothy; Cornelissen, Joep P.; Clark, Timothy (2011). \"Communication, Organizing and Organization: An Overview and Introduction to the Special Issue\". Organization Studies. 32 (9). Sage Journals: 1149–1170. doi:10.1177/0170840611410836. S2CID 146480897. Retrieved March 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0170840611410836","url_text":"\"Communication, Organizing and Organization: An Overview and Introduction to the Special Issue\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0170840611410836","url_text":"10.1177/0170840611410836"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146480897","url_text":"146480897"}]},{"reference":"Multiagent Systems: A Modern Approach to Distributed Artificial Intelligence (PDF). MIT Press. 1999. pp. 299–305. ISBN 0-262-23203-0. 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Communication Theory. 9 (2): 119–161. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x"}]},{"reference":"The international encyclopedia of communication. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2008. ISBN 9781405131995.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405131995","url_text":"9781405131995"}]},{"reference":"Blumler, Jay G.; Kavanagh, Dennis (July 1999). \"The Third Age of Political Communication: Influences and Features\". Political Communication. 16 (3): 209–230. doi:10.1080/105846099198596.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F105846099198596","url_text":"10.1080/105846099198596"}]},{"reference":"Bennett, W. Lance (2021). The disinformation age : politics, technology, and disruptive communication in the United States. New York, NY. ISBN 9781108914628.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108914628","url_text":"9781108914628"}]},{"reference":"Bennett, W Lance; Pfetsch, Barbara (April 1, 2018). \"Rethinking Political Communication in a Time of Disrupted Public Spheres\". Journal of Communication. 68 (2): 243–253. doi:10.1093/joc/jqx017.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjoc%2Fjqx017","url_text":"\"Rethinking Political Communication in a Time of Disrupted Public Spheres\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjoc%2Fjqx017","url_text":"10.1093/joc/jqx017"}]},{"reference":"The Sage handbook of interpersonal communication (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SAGE Publications. 2011. pp. 443–480. ISBN 9781412974745.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412974745","url_text":"9781412974745"}]},{"reference":"Walther, Joseph B. (February 1996). \"Computer-Mediated Communication: Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction\". Communication Research. 23 (1): 3–43. doi:10.1177/009365096023001001. S2CID 152119884.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F009365096023001001","url_text":"10.1177/009365096023001001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152119884","url_text":"152119884"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Jenny L. (2020). How artifacts afford : the power and politics of everyday things. Cambridge, MA. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-262-35888-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-35888-0","url_text":"978-0-262-35888-0"}]},{"reference":"Carr, Caleb T (March 23, 2020). \"CMC Is Dead, Long Live CMC!: Situating Computer-Mediated Communication Scholarship Beyond the Digital Age\". Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. 25 (1): 9–22. doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmz018.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjcmc%2Fzmz018","url_text":"\"CMC Is Dead, Long Live CMC!: Situating Computer-Mediated Communication Scholarship Beyond the Digital Age\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjcmc%2Fzmz018","url_text":"10.1093/jcmc/zmz018"}]},{"reference":"Condit, Celeste Michelle (2016). Contemporary rhetorical theory : a reader (Second ed.). New York. ISBN 9781462526581.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781462526581","url_text":"9781462526581"}]},{"reference":"Jasinski, James (September 2001). \"The status of theory and method in rhetorical criticism\". Western Journal of Communication. 65 (3): 249–270. doi:10.1080/10570310109374705. S2CID 151981343.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10570310109374705","url_text":"10.1080/10570310109374705"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151981343","url_text":"151981343"}]},{"reference":"Mckerrow, Raymie E. (June 1989). \"Critical rhetoric: Theory and praxis\". Communication Monographs. 56 (2): 91–111. doi:10.1080/03637758909390253.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03637758909390253","url_text":"10.1080/03637758909390253"}]},{"reference":"Bronner, Stephen Eric (2011). Critical Theory : a Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0199730070.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199730070","url_text":"978-0199730070"}]},{"reference":"During, Simon (2007). The cultural studies reader (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415374132.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415374132","url_text":"978-0415374132"}]},{"reference":"Rutherford, Jonathan, ed. (1990). Identity : community, culture, difference. London: Lawrence & Wishart. ISBN 9781909831803.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781909831803","url_text":"9781909831803"}]},{"reference":"Hall, Stuart; Evans, Jessica; Nixon, Sean, eds. (2013). Representation (Second ed.). Los Angeles. ISBN 9781849205634.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781849205634","url_text":"9781849205634"}]},{"reference":"Goykhman, Oskar Yakovlevich; Goncharova, Liubov Markovna; Kitanina, Ella Anatolyevna; Nesterova, Tatyana Vyacheslavovna (2020). \"Axiological Approach in The Development of Communicative Competences in University Students\". SHS Web of Conferences. 79: 02009. doi:10.1051/shsconf/20207902009. ISSN 2261-2424. Retrieved September 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.shs-conferences.org/articles/shsconf/abs/2020/07/shsconf_tppme2020_02009/shsconf_tppme2020_02009.html","url_text":"\"Axiological Approach in The Development of Communicative Competences in University Students\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fshsconf%2F20207902009","url_text":"10.1051/shsconf/20207902009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2261-2424","url_text":"2261-2424"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Katherine (2005a). Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 978-0-07-293794-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-293794-7","url_text":"978-0-07-293794-7"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veblen%E2%80%93Young_theorem
Veblen–Young theorem
["1 Statement","2 References"]
In mathematics, the Veblen–Young theorem, proved by Oswald Veblen and John Wesley Young (1908, 1910, 1917), states that a projective space of dimension at least 3 can be constructed as the projective space associated to a vector space over a division ring. Non-Desarguesian planes give examples of 2-dimensional projective spaces that do not arise from vector spaces over division rings, showing that the restriction to dimension at least 3 is necessary. Jacques Tits generalized the Veblen–Young theorem to Tits buildings, showing that those of rank at least 3 arise from algebraic groups. John von Neumann (1998) generalized the Veblen–Young theorem to continuous geometry, showing that a complemented modular lattice of order at least 4 is isomorphic to the principal right ideals of a von Neumann regular ring. Statement A projective space S can be defined abstractly as a set P (the set of points), together with a set L of subsets of P (the set of lines), satisfying these axioms : Each two distinct points p and q are in exactly one line. Veblen's axiom: If a, b, c, d are distinct points and the lines through ab and cd meet, then so do the lines through ac and bd. Any line has at least 3 points on it. The Veblen–Young theorem states that if the dimension of a projective space is at least 3 (meaning that there are two non-intersecting lines) then the projective space is isomorphic with the projective space of lines in a vector space over some division ring K. References Cameron, Peter J. (1992), Projective and polar spaces, QMW Maths Notes, vol. 13, London: Queen Mary and Westfield College School of Mathematical Sciences, ISBN 978-0-902480-12-4, MR 1153019 Veblen, Oswald; Young, John Wesley (1908), "A Set of Assumptions for Projective Geometry", American Journal of Mathematics, 30 (4): 347–380, doi:10.2307/2369956, ISSN 0002-9327, JSTOR 2369956, MR 1506049 Veblen, Oswald; Young, John Wesley (1910), Projective geometry Volume I, Ginn and Co., Boston, ISBN 978-1-4181-8285-4, MR 0179666 Veblen, Oswald; Young, John Wesley (1917), Projective geometry Volume II, Ginn and Co., Boston, ISBN 978-1-60386-062-8, MR 0179667 von Neumann, John (1998) , Continuous geometry, Princeton Landmarks in Mathematics, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-05893-1, MR 0120174
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[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon_(spacecraft)
SpaceX Dragon
["1 Name","2 Dragon 1","3 Dragon 2","4 Red Dragon","5 Dragon XL","6 See also","7 References"]
Family of SpaceX spacecraft Dragon 1 C112 approaching the ISS Dragon is a family of spacecraft developed and produced by American private space transportation company SpaceX. The first variant, later named Dragon 1, flew 23 cargo missions to the International Space Station (ISS) between 2010 and 2020 before retiring. Design of this version, not designed to carry astronauts, was funded by NASA with $396 million awarded through the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program and contracted to ferry cargo under the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) program. An improved version, the Dragon 2, was introduced in 2019 and has both crewed and cargo versions. The first un-crewed flight test (Demo-1) took place on March 2019, followed by a crewed flight test (Demo-2) in May 2020. Since those flight tests, the Crew Dragon has become one of the primary spacecraft ferrying crew to and from the ISS. While the Cargo Dragon continues to carry cargo under the CSS program. SpaceX has also proposed versions named Red Dragon for Mars exploration and Dragon XL to provide Gateway Logistics Services to the Lunar Gateway. Name SpaceX's CEO, Elon Musk, named the spacecraft after the 1963 song "Puff, the Magic Dragon" by Peter, Paul and Mary, reportedly as a response to critics who considered his spaceflight projects impossible. Early on, it had been named Magic Dragon, and t-shirts had been printed with this name. As late as September 2012, SpaceX board member Steve Jurvetson was still referring to it as "The Magic Dragon, Puffed to the sea." That was his caption to a photo of the capsule several months after it had completed its COTS 2 demo flight where the spacecraft had accomplished its first docking with the ISS. This song, ostensibly composed for children, had long been associated with perceived references to smoking marijuana. In 2008, Elon Musk confirmed that the association between the song and marijuana was the reason behind the name Dragon, saying that "so many people thought I smoking weed to do this venture." Dragon 1 Main article: SpaceX Dragon 1 Dragon 1 was the original Dragon iteration, providing cargo service to the ISS. It flew 23 missions between 2010 and 2020, when it was retired. On May 25, 2012, NASA astronaut Don Pettit operated the Canadarm2 to grapple the first SpaceX Dragon and berth it to the Harmony module. This marked the first time a private spacecraft had ever rendezvoused with the ISS. The Dragon capsule was carrying supplies for the ISS, and the successful capture demonstrated the feasibility of using privately developed spacecraft to resupply the station. Pettit was also the first to enter the uncrewed supply ship on May 26, making him the first astronaut in the history of space exploration to successfully enter a commercially-built and operated spacecraft in orbit. During the capture, he was quoted saying, "Houston, Station, we've got us a dragon by the tail." Dragon 2 Crew Dragon Endurance docked to the ISS Main article: SpaceX Dragon 2 An improved version, the Dragon 2, was introduced in 2019 and has two versions: Crew Dragon and Cargo Dragon. The first un-crewed flight test (Demo-1) took place on March 2019, followed by a crewed flight test (Demo-2) in May 2020. The Crew Dragon is one of the primary spacecraft ferrying crew members to and from the ISS and on private missions. The Cargo Dragon carries cargo to the ISS under the CSS program. Red Dragon Main article: SpaceX Red Dragon Red Dragon was a cancelled version of the Dragon spacecraft that had been previously proposed to fly farther than Earth orbit and transit to Mars via interplanetary space. In addition to SpaceX's own privately funded plans for an eventual Mars mission, NASA Ames Research Center had developed a concept called Red Dragon. Red Dragon was to be a low-cost Mars mission that would use Falcon Heavy as the launch vehicle and trans-Martian injection vehicle, and the SpaceX Dragon 2-based capsule to enter the atmosphere of Mars. The concept was originally envisioned for launch in 2018 as a NASA Discovery mission, then alternatively for 2022, but was never formally submitted for funding within NASA. The mission would have been designed to return samples from Mars to Earth at a fraction of the cost of NASA's own sample-return mission, which was projected in 2015 to cost US$6 billion. On 27 April 2016, SpaceX announced its plan to go ahead and launch a modified Dragon lander to Mars in 2018. However, Musk canceled the Red Dragon program in July 2017 to focus on developing the Starship system instead. The modified Red Dragon capsule would have performed all entry, descent and landing (EDL) functions needed to deliver payloads of 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) or more to the Martian surface without using a parachute. Preliminary analysis showed that the capsule's atmospheric drag would slow it enough for the final stage of its descent to be within the abilities of its SuperDraco retro-propulsion thrusters. Dragon XL Rendering of the proposed SpaceX Dragon XL On 27 March 2020, SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL resupply spacecraft to carry pressurized and unpressurized cargo, experiments and other supplies to NASA's planned Lunar Gateway under a Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract. The equipment delivered by Dragon XL missions could include sample collection materials, spacesuits and other items astronauts may need on the Gateway and on the surface of the Moon, according to NASA. It will launch on SpaceX Falcon Heavy rockets from LC-39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The Dragon XL will stay at the Gateway for 6 to 12 months at a time, when research payloads inside and outside the cargo vessel could be operated remotely, even when crews are not present. Its payload capacity is expected to be more than 5,000 kilograms (11,000 lb) to lunar orbit. There is no requirement for a return to Earth. At the end of the mission the Dragon XL must be able to undock and dispose of the same mass it can bring to the Gateway, by moving the spacecraft to a heliocentric orbit. On February 22, 2023, NASA discussed the Dragon XL's development for the first time since it's 2020 unveiling, with Mark Wiese, NASA's manager of deep space logistics for the Gateway program, answering during a panel at SpaceCom that NASA has been working with SpaceX to run a series of studies to refine the Dragon XL design and examine cargo configurations and other capabilities that could be enabled by the spacecraft. Wiese also elaborated that Dragon XL would be used for initial missions, and stating that “ talked to about Starship evolution and how it all worked together, but we’re not there yet because it’s still in a development phase” insinuating that Starship will eventually replace Dragon XL once it completes development. On March 29, 2024, NASA released an article outlining the mission of Artemis IV, which is to be the second manned mission to the Lunar Gateway slated for 2028, stating that the Dragon XL will be used to resupply and carry science experiments, however, Artemis IV will take place concurrently with a Starship launch which will dock at the Gateway and help with the assembly of the station. See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to SpaceX Dragon. Spaceflight portal Comparison of space station cargo vehicles List of human spaceflight programs Space Shuttle successors References ^ "5 Fun Facts About Private Rocket Company SpaceX". Space.com. 21 May 2012. Archived from the original on 23 May 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2012. ^ Tom Markusic, founder of Firefly Aerospace, explains the name of the Dragon spacecraft during his early days working at Space X (YouTube video of Nov 14, 2022 lecture at the University of Texas at Austin, Aerospace Engineering Department, published Nov 17, 2022) ^ Jurvetson, Steve (7 September 2012). "The Magic Dragon". Retrieved 29 November 2022. ^ Elon Musk, CEO and CTO, Space Exploration Technologies Corp (SpaceX) explains how he picked the names 'Falcon' and 'Dragon', Google Zeitgeist'08 talk "10 Years In / 10 Years Out", September 18, 2008 (YouTube, published on Sep 22, 2008) ^ a b Wall, Mike (10 September 2015). ""Red Dragon" Mars Sample-Return Mission Could Launch by 2022". Space.com. Archived from the original on 26 January 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2015. ^ @SpaceX (27 April 2016). "Planning to send Dragon to Mars as soon as 2018. Red Dragons will inform overall Mars architecture, details to come" (Tweet) – via Twitter. ^ Newmann, Dava. "Exploring Together". blogs.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Berger, Eric (19 July 2017). "SpaceX appears to have pulled the plug on its Red Dragon plans". arstechnica.com. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2017. ^ Grush, Loren (19 July 2017). "Elon Musk suggests SpaceX is scrapping its plans to land Dragon capsules on Mars". The Verge. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2019. ^ Wall, Mike (31 July 2011). ""Red Dragon" Mission Mulled as Cheap Search for Mars Life". Space.com. Archived from the original on 1 December 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2012. ^ "NASA ADVISORY COUNCIL (NAC) – Science Committee Report" (PDF). NASA Ames Research Center. 1 November 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2012. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Potter, Sean (27 March 2020). "NASA Awards Artemis Contract for Gateway Logistics Services". NASA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. ^ Foust, Jeff (27 March 2020). "SpaceX wins NASA commercial cargo contract for lunar Gateway". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2021. ^ a b Clark, Stephen. "NASA picks SpaceX to deliver cargo to Gateway station in lunar orbit". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020. ^ "Dragon XL revealed as NASA ties SpaceX to Lunar Gateway supply contract". 27 March 2020. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020. ^ "NASA delays starting contract with SpaceX for Gateway cargo services". 15 April 2021. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2022. ^ a b Foust, Jeff. "NASA plans to start work this year on first Gateway logistics mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved 4 June 2024. ^ Hambleton, Kathryn; Williams, Catherine E. "NASA's Artemis IV: Building First Lunar Space Station". NASA. Retrieved 4 June 2024. vteSpaceX Dragon 1 and Dragon 2 CCP COTS CRS Spacecraft C100 C106 C108 C201 DragonFly C204 C205 C206 Endeavour C207 Resilience C208 C209 C210 Endurance C211 C212 Freedom Hardware Falcon 9 1.0 1.1 v1.2 Full Thrust Block 5 Draco SuperDraco MissionsDemo flights Dragon test flight COTS-1 COTS-2 Pad Abort Test Demo-1 In-Flight Abort Test Demo-2 ISS logistics CRS-1 CRS-2 CRS-3 CRS-4 CRS-5 CRS-6 CRS-7† CRS-8 CRS-9 CRS-10 CRS-11 CRS-12 CRS-13 CRS-14 CRS-15 CRS-16 CRS-17 CRS-18 CRS-19 CRS-20 CRS-21 CRS-22 CRS-23 CRS-24 CRS-25 CRS-26 CRS-27 CRS-28 CRS-29 CRS-30 Crewed missions Demo-2 Crew-1 Crew-2 Inspiration4 Crew-3 Axiom-1 Crew-4 Crew-5 Crew-6 Axiom-2 Crew-7 Axiom-3 Crew-8 Polaris Dawn Axiom-4 Crew-9 Polaris Program-2 Vast-1 Ongoing spaceflights in underline Italics indicates future missions Symbol † indicates failed missions vteSpaceXHistoryLaunch vehiclesCurrent Falcon 9 Block 5 Falcon Heavy In development Starship Super Heavy booster upper stage lunar lander flight tests IFT-1 IFT-2 IFT-3 IFT-4 Retired Falcon 1 Falcon 9 v1.0 v1.1 "Full Thrust" v1.2 Block 4 Cancelled Falcon 1e* Falcon 5* Falcon 9 Air* BFR and ITS* SpacecraftCargo Dragon 1 Cargo Dragon 2 Cargo Dragon XL* Starship* Crewed Dragon 2 Crew C206 Endeavour C207 Resilience C210 Endurance C212 Freedom Starship* Test vehiclesCurrent Starship prototypes first stage booster upper stage Retired Grasshopper F9R Dev1† DragonFly Starhopper Unflown F9R Dev2* Rocket engines Merlin 1A 1B* 1C 1D Vacuum Kestrel Draco SuperDraco Raptor 1 2 3 Vacuum Lists of missions Falcon 1 Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy 2010–2019 2020–2021 SpaceBEE Starlink launches in the Russo-Ukrainian War Starship Launch facilitiesOrbital CCSFS SLC-40 KSC LC-39A VSFB SLC-4E VSFB SLC-6* Omelek Island† Atmospheric McGregor New Mexico† Starbase Boca Chica Landing sites Autonomous spaceport drone ships Landing Zones LZ-1 and LZ-2 LZ-4 Other facilities Headquarters and factory Hawthorne, California Rocket development and test facility McGregor, Texas Satellite development facility Redmond, Washington Regional offices Chantilly, Houston, Seattle, Washington DC STARGATE Support Megan (recovery ship) Shannon (recovery ship) SpaceX fairing recovery program Contracts Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Resupply Services Commercial Crew Program Commercial Lunar Payload Services Gateway Logistics Services Human Landing System Polaris Rocket Cargo Starshield R&D programs Reusability Falcon 9 landing tests Red Dragon (canceled) Mars transport Key people Elon Musk (CEO, CTO) Gwynne Shotwell (President and COO) Tom Mueller (former VP of Propulsion Development) Related Blue Origin v. United States & SpaceX Commercial astronaut Billionaire space race Countdown: Inspiration4 Mission to Space (2021 docuseries) Return to Space (2022) * denotes unflown vehicles or engines, and future missions or sites. † denotes failed missions, destroyed vehicles, and abandoned sites. Category vteCargo spacecraftActive Cygnus Cargo Dragon 2 Progress Tianzhou In development Blue Moon Dragon XL Dream Chaser HTV-X Soyuz GVK Starship Argo Retired ATV Dragon 1 TKS HTV (Kounotori) Proposed TGK PG Cancelled Andrews Cargo Module ARCTUS Jupiter Kistler K-1 Parom S-550 OMV Comparison of space station cargo vehicles vteSpaceX missions and payloadsLaunch vehicles Falcon 1 Falcon 9 v1.0 v1.1 Full Thrust Block 5 Falcon Heavy Starship Falcon 1 missions Demo 1† (FalconSAT-2) Demo 2† Flight 3† Trailblazer PRESat NanoSail-D Explorers Ratsat RazakSAT Falcon 9 missionsDemonstration Dragon test flight COTS-1 COTS-2 Crew Dragon Pad Abort Test Demo-1 In-Flight Abort Test Demo-2 ISS logistics CRS-1 CRS-2 CRS-3 CRS-4 CRS-5 CRS-6 CRS-7† CRS-8 CRS-9 CRS-10 CRS-11 CRS-12 CRS-13 CRS-14 CRS-15 CRS-16 CRS-17 CRS-18 CRS-19 CRS-20 CRS-21 CRS-22 CRS-23 CRS-24 CRS-25 CRS-26 CRS-27 CRS-28 CRS-29 Cygnus NG-20 CRS-30 Cygnus NG-21 CRS-31–35 Cygnus NG-22 Crewed Demo-2 Crew-1 Crew-2 Inspiration4 Crew-3 Axiom-1 Crew-4 Crew-5 Crew-6 Axiom-2 Crew-7 Axiom-3 Crew-8 Crew-9 Polaris Dawn Crew-10–14 Commercialsatellites SES-8 Thaicom 6 Orbcomm OG2 × 6 AsiaSat 8 AsiaSat 6 ABS-3A / Eutelsat 115 West B TürkmenÄlem 52°E Orbcomm OG2 × 11 SES-9 JCSAT-14 Thaicom 8 ABS-2A / Eutelsat 117 West B JCSAT-16 AMOS-6† Iridium NEXT 1–10 EchoStar 23 SES-10 Inmarsat-5 F4 BulgariaSat-1 Iridium NEXT 11–20 Intelsat 35e Iridium NEXT 21–30 SES-11 Koreasat 5A Iridium NEXT 31–40 Hispasat 30W-6 Iridium NEXT 41–50 Bangabandhu-1 Iridium NEXT 51–55 SES-12 Telstar 19V Iridium NEXT 56–65 Telkom 4 (Merah Putih) Telstar 18V Es'hail 2 Iridium NEXT 66–75 Nusantara Satu / Beresheet Amos 17 JCSAT-18 SXM 7 Türksat 5A SXM 8 Türksat 5B Nilesat-301 SES-22 Galaxy 33,34 Hotbird 13F Hotbird 13G Galaxy 31,32 Eutelsat 10B OneWeb #15 O3b mPOWER 1,2 OneWeb #16 Amazonas Nexus OneWeb #17 SES 18,19 Intelsat 40e O3b mPOWER 3,4 Iridium NEXT 76-80 and OneWeb #19 ArabSat 7B SATRIA Galaxy 37 O3b mPOWER 5,6 Ovzon-3 Merah Putih 2 Eutelsat 36D Galileo FOC FM25,27 WorldView Legion 1,2 Scientificsatellites CASSIOPE DSCOVR Jason-3 Formosat-5 TESS GRACE-FO SAOCOM 1A RADARSAT Constellation SAOCOM 1B DART IXPE Hakuto-R S6MF KPLO SWOT Euclid PACE IM-1 EarthCARE Militarysatellites NROL-76 X-37B OTV-5 Zuma SES-16 / GovSat-1 Paz GPS III-01 ANASIS-II GPS III-03 NROL-108 GPS III-04 GPS III-05 COSMO-SkyMed CSG-2 NROL-87 NROL-85 (Intruder 13A/B) SARah 1 EROS-C3 GPS III-06 Transport and Tracking Layer (Tranche 0, Flight 1) Transport and Tracking Layer (Tranche 0, Flight 2) 425 Project SAR Satellite SARah 2/3 USSF-124 425 Project SAR satellite flight 2 Weather System Follow-on Microwave 1 NROL-146 NROL-69 Spainsat NG I SDA Tranche 1 Tracking layer T1TL-B SDA Tranche 1 Tracking layer T1TL-C SDA Tranche 1 Tracking layer T1TL-D 425 Project SAR satellite flight 3 SDA Tranche 1 Tracking layer T1TL-E SDA Tranche 1 Transport layer T1TR-C USSF-36 USSF-31 Skynet 6A Spainsat NG II SDA Tranche 1 Transport layer T1TL-F SDA Tranche 1 Transport layer T1TR-A SDA Tranche 1 Transport layer T1TR-E StarlinkList of Starlink and Starshield launchesRideshares 2018 SSO-A Transporter 2021 1 2 2022 3 4 5 2023 6 7 8 9 2024 10 11 12 Bandwagon 2024 1 2 Falcon Heavy missions Test flight Tesla Roadster Arabsat-6A USAF STP-2 DSX FormoSat-7 LightSail 2 GPIM DSAC ISAT USSF-44 USSF-67 ViaSat-3 Americas Jupiter-3 Psyche USSF-52 (X-37B OTV-7) GOES-U Europa Clipper Starship missions Orbital test flights IFT-1 IFT-2 IFT-3 IFT-4 IFT-5 IFT-6 Polaris Program third flight two Starship HLS flights Superbird-9 Ongoing spaceflights are underlined Future missions and vehicles under development in italics Failed missions† are marked with dagger † vteComponents of the International Space StationOrbitingMajorcomponents Zarya (Functional Cargo Block) Zvezda (Service Module) Destiny (laboratory) Columbus (laboratory) Kibō (PM, ELM-PS, EF) Unity (Node 1) Harmony (Node 2) Tranquility (Node 3) Quest Joint Airlock Rassvet (MRM 1) Poisk (MRM 2) Leonardo (PMM) Cupola Integrated Truss Structure (ITS) Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) Nauka (Multipurpose Laboratory Module-Upgrade) Prichal (Uzlovoy Module) Subsystems Mobile Servicing System (MSS) Canadarm2 Dextre (SPDM) Boom Assembly Strela cranes Kibō Remote Manipulator System External Stowage Platforms (ESPs) ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs) 1-4 Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMAs) International Docking Adapters (IDAs) Electrical System Life Support System Bishop (airlock module) Window Observational Research Facility (WORF) MLM Outfittings European Robotic Arm (ERA) MLM Means of Attachment of Large payloads Experimentaldevices AMS-02 CALET CATS GEDI HDEV ISS-CREAM MAXI NICER PK-3 Plus SAGE III FormerMajorcomponents Pirs (docking module, airlock) FuturePlanned Axiom Orbital Segment Proposed Node 4 XBASE Sparehardware Multi-Purpose Logistics Modules (MPLMs) Kibō (ELM-ES) ExPRESS Logistics Carrier (ELC) 5 Interim Control Module (ICM) Cancelled Propulsion Module Centrifuge Accommodations Module (CAM) Habitation Module Crew Return Vehicle (CRV/ACRV) Science Power Platform (SPP) Universal Docking Module (UDM) Russian Research Module (RM) Science Power Module (NEM-1) Related Russian Orbital Segment US Orbital Segment Manufacturing of the ISS Assembly of the ISS Category Index of articles associated with the same name This article includes a list of related items that share the same name (or similar names). If an internal link incorrectly led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CRS-20_Dragon%E2%80%93Enhanced.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dragon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_1"},{"link_name":"SpaceX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX"},{"link_name":"Dragon 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_1"},{"link_name":"International Space Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Commercial Orbital Transportation Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Orbital_Transportation_Services"},{"link_name":"Commercial Resupply Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Resupply_Services"},{"link_name":"Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"Demo-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-1"},{"link_name":"Demo-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2"},{"link_name":"Red Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Red_Dragon"},{"link_name":"Gateway Logistics Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_Logistics_Services"},{"link_name":"Lunar Gateway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Gateway"}],"text":"Dragon 1 C112 approaching the ISSDragon is a family of spacecraft developed and produced by American private space transportation company SpaceX.The first variant, later named Dragon 1, flew 23 cargo missions to the International Space Station (ISS) between 2010 and 2020 before retiring. Design of this version, not designed to carry astronauts, was funded by NASA with $396 million awarded through the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program and contracted to ferry cargo under the Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) program.An improved version, the Dragon 2, was introduced in 2019 and has both crewed and cargo versions. The first un-crewed flight test (Demo-1) took place on March 2019, followed by a crewed flight test (Demo-2) in May 2020. Since those flight tests, the Crew Dragon has become one of the primary spacecraft ferrying crew to and from the ISS. While the Cargo Dragon continues to carry cargo under the CSS program.SpaceX has also proposed versions named Red Dragon for Mars exploration and Dragon XL to provide Gateway Logistics Services to the Lunar Gateway.","title":"SpaceX Dragon"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elon Musk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elon_Musk"},{"link_name":"Puff, the Magic Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puff,_the_Magic_Dragon"},{"link_name":"Peter, Paul and Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter,_Paul_and_Mary"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Steve Jurvetson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Jurvetson"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"COTS 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_COTS_Demo_Flight_2#Capsule_journey_post-mission"},{"link_name":"ISS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISS"},{"link_name":"perceived references","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puff,_the_Magic_Dragon#Speculation_about_drug_references"},{"link_name":"marijuana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marijuana"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"SpaceX's CEO, Elon Musk, named the spacecraft after the 1963 song \"Puff, the Magic Dragon\" by Peter, Paul and Mary, reportedly as a response to critics who considered his spaceflight projects impossible.[1] Early on, it had been named Magic Dragon, and t-shirts had been printed with this name.[2] As late as September 2012, SpaceX board member Steve Jurvetson was still referring to it as \"The Magic Dragon, Puffed to the sea.\"[3] That was his caption to a photo of the capsule several months after it had completed its COTS 2 demo flight where the spacecraft had accomplished its first docking with the ISS. This song, ostensibly composed for children, had long been associated with perceived references to smoking marijuana. In 2008, Elon Musk confirmed that the association between the song and marijuana was the reason behind the name Dragon, saying that \"so many people thought I [must be] smoking weed to do this venture.\"[4]","title":"Name"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Don Pettit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Pettit"},{"link_name":"Canadarm2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadarm2"}],"text":"Dragon 1 was the original Dragon iteration, providing cargo service to the ISS. It flew 23 missions between 2010 and 2020, when it was retired. On May 25, 2012, NASA astronaut Don Pettit operated the Canadarm2 to grapple the first SpaceX Dragon and berth it to the Harmony module. This marked the first time a private spacecraft had ever rendezvoused with the ISS. The Dragon capsule was carrying supplies for the ISS, and the successful capture demonstrated the feasibility of using privately developed spacecraft to resupply the station. Pettit was also the first to enter the uncrewed supply ship on May 26, making him the first astronaut in the history of space exploration to successfully enter a commercially-built and operated spacecraft in orbit. During the capture, he was quoted saying, \"Houston, Station, we've got us a dragon by the tail.\"","title":"Dragon 1"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crew_Dragon_Endurance_at_the_ISS.jpg"},{"link_name":"Crew Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"Endurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Endurance"},{"link_name":"Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"Demo-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-1"},{"link_name":"Demo-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2"}],"text":"Crew Dragon Endurance docked to the ISSAn improved version, the Dragon 2, was introduced in 2019 and has two versions: Crew Dragon and Cargo Dragon. The first un-crewed flight test (Demo-1) took place on March 2019, followed by a crewed flight test (Demo-2) in May 2020.The Crew Dragon is one of the primary spacecraft ferrying crew members to and from the ISS and on private missions. The Cargo Dragon carries cargo to the ISS under the CSS program.","title":"Dragon 2"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Earth orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_orbit"},{"link_name":"transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_transfer_orbit"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"interplanetary space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interplanetary_space"},{"link_name":"Mars mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Ames Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"Falcon Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy"},{"link_name":"SpaceX Dragon 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon_2"},{"link_name":"atmosphere of Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars"},{"link_name":"NASA Discovery mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_Program"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wall2015-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wall2015-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spacex-tweet-20160427-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Newmann2016-7"},{"link_name":"Starship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-theverge-20170719-9"},{"link_name":"entry, descent and landing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_entry"},{"link_name":"SuperDraco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperDraco"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sdc20110731-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAC_2011-11"}],"text":"Red Dragon was a cancelled version of the Dragon spacecraft that had been previously proposed to fly farther than Earth orbit and transit to Mars via interplanetary space. In addition to SpaceX's own privately funded plans for an eventual Mars mission, NASA Ames Research Center had developed a concept called Red Dragon. Red Dragon was to be a low-cost Mars mission that would use Falcon Heavy as the launch vehicle and trans-Martian injection vehicle, and the SpaceX Dragon 2-based capsule to enter the atmosphere of Mars. The concept was originally envisioned for launch in 2018 as a NASA Discovery mission, then alternatively for 2022, but was never formally submitted for funding within NASA.[5] The mission would have been designed to return samples from Mars to Earth at a fraction of the cost of NASA's own sample-return mission, which was projected in 2015 to cost US$6 billion.[5]On 27 April 2016, SpaceX announced its plan to go ahead and launch a modified Dragon lander to Mars in 2018.[6][7] However, Musk canceled the Red Dragon program in July 2017 to focus on developing the Starship system instead.[8][9] The modified Red Dragon capsule would have performed all entry, descent and landing (EDL) functions needed to deliver payloads of 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb) or more to the Martian surface without using a parachute. Preliminary analysis showed that the capsule's atmospheric drag would slow it enough for the final stage of its descent to be within the abilities of its SuperDraco retro-propulsion thrusters.[10][11]","title":"Red Dragon"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SpaceX_Dragon_XL_logistics_module_(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Lunar Gateway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_Gateway"},{"link_name":"Gateway Logistics Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gateway_Logistics_Services"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spacenews-3-13"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"Falcon Heavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Heavy"},{"link_name":"LC-39A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Launch_Complex_39A"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spaceflight_Now-XL-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spaceflight_Now-XL-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"SpaceCom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_Congress&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SpaceNews-XL-17"},{"link_name":"Starship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Starship_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SpaceNews-XL-17"},{"link_name":"Artemis IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis_IV"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"Rendering of the proposed SpaceX Dragon XLOn 27 March 2020, SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL resupply spacecraft to carry pressurized and unpressurized cargo, experiments and other supplies to NASA's planned Lunar Gateway under a Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract.[12][13] The equipment delivered by Dragon XL missions could include sample collection materials, spacesuits and other items astronauts may need on the Gateway and on the surface of the Moon, according to NASA. It will launch on SpaceX Falcon Heavy rockets from LC-39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.[14]The Dragon XL will stay at the Gateway for 6 to 12 months at a time, when research payloads inside and outside the cargo vessel could be operated remotely, even when crews are not present.[14] Its payload capacity is expected to be more than 5,000 kilograms (11,000 lb) to lunar orbit.[15] There is no requirement for a return to Earth. At the end of the mission the Dragon XL must be able to undock and dispose of the same mass it can bring to the Gateway, by moving the spacecraft to a heliocentric orbit.[16]On February 22, 2023, NASA discussed the Dragon XL's development for the first time since it's 2020 unveiling, with Mark Wiese, NASA's manager of deep space logistics for the Gateway program, answering during a panel at SpaceCom that NASA has been working with SpaceX to run a series of studies to refine the Dragon XL design and examine cargo configurations and other capabilities that could be enabled by the spacecraft.[17] Wiese also elaborated that Dragon XL would be used for initial missions, and stating that “[NASA] talked to [SpaceX] about Starship evolution and how it all worked together, but we’re not there yet because it’s still in a development phase” insinuating that Starship will eventually replace Dragon XL once it completes development.[17]On March 29, 2024, NASA released an article outlining the mission of Artemis IV, which is to be the second manned mission to the Lunar Gateway slated for 2028, stating that the Dragon XL will be used to resupply and carry science experiments, however, Artemis IV will take place concurrently with a Starship launch which will dock at the Gateway and help with the assembly of the station.[18]","title":"Dragon XL"}]
[{"image_text":"Dragon 1 C112 approaching the ISS","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/CRS-20_Dragon%E2%80%93Enhanced.jpg/220px-CRS-20_Dragon%E2%80%93Enhanced.jpg"},{"image_text":"Crew Dragon Endurance docked to the ISS","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Crew_Dragon_Endurance_at_the_ISS.jpg/220px-Crew_Dragon_Endurance_at_the_ISS.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rendering of the proposed SpaceX Dragon XL","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/SpaceX_Dragon_XL_logistics_module_%282%29.jpg/220px-SpaceX_Dragon_XL_logistics_module_%282%29.jpg"}]
[{"title":"SpaceX Dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:SpaceX_Dragon"},{"title":"Spaceflight portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight"},{"title":"Comparison of space station cargo vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_space_station_cargo_vehicles"},{"title":"List of human spaceflight programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_human_spaceflight_programs"},{"title":"Space Shuttle successors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_retirement#Current_and_future_Space_Shuttle_successors"}]
[{"reference":"\"5 Fun Facts About Private Rocket Company SpaceX\". Space.com. 21 May 2012. Archived from the original on 23 May 2015. Retrieved 26 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.space.com/15799-spacex-dragon-capsule-fun-facts.html","url_text":"\"5 Fun Facts About Private Rocket Company SpaceX\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150523084756/http://www.space.com/15799-spacex-dragon-capsule-fun-facts.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jurvetson, Steve (7 September 2012). \"The Magic Dragon\". Retrieved 29 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/7978144836","url_text":"\"The Magic Dragon\""}]},{"reference":"Wall, Mike (10 September 2015). \"\"Red Dragon\" Mars Sample-Return Mission Could Launch by 2022\". Space.com. Archived from the original on 26 January 2017. Retrieved 20 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.space.com/30504-spacex-red-dragon-mars-sample-return.html","url_text":"\"\"Red Dragon\" Mars Sample-Return Mission Could Launch by 2022\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170126061843/http://www.space.com/30504-spacex-red-dragon-mars-sample-return.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"@SpaceX (27 April 2016). \"Planning to send Dragon to Mars as soon as 2018. Red Dragons will inform overall Mars architecture, details to come\" (Tweet) – via Twitter.","urls":[{"url":"https://x.com/SpaceX/status/725351354537906176","url_text":"\"Planning to send Dragon to Mars as soon as 2018. Red Dragons will inform overall Mars architecture, details to come\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweet_(social_media)","url_text":"Tweet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter","url_text":"Twitter"}]},{"reference":"Newmann, Dava. \"Exploring Together\". blogs.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 1 May 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.nasa.gov/newman/2016/04/27/exploring-together/","url_text":"\"Exploring Together\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160501034413/http://blogs.nasa.gov/newman/2016/04/27/exploring-together/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berger, Eric (19 July 2017). \"SpaceX appears to have pulled the plug on its Red Dragon plans\". arstechnica.com. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/07/spacex-appears-to-have-pulled-the-plug-on-its-red-dragon-plans/","url_text":"\"SpaceX appears to have pulled the plug on its Red Dragon plans\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170721003827/https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/07/spacex-appears-to-have-pulled-the-plug-on-its-red-dragon-plans/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Grush, Loren (19 July 2017). \"Elon Musk suggests SpaceX is scrapping its plans to land Dragon capsules on Mars\". The Verge. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 10 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/19/15999384/elon-musk-spacex-dragon-capsule-mars-mission","url_text":"\"Elon Musk suggests SpaceX is scrapping its plans to land Dragon capsules on Mars\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170731225406/https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/19/15999384/elon-musk-spacex-dragon-capsule-mars-mission","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wall, Mike (31 July 2011). \"\"Red Dragon\" Mission Mulled as Cheap Search for Mars Life\". Space.com. Archived from the original on 1 December 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.space.com/12489-nasa-mars-life-private-spaceship-red-dragon.html","url_text":"\"\"Red Dragon\" Mission Mulled as Cheap Search for Mars Life\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111201051520/http://www.space.com/12489-nasa-mars-life-private-spaceship-red-dragon.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NASA ADVISORY COUNCIL (NAC) – Science Committee Report\" (PDF). NASA Ames Research Center. 1 November 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130120203325/http://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2012/01/23/NAC_Science_Meeting_ReportOctober_31-November_1_2011-finalTAGGED.pdf","url_text":"\"NASA ADVISORY COUNCIL (NAC) – Science Committee Report\""},{"url":"https://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2012/01/23/NAC_Science_Meeting_ReportOctober_31-November_1_2011-finalTAGGED.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Potter, Sean (27 March 2020). \"NASA Awards Artemis Contract for Gateway Logistics Services\". NASA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-gateway-logistics-services","url_text":"\"NASA Awards Artemis Contract for Gateway Logistics Services\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200327195418/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-gateway-logistics-services","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Foust, Jeff (27 March 2020). \"SpaceX wins NASA commercial cargo contract for lunar Gateway\". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Foust","url_text":"Foust, Jeff"},{"url":"https://spacenews.com/spacex-wins-nasa-commercial-cargo-contract-for-lunar-gateway/","url_text":"\"SpaceX wins NASA commercial cargo contract for lunar Gateway\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceNews","url_text":"SpaceNews"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20200329123606/https://spacenews.com/spacex-wins-nasa-commercial-cargo-contract-for-lunar-gateway/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Clark, Stephen. \"NASA picks SpaceX to deliver cargo to Gateway station in lunar orbit\". Spaceflight Now. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/27/nasa-picks-spacex-to-deliver-cargo-to-gateway-station-in-lunar-orbit/","url_text":"\"NASA picks SpaceX to deliver cargo to Gateway station in lunar orbit\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200328020010/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/27/nasa-picks-spacex-to-deliver-cargo-to-gateway-station-in-lunar-orbit/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Dragon XL revealed as NASA ties SpaceX to Lunar Gateway supply contract\". 27 March 2020. Archived from the original on 28 March 2020. Retrieved 28 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/03/dragon-xl-nasa-spacex-lunar-gateway-supply-contract/","url_text":"\"Dragon XL revealed as NASA ties SpaceX to Lunar Gateway supply contract\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200328020206/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/03/dragon-xl-nasa-spacex-lunar-gateway-supply-contract/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"NASA delays starting contract with SpaceX for Gateway cargo services\". 15 April 2021. Archived from the original on 17 April 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-starting-contract-with-spacex-for-gateway-cargo-services/","url_text":"\"NASA delays starting contract with SpaceX for Gateway cargo services\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20210417064753/https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-starting-contract-with-spacex-for-gateway-cargo-services/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Foust, Jeff. \"NASA plans to start work this year on first Gateway logistics mission\". SpaceNews. Retrieved 4 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://spacenews.com/nasa-plans-to-start-work-this-year-on-first-gateway-logistics-mission/","url_text":"\"NASA plans to start work this year on first Gateway logistics mission\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceNews","url_text":"SpaceNews"}]},{"reference":"Hambleton, Kathryn; Williams, Catherine E. \"NASA's Artemis IV: Building First Lunar Space Station\". NASA. Retrieved 4 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/","url_text":"\"NASA's Artemis IV: Building First Lunar Space Station\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA","url_text":"NASA"}]}]
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Red Dragons will inform overall Mars architecture, details to come\""},{"Link":"http://blogs.nasa.gov/newman/2016/04/27/exploring-together/","external_links_name":"\"Exploring Together\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160501034413/http://blogs.nasa.gov/newman/2016/04/27/exploring-together/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/07/spacex-appears-to-have-pulled-the-plug-on-its-red-dragon-plans/","external_links_name":"\"SpaceX appears to have pulled the plug on its Red Dragon plans\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170721003827/https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/07/spacex-appears-to-have-pulled-the-plug-on-its-red-dragon-plans/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/19/15999384/elon-musk-spacex-dragon-capsule-mars-mission","external_links_name":"\"Elon Musk suggests SpaceX is scrapping its plans to land Dragon capsules on Mars\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170731225406/https://www.theverge.com/2017/7/19/15999384/elon-musk-spacex-dragon-capsule-mars-mission","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.space.com/12489-nasa-mars-life-private-spaceship-red-dragon.html","external_links_name":"\"\"Red Dragon\" Mission Mulled as Cheap Search for Mars Life\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111201051520/http://www.space.com/12489-nasa-mars-life-private-spaceship-red-dragon.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130120203325/http://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2012/01/23/NAC_Science_Meeting_ReportOctober_31-November_1_2011-finalTAGGED.pdf","external_links_name":"\"NASA ADVISORY COUNCIL (NAC) – Science Committee Report\""},{"Link":"https://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2012/01/23/NAC_Science_Meeting_ReportOctober_31-November_1_2011-finalTAGGED.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-gateway-logistics-services","external_links_name":"\"NASA Awards Artemis Contract for Gateway Logistics Services\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200327195418/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-artemis-contract-for-gateway-logistics-services","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://spacenews.com/spacex-wins-nasa-commercial-cargo-contract-for-lunar-gateway/","external_links_name":"\"SpaceX wins NASA commercial cargo contract for lunar Gateway\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20200329123606/https://spacenews.com/spacex-wins-nasa-commercial-cargo-contract-for-lunar-gateway/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/27/nasa-picks-spacex-to-deliver-cargo-to-gateway-station-in-lunar-orbit/","external_links_name":"\"NASA picks SpaceX to deliver cargo to Gateway station in lunar orbit\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200328020010/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/27/nasa-picks-spacex-to-deliver-cargo-to-gateway-station-in-lunar-orbit/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/03/dragon-xl-nasa-spacex-lunar-gateway-supply-contract/","external_links_name":"\"Dragon XL revealed as NASA ties SpaceX to Lunar Gateway supply contract\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200328020206/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/03/dragon-xl-nasa-spacex-lunar-gateway-supply-contract/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-starting-contract-with-spacex-for-gateway-cargo-services/","external_links_name":"\"NASA delays starting contract with SpaceX for Gateway cargo services\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20210417064753/https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-starting-contract-with-spacex-for-gateway-cargo-services/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://spacenews.com/nasa-plans-to-start-work-this-year-on-first-gateway-logistics-mission/","external_links_name":"\"NASA plans to start work this year on first Gateway logistics mission\""},{"Link":"https://www.nasa.gov/general/nasas-artemis-iv-building-first-lunar-space-station/","external_links_name":"\"NASA's Artemis IV: Building First Lunar Space Station\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Whatlinkshere/SpaceX_Dragon&namespace=0","external_links_name":"internal link"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xperia_XA2
Sony Xperia XA2
["1 Specifications","1.1 Hardware","1.2 Software","2 References","3 External links"]
Sony android smartphone This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Sony Xperia XA2" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2018)This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Sony Xperia XA2" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Sony Xperia XA2CodenamePioneerBrandSonyManufacturerSony Mobile CommunicationsSlogan"Capture life's beauty with 23MP"SeriesSony XperiaModelH3113, H3123, H3133, H4113, H4133Compatible networks 2G 3G 4G 4G LTE First released1 February 2018; 6 years ago (2018-02-01)PredecessorSony Xperia XA1SuccessorSony Xperia 10RelatedSony Xperia XA2 UltraSony Xperia XA2 PlusTypeTouchscreen smartphoneForm factorSlateDimensions142 mm (5.6 in) H70 mm (2.8 in) W9.7 mm (0.38 in) DMass171 g (6.0 oz)Operating systemAndroid 8.0 "Oreo"(Upgradable to 9 "Pie")System-on-chipQualcomm Snapdragon 630CPUOcta-core 2.2 GHz Cortex-A53GPUAdreno 508Memory3 GB RAMStorage32 GBRemovable storagemicroSD, expandable up to 256 GBBatteryNon-removable 3300 mAhDisplay5.2 in (130 mm) 1080p IPS LCD, ~424 pixel density, Gorilla Glass 4Rear camera23 MP, f/2.0, 24mm (wide), 1/2.3", PDAFFront camera8 MP, f/2.4, 1/4"ConnectivityWi-Fi 802.11 a/b/g/n (2.4/5GHz) Bluetooth 5.0, USB-C, NFC, location (GPS, Galileo, GLONASS, BeiDou)Data inputsSensors: Accelerometer Fingerprint scanner (rear-mounted) Proximity sensor WebsiteOfficial WebsiteReferences The Sony Xperia XA2 is an Android smartphone manufactured and marketed by Sony. Part of the Xperia X series, the device was announced to the public along with the Xperia XA2 Ultra and Xperia L2 at the annual 2018 Consumer Electronics Show on January 8, 2018. This was the last Sony phone to have the Sony logo above the screen on the front of the Phone. Specifications Hardware The device features a 5.2 inches (13 cm) 1080p screen. The rear-facing camera of the Xperia XA2 is 23 megapixels. The front facing camera is 8 MP. Software The Xperia XA2 is preinstalled with Android 8.0 Oreo with Sony's custom interface and software. It is upgradable to Android 9 Pie. References ^ "Product Specifications". sonymobile.com. Sony Mobile Communications Inc. Retrieved 4 April 2019. ^ "Sony Xperia XA2 - Full phone specifications". ^ "Sony announces the Xperia XA2 Ultra, Xperia XA2 and Xperia L2". 8 January 2018. ^ "Sony Xperia XA2 specifications". Sony Mobile. ^ "Xperia XA2 'super mid-ranger' launched with big battery". Xperia Blog. 8 January 2018. Preceded bySony Xperia XA1 Sony Xperia XA2 2018 Succeeded bySony Xperia 10 External links Official website vteSony Xperia mobile phonesSee also: List of Sony Xperia phones2008 – 2010 X1 X2 Pureness X8 X10 X10 mini / X10 mini pro 2011 arc acro PLAY pro neo mini / mini pro ray arc S neo V active 2012 S / SL sola U P neo L Go acro HD / acro S ion tipo miro T TX J V 2013 Z ZL E L SP ZR Z Ultra C M Z1 2014 T2 Ultra E1 Z1 Compact M2 Z2 J1 Compact T3 C3 E3 Z3 Compact Z3 2015 E4g E4 M4 Aqua C4 Z3+ / Z4 M5 C5 Ultra Z5 Z5 Compact Z5 Premium 2016 X XA X Performance XA Ultra E5 XZ X Compact 2017 L1 XA1 XA1 Ultra XA1 Plus R1 XZs XZ Premium XZ1 XZ1 Compact 2018 L2 XA2 XA2 Ultra XA2 Plus XZ2 XZ2 Compact XZ2 Premium XZ3 2019 L3 Ace 1 5 8 · 8 Lite 10 · 10 Plus 2020 L4 1 II 5 II 10 II 2021 Ace II PRO PRO-I 1 III 5 III 10 III / 10 III Lite 2022 Ace III 1 IV 5 IV 10 IV 2023 1 V 5 V 10 V 2024 1 VI 10 VI Telephones portal
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[]
null
[{"reference":"\"Product Specifications\". sonymobile.com. Sony Mobile Communications Inc. Retrieved 4 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sonymobile.com/global-en/products/phones/xperia-xa2/specifications/","url_text":"\"Product Specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sony Xperia XA2 - Full phone specifications\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gsmarena.com/sony_xperia_xa2-8986.php","url_text":"\"Sony Xperia XA2 - Full phone specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sony announces the Xperia XA2 Ultra, Xperia XA2 and Xperia L2\". 8 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techradar.com/news/sony-announces-the-xperia-xa2-ultra-xperia-xa2-and-xperia-l2","url_text":"\"Sony announces the Xperia XA2 Ultra, Xperia XA2 and Xperia L2\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sony Xperia XA2 specifications\". Sony Mobile.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sonymobile.com/global-en/products/phones/xperia-xa2/specifications/","url_text":"\"Sony Xperia XA2 specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"Xperia XA2 'super mid-ranger' launched with big battery\". Xperia Blog. 8 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.xperiablog.net/2018/01/08/xperia-xa2-super-mid-ranger-launched-with-big-battery/","url_text":"\"Xperia XA2 'super mid-ranger' launched with big battery\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics
Combinatorics
["1 Definition","2 History","3 Approaches and subfields of combinatorics","3.1 Enumerative combinatorics","3.2 Analytic combinatorics","3.3 Partition theory","3.4 Graph theory","3.5 Design theory","3.6 Finite geometry","3.7 Order theory","3.8 Matroid theory","3.9 Extremal combinatorics","3.10 Probabilistic combinatorics","3.11 Algebraic combinatorics","3.12 Combinatorics on words","3.13 Geometric combinatorics","3.14 Topological combinatorics","3.15 Arithmetic combinatorics","3.16 Infinitary combinatorics","4 Related fields","4.1 Combinatorial optimization","4.2 Coding theory","4.3 Discrete and computational geometry","4.4 Combinatorics and dynamical systems","4.5 Combinatorics and physics","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"]
Branch of discrete mathematics Not to be confused with Combinatoriality. "Combinatorial" redirects here. For combinatorial logic in computer science, see Combinatorial logic. This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (July 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Part of a series onMathematics History Index Areas Number theory Geometry Algebra Calculus and Analysis Discrete mathematics Logic and Set theory Probability Statistics and Decision theory Relationship with sciences Physics Chemistry Geosciences Computation Biology Linguistics Economics Philosophy Education Mathematics Portalvte Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and as an end to obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science. Combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles. Combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics, notably in algebra, probability theory, topology, and geometry, as well as in its many application areas. Many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation, giving an ad hoc solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context. In the later twentieth century, however, powerful and general theoretical methods were developed, making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right. One of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory, which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas. Combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms. A mathematician who studies combinatorics is called a combinatorialist. Definition The full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon. According to H.J. Ryser, a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions. Insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses, combinatorics is involved with: the enumeration (counting) of specified structures, sometimes referred to as arrangements or configurations in a very general sense, associated with finite systems, the existence of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria, the construction of these structures, perhaps in many ways, and optimization: finding the "best" structure or solution among several possibilities, be it the "largest", "smallest" or satisfying some other optimality criterion. Leon Mirsky has said: "combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives, their methods, and the degree of coherence they have attained." One way to define combinatorics is, perhaps, to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques. This is the approach that is used below. However, there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella. Although primarily concerned with finite systems, some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite (specifically, countable) but discrete setting. History An example of change ringing (with six bells), one of the earliest nontrivial results in graph theory. Main article: History of combinatorics Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world. Indian physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 26 − 1 possibilities. Greek historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BCE) and Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder–Hipparchus numbers. Earlier, in the Ostomachion, Archimedes (3rd century BCE) may have considered the number of configurations of a tiling puzzle, while combinatorial interests possibly were present in lost works by Apollonius. In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization. The Indian mathematician Mahāvīra (c. 850) provided formulae for the number of permutations and combinations, and these formulas may have been familiar to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century CE. The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra (c. 1140) established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321. The arithmetical triangle—a graphical diagram showing relationships among the binomial coefficients—was presented by mathematicians in treatises dating as far back as the 10th century, and would eventually become known as Pascal's triangle. Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations. During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth. Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field. In modern times, the works of J.J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) helped lay the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics. Graph theory also enjoyed an increase of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem. In the second half of the 20th century, combinatorics enjoyed a rapid growth, which led to establishment of dozens of new journals and conferences in the subject. In part, the growth was spurred by new connections and applications to other fields, ranging from algebra to probability, from functional analysis to number theory, etc. These connections shed the boundaries between combinatorics and parts of mathematics and theoretical computer science, but at the same time led to a partial fragmentation of the field. Approaches and subfields of combinatorics Enumerative combinatorics Five binary trees on three vertices, an example of Catalan numbers. Main article: Enumerative combinatorics Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description. Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics. The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions. Analytic combinatorics Main article: Analytic combinatorics Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics, which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae. Partition theory A plane partition. Main article: Partition theory Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis and analytic number theory and has connections with statistical mechanics. Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials and of the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general. Graph theory Petersen graph. Main article: Graph theory Graphs are fundamental objects in combinatorics. Considerations of graph theory range from enumeration (e.g., the number of graphs on n vertices with k edges) to existing structures (e.g., Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic representations (e.g., given a graph G and two numbers x and y, does the Tutte polynomial TG(x,y) have a combinatorial interpretation?). Although there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, they are sometimes thought of as separate subjects. While combinatorial methods apply to many graph theory problems, the two disciplines are generally used to seek solutions to different types of problems. Design theory Main article: Combinatorial design Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type. This area is one of the oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850. The solution of the problem is a special case of a Steiner system, which play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups. The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics. Combinatorial design theory can be applied to the area of design of experiments. Some of the basic theory of combinatorial designs originated in the statistician Ronald Fisher's work on the design of biological experiments. Modern applications are also found in a wide gamut of areas including finite geometry, tournament scheduling, lotteries, mathematical chemistry, mathematical biology, algorithm design and analysis, networking, group testing and cryptography. Finite geometry Main article: Finite geometry Finite geometry is the study of geometric systems having only a finite number of points. Structures analogous to those found in continuous geometries (Euclidean plane, real projective space, etc.) but defined combinatorially are the main items studied. This area provides a rich source of examples for design theory. It should not be confused with discrete geometry (combinatorial geometry). Order theory Hasse diagram of the powerset of {x,y,z} ordered by inclusion. Main article: Order theory Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. It provides a formal framework for describing statements such as "this is less than that" or "this precedes that". Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory. Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras. Matroid theory Main article: Matroid theory Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry. It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory. Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of order theory. It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics. Extremal combinatorics Main article: Extremal combinatoricsExtremal combinatorics studies how large or how small a collection of finite objects (numbers, graphs, vectors, sets, etc.) can be, if it has to satisfy certain restrictions. Much of extremal combinatorics concerns classes of set systems; this is called extremal set theory. For instance, in an n-element set, what is the largest number of k-element subsets that can pairwise intersect one another? What is the largest number of subsets of which none contains any other? The latter question is answered by Sperner's theorem, which gave rise to much of extremal set theory. The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties. For example, the largest triangle-free graph on 2n vertices is a complete bipartite graph Kn,n. Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer f(n) exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate. Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics. It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order. It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle. Probabilistic combinatorics Self-avoiding walk in a square grid graph. Main article: Probabilistic method In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph? For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph? Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find) by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0. This approach (often referred to as the probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time. Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneering work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics. The area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics. Algebraic combinatorics Young diagram of the integer partition (5, 4, 1). Main article: Algebraic combinatorics Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra. Algebraic combinatorics has come to be seen more expansively as an area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant. Thus the combinatorial topics may be enumerative in nature or involve matroids, polytopes, partially ordered sets, or finite geometries. On the algebraic side, besides group and representation theory, lattice theory and commutative algebra are common. Combinatorics on words Construction of a Thue–Morse infinite word. Main article: Combinatorics on words Combinatorics on words deals with formal languages. It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability. It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory, and linguistics. While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best-known result in the field. Geometric combinatorics An icosahedron. Main article: Geometric combinatorics Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry. It asks, for example, how many faces of each dimension a convex polytope can have. Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g. the Cauchy theorem on the rigidity of convex polytopes. Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedra, associahedra and Birkhoff polytopes. Combinatorial geometry is a historical name for discrete geometry. It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry. The study of regular polytopes, Archimedean solids, and kissing numbers is also a part of geometric combinatorics. Special polytopes are also considered, such as the permutohedron, associahedron and Birkhoff polytope. Topological combinatorics Splitting a necklace with two cuts. Main article: Topological combinatorics Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory. It should not be confused with combinatorial topology which is an older name for algebraic topology. Arithmetic combinatorics Main article: Arithmetic combinatorics Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis. It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Additive number theory (sometimes also called additive combinatorics) refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved. One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems. Infinitary combinatorics Main article: Infinitary combinatorics Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Some of the things studied include continuous graphs and trees, extensions of Ramsey's theorem, and Martin's axiom. Recent developments concern combinatorics of the continuum and combinatorics on successors of singular cardinals. Gian-Carlo Rota used the name continuous combinatorics to describe geometric probability, since there are many analogies between counting and measure. Related fields Kissing spheres are connected to both coding theory and discrete geometry. Combinatorial optimization Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects. It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory. Coding theory Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes. The main idea of the subject is to design efficient and reliable methods of data transmission. It is now a large field of study, part of information theory. Discrete and computational geometry Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began as a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers. With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study. There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry. Combinatorics and dynamical systems Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field. Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects. See for example graph dynamical system. Combinatorics and physics There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics. Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand. See also Mathematics portal Combinatorial biology Combinatorial chemistry Combinatorial data analysis Combinatorial game theory Combinatorial group theory Discrete mathematics List of combinatorics topics Phylogenetics Polynomial method in combinatorics Notes ^ Björner and Stanley, p. 2 ^ Lovász, László (1979). Combinatorial Problems and Exercises. North-Holland. ISBN 978-0821842621. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-23. In my opinion, combinatorics is now growing out of this early stage. ^ Pak, Igor. "What is Combinatorics?". Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017. ^ Ryser 1963, p. 2 ^ Mirsky, Leon (1979), "Book Review" (PDF), Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, New Series, 1: 380–388, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-1979-14606-8, archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-26, retrieved 2021-02-04 ^ Rota, Gian Carlo (1969). Discrete Thoughts. Birkhaüser. p. 50. doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-4775-9. ISBN 978-0-8176-4775-9. ... combinatorial theory has been the mother of several of the more active branches of today's mathematics, which have become independent ... . The typical ... case of this is algebraic topology (formerly known as combinatorial topology) ^ Acerbi, F. (2003). "On the shoulders of Hipparchus". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 57 (6): 465–502. doi:10.1007/s00407-003-0067-0. S2CID 122758966. Archived from the original on 2022-01-23. Retrieved 2021-03-12. ^ Stanley, Richard P.; "Hipparchus, Plutarch, Schröder, and Hough", American Mathematical Monthly 104 (1997), no. 4, 344–350. ^ Habsieger, Laurent; Kazarian, Maxim; Lando, Sergei (1998). "On the Second Number of Plutarch". The American Mathematical Monthly. 105 (5): 446. doi:10.1080/00029890.1998.12004906. ^ Netz, R.; Acerbi, F.; Wilson, N. "Towards a reconstruction of Archimedes' Stomachion". Sciamvs. 5: 67–99. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-12. ^ Hogendijk, Jan P. (1986). "Arabic Traces of Lost Works of Apollonius". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 35 (3): 187–253. doi:10.1007/BF00357307. ISSN 0003-9519. JSTOR 41133783. S2CID 121613986. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-03-26. ^ Huxley, G. (1967). "Okytokion". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 8 (3): 203. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-26. ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Combinatorics", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews ^ Puttaswamy, Tumkur K. (2000). "The Mathematical Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians". In Selin, Helaine (ed.). Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 417. ISBN 978-1-4020-0260-1. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2015-11-15. ^ Biggs, Norman L. (1979). "The Roots of Combinatorics". Historia Mathematica. 6 (2): 109–136. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(79)90074-0. ^ Maistrov, L.E. (1974), Probability Theory: A Historical Sketch, Academic Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-1-4832-1863-2, archived from the original on 2021-04-16, retrieved 2015-01-25. (Translation from 1967 Russian ed.) ^ White, Arthur T. (1987). "Ringing the Cosets". The American Mathematical Monthly. 94 (8): 721–746. doi:10.1080/00029890.1987.12000711. ^ White, Arthur T. (1996). "Fabian Stedman: The First Group Theorist?". The American Mathematical Monthly. 103 (9): 771–778. doi:10.1080/00029890.1996.12004816. ^ See Journals in Combinatorics and Graph Theory Archived 2021-02-17 at the Wayback Machine ^ Sanders, Daniel P.; 2-Digit MSC Comparison Archived 2008-12-31 at the Wayback Machine ^ Stinson 2003, pg.1 ^ Andreas Blass, Combinatorial Cardinal Characteristics of the Continuum, Chapter 6 in Handbook of Set Theory, edited by Matthew Foreman and Akihiro Kanamori, Springer, 2010 ^ Eisworth, Todd (2010), Foreman, Matthew; Kanamori, Akihiro (eds.), "Successors of Singular Cardinals", Handbook of Set Theory, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1229–1350, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5764-9_16, ISBN 978-1-4020-4843-2, retrieved 2022-08-27 ^ "Continuous and profinite combinatorics" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-02-26. Retrieved 2009-01-03. References Björner, Anders; and Stanley, Richard P.; (2010); A Combinatorial Miscellany Bóna, Miklós; (2011); A Walk Through Combinatorics (3rd ed.). ISBN 978-981-4335-23-2, 978-981-4460-00-2 Graham, Ronald L.; Groetschel, Martin; and Lovász, László; eds. (1996); Handbook of Combinatorics, Volumes 1 and 2. Amsterdam, NL, and Cambridge, MA: Elsevier (North-Holland) and MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-07169-X Lindner, Charles C.; and Rodger, Christopher A.; eds. (1997); Design Theory, CRC-Press. ISBN 0-8493-3986-3. Riordan, John (2002) , An Introduction to Combinatorial Analysis, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-42536-8 Ryser, Herbert John (1963), Combinatorial Mathematics, The Carus Mathematical Monographs(#14), The Mathematical Association of America Stanley, Richard P. (1997, 1999); Enumerative Combinatorics, Volumes 1 and 2, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-55309-1, 0-521-56069-1 Stinson, Douglas R. (2003), Combinatorial Designs: Constructions and Analysis, New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-95487-2 van Lint, Jacobus H.; and Wilson, Richard M.; (2001); A Course in Combinatorics, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80340-3 External links Combinatorics at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteTextbooks from Wikibooks "Combinatorial analysis", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 Combinatorial Analysis – an article in Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition Combinatorics, a MathWorld article with many references. Combinatorics, from a MathPages.com portal. The Hyperbook of Combinatorics, a collection of math articles links. The Two Cultures of Mathematics by W.T. Gowers, article on problem solving vs theory building. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Combinatoriality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatoriality"},{"link_name":"Combinatorial logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_logic"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"counting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counting"},{"link_name":"finite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_set"},{"link_name":"structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_structure"},{"link_name":"logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic"},{"link_name":"statistical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_physics"},{"link_name":"evolutionary biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"pure mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_mathematics"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"},{"link_name":"probability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"},{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"analysis of algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Combinatoriality.\"Combinatorial\" redirects here. For combinatorial logic in computer science, see Combinatorial logic.Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and as an end to obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science.Combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles. Combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics, notably in algebra, probability theory, topology, and geometry,[1] as well as in its many application areas. Many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation, giving an ad hoc solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context. In the later twentieth century, however, powerful and general theoretical methods were developed, making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right.[2] One of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory, which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas. Combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms.A mathematician who studies combinatorics is called a combinatorialist.","title":"Combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"H.J. Ryser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.J._Ryser"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Leon Mirsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Mirsky"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"countable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countable_set"},{"link_name":"discrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics"}],"text":"The full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon.[3] According to H.J. Ryser, a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions.[4] Insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses, combinatorics is involved with:the enumeration (counting) of specified structures, sometimes referred to as arrangements or configurations in a very general sense, associated with finite systems,\nthe existence of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria,\nthe construction of these structures, perhaps in many ways, and\noptimization: finding the \"best\" structure or solution among several possibilities, be it the \"largest\", \"smallest\" or satisfying some other optimality criterion.Leon Mirsky has said: \"combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives, their methods, and the degree of coherence they have attained.\"[5] One way to define combinatorics is, perhaps, to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques. This is the approach that is used below. However, there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella.[6] Although primarily concerned with finite systems, some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite (specifically, countable) but discrete setting.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plain-bob-minor_2.png"},{"link_name":"change ringing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_ringing"},{"link_name":"graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"ancient world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Indian_history"},{"link_name":"physician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician"},{"link_name":"Sushruta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushruta"},{"link_name":"Sushruta Samhita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"historian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historian"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"Chrysippus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysippus"},{"link_name":"Hipparchus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus"},{"link_name":"Schröder–Hipparchus numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6der%E2%80%93Hipparchus_number"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Ostomachion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostomachion"},{"link_name":"Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"},{"link_name":"tiling puzzle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiling_puzzle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Apollonius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"European civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Mahāvīra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81v%C4%ABra_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"permutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation"},{"link_name":"combinations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher"},{"link_name":"astronomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer"},{"link_name":"Abraham ibn Ezra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_ibn_Ezra"},{"link_name":"binomial coefficients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_coefficient"},{"link_name":"talmudist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmudist"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"Levi ben Gerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_ben_Gerson"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Pascal's triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_triangle"},{"link_name":"Medieval England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_England"},{"link_name":"campanology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanology"},{"link_name":"Hamiltonian cycles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_cycle"},{"link_name":"Cayley graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayley_graph"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal"},{"link_name":"Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Jacob Bernoulli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Bernoulli"},{"link_name":"Euler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler"},{"link_name":"J.J. Sylvester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester"},{"link_name":"Percy MacMahon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Alexander_MacMahon"},{"link_name":"enumerative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerative_combinatorics"},{"link_name":"algebraic combinatorics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_combinatorics"},{"link_name":"Graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"four color problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_color_problem"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"functional analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_analysis"},{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"}],"text":"An example of change ringing (with six bells), one of the earliest nontrivial results in graph theory.Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world. Indian physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 26 − 1 possibilities. Greek historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BCE) and Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder–Hipparchus numbers.[7][8][9] Earlier, in the Ostomachion, Archimedes (3rd century BCE) may have considered the number of configurations of a tiling puzzle,[10] while combinatorial interests possibly were present in lost works by Apollonius.[11][12]In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization. The Indian mathematician Mahāvīra (c. 850) provided formulae for the number of permutations and combinations,[13][14] and these formulas may have been familiar to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century CE.[15] The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra (c. 1140) established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321.[16]\nThe arithmetical triangle—a graphical diagram showing relationships among the binomial coefficients—was presented by mathematicians in treatises dating as far back as the 10th century, and would eventually become known as Pascal's triangle. Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations.[17][18]During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth. Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field. In modern times, the works of J.J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) helped lay the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics. Graph theory also enjoyed an increase of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem.In the second half of the 20th century, combinatorics enjoyed a rapid growth, which led to establishment of dozens of new journals and conferences in the subject.[19] In part, the growth was spurred by new connections and applications to other fields, ranging from algebra to probability, from functional analysis to number theory, etc. These connections shed the boundaries between combinatorics and parts of mathematics and theoretical computer science, but at the same time led to a partial fragmentation of the field.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catalan_4_leaves_binary_tree_example.svg"},{"link_name":"binary trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_tree"},{"link_name":"vertices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"Catalan numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_number"},{"link_name":"mathematical problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_problem"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_numbers"},{"link_name":"twelvefold way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twelvefold_way"},{"link_name":"permutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutations"},{"link_name":"combinations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinations"},{"link_name":"partitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_a_set"}],"sub_title":"Enumerative combinatorics","text":"Five binary trees on three vertices, an example of Catalan numbers.Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description. Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics. The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Analytic combinatorics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_combinatorics"},{"link_name":"complex analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_analysis"},{"link_name":"probability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory"},{"link_name":"generating functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generating_functions"},{"link_name":"asymptotic formulae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_analysis"}],"sub_title":"Analytic combinatorics","text":"Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics, which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Partition3D.svg"},{"link_name":"plane partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_partition"},{"link_name":"integer partitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_partition"},{"link_name":"q-series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q-series"},{"link_name":"special functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_functions"},{"link_name":"orthogonal polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_polynomials"},{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"},{"link_name":"analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis"},{"link_name":"bijective approach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijective_proof"},{"link_name":"analytic number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_number_theory"},{"link_name":"statistical mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Young diagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_diagram"},{"link_name":"Ferrers diagrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrers_diagram"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"symmetric polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_polynomial"},{"link_name":"symmetric group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_group"},{"link_name":"group representation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_representation"}],"sub_title":"Partition theory","text":"A plane partition.Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis and analytic number theory and has connections with statistical mechanics. Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials and of the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Petersen1_tiny.svg"},{"link_name":"Petersen graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petersen_graph"},{"link_name":"Tutte polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutte_polynomial"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Graph theory","text":"Petersen graph.Graphs are fundamental objects in combinatorics. Considerations of graph theory range from enumeration (e.g., the number of graphs on n vertices with k edges) to existing structures (e.g., Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic representations (e.g., given a graph G and two numbers x and y, does the Tutte polynomial TG(x,y) have a combinatorial interpretation?). Although there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, they are sometimes thought of as separate subjects.[20] While combinatorial methods apply to many graph theory problems, the two disciplines are generally used to seek solutions to different types of problems.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"combinatorial designs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_design"},{"link_name":"intersection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_intersection"},{"link_name":"Block designs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_design"},{"link_name":"Kirkman's schoolgirl problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkman%27s_schoolgirl_problem"},{"link_name":"Steiner system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steiner_system"},{"link_name":"classification of finite simple groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_finite_simple_groups"},{"link_name":"coding theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coding_theory"},{"link_name":"design of experiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_experiments"},{"link_name":"Ronald Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Fisher"},{"link_name":"finite geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_geometry"},{"link_name":"tournament scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tournament"},{"link_name":"lotteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottery"},{"link_name":"mathematical chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"mathematical biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_biology"},{"link_name":"algorithm design and analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm_design"},{"link_name":"networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"group testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_testing"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Design theory","text":"Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type. This area is one of the oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850. The solution of the problem is a special case of a Steiner system, which play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups. The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics.Combinatorial design theory can be applied to the area of design of experiments. Some of the basic theory of combinatorial designs originated in the statistician Ronald Fisher's work on the design of biological experiments. Modern applications are also found in a wide gamut of areas including finite geometry, tournament scheduling, lotteries, mathematical chemistry, mathematical biology, algorithm design and analysis, networking, group testing and cryptography.[21]","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"geometric systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"Euclidean plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_plane"},{"link_name":"real projective space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_projective_space"},{"link_name":"design theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_design"},{"link_name":"combinatorial geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_geometry"}],"sub_title":"Finite geometry","text":"Finite geometry is the study of geometric systems having only a finite number of points. Structures analogous to those found in continuous geometries (Euclidean plane, real projective space, etc.) but defined combinatorially are the main items studied. This area provides a rich source of examples for design theory. It should not be confused with discrete geometry (combinatorial geometry).","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hasse_diagram_of_powerset_of_3.svg"},{"link_name":"Hasse diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasse_diagram"},{"link_name":"powerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_set"},{"link_name":"inclusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inclusion_map"},{"link_name":"partially ordered sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_sets"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_algebra"},{"link_name":"lattices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebras"}],"sub_title":"Order theory","text":"Hasse diagram of the powerset of {x,y,z} ordered by inclusion.Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. It provides a formal framework for describing statements such as \"this is less than that\" or \"this precedes that\". Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory. Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"linear dependence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_independence"},{"link_name":"Hassler Whitney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassler_Whitney"}],"sub_title":"Matroid theory","text":"Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry. It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory. Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of order theory. It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number"},{"link_name":"graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)"},{"link_name":"vectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"set systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_system"},{"link_name":"subsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset"},{"link_name":"Sperner's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperner_family#Sperner's_theorem"},{"link_name":"triangle-free graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle-free_graph"},{"link_name":"complete bipartite graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_bipartite_graph"},{"link_name":"asymptotic estimate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_analysis"},{"link_name":"Ramsey theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsey_theory"},{"link_name":"sufficiently large","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufficiently_large"},{"link_name":"pigeonhole principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigeonhole_principle"}],"sub_title":"Extremal combinatorics","text":"Extremal combinatorics studies how large or how small a collection of finite objects (numbers, graphs, vectors, sets, etc.) can be, if it has to satisfy certain restrictions. Much of extremal combinatorics concerns classes of set systems; this is called extremal set theory. For instance, in an n-element set, what is the largest number of k-element subsets that can pairwise intersect one another? What is the largest number of subsets of which none contains any other? The latter question is answered by Sperner's theorem, which gave rise to much of extremal set theory.The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties. For example, the largest triangle-free graph on 2n vertices is a complete bipartite graph Kn,n. Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer f(n) exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate.Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics. It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order. It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Self_avoiding_walk.svg"},{"link_name":"Self-avoiding walk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-avoiding_walk"},{"link_name":"square grid graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_graph"},{"link_name":"random graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_graph"},{"link_name":"probabilistic method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilistic_method"},{"link_name":"Markov chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_chains"},{"link_name":"mixing time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_chain_mixing_time"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Paul Erdős","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s"}],"sub_title":"Probabilistic combinatorics","text":"Self-avoiding walk in a square grid graph.In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph? For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph? Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find) by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0. This approach (often referred to as the probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time.[clarification needed]Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneering work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics. The area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Young_diagram_for_541_partition.svg"},{"link_name":"Young diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_diagram"},{"link_name":"integer partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer_partition"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"abstract algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_algebra"},{"link_name":"group theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory"},{"link_name":"representation theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_theory"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_algebra"},{"link_name":"enumerative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumerative_combinatorics"},{"link_name":"matroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matroid"},{"link_name":"polytopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytope"},{"link_name":"partially ordered sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"finite geometries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_geometry"},{"link_name":"lattice theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_theory"},{"link_name":"commutative algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_algebra"}],"sub_title":"Algebraic combinatorics","text":"Young diagram of the integer partition (5, 4, 1).Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra. Algebraic combinatorics has come to be seen more expansively as an area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant. Thus the combinatorial topics may be enumerative in nature or involve matroids, polytopes, partially ordered sets, or finite geometries. On the algebraic side, besides group and representation theory, lattice theory and commutative algebra are common.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Morse-Thue_sequence.gif"},{"link_name":"Thue–Morse infinite word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thue%E2%80%93Morse_sequence"},{"link_name":"formal languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language"},{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"},{"link_name":"group theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory"},{"link_name":"probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability"},{"link_name":"fractal analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractal_analysis"},{"link_name":"theoretical computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science"},{"link_name":"automata theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata_theory"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomsky%E2%80%93Sch%C3%BCtzenberger_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"formal grammars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_grammar"}],"sub_title":"Combinatorics on words","text":"Construction of a Thue–Morse infinite word.Combinatorics on words deals with formal languages. It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability. It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory, and linguistics. While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best-known result in the field.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Icosahedron.svg"},{"link_name":"icosahedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedron"},{"link_name":"convex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_geometry"},{"link_name":"discrete geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_geometry"},{"link_name":"convex polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_polytope"},{"link_name":"Metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_geometry"},{"link_name":"Cauchy theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy%27s_theorem_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"permutohedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutohedron"},{"link_name":"associahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associahedron"},{"link_name":"Birkhoff polytopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkhoff_polytope"},{"link_name":"Combinatorial geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_geometry"},{"link_name":"polyhedral combinatorics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedral_combinatorics"},{"link_name":"faces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"convex polyhedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_polyhedron"},{"link_name":"convex geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_geometry"},{"link_name":"convex sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_set"},{"link_name":"discrete geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_geometry"},{"link_name":"computational geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry"},{"link_name":"regular polytopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_polytope"},{"link_name":"Archimedean solids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedean_solid"},{"link_name":"kissing numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_number"},{"link_name":"permutohedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutohedron"},{"link_name":"associahedron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associahedron"},{"link_name":"Birkhoff polytope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkhoff_polytope"}],"sub_title":"Geometric combinatorics","text":"An icosahedron.Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry. It asks, for example, how many faces of each dimension a convex polytope can have. Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g. the Cauchy theorem on the rigidity of convex polytopes. Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedra, associahedra and Birkhoff polytopes. Combinatorial geometry is a historical name for discrete geometry.It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry. The study of regular polytopes, Archimedean solids, and kissing numbers is also a part of geometric combinatorics. Special polytopes are also considered, such as the permutohedron, associahedron and Birkhoff polytope.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Collier-de-perles-rouge-vert.svg"},{"link_name":"Splitting a necklace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necklace_splitting_problem"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"},{"link_name":"graph coloring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_coloring"},{"link_name":"fair division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_division"},{"link_name":"partitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_a_set"},{"link_name":"partially ordered sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"decision trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_tree"},{"link_name":"necklace problems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necklace_problem"},{"link_name":"discrete Morse theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_Morse_theory"},{"link_name":"combinatorial topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_topology"},{"link_name":"algebraic topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_topology"}],"sub_title":"Topological combinatorics","text":"Splitting a necklace with two cuts.Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory. It should not be confused with combinatorial topology which is an older name for algebraic topology.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_theory"},{"link_name":"ergodic theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic_theory"},{"link_name":"harmonic analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonic_analysis"},{"link_name":"Additive number theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_number_theory"},{"link_name":"ergodic theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergodic_theory"},{"link_name":"dynamical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_system"}],"sub_title":"Arithmetic combinatorics","text":"Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis. It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Additive number theory (sometimes also called additive combinatorics) refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved. One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory"},{"link_name":"mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"continuous graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_graph"},{"link_name":"trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"Ramsey's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramsey%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"Martin's axiom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%27s_axiom"},{"link_name":"continuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Gian-Carlo Rota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian-Carlo_Rota"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"geometric probability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_probability"}],"sub_title":"Infinitary combinatorics","text":"Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Some of the things studied include continuous graphs and trees, extensions of Ramsey's theorem, and Martin's axiom. Recent developments concern combinatorics of the continuum[22] and combinatorics on successors of singular cardinals.[23]Gian-Carlo Rota used the name continuous combinatorics[24] to describe geometric probability, since there are many analogies between counting and measure.","title":"Approaches and subfields of combinatorics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kissing-3d.png"},{"link_name":"Kissing spheres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_number"},{"link_name":"coding theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coding_theory"},{"link_name":"discrete geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_geometry"}],"text":"Kissing spheres are connected to both coding theory and discrete geometry.","title":"Related fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Combinatorial optimization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_optimization"},{"link_name":"operations research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research"},{"link_name":"algorithm theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms"},{"link_name":"computational complexity theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory"}],"sub_title":"Combinatorial optimization","text":"Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects. It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory.","title":"Related fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coding theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coding_theory"},{"link_name":"error-correcting codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error-correcting_code"},{"link_name":"information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory"}],"sub_title":"Coding theory","text":"Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes. The main idea of the subject is to design efficient and reliable methods of data transmission. It is now a large field of study, part of information theory.","title":"Related fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Discrete geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_geometry"},{"link_name":"convex polytopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_polytope"},{"link_name":"kissing numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_number"},{"link_name":"computational geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_geometry"}],"sub_title":"Discrete and computational geometry","text":"Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began as a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers. With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study. There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry.","title":"Related fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics_and_dynamical_systems"},{"link_name":"graph dynamical system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_dynamical_system"}],"sub_title":"Combinatorics and dynamical systems","text":"Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field. Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects. See for example\ngraph dynamical system.","title":"Related fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"combinatorics and physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics_and_physics"},{"link_name":"statistical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_physics"},{"link_name":"Ising model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ising_model"},{"link_name":"Potts model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potts_model"},{"link_name":"chromatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_polynomial"},{"link_name":"Tutte polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutte_polynomial"}],"sub_title":"Combinatorics and physics","text":"There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics. Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand.","title":"Related fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Combinatorial Problems and Exercises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ueq1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0821842621","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0821842621"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210416100842/https://books.google.com/books?id=ueq1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"What is Combinatorics?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.math.ucla.edu/~pak/hidden/papers/Quotes/Combinatorics-quotes.htm"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20171017075155/http://www.math.ucla.edu/~pak/hidden/papers/Quotes/Combinatorics-quotes.htm"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Ryser 1963","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRyser1963"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Book Review\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ams.org/journals/bull/1979-01-02/S0273-0979-1979-14606-8/S0273-0979-1979-14606-8.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1090/S0273-0979-1979-14606-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1090%2FS0273-0979-1979-14606-8"},{"link_name":"archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210226080424/https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1979-01-02/S0273-0979-1979-14606-8/S0273-0979-1979-14606-8.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Discrete Thoughts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-0-8176-4775-9"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-0-8176-4775-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-8176-4775-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8176-4775-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4775-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"On the shoulders of Hipparchus\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00407-003-0067-0"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/s00407-003-0067-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00407-003-0067-0"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"122758966","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122758966"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20220123111759/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00407-003-0067-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"Stanley, Richard P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_P._Stanley"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/00029890.1998.12004906","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F00029890.1998.12004906"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"\"Towards a reconstruction of Archimedes' Stomachion\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciamvs.org/2004.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210416095205/https://www.sciamvs.org/2004.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"\"Arabic Traces of Lost Works of Apollonius\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/41133783"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/BF00357307","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00357307"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0003-9519","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9519"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"41133783","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/41133783"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"121613986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121613986"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210418221029/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133783"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"Okytokion\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/11131/4205"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210416100956/https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/11131/4205"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Robertson, Edmund F.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson"},{"link_name":"\"Combinatorics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Mahavira.html"},{"link_name":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive"},{"link_name":"University of St Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=2hTyfurOH8AC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4020-0260-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0260-1"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210416100852/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hTyfurOH8AC"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"\"The Roots of Combinatorics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2879%2990074-0"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/0315-0860(79)90074-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2879%2990074-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"Probability Theory: A Historical Sketch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4832-1863-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-1863-2"},{"link_name":"archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210416091311/https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/00029890.1987.12000711","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F00029890.1987.12000711"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1080/00029890.1996.12004816","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1080%2F00029890.1996.12004816"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"Journals in Combinatorics and Graph Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.math.iit.edu/~kaul/Journals.html#CGT"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210217150357/http://www.math.iit.edu/~kaul/Journals.html#CGT"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"2-Digit MSC Comparison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.math.gatech.edu/~sanders/graphtheory/writings/2-digit.html"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20081231163112/http://www.math.gatech.edu/~sanders/graphtheory/writings/2-digit.html"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-21"},{"link_name":"Stinson 2003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStinson2003"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-22"},{"link_name":"Andreas Blass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Blass"},{"link_name":"Matthew Foreman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Foreman"},{"link_name":"Akihiro Kanamori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akihiro_Kanamori"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"\"Successors of Singular Cardinals\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4020-5764-9_16"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-1-4020-5764-9_16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-5764-9_16"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4020-4843-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4843-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"\"Continuous and profinite combinatorics\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//faculty.uml.edu/dklain/cpc.pdf"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20090226040144/http://faculty.uml.edu/dklain/cpc.pdf"}],"text":"^ Björner and Stanley, p. 2\n\n^ Lovász, László (1979). Combinatorial Problems and Exercises. North-Holland. ISBN 978-0821842621. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-23. In my opinion, combinatorics is now growing out of this early stage.\n\n^ Pak, Igor. \"What is Combinatorics?\". Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.\n\n^ Ryser 1963, p. 2\n\n^ Mirsky, Leon (1979), \"Book Review\" (PDF), Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, New Series, 1: 380–388, doi:10.1090/S0273-0979-1979-14606-8, archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-26, retrieved 2021-02-04\n\n^ Rota, Gian Carlo (1969). Discrete Thoughts. Birkhaüser. p. 50. doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-4775-9. ISBN 978-0-8176-4775-9. ... combinatorial theory has been the mother of several of the more active branches of today's mathematics, which have become independent ... . The typical ... case of this is algebraic topology (formerly known as combinatorial topology)\n\n^ Acerbi, F. (2003). \"On the shoulders of Hipparchus\". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 57 (6): 465–502. doi:10.1007/s00407-003-0067-0. S2CID 122758966. Archived from the original on 2022-01-23. Retrieved 2021-03-12.\n\n^ Stanley, Richard P.; \"Hipparchus, Plutarch, Schröder, and Hough\", American Mathematical Monthly 104 (1997), no. 4, 344–350.\n\n^ Habsieger, Laurent; Kazarian, Maxim; Lando, Sergei (1998). \"On the Second Number of Plutarch\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 105 (5): 446. doi:10.1080/00029890.1998.12004906.\n\n^ Netz, R.; Acerbi, F.; Wilson, N. \"Towards a reconstruction of Archimedes' Stomachion\". Sciamvs. 5: 67–99. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-12.\n\n^ Hogendijk, Jan P. (1986). \"Arabic Traces of Lost Works of Apollonius\". Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 35 (3): 187–253. doi:10.1007/BF00357307. ISSN 0003-9519. JSTOR 41133783. S2CID 121613986. Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-03-26.\n\n^ Huxley, G. (1967). \"Okytokion\". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. 8 (3): 203. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-26.\n\n^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Combinatorics\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews\n\n^ Puttaswamy, Tumkur K. (2000). \"The Mathematical Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians\". In Selin, Helaine (ed.). Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 417. ISBN 978-1-4020-0260-1. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2015-11-15.\n\n^ Biggs, Norman L. (1979). \"The Roots of Combinatorics\". Historia Mathematica. 6 (2): 109–136. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(79)90074-0.\n\n^ Maistrov, L.E. (1974), Probability Theory: A Historical Sketch, Academic Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-1-4832-1863-2, archived from the original on 2021-04-16, retrieved 2015-01-25. (Translation from 1967 Russian ed.)\n\n^ White, Arthur T. (1987). \"Ringing the Cosets\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 94 (8): 721–746. doi:10.1080/00029890.1987.12000711.\n\n^ White, Arthur T. (1996). \"Fabian Stedman: The First Group Theorist?\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 103 (9): 771–778. doi:10.1080/00029890.1996.12004816.\n\n^ See Journals in Combinatorics and Graph Theory Archived 2021-02-17 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ Sanders, Daniel P.; 2-Digit MSC Comparison Archived 2008-12-31 at the Wayback Machine\n\n^ Stinson 2003, pg.1\n\n^ Andreas Blass, Combinatorial Cardinal Characteristics of the Continuum, Chapter 6 in Handbook of Set Theory, edited by Matthew Foreman and Akihiro Kanamori, Springer, 2010\n\n^ Eisworth, Todd (2010), Foreman, Matthew; Kanamori, Akihiro (eds.), \"Successors of Singular Cardinals\", Handbook of Set Theory, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1229–1350, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5764-9_16, ISBN 978-1-4020-4843-2, retrieved 2022-08-27\n\n^ \"Continuous and profinite combinatorics\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-02-26. Retrieved 2009-01-03.","title":"Notes"}]
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Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/11131/4205","url_text":"\"Okytokion\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210416100956/https://grbs.library.duke.edu/article/view/11131/4205","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Combinatorics\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson","url_text":"Robertson, Edmund F."},{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Mahavira.html","url_text":"\"Combinatorics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive","url_text":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"}]},{"reference":"Puttaswamy, Tumkur K. (2000). \"The Mathematical Accomplishments of Ancient Indian Mathematicians\". In Selin, Helaine (ed.). Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 417. ISBN 978-1-4020-0260-1. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2015-11-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2hTyfurOH8AC","url_text":"Mathematics Across Cultures: The History of Non-Western Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-0260-1","url_text":"978-1-4020-0260-1"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210416100852/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hTyfurOH8AC","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Biggs, Norman L. (1979). \"The Roots of Combinatorics\". Historia Mathematica. 6 (2): 109–136. doi:10.1016/0315-0860(79)90074-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2879%2990074-0","url_text":"\"The Roots of Combinatorics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2879%2990074-0","url_text":"10.1016/0315-0860(79)90074-0"}]},{"reference":"Maistrov, L.E. (1974), Probability Theory: A Historical Sketch, Academic Press, p. 35, ISBN 978-1-4832-1863-2, archived from the original on 2021-04-16, retrieved 2015-01-25","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35","url_text":"Probability Theory: A Historical Sketch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-1863-2","url_text":"978-1-4832-1863-2"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210416091311/https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZbiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"White, Arthur T. (1987). \"Ringing the Cosets\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 94 (8): 721–746. doi:10.1080/00029890.1987.12000711.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00029890.1987.12000711","url_text":"10.1080/00029890.1987.12000711"}]},{"reference":"White, Arthur T. (1996). \"Fabian Stedman: The First Group Theorist?\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 103 (9): 771–778. doi:10.1080/00029890.1996.12004816.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00029890.1996.12004816","url_text":"10.1080/00029890.1996.12004816"}]},{"reference":"Eisworth, Todd (2010), Foreman, Matthew; Kanamori, Akihiro (eds.), \"Successors of Singular Cardinals\", Handbook of Set Theory, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1229–1350, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5764-9_16, ISBN 978-1-4020-4843-2, retrieved 2022-08-27","urls":[{"url":"http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4020-5764-9_16","url_text":"\"Successors of Singular Cardinals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-5764-9_16","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4020-5764-9_16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4843-2","url_text":"978-1-4020-4843-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Continuous and profinite combinatorics\" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-02-26. Retrieved 2009-01-03.","urls":[{"url":"http://faculty.uml.edu/dklain/cpc.pdf","url_text":"\"Continuous and profinite combinatorics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090226040144/http://faculty.uml.edu/dklain/cpc.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Riordan, John (2002) [1958], An Introduction to Combinatorial Analysis, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-42536-8","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Riordan_(mathematician)","url_text":"Riordan, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42536-8","url_text":"978-0-486-42536-8"}]},{"reference":"Ryser, Herbert John (1963), Combinatorial Mathematics, The Carus Mathematical Monographs(#14), The Mathematical Association of America","urls":[]},{"reference":"Stinson, Douglas R. (2003), Combinatorial Designs: Constructions and Analysis, New York: Springer, ISBN 0-387-95487-2","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-95487-2","url_text":"0-387-95487-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Combinatorial analysis\", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]","urls":[{"url":"https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Combinatorial_analysis","url_text":"\"Combinatorial analysis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Mathematics","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"EMS Press"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamatai
Yamatai
["1 History","1.1 Chinese texts","1.2 Japanese texts","2 Government","3 Pronunciations","4 Location","5 In popular culture","6 References","7 Sources"]
Ancient country in Japan YamataiYamatai-koku (邪馬台国)c. 1st century–c. 3rd centuryCapitalYamatoCommon languagesProto-JaponicGovernmentMonarchyQueen • c. 180–c. 248 AD Himiko• c. 248–? AD Toyo History • Established c. 1st century• Disestablished c. 3rd century Yamatai or Yamatai-koku (邪馬台国) (c. 1st century – c. 3rd century) is the Sino-Japanese name of an ancient country in Wa (Japan) during the late Yayoi period (c. 1,000 BCE – c. 300 CE). The Chinese text Records of the Three Kingdoms first recorded the name as /*ja-maB-də̂/ (邪馬臺) or /*ja-maB-ʔit/ (邪馬壹) (using reconstructed Eastern Han Chinese pronunciations) followed by the character 國 for "country", describing the place as the domain of Priest-Queen Himiko (卑弥呼) (died c. 248 CE). Generations of Japanese historians, linguists, and archeologists have debated where Yamatai was located and whether it was related to the later Yamato (大和国). History Chinese texts Text of the Wei Zhi (ca. 297) The oldest accounts of Yamatai are found in the official Chinese dynastic Twenty-Four Histories for the 1st- and 2nd-century Eastern Han dynasty, the 3rd-century Wei kingdom, and the 6th-century Sui dynasty. The c. 297 CE Records of Wèi (traditional Chinese: 魏志), which is part of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (三國志), first mentions the country Yamatai, usually spelled as 邪馬臺 (/*ja-maB-də̂/), written instead with the spelling 邪馬壹 (/*ja-maB-ʔit/), or Yamaichi in modern Japanese pronunciation. Most Wei Zhi commentators accept the 邪馬臺 (/*ja-maB-də̂/) transcription in later texts and dismiss this initial spelling using 壹 (/ʔit/) meaning "one" (the anti-fraud character variant for 一 'one') as a miscopy, or perhaps a naming taboo avoidance, of 臺 (/dʌi/) meaning "platform; terrace." This history describes ancient Wa based upon detailed reports of 3rd-century Chinese envoys who traveled throughout the Japanese archipelago:Going south by water for twenty days, one comes to the country of Toma, where the official is called mimi and his lieutenant, miminari. Here there are about fifty thousand households. Then going toward the south, one arrives at the country of Yamadai, where a Queen holds her court. takes ten days by water and one month by land. Among the officials there are the ikima and, next in rank, the mimasho; then the mimagushi, then the nakato. There are probably more than seventy thousands households. (115, tr. Tsunoda 1951:9) The Wei Zhi also records that in 238 CE, Queen Himiko sent an envoy to the court of Wei emperor Cao Rui, who responded favorably: We confer upon you, therefore, the title 'Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei', together with the decoration of the gold seal with purple ribbon. ...As a special gift, we bestow upon you three pieces of blue brocade with interwoven characters, five pieces of tapestry with delicate floral designs, fifty lengths of white silk, eight taels of gold, two swords five feet long, one hundred bronze mirrors, and fifty catties each of jade and of red beads. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:14-15) The ca. 432 CE Book of the Later Han (traditional Chinese: 後漢書) says the Wa kings lived in the country of Yamatai (邪馬臺國):The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Han in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities. From the time of the overthrow of Chaoxian by Emperor Wu (B.C. 140-87), nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han court by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office is hereditary. The King of Great Wa resides in the country of Yamadai. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:1) The Book of Sui (traditional Chinese: 隋書), finished in 636 CE, records changing the capital's name from the Yamatai recorded in the Book of Wei, to Yamadai (traditional Chinese: 邪靡堆, Middle Chinese: /jia muɑ tuʌi/; interpreted as Yamato (Japanese logographic spelling 大和):Wa is situated in the middle of the great ocean southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousand li away by water and land. The people dwell on mountainous islands. ...The capital is Yamadai, known in the Wei history as Yamatai. The old records say that it is altogether twelve thousand li distant from the borders of Lelang and Daifang prefectures, and is situated east of Kuaiji and close to Dan'er. (倭國在百濟・新羅東南、水陸三千里、於大海之中、依山島而居。... 都於邪靡堆、則魏志所謂邪馬臺者也。古云、去樂浪郡境及帶方郡並一萬二千里、在會稽之東、與儋耳相近。) (81, tr. Tsunoda 1951:28) The History of the Northern Dynasties, completed 643-659 CE, contains a similar record, but transliterates the name Yamadai using a different character with a similar pronunciation (traditional Chinese: 邪摩堆). Japanese texts The first Japanese books, such as the Kojiki or Nihon Shoki, were mainly written in a variant of Classical Chinese called kanbun. The first texts actually in the Japanese language used Chinese characters, called kanji in Japanese, for their phonetic values. This usage is first seen in the 400s or 500s to spell out Japanese names, as on the Eta Funayama Sword or the Inariyama Sword. This gradually formalized over the 600s and 700s into the Man'yōgana system, a rebus-like transcription that uses specific kanji to represent Japanese phonemes. For instance, man'yōgana spells the Japanese mora ka using (among others) the character 加, which means "to add", and was pronounced as /kˠa/ in Middle Chinese and adopted into Japanese with the pronunciation ka. Irregularities within this awkward system led Japanese scribes to develop phonetically regular syllabaries. The new kana were graphic simplifications of Chinese characters. For instance, ka is written か in hiragana and カ in katakana, both of which derive from the Man'yōgana 加 character (hiragana from the cursive form of the kanji, and katakana from a simplification of the kanji). The c. 712 Kojiki (古事記, "Records of Ancient Matters") is the oldest extant book written in Japan. The "Birth of the Eight Islands" section phonetically transcribes Yamato as 夜麻登, pronounced in Middle Chinese as /jiaH mˠa təŋ/ and used to represent the Old Japanese morae ya ma to2 (see also Man'yōgana#chartable). The Kojiki records the Shintoist creation myth that the god Izanagi and the goddess Izanami gave birth to the Ōyashima (大八州, "Eight Great Islands") of Japan, the last of which was Yamato:Next they gave birth to Great-Yamato-the-Luxuriant-Island-of-the-Dragon-Fly, another name for which is Heavenly-August-Sky-Luxuriant-Dragon-Fly-Lord-Youth. The name of "Land-of-the-Eight-Great-Islands" therefore originated in these eight islands having been born first. (tr. Chamberlain 1919:23) Chamberlain (1919:27) notes this poetic name "Island of the Dragon-fly" is associated with legendary Emperor Jimmu, whose honorific name includes "Yamato", as Kamu-yamato Iware-biko. The 720 Nihon Shoki (日本書紀, "Chronicles of Japan") transcribes Yamato with the Chinese characters 耶麻騰, pronounced in Middle Chinese as /jia mˠa dəŋ/ and in Old Japanese as ya ma to2 or ya ma do2. In this version of the Eight Great Islands myth, Yamato is born second instead of eighth:Now when the time of birth arrived, first of all the island of Ahaji was reckoned as the placenta, and their minds took no pleasure in it. Therefore it received the name of Ahaji no Shima. Next there was produced the island of Oho-yamato no Toyo-aki-tsu-shima. (tr. Aston 1924 1:13) The translator Aston notes a literal meaning for the epithet of Toyo-aki-tsu-shima of "rich harvest's" (or "rich autumn's") "island" (i.e. "Island of Bountiful Harvests" or "Island of Bountiful Autumn"). The c. 600-759 Man'yōshū (万葉集, "Myriad Leaves Collection") transcribes various pieces of text using not the phonetic man'yōgana spellings, but rather a logographic style of spelling, based on the pronunciation of the kanji using the native Japanese vocabulary of the same meaning. For instance, the name Yamato is sometimes spelled as 山 (yama, "mountain") + 蹟 (ato, "footprint; track; trace"). Old Japanese pronunciation rules caused the sound yama ato to contract to just yamato. Government According to the Chinese record Twenty-Four Histories, Yamatai was originally ruled by the shamaness Queen Himiko. The other officials of the country were also ranked under the queen, with the highest position called ikima, followed by mimasho, then mimagushi, and the lowest-ranking position of nakato. According to the legends, Himiko lived in a palace with 1,000 female handmaidens and one male servant who would feed her. This palace was most likely located at the site of Makimuku in Nara prefecture. She ruled for most of the known history of Yamatai. After she died, her younger brother became ruler of the country for a short period before Yamatai disappears from historical records. Pronunciations Modern Japanese Yamato (大和) descends from Old Japanese Yamatö or Yamato2, which has been associated with Yamatai. The latter umlaut or subscript diacritics distinguish two vocalic types within the proposed eight vowels of Nara period (710-794) Old Japanese (a, i, ï, u, e, ë, o, and ö, see Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai), which merged into the five modern vowels (a, i, u, e, and o). During the Kofun period (250-538) when kanji were first used in Japan, Yamatö was written with the ateji 倭 for Wa, the name given to "Japan" by Chinese writers using a character meaning "docile, submissive". During the Asuka period (538-710) when Japanese place names were standardized into two-character compounds, the spelling of Yamato was changed to 大倭, adding the prefix 大 ("big; great"). Following the ca. 757 graphic substitution of 和 ("peaceful") for 倭 ("docile"), the name Yamato was spelled 大和 ("great harmony"), using the Classical Chinese expression 大和 (pronounced in Middle Chinese as /dɑH ɦuɑ/, as used in Yijing 1, tr. Wilhelm 1967:371: "each thing receives its true nature and destiny and comes into permanent accord with the Great Harmony.") The early Japanese texts above give three spellings of Yamato in kanji: 夜麻登 (Kojiki), 耶麻騰 (Nihon Shoki), and 山蹟 (Man'yōshū). The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki use Sino-Japanese on'yomi readings of ya 夜 "night" or ya or ja 耶 (an interrogative sentence-final particle in Chinese), ma 麻 "hemp", and to 登 "rise; mount" or do 騰 "fly; gallop". In contrast, the Man'yōshū uses Japanese kun'yomi readings of yama 山 "mountain" and ato 跡 "track; trace". As noted further above, Old Japanese pronunciation rules caused yama ato to contract to yamato. The early Chinese histories above give three transcriptions of Yamatai: 邪馬壹 (Wei Zhi), 邪馬臺 (Hou Han Shu), and 邪摩堆 (Sui Shu). The first syllable is consistently written with 邪 "a place name", which was used as a jiajie graphic-loan character for 耶, an interrogative sentence-final particle, and for 邪 "evil; depraved". The second syllable is written with 馬 "horse" or 摩 "rub; friction". The third syllable of Yamatai is written in one variant with 壹 "faithful, committed", which is also financial form of 一, "one", and more commonly using 臺 "platform; terrace" (cf. Taiwan 臺灣) or 堆 "pile; heap". Concerning the transcriptional difference between the 邪馬壹 spelling in the Wei Zhi and the 邪馬臺 in the Hou Han Shu, Hong (1994:248-9) cites Furuta Takehiko  that 邪馬壹 was correct. Chen Shou, author of the ca. 297 Wei Zhi, was writing about recent history based on personal observations; Fan Ye, author of the ca. 432 Hou Han Shu, was writing about earlier events based on written sources. Hong says the San Guo Zhi uses 壹 ("one") 86 times and 臺 ("platform") 56 times, without confusing them. During the Wei period, 臺 was one of their most sacred words, implying a religious-political sanctuary or the emperor's palace. The characters 邪 and 馬 mean "evil; depraved" and "horse", reflecting the contempt Chinese felt for a barbarian country, and it is most unlikely that Chen Shou would have used a sacred word after these two characters. It is equally unlikely that a copyist could have confused the characters, because in their old form they do not look nearly as similar as in their modern printed form. Yamadai was Fan Yeh's creation. (1994:249) He additionally cites Furuta that the Wei Zhi, Hou Han Shu, and Xin Tang Shu histories use at least 10 Chinese characters to transcribe Japanese to, but 臺 is not one of them. In historical Chinese phonology, the Modern Chinese pronunciations differ considerably from the original 3rd-7th century transcriptions from a transitional period between Archaic or Old Chinese and Ancient or Middle Chinese. The table below contrasts Modern pronunciations (in Pinyin) with differing reconstructions of Early Middle Chinese (Edwin G. Pulleyblank 1991), "Archaic" Chinese (Bernhard Karlgren 1957), and Middle Chinese (William H. Baxter 1992). Note that Karlgren's "Archaic" is equivalent with "Middle" Chinese, and his "yod" palatal approximant i̯ (which some browsers cannot display) is replaced with the customary IPA j. Chinese pronunciations Characters Mandarin Chinese Middle Chinese Early Middle Chinese "Archaic" Chinese 邪馬臺 yémǎtái yæmæXdoj jiamaɨ'dəj jama:t'ḁ̂i 邪摩堆 yémóduī yæmatwoj jiamatwəj jamuâtuḁ̂i 大和 dàhé dajHhwaH dajhɣwah d'âiɣuâ Roy Andrew Miller describes the phonological gap between these Middle Chinese reconstructions and the Old Japanese Yamatö. The Wei chih account of the Wo people is chiefly concerned with a kingdom which it calls Yeh-ma-t'ai, Middle Chinese i̯a-ma-t'ḁ̂i, which inevitably seems to be a transcription of some early linguistic form allied with the word Yamato. The phonology of this identification raises problems which after generations of study have yet to be settled. The final -ḁ̂i of the Middle Chinese form seems to be a transcription of some early form not otherwise recorded for the final -ö of Yamato. (1967:17-18) While most scholars interpret 邪馬臺 as a transcription of pre-Old Japanese yamatai, Miyake (2003:41) cites Alexander Vovin that Late Old Chinese ʑ(h)a maaʳq dhəə 邪馬臺 represents a pre-Old Japanese form of Old Japanese yamato2 (*yamatə). Tōdō Akiyasu reconstructs two pronunciations for 䑓 – dai < Middle dǝi < Old *dǝg and yi < yiei < *d̥iǝg – and reads 邪馬臺 as Yamai. The etymology of Yamato, like those of many Japanese words, remains uncertain. While scholars generally agree that Yama- signifies Japan's numerous yama 山 "mountains", they disagree whether -to < -tö signifies 跡 "track; trace", 門 "gate; door", 戸 "door", 都 "city; capital", or perhaps 所 "place". Bentley (2008) reconstructs underlying Wa's endonym *yama-tǝ(ɨ) as underlying the transcription 邪馬臺's pronunciation *ja-maˀ-dǝ > *-dǝɨ. Location Map illustrating the path from the Daifeng commandery to Yamatai, and its distances in the Wajinden. The location of Yamatai-koku is one of the most contentious topics in Japanese history. Generations of historians have debated "the Yamatai controversy" and have hypothesized numerous localities, some of which are fanciful like Okinawa (Farris 1998:245). General consensus centers around two likely locations of Yamatai, either northern Kyūshū or Yamato Province in the Kinki region of central Honshū. Imamura describes the controversy. The question of whether the Yamatai Kingdom was located in northern Kyushu or central Kinki prompted the greatest debate over the ancient history of Japan. This debate originated from a puzzling account of the itinerary from Korea to Yamatai in Wei-shu. The northern Kyushu theory doubts the description of distance and the central Kinki theory the direction. This has been a continuing debate over the past 200 years, involving not only professional historians, archeologists and ethnologists, but also many amateurs, and thousands of books and papers have been published. (1996:188) The location of ancient Yamatai-koku and its relation with the subsequent Kofun-era Yamato polity remains uncertain. In 1989, archeologists discovered a giant Yayoi-era complex at the Yoshinogari site in Saga Prefecture, which was thought to be a possible candidate for the location of Yamatai. While some scholars, most notably Seijo University historian Takehiko Yoshida, interpret Yoshinogari as evidence for the Kyūshū Theory, many others support the Kinki Theory based on Yoshinogari clay vessels and the early development of Kofun (Saeki 2006). The recent archeological discovery of a large stilt house suggests that Yamatai-koku was located near Makimuku in Sakurai, Nara (Anno. 2009). Makimuku has also revealed wooden tools such as masks and a shield fragment. A large amount of pollen that would have been used to dye clothes was also found at the site of Makimuku. Clay pots and vases were also found at the site of Makimuku similar to ones found in other prefectures of Japan. Another site at Makimuku supporting the theory that Yamatai once existed there is, the possible burial site of Queen Himiko at the Hashihaka burial mound. Himiko was the ruler of Yamatai from c. 180 C.E.- c. 248 C.E. In popular culture Yamatai, depicted as an isolated island somewhere in the Pacific, is the setting of the 2013 video game Tomb Raider and its 2018 film adaptation. Queen Himiko is a key part of the plot. Yamatai appears as historic setting 1990's video game, Legend of Himiko. Yamatai and its queen Himiko are the main villains in the Steel Jeeg anime series. Yamtaikoku is the setting of the 2020/22 limited time event of the mobile game Fate/Grand Order, prominently featuring Queen Himiko. Queen Himiko and the Yamatai Kingdom are the subjects of the song "Himiko" by Japanese EDM group Wednesday Campanella. References ^ a b Schuessler, Axel (2014). "Phonological Notes on Hàn Period Transcriptions of Foreign Names and Words" in Studies in Chinese and Sino-Tibetan Linguistics: Dialect, Phonology, Transcription and Text. Series: Language and Linguistics Monograph Series. 53 Ed. VanNess Simmons, Richard & Van Auken, Newell Ann. Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan. p. 255, 286 ^ Schuessler, Axel (2009). Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese. University of Hawaii Press. p. 298, 299 ^ a b c Sansom, George Bailey (1958). A history of Japan to 1334. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. pp. 14–16. ISBN 0-8047-0522-4. OCLC 36820223. ^ a b Delmer M. Brown, ed. (1988–1999). The Cambridge history of Japan. Vol. 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-521-22352-0. OCLC 17483588. ^ Huffman, James L. (2010). Japan in world history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 6–11. ISBN 978-0-19-536808-6. OCLC 323161049. ^ Bentley, John (2008). "The Search for the Language of Yamatai" in Japanese Language and Literature , 42.1, p. 11 of pp. 1-43. ^ Pinchefsky, Carol (March 12, 2013). "A Feminist Reviews Tomb Raider's Lara Croft". Forbes. ^ "Super Ancient Shinsengumi History GUDAGUDA Yamataikoku 2022". ^ "Wednesday Campanella has released the music video for "Himiko," in which Utaha becomes a weather caster and predicts heavy rain". Sources "Remains of what appears to be Queen Himiko's palace found in Nara", The Japan Times, Nov 11, 2009. Aston, William G, tr. 1924. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to AD 697. 2 vols. Charles E Tuttle reprint 1972. Baxter, William H. 1992. A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. Chamberlain, Basil Hall, tr. 1919. The Kojiki, Records of Ancient Matters. Charles E Tuttle reprint 1981. Edwards, Walter. 1998. "Mirrors to Japanese History", Archeology 51.3. Farris, William Wayne. 1998. Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan. University of Hawaiʻi Press. Hall, John Whitney. 1988. The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 1, Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press. Hérail, Francine (1986), Histoire du Japon – des origines à la fin de Meiji (in French), Publications orientalistes de France. Hong, Wontack. 1994. Paekche of Korea and the Origin of Yamato Japan. Kudara International. Imamura. Keiji. 1996. Prehistoric Japan: New Perspectives on Insular East Asia. University of Hawaiʻi Press. Karlgren, Bernhard. 1957. Grammata Serica Recensa. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. Kidder, Jonathan Edward. 2007. Himiko and Japan's Elusive Chiefdom of Yamatai. University of Hawaiʻi Press. McCullough, Helen Craig. 1985. Brocade by Night: 'Kokin Wakashū' and the Court Style in Japanese Classical Poetry. Stanford University Press. Miller, Roy Andrew. 1967. The Japanese Language. University of Chicago Press. Miyake, Marc Hideo. 2003. Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction. Routledge Curzon. Philippi, Donald L. (tr.) 1968. Kojiki. University of Tokyo Press. Pulleyblank, EG. 1991. "Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin". UBC Press. Saeki, Arikiyo (2006), 邪馬台国論争 (in Japanese), Iwanami, ISBN 4-00-430990-5. Goodrich, Carrington C, ed. (1951), Japan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories: Later Han Through Ming Dynasties, translated by Tsunoda, Ryusaku, South Pasadena, CA: PD & Ione Perkins. Wang Zhenping. 2005. Ambassadors from the Islands of Immortals: China-Japan Relations in the Han-Tang Period. University of Hawaiʻi Press. Hakkutsu sareta Nihon rett, 2010. Makimuku: were the huge buildings, neatly lined up, a palace? A discovery enlivens debate over the country Yamatai''. vteYamatai and the WajindenPeople Five kings of Wa San Chin Sai Ko Bu Dei? Toyo Himiko Kukochihiko Himikoko Events Civil War of Wa Sites Hashihaka Kofun Makimuku ruins Ukikunden Inariyama Kofun Furuichi Kofun Cluster Theories Yamatai locations Yamatai Honshu Theory Yamatai Kyushu Theory Sites mentioned in the Wajinden Black tooth country Chikushikoku Fumikoku Geumgwan Gaya Ikikoku Itokoku Kununokuni Matsurokoku Nakoku Shin'okoku Shujukoku Toumakoku Tsukaikoku Wakoku Media Himiko Legend of Himiko See also Wa Wajin Sea People Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National Japan
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sino-Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary"},{"link_name":"Wa (Japan)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wa_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"Yayoi period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_period"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"Records of the Three Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schuessler2014-1"},{"link_name":"Eastern Han Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Han_Chinese"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-schuessler2014-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiko"},{"link_name":"Yamato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamato_province"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-5"}],"text":"Yamatai or Yamatai-koku (邪馬台国) (c. 1st century – c. 3rd century) is the Sino-Japanese name of an ancient country in Wa (Japan) during the late Yayoi period (c. 1,000 BCE – c. 300 CE). The Chinese text Records of the Three Kingdoms first recorded the name as /*ja-maB-də̂/ (邪馬臺)[1] or /*ja-maB-ʔit/ (邪馬壹) (using reconstructed Eastern Han Chinese pronunciations)[1][2] followed by the character 國 for \"country\", describing the place as the domain of Priest-Queen Himiko (卑弥呼) (died c. 248 CE). Generations of Japanese historians, linguists, and archeologists have debated where Yamatai was located and whether it was related to the later Yamato (大和国).[3][4][5]","title":"Yamatai"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Text_of_the_Wei_Zhi_(%E9%AD%8F%E5%BF%97),_297.jpg"},{"link_name":"Twenty-Four Histories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories"},{"link_name":"Eastern Han dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty#Eastern_Han"},{"link_name":"Wei kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Wei"},{"link_name":"Sui dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui_dynasty"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"Records of the Three Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-3"},{"link_name":"壹","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A3%B9"},{"link_name":"anti-fraud character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_numerals#Ordinary_numerals"},{"link_name":"一","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%80"},{"link_name":"naming taboo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_taboo"},{"link_name":"臺","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%87%BA"},{"link_name":"Japanese archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_archipelago"},{"link_name":"Cao Rui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Rui"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-3"},{"link_name":"Book of the Later Han","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Later_Han"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"Book of Sui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Sui"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Lelang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lelang_Commandery"},{"link_name":"Daifang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daifang_Commandery"},{"link_name":"Kuaiji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuaiji_Commandery"},{"link_name":"History of the Northern Dynasties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Northern_Dynasties"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters"}],"sub_title":"Chinese texts","text":"Text of the Wei Zhi (ca. 297)The oldest accounts of Yamatai are found in the official Chinese dynastic Twenty-Four Histories for the 1st- and 2nd-century Eastern Han dynasty, the 3rd-century Wei kingdom, and the 6th-century Sui dynasty.The c. 297 CE Records of Wèi (traditional Chinese: 魏志), which is part of the Records of the Three Kingdoms (三國志), first mentions the country Yamatai, usually spelled as 邪馬臺 (/*ja-maB-də̂/), written instead with the spelling 邪馬壹 (/*ja-maB-ʔit/), or Yamaichi in modern Japanese pronunciation.[3]Most Wei Zhi commentators accept the 邪馬臺 (/*ja-maB-də̂/) transcription in later texts and dismiss this initial spelling using 壹 (/ʔit/) meaning \"one\" (the anti-fraud character variant for 一 'one') as a miscopy, or perhaps a naming taboo avoidance, of 臺 (/dʌi/) meaning \"platform; terrace.\" This history describes ancient Wa based upon detailed reports of 3rd-century Chinese envoys who traveled throughout the Japanese archipelago:Going south by water for twenty days, one comes to the country of Toma, where the official is called mimi and his lieutenant, miminari. Here there are about fifty thousand households. Then going toward the south, one arrives at the country of Yamadai, where a Queen holds her court. [This journey] takes ten days by water and one month by land. Among the officials there are the ikima and, next in rank, the mimasho; then the mimagushi, then the nakato. There are probably more than seventy thousands households. (115, tr. Tsunoda 1951:9)The Wei Zhi also records that in 238 CE, Queen Himiko sent an envoy to the court of Wei emperor Cao Rui, who responded favorably:[3]We confer upon you, therefore, the title 'Queen of Wa Friendly to Wei', together with the decoration of the gold seal with purple ribbon. ...As a special gift, we bestow upon you three pieces of blue brocade with interwoven characters, five pieces of tapestry with delicate floral designs, fifty lengths of white silk, eight taels of gold, two swords five feet long, one hundred bronze mirrors, and fifty catties each of jade and of red beads. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:14-15)The ca. 432 CE Book of the Later Han (traditional Chinese: 後漢書) says the Wa kings lived in the country of Yamatai (邪馬臺國):[4]The Wa dwell on mountainous islands southeast of Han [Korea] in the middle of the ocean, forming more than one hundred communities. From the time of the overthrow of Chaoxian [northern Korea] by Emperor Wu (B.C. 140-87), nearly thirty of these communities have held intercourse with the Han [dynasty] court by envoys or scribes. Each community has its king, whose office is hereditary. The King of Great Wa [Yamato] resides in the country of Yamadai. (tr. Tsunoda 1951:1)The Book of Sui (traditional Chinese: 隋書), finished in 636 CE, records changing the capital's name from the Yamatai recorded in the Book of Wei, to Yamadai (traditional Chinese: 邪靡堆, Middle Chinese: /jia muɑ tuʌi/; interpreted as Yamato (Japanese logographic spelling 大和):Wa is situated in the middle of the great ocean southeast of Baekje and Silla, three thousand li away by water and land. The people dwell on mountainous islands. ...The capital is Yamadai, known in the Wei history as Yamatai. The old records say that it is altogether twelve thousand li distant from the borders of Lelang and Daifang prefectures, and is situated east of Kuaiji and close to Dan'er. (倭國在百濟・新羅東南、水陸三千里、於大海之中、依山島而居。... 都於邪靡堆、則魏志所謂邪馬臺者也。古云、去樂浪郡境及帶方郡並一萬二千里、在會稽之東、與儋耳相近。) (81, tr. Tsunoda 1951:28)The History of the Northern Dynasties, completed 643-659 CE, contains a similar record, but transliterates the name Yamadai using a different character with a similar pronunciation (traditional Chinese: 邪摩堆).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kojiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojiki"},{"link_name":"Nihon Shoki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Shoki"},{"link_name":"Classical Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese"},{"link_name":"kanbun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanbun"},{"link_name":"kanji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanji"},{"link_name":"Eta Funayama Sword","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_Funayama_Sword"},{"link_name":"Inariyama Sword","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inariyama_Sword"},{"link_name":"Man'yōgana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana"},{"link_name":"kanji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanji"},{"link_name":"phonemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemes"},{"link_name":"mora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mora_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"加","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%8A%A0"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"syllabaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabaries"},{"link_name":"kana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kana"},{"link_name":"か","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%81%8B"},{"link_name":"hiragana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiragana"},{"link_name":"カ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB"},{"link_name":"katakana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katakana"},{"link_name":"Kojiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojiki"},{"link_name":"Birth of the Eight Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuniumi"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Old Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese"},{"link_name":"Man'yōgana#chartable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana#chartable"},{"link_name":"Shintoist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shintoist"},{"link_name":"Izanagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izanagi"},{"link_name":"Izanami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izanami"},{"link_name":"Ōyashima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%8Cyashima"},{"link_name":"Emperor Jimmu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Jimmu"},{"link_name":"Nihon Shoki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Shoki"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Old Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese"},{"link_name":"Man'yōshū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"山","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1#Japanese"},{"link_name":"蹟","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B9%9F"},{"link_name":"Old Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese"}],"sub_title":"Japanese texts","text":"The first Japanese books, such as the Kojiki or Nihon Shoki, were mainly written in a variant of Classical Chinese called kanbun. The first texts actually in the Japanese language used Chinese characters, called kanji in Japanese, for their phonetic values. This usage is first seen in the 400s or 500s to spell out Japanese names, as on the Eta Funayama Sword or the Inariyama Sword. This gradually formalized over the 600s and 700s into the Man'yōgana system, a rebus-like transcription that uses specific kanji to represent Japanese phonemes. For instance, man'yōgana spells the Japanese mora ka using (among others) the character 加, which means \"to add\", and was pronounced as /kˠa/ in Middle Chinese and adopted into Japanese with the pronunciation ka. Irregularities within this awkward system led Japanese scribes to develop phonetically regular syllabaries. The new kana were graphic simplifications of Chinese characters. For instance, ka is written か in hiragana and カ in katakana, both of which derive from the Man'yōgana 加 character (hiragana from the cursive form of the kanji, and katakana from a simplification of the kanji).The c. 712 Kojiki (古事記, \"Records of Ancient Matters\") is the oldest extant book written in Japan. The \"Birth of the Eight Islands\" section phonetically transcribes Yamato as 夜麻登, pronounced in Middle Chinese as /jiaH mˠa təŋ/ and used to represent the Old Japanese morae ya ma to2 (see also Man'yōgana#chartable). The Kojiki records the Shintoist creation myth that the god Izanagi and the goddess Izanami gave birth to the Ōyashima (大八州, \"Eight Great Islands\") of Japan, the last of which was Yamato:Next they gave birth to Great-Yamato-the-Luxuriant-Island-of-the-Dragon-Fly, another name for which is Heavenly-August-Sky-Luxuriant-Dragon-Fly-Lord-Youth. The name of \"Land-of-the-Eight-Great-Islands\" therefore originated in these eight islands having been born first. (tr. Chamberlain 1919:23)Chamberlain (1919:27) notes this poetic name \"Island of the Dragon-fly\" is associated with legendary Emperor Jimmu, whose honorific name includes \"Yamato\", as Kamu-yamato Iware-biko.The 720 Nihon Shoki (日本書紀, \"Chronicles of Japan\") transcribes Yamato with the Chinese characters 耶麻騰, pronounced in Middle Chinese as /jia mˠa dəŋ/ and in Old Japanese as ya ma to2 or ya ma do2. In this version of the Eight Great Islands myth, Yamato is born second instead of eighth:Now when the time of birth arrived, first of all the island of Ahaji was reckoned as the placenta, and their minds took no pleasure in it. Therefore it received the name of Ahaji no Shima. Next there was produced the island of Oho-yamato no Toyo-aki-tsu-shima. (tr. Aston 1924 1:13)The translator Aston notes a literal meaning for the epithet of Toyo-aki-tsu-shima of \"rich harvest's\" (or \"rich autumn's\") \"island\" (i.e. \"Island of Bountiful Harvests\" or \"Island of Bountiful Autumn\").The c. 600-759 Man'yōshū (万葉集, \"Myriad Leaves Collection\") transcribes various pieces of text using not the phonetic man'yōgana spellings, but rather a logographic style of spelling, based on the pronunciation of the kanji using the native Japanese vocabulary of the same meaning. For instance, the name Yamato is sometimes spelled as 山 (yama, \"mountain\") + 蹟 (ato, \"footprint; track; trace\"). Old Japanese pronunciation rules caused the sound yama ato to contract to just yamato.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Twenty-Four Histories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Four_Histories"},{"link_name":"Queen Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiko"},{"link_name":"Makimuku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makimuku_ruins"},{"link_name":"Nara prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_prefecture"}],"text":"According to the Chinese record Twenty-Four Histories, Yamatai was originally ruled by the shamaness Queen Himiko. The other officials of the country were also ranked under the queen, with the highest position called ikima, followed by mimasho, then mimagushi, and the lowest-ranking position of nakato. According to the legends, Himiko lived in a palace with 1,000 female handmaidens and one male servant who would feed her. This palace was most likely located at the site of Makimuku in Nara prefecture. She ruled for most of the known history of Yamatai. After she died, her younger brother became ruler of the country for a short period before Yamatai disappears from historical records.","title":"Government"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Old Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese"},{"link_name":"umlaut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umlaut_(diacritic)"},{"link_name":"subscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subscript"},{"link_name":"Nara period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_period"},{"link_name":"Old Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese"},{"link_name":"Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Ddai_Tokushu_Kanazukai"},{"link_name":"Kofun period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofun_period"},{"link_name":"ateji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ateji"},{"link_name":"Wa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wa_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"Asuka period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asuka_period"},{"link_name":"prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefix"},{"link_name":"大","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7"},{"link_name":"Classical Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Yijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yijing"},{"link_name":"kanji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanji"},{"link_name":"Kojiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kojiki"},{"link_name":"Nihon Shoki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nihon_Shoki"},{"link_name":"Man'yōshū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"夜","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A4%9C"},{"link_name":"耶","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%B6"},{"link_name":"sentence-final particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence-final_particle"},{"link_name":"麻","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%BA%BB"},{"link_name":"登","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%99%BB"},{"link_name":"騰","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A8%B0"},{"link_name":"山","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1"},{"link_name":"跡","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B7%A1"},{"link_name":"Old Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Japanese"},{"link_name":"邪","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%82%AA"},{"link_name":"jiajie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiajie"},{"link_name":"耶","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%80%B6"},{"link_name":"馬","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%A6%AC"},{"link_name":"摩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%91%A9"},{"link_name":"壹","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A3%B9"},{"link_name":"一","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E4%B8%80"},{"link_name":"臺","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%87%BA"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"堆","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A0%86"},{"link_name":"Furuta Takehiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Furuta_Takehiko&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%94%B0%E6%AD%A6%E5%BD%A6"},{"link_name":"Chen Shou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Shou"},{"link_name":"Fan Ye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_Ye_(historian)"},{"link_name":"historical Chinese phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_Chinese_phonology"},{"link_name":"Modern Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Old Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Middle Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Chinese"},{"link_name":"Pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"Edwin G. Pulleyblank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_G._Pulleyblank"},{"link_name":"Bernhard Karlgren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernhard_Karlgren"},{"link_name":"palatal approximant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_approximant"},{"link_name":"IPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA"},{"link_name":"Roy Andrew Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Andrew_Miller"},{"link_name":"Alexander Vovin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Vovin"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"etymology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"link_name":"山","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1#Japanese"},{"link_name":"跡","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B7%A1#Japanese"},{"link_name":"門","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%96%80#Japanese"},{"link_name":"戸","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%88%B8#Japanese"},{"link_name":"都","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%83%BD#Japanese"},{"link_name":"所","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%89%80#Japanese"},{"link_name":"Wa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wa_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"underlying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underlying_representation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Modern Japanese Yamato (大和) descends from Old Japanese Yamatö or Yamato2, which has been associated with Yamatai. The latter umlaut or subscript diacritics distinguish two vocalic types within the proposed eight vowels of Nara period (710-794) Old Japanese (a, i, ï, u, e, ë, o, and ö, see Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai), which merged into the five modern vowels (a, i, u, e, and o).During the Kofun period (250-538) when kanji were first used in Japan, Yamatö was written with the ateji 倭 for Wa, the name given to \"Japan\" by Chinese writers using a character meaning \"docile, submissive\". During the Asuka period (538-710) when Japanese place names were standardized into two-character compounds, the spelling of Yamato was changed to 大倭, adding the prefix 大 (\"big; great\").Following the ca. 757 graphic substitution of 和 (\"peaceful\") for 倭 (\"docile\"), the name Yamato was spelled 大和 (\"great harmony\"), using the Classical Chinese expression 大和 (pronounced in Middle Chinese as /dɑH ɦuɑ/, as used in Yijing 1, tr. Wilhelm 1967:371: \"each thing receives its true nature and destiny and comes into permanent accord with the Great Harmony.\")The early Japanese texts above give three spellings of Yamato in kanji: 夜麻登 (Kojiki), 耶麻騰 (Nihon Shoki), and 山蹟 (Man'yōshū). The Kojiki and Nihon Shoki use Sino-Japanese on'yomi readings of ya 夜 \"night\" or ya or ja 耶 (an interrogative sentence-final particle in Chinese), ma 麻 \"hemp\", and to 登 \"rise; mount\" or do 騰 \"fly; gallop\". In contrast, the Man'yōshū uses Japanese kun'yomi readings of yama 山 \"mountain\" and ato 跡 \"track; trace\". As noted further above, Old Japanese pronunciation rules caused yama ato to contract to yamato.The early Chinese histories above give three transcriptions of Yamatai: 邪馬壹 (Wei Zhi), 邪馬臺 (Hou Han Shu), and 邪摩堆 (Sui Shu). The first syllable is consistently written with 邪 \"a place name\", which was used as a jiajie graphic-loan character for 耶, an interrogative sentence-final particle, and for 邪 \"evil; depraved\". The second syllable is written with 馬 \"horse\" or 摩 \"rub; friction\". The third syllable of Yamatai is written in one variant with 壹 \"faithful, committed\", which is also financial form of 一, \"one\", and more commonly using 臺 \"platform; terrace\" (cf. Taiwan 臺灣) or 堆 \"pile; heap\". Concerning the transcriptional difference between the 邪馬壹 spelling in the Wei Zhi and the 邪馬臺 in the Hou Han Shu, Hong (1994:248-9) cites Furuta Takehiko [ja] that 邪馬壹 was correct. Chen Shou, author of the ca. 297 Wei Zhi, was writing about recent history based on personal observations; Fan Ye, author of the ca. 432 Hou Han Shu, was writing about earlier events based on written sources. Hong says the San Guo Zhi uses 壹 (\"one\") 86 times and 臺 (\"platform\") 56 times, without confusing them.During the Wei period, 臺 was one of their most sacred words, implying a religious-political sanctuary or the emperor's palace. The characters 邪 and 馬 mean \"evil; depraved\" and \"horse\", reflecting the contempt Chinese felt for a barbarian country, and it is most unlikely that Chen Shou would have used a sacred word after these two characters. It is equally unlikely that a copyist could have confused the characters, because in their old form they do not look nearly as similar as in their modern printed form. Yamadai was Fan Yeh's creation. (1994:249)He additionally cites Furuta that the Wei Zhi, Hou Han Shu, and Xin Tang Shu histories use at least 10 Chinese characters to transcribe Japanese to, but 臺 is not one of them.In historical Chinese phonology, the Modern Chinese pronunciations differ considerably from the original 3rd-7th century transcriptions from a transitional period between Archaic or Old Chinese and Ancient or Middle Chinese. The table below contrasts Modern pronunciations (in Pinyin) with differing reconstructions of Early Middle Chinese (Edwin G. Pulleyblank 1991), \"Archaic\" Chinese (Bernhard Karlgren 1957), and Middle Chinese (William H. Baxter 1992). Note that Karlgren's \"Archaic\" is equivalent with \"Middle\" Chinese, and his \"yod\" palatal approximant i̯ (which some browsers cannot display) is replaced with the customary IPA j.Roy Andrew Miller describes the phonological gap between these Middle Chinese reconstructions and the Old Japanese Yamatö.The Wei chih account of the Wo people is chiefly concerned with a kingdom which it calls Yeh-ma-t'ai, Middle Chinese i̯a-ma-t'ḁ̂i, which inevitably seems to be a transcription of some early linguistic form allied with the word Yamato. The phonology of this identification raises problems which after generations of study have yet to be settled. The final -ḁ̂i of the Middle Chinese form seems to be a transcription of some early form not otherwise recorded for the final -ö of Yamato. (1967:17-18)While most scholars interpret 邪馬臺 as a transcription of pre-Old Japanese yamatai, Miyake (2003:41) cites Alexander Vovin that Late Old Chinese ʑ(h)a maaʳq dhəə 邪馬臺 represents a pre-Old Japanese form of Old Japanese yamato2 (*yamatə). Tōdō Akiyasu reconstructs two pronunciations for 䑓 – dai < Middle dǝi < Old *dǝg and yi < yiei < *d̥iǝg – and reads 邪馬臺 as Yamai.[citation needed]The etymology of Yamato, like those of many Japanese words, remains uncertain. While scholars generally agree that Yama- signifies Japan's numerous yama 山 \"mountains\", they disagree whether -to < -tö signifies 跡 \"track; trace\", 門 \"gate; door\", 戸 \"door\", 都 \"city; capital\", or perhaps 所 \"place\". Bentley (2008) reconstructs underlying Wa's endonym *yama-tǝ(ɨ) as underlying the transcription 邪馬臺's pronunciation *ja-maˀ-dǝ > *-dǝɨ.[6]","title":"Pronunciations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wajinden_diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"Daifeng commandery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daifang_Commandery"},{"link_name":"Yamatai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Wajinden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wajinden"},{"link_name":"Japanese history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_history"},{"link_name":"Okinawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okinawa"},{"link_name":"Kyūshū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"Yamato Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamato_Province"},{"link_name":"Kinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinki"},{"link_name":"Honshū","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"Kofun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofun"},{"link_name":"polity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity"},{"link_name":"Yoshinogari site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshinogari_site"},{"link_name":"Saga Prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saga_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"Seijo University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seijo_University"},{"link_name":"stilt house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stilt_house"},{"link_name":"Sakurai, Nara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakurai,_Nara"},{"link_name":"Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiko"},{"link_name":"Hashihaka burial mound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashihaka_Kofun"}],"text":"Map illustrating the path from the Daifeng commandery to Yamatai, and its distances in the Wajinden.The location of Yamatai-koku is one of the most contentious topics in Japanese history. Generations of historians have debated \"the Yamatai controversy\" and have hypothesized numerous localities, some of which are fanciful like Okinawa (Farris 1998:245). General consensus centers around two likely locations of Yamatai, either northern Kyūshū or Yamato Province in the Kinki region of central Honshū. Imamura describes the controversy.The question of whether the Yamatai Kingdom was located in northern Kyushu or central Kinki prompted the greatest debate over the ancient history of Japan. This debate originated from a puzzling account of the itinerary from Korea to Yamatai in Wei-shu. The northern Kyushu theory doubts the description of distance and the central Kinki theory the direction. This has been a continuing debate over the past 200 years, involving not only professional historians, archeologists and ethnologists, but also many amateurs, and thousands of books and papers have been published. (1996:188)The location of ancient Yamatai-koku and its relation with the subsequent Kofun-era Yamato polity remains uncertain. In 1989, archeologists discovered a giant Yayoi-era complex at the Yoshinogari site in Saga Prefecture, which was thought to be a possible candidate for the location of Yamatai. While some scholars, most notably Seijo University historian Takehiko Yoshida, interpret Yoshinogari as evidence for the Kyūshū Theory, many others support the Kinki Theory based on Yoshinogari clay vessels and the early development of Kofun (Saeki 2006).The recent archeological discovery of a large stilt house suggests that Yamatai-koku was located near Makimuku in Sakurai, Nara (Anno. 2009). Makimuku has also revealed wooden tools such as masks and a shield fragment. A large amount of pollen that would have been used to dye clothes was also found at the site of Makimuku. Clay pots and vases were also found at the site of Makimuku similar to ones found in other prefectures of Japan. Another site at Makimuku supporting the theory that Yamatai once existed there is, the possible burial site of Queen Himiko at the Hashihaka burial mound. Himiko was the ruler of Yamatai from c. 180 C.E.- c. 248 C.E.","title":"Location"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tomb Raider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_Raider_(2013_video_game)"},{"link_name":"2018 film adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomb_Raider_(film)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Legend of Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend_of_Himiko"},{"link_name":"Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiko"},{"link_name":"Steel Jeeg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel_Jeeg"},{"link_name":"Fate/Grand Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fate/Grand_Order"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiko"},{"link_name":"Wednesday Campanella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wednesday_Campanella"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Yamatai, depicted as an isolated island somewhere in the Pacific, is the setting of the 2013 video game Tomb Raider and its 2018 film adaptation. Queen Himiko is a key part of the plot.[7]\nYamatai appears as historic setting 1990's video game, Legend of Himiko.\nYamatai and its queen Himiko are the main villains in the Steel Jeeg anime series.\nYamtaikoku is the setting of the 2020/22 limited time event of the mobile game Fate/Grand Order, prominently featuring Queen Himiko.[8]\nQueen Himiko and the Yamatai Kingdom are the subjects of the song \"Himiko\" by Japanese EDM group Wednesday Campanella.[9]","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Remains of what appears to be Queen Himiko's palace found in Nara\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20091112a7.html"},{"link_name":"Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to AD 697","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=1IJrNAKBpycC"},{"link_name":"The Kojiki, Records of Ancient Matters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.sacred-texts.com/shi/kj/"},{"link_name":"Mirrors to Japanese History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.archaeology.org/9805/newsbriefs/japan.html"},{"link_name":"Hérail, Francine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francine_H%C3%A9rail"},{"link_name":"Paekche of Korea and the Origin of Yamato Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20070601160409/http://gias.snu.ac.kr/wthong/publication/paekche/eng/paekch_e.html"},{"link_name":"Miyake, Marc Hideo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Hideo_Miyake"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4-00-430990-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-00-430990-5"},{"link_name":"Makimuku: were the huge buildings, neatly lined up, a palace? A discovery enlivens debate over the country Yamatai'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//archaeology.jp/sites/2010/makimuku.htm"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Yamatai"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Yamatai"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Yamatai"},{"link_name":"Yamatai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Wajinden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wajinden"},{"link_name":"Five kings of Wa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five_kings_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"San","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"Chin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chin_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"Sai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sai_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"Ko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"Bu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bu_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"Dei?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dei_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"Toyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyo_(queen)"},{"link_name":"Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiko"},{"link_name":"Kukochihiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kukochihiko"},{"link_name":"Himikoko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himikoko"},{"link_name":"Civil War of Wa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_War_of_Wa"},{"link_name":"Hashihaka Kofun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashihaka_Kofun"},{"link_name":"Makimuku ruins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makimuku_ruins"},{"link_name":"Ukikunden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukikunden"},{"link_name":"Inariyama Kofun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inariyama_Kofun"},{"link_name":"Furuichi Kofun Cluster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furuichi_Kofun_Cluster"},{"link_name":"Yamatai Honshu Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamatai_Honshu_Theory"},{"link_name":"Yamatai Kyushu Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamatai_Kyushu_Theory"},{"link_name":"Black tooth country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_tooth_country"},{"link_name":"Chikushikoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chikushikoku"},{"link_name":"Fumikoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumikoku"},{"link_name":"Geumgwan Gaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geumgwan_Gaya"},{"link_name":"Ikikoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikikoku"},{"link_name":"Itokoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itokoku"},{"link_name":"Kununokuni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kununokuni"},{"link_name":"Matsurokoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsurokoku"},{"link_name":"Nakoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakoku"},{"link_name":"Shin'okoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shin%27okoku"},{"link_name":"Shujukoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shujukoku"},{"link_name":"Toumakoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toumakoku"},{"link_name":"Tsukaikoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukaikoku"},{"link_name":"Wakoku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wakoku"},{"link_name":"Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiko_(film)"},{"link_name":"Legend of Himiko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legend_of_Himiko"},{"link_name":"Wa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wa_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"Wajin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wajin_(ancient_people)"},{"link_name":"Sea People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_people#Sea_People"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q844295#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/258474410"},{"link_name":"WorldCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJfRFXPmH3gh8fHc7hrXh3"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00636459"}],"text":"\"Remains of what appears to be Queen Himiko's palace found in Nara\", The Japan Times, Nov 11, 2009.\nAston, William G, tr. 1924. Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to AD 697. 2 vols. Charles E Tuttle reprint 1972.\nBaxter, William H. 1992. A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter.\nChamberlain, Basil Hall, tr. 1919. The Kojiki, Records of Ancient Matters. Charles E Tuttle reprint 1981.\nEdwards, Walter. 1998. \"Mirrors to Japanese History\", Archeology 51.3.\nFarris, William Wayne. 1998. Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues in the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan. University of Hawaiʻi Press.\nHall, John Whitney. 1988. The Cambridge History of Japan: Volume 1, Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press.\nHérail, Francine (1986), Histoire du Japon – des origines à la fin de Meiji [History of Japan – from origins to the end of Meiji] (in French), Publications orientalistes de France.\nHong, Wontack. 1994. Paekche of Korea and the Origin of Yamato Japan. Kudara International.\nImamura. Keiji. 1996. Prehistoric Japan: New Perspectives on Insular East Asia. University of Hawaiʻi Press.\nKarlgren, Bernhard. 1957. Grammata Serica Recensa. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities.\nKidder, Jonathan Edward. 2007. Himiko and Japan's Elusive Chiefdom of Yamatai. University of Hawaiʻi Press.\nMcCullough, Helen Craig. 1985. Brocade by Night: 'Kokin Wakashū' and the Court Style in Japanese Classical Poetry. Stanford University Press.\nMiller, Roy Andrew. 1967. The Japanese Language. University of Chicago Press.\nMiyake, Marc Hideo. 2003. Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction. Routledge Curzon.\nPhilippi, Donald L. (tr.) 1968. Kojiki. University of Tokyo Press.\nPulleyblank, EG. 1991. \"Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin\". UBC Press.\nSaeki, Arikiyo (2006), 邪馬台国論争 [Yamataikoku ronsō] (in Japanese), Iwanami, ISBN 4-00-430990-5.\nGoodrich, Carrington C, ed. (1951), Japan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories: Later Han Through Ming Dynasties, translated by Tsunoda, Ryusaku, South Pasadena, CA: PD & Ione Perkins.\nWang Zhenping. 2005. Ambassadors from the Islands of Immortals: China-Japan Relations in the Han-Tang Period. University of Hawaiʻi Press.\nHakkutsu sareta Nihon rett, 2010. Makimuku: were the huge buildings, neatly lined up, a palace? A discovery enlivens debate over the country Yamatai''.vteYamatai and the WajindenPeople\nFive kings of Wa\nSan\nChin\nSai\nKo\nBu\nDei?\nToyo\nHimiko\nKukochihiko\nHimikoko\nEvents\nCivil War of Wa\nSites\nHashihaka Kofun\nMakimuku ruins\nUkikunden\nInariyama Kofun\nFuruichi Kofun Cluster\nTheories\nYamatai locations\nYamatai Honshu Theory\nYamatai Kyushu Theory\nSites mentioned in the Wajinden\nBlack tooth country\nChikushikoku\nFumikoku\nGeumgwan Gaya\nIkikoku\nItokoku\nKununokuni\nMatsurokoku\nNakoku\nShin'okoku\nShujukoku\nToumakoku\nTsukaikoku\nWakoku\nMedia\nHimiko\nLegend of Himiko\nSee also\nWa\nWajin\nSea PeopleAuthority control databases International\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nJapan","title":"Sources"}]
[{"image_text":"Text of the Wei Zhi (ca. 297)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Text_of_the_Wei_Zhi_%28%E9%AD%8F%E5%BF%97%29%2C_297.jpg/220px-Text_of_the_Wei_Zhi_%28%E9%AD%8F%E5%BF%97%29%2C_297.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map illustrating the path from the Daifeng commandery to Yamatai, and its distances in the Wajinden.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Wajinden_diagram.svg/220px-Wajinden_diagram.svg.png"}]
null
[{"reference":"Sansom, George Bailey (1958). A history of Japan to 1334. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. pp. 14–16. ISBN 0-8047-0522-4. OCLC 36820223.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-0522-4","url_text":"0-8047-0522-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36820223","url_text":"36820223"}]},{"reference":"Delmer M. Brown, ed. (1988–1999). The Cambridge history of Japan. Vol. 1. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-521-22352-0. OCLC 17483588.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22352-0","url_text":"0-521-22352-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17483588","url_text":"17483588"}]},{"reference":"Huffman, James L. (2010). Japan in world history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 6–11. ISBN 978-0-19-536808-6. OCLC 323161049.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536808-6","url_text":"978-0-19-536808-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/323161049","url_text":"323161049"}]},{"reference":"Pinchefsky, Carol (March 12, 2013). \"A Feminist Reviews Tomb Raider's Lara Croft\". Forbes.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/carolpinchefsky/2013/03/12/a-feminist-reviews-tomb-raiders-lara-croft/","url_text":"\"A Feminist Reviews Tomb Raider's Lara Croft\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes","url_text":"Forbes"}]},{"reference":"\"Super Ancient Shinsengumi History GUDAGUDA Yamataikoku 2022\".","urls":[{"url":"https://fate-go.us/news/?category=NEWS&article=%2Fiframe%2F2022%2F0911_yamataikoku%2F","url_text":"\"Super Ancient Shinsengumi History GUDAGUDA Yamataikoku 2022\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wednesday Campanella has released the music video for \"Himiko,\" in which Utaha becomes a weather caster and predicts heavy rain\".","urls":[{"url":"https://skream.jp/news/2022/05/suiyoubinocampanella_himiko_mv.php","url_text":"\"Wednesday Campanella has released the music video for \"Himiko,\" in which Utaha becomes a weather caster and predicts heavy rain\""}]},{"reference":"\"Remains of what appears to be Queen Himiko's palace found in Nara\", The Japan Times, Nov 11, 2009","urls":[{"url":"http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20091112a7.html","url_text":"\"Remains of what appears to be Queen Himiko's palace found in Nara\""}]},{"reference":"Hérail, Francine (1986), Histoire du Japon – des origines à la fin de Meiji [History of Japan – from origins to the end of Meiji] (in French), Publications orientalistes de France","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francine_H%C3%A9rail","url_text":"Hérail, Francine"}]},{"reference":"Saeki, Arikiyo (2006), 邪馬台国論争 [Yamataikoku ronsō] (in Japanese), Iwanami, ISBN 4-00-430990-5","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-00-430990-5","url_text":"4-00-430990-5"}]},{"reference":"Goodrich, Carrington C, ed. (1951), Japan in the Chinese Dynastic Histories: Later Han Through Ming Dynasties, translated by Tsunoda, Ryusaku, South Pasadena, CA: PD & Ione Perkins","urls":[]}]
[{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36820223","external_links_name":"36820223"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/17483588","external_links_name":"17483588"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/323161049","external_links_name":"323161049"},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/carolpinchefsky/2013/03/12/a-feminist-reviews-tomb-raiders-lara-croft/","external_links_name":"\"A Feminist Reviews Tomb Raider's Lara Croft\""},{"Link":"https://fate-go.us/news/?category=NEWS&article=%2Fiframe%2F2022%2F0911_yamataikoku%2F","external_links_name":"\"Super Ancient Shinsengumi History GUDAGUDA Yamataikoku 2022\""},{"Link":"https://skream.jp/news/2022/05/suiyoubinocampanella_himiko_mv.php","external_links_name":"\"Wednesday Campanella has released the music video for \"Himiko,\" in which Utaha becomes a weather caster and predicts heavy rain\""},{"Link":"http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20091112a7.html","external_links_name":"\"Remains of what appears to be Queen Himiko's palace found in Nara\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1IJrNAKBpycC","external_links_name":"Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to AD 697"},{"Link":"http://www.sacred-texts.com/shi/kj/","external_links_name":"The Kojiki, Records of Ancient Matters"},{"Link":"http://www.archaeology.org/9805/newsbriefs/japan.html","external_links_name":"Mirrors to Japanese History"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070601160409/http://gias.snu.ac.kr/wthong/publication/paekche/eng/paekch_e.html","external_links_name":"Paekche of Korea and the Origin of Yamato Japan"},{"Link":"http://archaeology.jp/sites/2010/makimuku.htm","external_links_name":"Makimuku: were the huge buildings, neatly lined up, a palace? A discovery enlivens debate over the country Yamatai'"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/258474410","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJfRFXPmH3gh8fHc7hrXh3","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00636459","external_links_name":"Japan"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margravine_Cemetery
Margravine Cemetery
["1 History","2 Notable burials and monuments","2.1 Notable burials","3 Conservation","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
Coordinates: 51°29′20″N 0°12′55″W / 51.48889°N 0.21536°W / 51.48889; -0.21536Cemetery in London Cemetery chapel Central pathway through the cemetery Margravine Cemetery, also known as Hammersmith Cemetery, is in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. The closest London Underground station is Barons Court. History Designed by local architect George Saunders, Margravine Cemetery was opened in 1868 on a site previously occupied by market gardens and orchards, known as Fulham Fields. The first burial took place on 3 November 1869. Margravine closed for new burials in 1951, when the 16.5 acres of cemetery land were restored by the council and designated a 'Garden of Rest'. Notable burials and monuments J. Lyons and Co. war memorials Blake's Munitions Factory memorial The cemetery contains a number of distinctive monuments, three of which are listed buildings. Most striking is the green bronze memorial to George Broad, who owned the foundry which made the Eros statue at Piccadilly Circus. Nearest Charing Cross Hospital, the Young family mausoleum is a single-storey building in Gothic architecture style. The third listed grave is that of an Australian gold prospector, with a bas relief of him, opposite the Young family mausoleum. A screen wall memorial erected by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (who list it as Hammersmith Old Cemetery) in Section 31 lists all 191 Commonwealth service personnel buried in registered war graves in the cemetery – 186 from World War I and 5 from World War II. Two J. Lyons and Co. war memorials were relocated from their factory at Greenford to the cemetery in 2002. The World War I memorial is Grade II listed. There is a memorial to the 13 people killed – 11 of them women – in a 1918 explosion at Blake's munitions factory, Wood Lane. It was unveiled in 1920 and Grade II listed in 2017. Notable burials George Broad, brass and bronze founder Sir William Bull, 1st Baronet, solicitor and Conservative politician Sir Henry Foreman (1852–1924), Conservative politician Peter Leitch (1820–1892), recipient of the Victoria Cross Thomas Nicholas (antiquary) (1816–1879), Welsh antiquary and educator Edward Charles Williams (1807–1881), English landscape painter George Wimpey (businessman) (1855–1913), founder of the construction firm of that name William Stephen Bond (1845-1920) founder of W S Bond local funeral directors Jeanne Deroin (1805-1894) Feminist,Socialist and Educationist Ethel Webling (1859-1929) Painter and illustrator Peggy Webling (1871-1949) playwright, novelist and poet View of the gravestones Conservation The cemetery is now a part of the Barons Court Conservation Area, designated in April 1989. Hammersmith and Fulham council states in its 2008 management plan that the site is designated a Nature Conservation Area of Local Importance. It is a particularly useful space for viewing migrating songbirds, bees and butterflies. See also Mortlake Cemetery, also known as Hammersmith New Cemetery References ^ a b c d "London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, Margravine Cemetery". Retrieved 2 December 2023. ^ London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, Margravine Cemetery Management Plan 2009–2014, 2008, ""Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)" viewed 13 January 2013 ^ Margravine Cemetery Management Plan 2009–2014, London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, 2009, p18 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ CWGC Cemetery Report. Breakdown obtained from Casualty Record. ^ Historic England. "J Lyons and Company First World War Memorial, Margravine Cemetery (1442826)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 2 September 2021. ^ Historic England. "Blake's Munitions War Memorial, Margravine Cemetery (1437915)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 31 August 2021. ^ "Blakes Munition Factory – Cross". War Memorials Register. Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 31 August 2021. ^ "Obituary: Sir Henry Foreman". The Times. 12 April 1924. p. 24. ^ "Grave locations for holders of the Victoria Cross: West London. Archived copy". Victoriacross.org.uk. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 27 January 2022. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Margravine Cemetery. Friends of Margravine Cemetery website Margravine Cemetery at Find a Grave London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, Margravine Cemetery page 51°29′20″N 0°12′55″W / 51.48889°N 0.21536°W / 51.48889; -0.21536
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hammersmith_Cemetery_Chapel_in_Margravine_Cemetery_in_London,_spring_2013_(1).JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Margravine_Cemetery_in_London,_spring_2013_(13).JPG"},{"link_name":"London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Borough_of_Hammersmith_and_Fulham"},{"link_name":"Barons Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barons_Court_tube_station"}],"text":"Cemetery in LondonCemetery chapelCentral pathway through the cemeteryMargravine Cemetery, also known as Hammersmith Cemetery, is in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham. The closest London Underground station is Barons Court.","title":"Margravine Cemetery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lbhf-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-plan-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lbhf-1"}],"text":"Designed by local architect George Saunders, Margravine Cemetery was opened in 1868 on a site previously occupied by market gardens and orchards, known as Fulham Fields. The first burial took place on 3 November 1869.[1][2]Margravine closed for new burials in 1951, when the 16.5 acres of cemetery land were restored by the council and designated a 'Garden of Rest'.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:J_Lyons_and_Company_war_memorials,_Margravine_Cemetery_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blake%27s_Munitions_memorial,_Margravine_Cemetery.jpg"},{"link_name":"listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_building"},{"link_name":"Eros statue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaftesbury_Memorial_Fountain"},{"link_name":"Piccadilly Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccadilly_Circus"},{"link_name":"Charing Cross Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charing_Cross_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Gothic architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_architecture"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"bas relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bas_relief"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth War Graves Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_War_Graves_Commission"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"J. Lyons and Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Lyons_and_Co."},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"J. Lyons and Co. war memorialsBlake's Munitions Factory memorialThe cemetery contains a number of distinctive monuments, three of which are listed buildings. Most striking is the green bronze memorial to George Broad, who owned the foundry which made the Eros statue at Piccadilly Circus. Nearest Charing Cross Hospital, the Young family mausoleum is a single-storey building in Gothic architecture style.[3] The third listed grave is that of an Australian gold prospector, with a bas relief of him, opposite the Young family mausoleum.A screen wall memorial erected by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (who list it as Hammersmith Old Cemetery) in Section 31 lists all 191 Commonwealth service personnel buried in registered war graves in the cemetery – 186 from World War I and 5 from World War II.[4]Two J. Lyons and Co. war memorials were relocated from their factory at Greenford to the cemetery in 2002. The World War I memorial is Grade II listed.[5]There is a memorial to the 13 people killed – 11 of them women – in a 1918 explosion at Blake's munitions factory, Wood Lane. It was unveiled in 1920 and Grade II listed in 2017.[6][7]","title":"Notable burials and monuments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Broad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Broad"},{"link_name":"Sir William Bull, 1st Baronet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Bull,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Sir Henry Foreman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Henry_Foreman"},{"link_name":"Conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Foreman-8"},{"link_name":"Peter Leitch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Leitch_(VC)"},{"link_name":"Victoria Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Cross"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Thomas Nicholas (antiquary)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Nicholas_(antiquary)"},{"link_name":"Edward Charles Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Charles_Williams"},{"link_name":"George Wimpey (businessman)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wimpey_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"construction firm of that name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wimpey"},{"link_name":"Ethel Webling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethel_Webling"},{"link_name":"Peggy Webling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peggy_Webling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Margravine_Cemetery_in_London,_spring_2013_(15).JPG"}],"sub_title":"Notable burials","text":"George Broad, brass and bronze founder\nSir William Bull, 1st Baronet, solicitor and Conservative politician\nSir Henry Foreman (1852–1924), Conservative politician[8]\nPeter Leitch (1820–1892), recipient of the Victoria Cross[9]\nThomas Nicholas (antiquary) (1816–1879), Welsh antiquary and educator\nEdward Charles Williams (1807–1881), English landscape painter\nGeorge Wimpey (businessman) (1855–1913), founder of the construction firm of that name\nWilliam Stephen Bond (1845-1920) founder of W S Bond local funeral directors\nJeanne Deroin (1805-1894) Feminist,Socialist and Educationist\nEthel Webling (1859-1929) Painter and illustrator\nPeggy Webling (1871-1949) playwright, novelist and poetView of the gravestones","title":"Notable burials and monuments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lbhf-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lbhf-1"}],"text":"The cemetery is now a part of the Barons Court Conservation Area, designated in April 1989.[1]Hammersmith and Fulham council states in its 2008 management plan that the site is designated a Nature Conservation Area of Local Importance. It is a particularly useful space for viewing migrating songbirds, bees and butterflies.[1]","title":"Conservation"}]
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[{"title":"Mortlake Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortlake_Cemetery"}]
[{"reference":"\"London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, Margravine Cemetery\". Retrieved 2 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lbhf.gov.uk/arts-and-parks/parks-and-open-spaces/margravine-cemetery","url_text":"\"London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, Margravine Cemetery\""}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 13 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120516053008/http://www.lbhf.gov.uk/Images/MP_Margravinecemetery070209_tcm21-117658.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.lbhf.gov.uk/Images/MP_Margravinecemetery070209_tcm21-117658.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 May 2012. Retrieved 5 April 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120516051802/http://www.lbhf.gov.uk/Images/MP_Margravinecemetery060209verpb_tcm21-114292_tcm21-114292.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.lbhf.gov.uk/Images/MP_Margravinecemetery060209verpb_tcm21-114292_tcm21-114292.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Historic England. \"J Lyons and Company First World War Memorial, Margravine Cemetery (1442826)\". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 2 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1442826","url_text":"\"J Lyons and Company First World War Memorial, Margravine Cemetery (1442826)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England","url_text":"National Heritage List for England"}]},{"reference":"Historic England. \"Blake's Munitions War Memorial, Margravine Cemetery (1437915)\". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 31 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1437915","url_text":"\"Blake's Munitions War Memorial, Margravine Cemetery (1437915)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England","url_text":"National Heritage List for England"}]},{"reference":"\"Blakes Munition Factory – Cross\". War Memorials Register. Imperial War Museum. Retrieved 31 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iwm.org.uk/memorials/item/memorial/11888","url_text":"\"Blakes Munition Factory – Cross\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Memorials_Register","url_text":"War Memorials Register"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_War_Museum","url_text":"Imperial War Museum"}]},{"reference":"\"Obituary: Sir Henry Foreman\". The Times. 12 April 1924. p. 24.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times","url_text":"The Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Grave locations for holders of the Victoria Cross: West London. Archived copy\". Victoriacross.org.uk. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012. Retrieved 27 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120716192332/http://www.homeusers.prestel.co.uk/stewart/lonwest.htm","url_text":"\"Grave locations for holders of the Victoria Cross: West London. Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://www.homeusers.prestel.co.uk/stewart/lonwest.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrillion
Names of large numbers
["1 Standard dictionary numbers","2 Usage of names of large numbers","3 Origins of the \"standard dictionary numbers\"","4 The googol family","5 Extensions of the standard dictionary numbers","6 Binary prefixes","7 Other named large numbers used in mathematics, physics and chemistry","8 See also","9 References"]
Two naming scales for large numbers have been used in English and other European languages since the early modern era: the long and short scales. Most English variants use the short scale today, but the long scale remains dominant in many non-English-speaking areas, including continental Europe and Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America. These naming procedures are based on taking the number n occurring in 103n+3 (short scale) or 106n (long scale) and concatenating Latin roots for its units, tens, and hundreds place, together with the suffix -illion. Names of numbers above a trillion are rarely used in practice; such large numbers have practical usage primarily in the scientific domain, where powers of ten are expressed as 10 with a numeric superscript. However, these somewhat rare names are considered acceptable for approximate statements. For example, the statement "There are approximately 7.1 octillion atoms in an adult human body" is understood to be in short scale of the table below (and is only accurate if referring to short scale rather than long scale). Indian English do not use millions, but have their own system of large numbers including lakhs (Anglicised as lacs) and crores. English also has many words, such as "zillion", used informally to mean large but unspecified amounts; see indefinite and fictitious numbers. Standard dictionary numbers x Name(SS/LS, LS) SS(103x+3) LS(106x, 106x+3) Authorities AHD4 CED COD OED2 OEDweb RHD2 SOED3 W3 HM 1 Million 106 106 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Milliard 109 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 2 Billion 109 1012 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 Trillion 1012 1018 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 Quadrillion 1015 1024 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 5 Quintillion 1018 1030 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 6 Sextillion 1021 1036 ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 7 Septillion 1024 1042 ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 8 Octillion 1027 1048 ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 9 Nonillion 1030 1054 ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 10 Decillion 1033 1060 ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 11 Undecillion 1036 1066 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 12 Duodecillion 1039 1072 ✓ ✓ ✓     ✓   ✓ ✓ 13 Tredecillion 1042 1078 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 14 Quattuordecillion 1045 1084 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 15 Quindecillion 1048 1090 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 16 Sexdecillion 1051 1096 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 17 Septendecillion 1054 10102 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 18 Octodecillion 1057 10108 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 19 Novemdecillion 1060 10114 ✓ ✓       ✓   ✓ ✓ 20 Vigintillion 1063 10120 ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 100 Centillion 10303 10600 ✓ ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓     ✓ Usage: Short scale: US, English Canada, modern British, Australia, and Eastern Europe Long scale: French Canada, older British, Western & Central Europe Apart from million, the words in this list ending with -illion are all derived by adding prefixes (bi-, tri-, etc., derived from Latin) to the stem -illion. Centillion appears to be the highest name ending in -"illion" that is included in these dictionaries. Trigintillion, often cited as a word in discussions of names of large numbers, is not included in any of them, nor are any of the names that can easily be created by extending the naming pattern (unvigintillion, duovigintillion, duo­quinqua­gint­illion, etc.). Name Value Authorities AHD4 CED COD OED2 OEDnew RHD2 SOED3 W3 HM Googol 10100 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Googolplex 10googol (1010100) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ All of the dictionaries included googol and googolplex, generally crediting it to the Kasner and Newman book and to Kasner's nephew (see below). None include any higher names in the googol family (googolduplex, etc.). The Oxford English Dictionary comments that googol and googolplex are "not in formal mathematical use". Usage of names of large numbers Some names of large numbers, such as million, billion, and trillion, have real referents in human experience, and are encountered in many contexts. At times, the names of large numbers have been forced into common usage as a result of hyperinflation. The highest numerical value banknote ever printed was a note for 1 sextillion pengő (1021 or 1 milliard bilpengő as printed) printed in Hungary in 1946. In 2009, Zimbabwe printed a 100 trillion (1014) Zimbabwean dollar note, which at the time of printing was worth about US$30. Names of larger numbers, however, have a tenuous, artificial existence, rarely found outside definitions, lists, and discussions of how large numbers are named. Even well-established names like sextillion are rarely used, since in the context of science, including astronomy, where such large numbers often occur, they are nearly always written using scientific notation. In this notation, powers of ten are expressed as 10 with a numeric superscript, e.g. "The X-ray emission of the radio galaxy is 1.3×1045 joules." When a number such as 1045 needs to be referred to in words, it is simply read out as "ten to the forty-fifth" or "ten to the forty-five". This is easier to say and less ambiguous than "quattuordecillion", which means something different in the long scale and the short scale. When a number represents a quantity rather than a count, SI prefixes can be used—thus "femtosecond", not "one quadrillionth of a second"—although often powers of ten are used instead of some of the very high and very low prefixes. In some cases, specialized units are used, such as the astronomer's parsec and light year or the particle physicist's barn. Nevertheless, large numbers have an intellectual fascination and are of mathematical interest, and giving them names is one way people try to conceptualize and understand them. One of the earliest examples of this is The Sand Reckoner, in which Archimedes gave a system for naming large numbers. To do this, he called the numbers up to a myriad myriad (108) "first numbers" and called 108 itself the "unit of the second numbers". Multiples of this unit then became the second numbers, up to this unit taken a myriad myriad times, 108·108=1016. This became the "unit of the third numbers", whose multiples were the third numbers, and so on. Archimedes continued naming numbers in this way up to a myriad myriad times the unit of the 108-th numbers, i.e. ( 10 8 ) ( 10 8 ) = 10 8 ⋅ 10 8 , {\displaystyle (10^{8})^{(10^{8})}=10^{8\cdot 10^{8}},} and embedded this construction within another copy of itself to produce names for numbers up to ( ( 10 8 ) ( 10 8 ) ) ( 10 8 ) = 10 8 ⋅ 10 16 . {\displaystyle ((10^{8})^{(10^{8})})^{(10^{8})}=10^{8\cdot 10^{16}}.} Archimedes then estimated the number of grains of sand that would be required to fill the known universe, and found that it was no more than "one thousand myriad of the eighth numbers" (1063). Since then, many others have engaged in the pursuit of conceptualizing and naming numbers that have no existence outside the imagination. One motivation for such a pursuit is that attributed to the inventor of the word googol, who was certain that any finite number "had to have a name". Another possible motivation is competition between students in computer programming courses, where a common exercise is that of writing a program to output numbers in the form of English words. Most names proposed for large numbers belong to systematic schemes which are extensible. Thus, many names for large numbers are simply the result of following a naming system to its logical conclusion—or extending it further. Origins of the "standard dictionary numbers" The words bymillion and trimillion were first recorded in 1475 in a manuscript of Jehan Adam. Subsequently, Nicolas Chuquet wrote a book Triparty en la science des nombres which was not published during Chuquet's lifetime. However, most of it was copied by Estienne de La Roche for a portion of his 1520 book, L'arismetique. Chuquet's book contains a passage in which he shows a large number marked off into groups of six digits, with the comment: Ou qui veult le premier point peult signiffier million Le second point byllion Le tiers point tryllion Le quart quadrillion Le cinqe quyllion Le sixe sixlion Le sept.e septyllion Le huyte ottyllion Le neufe nonyllion et ainsi des ault's se plus oultre on vouloit preceder (Or if you prefer the first mark can signify million, the second mark byllion, the third mark tryllion, the fourth quadrillion, the fifth quyillion, the sixth sixlion, the seventh septyllion, the eighth ottyllion, the ninth nonyllion and so on with others as far as you wish to go). Adam and Chuquet used the long scale of powers of a million; that is, Adam's bymillion (Chuquet's byllion) denoted 1012, and Adam's trimillion (Chuquet's tryllion) denoted 1018. The googol family The names googol and googolplex were invented by Edward Kasner's nephew Milton Sirotta and introduced in Kasner and Newman's 1940 book Mathematics and the Imagination in the following passage: The name "googol" was invented by a child (Dr. Kasner's nine-year-old nephew) who was asked to think up a name for a very big number, namely 1 with one hundred zeroes after it. He was very certain that this number was not infinite, and therefore equally certain that it had to have a name. At the same time that he suggested "googol" he gave a name for a still larger number: "googolplex." A googolplex is much larger than a googol, but is still finite, as the inventor of the name was quick to point out. It was first suggested that a googolplex should be 1, followed by writing zeros until you got tired. This is a description of what would happen if one tried to write a googolplex, but different people get tired at different times and it would never do to have Carnera a better mathematician than Dr. Einstein, simply because he had more endurance. The googolplex is, then, a specific finite number, equal to 1 with a googol zeros after it. Value Name Authority 10100 Googol Kasner and Newman, dictionaries (see above) 10googol = 1010100 Googolplex Kasner and Newman, dictionaries (see above) John Horton Conway and Richard K. Guy have suggested that N-plex be used as a name for 10N. This gives rise to the name googolplexplex for 10googolplex = 101010100. Conway and Guy have proposed that N-minex be used as a name for 10−N, giving rise to the name googolminex for the reciprocal of a googolplex, which is written as 10-(10100). None of these names are in wide use. The names googol and googolplex inspired the name of the Internet company Google and its corporate headquarters, the Googleplex, respectively. Extensions of the standard dictionary numbers This section illustrates several systems for naming large numbers, and shows how they can be extended past vigintillion. Traditional British usage assigned new names for each power of one million (the long scale): 1,000,000 = 1 million; 1,000,0002 = 1 billion; 1,000,0003 = 1 trillion; and so on. It was adapted from French usage, and is similar to the system that was documented or invented by Chuquet. Traditional American usage (which was also adapted from French usage but at a later date), Canadian, and modern British usage assign new names for each power of one thousand (the short scale). Thus, a billion is 1000 × 10002 = 109; a trillion is 1000 × 10003 = 1012; and so forth. Due to its dominance in the financial world (and by the US dollar), this was adopted for official United Nations documents. Traditional French usage has varied; in 1948, France, which had originally popularized the short scale worldwide, reverted to the long scale. The term milliard is unambiguous and always means 109. It is seldom seen in American usage and rarely in British usage, but frequently in continental European usage. The term is sometimes attributed to French mathematician Jacques Peletier du Mans c. 1550 (for this reason, the long scale is also known as the Chuquet-Peletier system), but the Oxford English Dictionary states that the term derives from post-Classical Latin term milliartum, which became milliare and then milliart and finally our modern term. Concerning names ending in -illiard for numbers 106n+3, milliard is certainly in widespread use in languages other than English, but the degree of actual use of the larger terms is questionable. The terms "milliardo" in Italian, "Milliarde" in German, "miljard" in Dutch, "milyar" in Turkish, and "миллиард," milliard (transliterated) in Russian, are standard usage when discussing financial topics. For additional details, see billion and long and short scale. The naming procedure for large numbers is based on taking the number n occurring in 103n+3 (short scale) or 106n (long scale) and concatenating Latin roots for its units, tens, and hundreds place, together with the suffix -illion. In this way, numbers up to 103·999+3 = 103000 (short scale) or 106·999 = 105994 (long scale) may be named. The choice of roots and the concatenation procedure is that of the standard dictionary numbers if n is 9 or smaller. For larger n (between 10 and 999), prefixes can be constructed based on a system described by Conway and Guy. Today, sexdecillion and novemdecillion are standard dictionary numbers and, using the same reasoning as Conway and Guy did for the numbers up to nonillion, could probably be used to form acceptable prefixes. The Conway–Guy system for forming prefixes: Units Tens Hundreds 1 Un N Deci NX Centi 2 Duo MS Viginti N Ducenti 3 Tre (*) NS Triginta NS Trecenti 4 Quattuor NS Quadraginta NS Quadringenti 5 Quin NS Quinquaginta NS Quingenti 6 Se (*) N Sexaginta N Sescenti 7 Septe (*) N Septuaginta N Septingenti 8 Octo MX Octoginta MX Octingenti 9 Nove (*) Nonaginta Nongenti (*) ^ When preceding a component marked S or X, "tre" changes to "tres" and "se" to "ses" or "sex"; similarly, when preceding a component marked M or N, "septe" and "nove" change to "septem" and "novem" or "septen" and "noven". Since the system of using Latin prefixes will become ambiguous for numbers with exponents of a size which the Romans rarely counted to, like 106,000,258, Conway and Guy co-devised with Allan Wechsler the following set of consistent conventions that permit, in principle, the extension of this system indefinitely to provide English short-scale names for any integer whatsoever. The name of a number 103n+3, where n is greater than or equal to 1000, is formed by concatenating the names of the numbers of the form 103m+3, where m represents each group of comma-separated digits of n, with each but the last "-illion" trimmed to "-illi-", or, in the case of m = 0, either "-nilli-" or "-nillion". For example, 103,000,012, the 1,000,003rd "-illion" number, equals one "millinillitrillion"; 1033,002,010,111, the 11,000,670,036th "-illion" number, equals one "undecillinilli­septua­ginta­ses­centilli­sestrigint­illion"; and 1029,629,629,633, the 9,876,543,210th "-illion" number, equals one "nonillise­septua­ginta­octingentillitres­quadra­ginta­quingentillideciducent­illion". The following table shows number names generated by the system described by Conway and Guy for the short and long scales. Base -illion(short scale) Base -illion(long scale) Value US, Canada and modern British(short scale) Traditional British(long scale) Traditional European (Peletier)(long scale) SISymbol SIPrefix 1 1 106 Million Million Million M Mega- 2 1 109 Billion Thousand million Milliard G Giga- 3 2 1012 Trillion Billion Billion T Tera- 4 2 1015 Quadrillion Thousand billion Billiard P Peta- 5 3 1018 Quintillion Trillion Trillion E Exa- 6 3 1021 Sextillion Thousand trillion Trilliard Z Zetta- 7 4 1024 Septillion Quadrillion Quadrillion Y Yotta- 8 4 1027 Octillion Thousand quadrillion Quadrilliard R Ronna- 9 5 1030 Nonillion Quintillion Quintillion Q Quetta- 10 5 1033 Decillion Thousand quintillion Quintilliard 11 6 1036 Undecillion Sextillion Sextillion 12 6 1039 Duodecillion Thousand sextillion Sextilliard 13 7 1042 Tredecillion Septillion Septillion 14 7 1045 Quattuordecillion Thousand septillion Septilliard 15 8 1048 Quindecillion Octillion Octillion 16 8 1051 Sedecillion Thousand octillion Octilliard 17 9 1054 Septendecillion Nonillion Nonillion 18 9 1057 Octodecillion Thousand nonillion Nonilliard 19 10 1060 Novendecillion Decillion Decillion 20 10 1063 Vigintillion Thousand decillion Decilliard 21 11 1066 Unvigintillion Undecillion Undecillion 22 11 1069 Duovigintillion Thousand undecillion Undecilliard 23 12 1072 Tresvigintillion Duodecillion Duodecillion 24 12 1075 Quattuor­vigint­illion Thousand duodecillion Duodecilliard 25 13 1078 Quinvigintillion Tredecillion Tredecillion 26 13 1081 Sesvigintillion Thousand tredecillion Tredecilliard 27 14 1084 Septemvigintillion Quattuordecillion Quattuordecillion 28 14 1087 Octovigintillion Thousand quattuordecillion Quattuordecilliard 29 15 1090 Novemvigintillion Quindecillion Quindecillion 30 15 1093 Trigintillion Thousand quindecillion Quindecilliard 31 16 1096 Untrigintillion Sedecillion Sedecillion 32 16 1099 Duotrigintillion Thousand sedecillion Sedecilliard 33 17 10102 Trestrigintillion Septendecillion Septendecillion 34 17 10105 Quattuor­trigint­illion Thousand septendecillion Septendecilliard 35 18 10108 Quintrigintillion Octodecillion Octodecillion 36 18 10111 Sestrigintillion Thousand octodecillion Octodecilliard 37 19 10114 Septentrigintillion Novendecillion Novendecillion 38 19 10117 Octotrigintillion Thousand novendecillion Novendecilliard 39 20 10120 Noventrigintillion Vigintillion Vigintillion 40 20 10123 Quadragintillion Thousand vigintillion Vigintilliard 50 25 10153 Quinquagintillion Thousand quinvigintillion Quinvigintilliard 60 30 10183 Sexagintillion Thousand trigintillion Trigintilliard 70 35 10213 Septuagintillion Thousand quintrigintillion Quintrigintilliard 80 40 10243 Octogintillion Thousand quadragintillion Quadragintilliard 90 45 10273 Nonagintillion Thousand quin­quadra­gint­illion Quin­quadra­gint­illiard 100 50 10303 Centillion Thousand quinquagintillion Quinquagintilliard 101 51 10306 Uncentillion Unquinquagintillion Unquinquagintillion 110 55 10333 Decicentillion Thousand quin­quinqua­gint­illion Quin­quinqua­gint­illiard 111 56 10336 Undecicentillion Ses­quinqua­gint­illion Ses­quinqua­gint­illion 120 60 10363 Viginticentillion Thousand sexagintillion Sexagintilliard 121 61 10366 Unviginticentillion Unsexagintillion Unsexagintillion 130 65 10393 Trigintacentillion Thousand quinsexagintillion Quinsexagintilliard 140 70 10423 Quadra­gintacent­illion Thousand septuagintillion Septuagintilliard 150 75 10453 Quinqua­gintacent­illion Thousand quin­septua­gint­illion Quin­septua­gint­illiard 160 80 10483 Sexagintacentillion Thousand octogintillion Octogintilliard 170 85 10513 Septuagintacentillion Thousand quinoctogintillion Quinoctogintilliard 180 90 10543 Octogintacentillion Thousand nonagintillion Nonagintilliard 190 95 10573 Nonagintacentillion Thousand quinnonagintillion Quinnonagintilliard 200 100 10603 Ducentillion Thousand centillion Centilliard 300 150 10903 Trecentillion Thousand quinqua­gintacent­illion Quinqua­gintacent­illiard 400 200 101203 Quadringentillion Thousand ducentillion Ducentilliard 500 250 101503 Quingentillion Thousand quinqua­gintaducent­illion Quinqua­gintaducent­illiard 600 300 101803 Sescentillion Thousand trecentillion Trecentilliard 700 350 102103 Septingentillion Thousand quinqua­gintatrecent­illion Quinqua­gintatrecent­illiard 800 400 102403 Octingentillion Thousand quadringentillion Quadringentilliard 900 450 102703 Nongentillion Thousand quinqua­ginta­quadringent­illion Quinqua­ginta­quadringent­illiard 1000 500 103003 Millinillion Thousand quingentillion Quingentilliard Value Name Equivalent US, Canadian and modern British(short scale) Traditional British(long scale) Traditional European (Peletier)(long scale) 10100 Googol Ten duotrigintillion Ten thousand sedecillion Ten sedecilliard 1010100 Googolplex Ten trilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­trestrigintatrecentilli­duotrigintatrecentillion Ten thousand milli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentillion Ten milli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilli­sesexagintasescentilliard ^ Googolplex's short scale name is derived from it equal to ten of the 3,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​332nd "-illion"s (This is the value of n when 10 × 10(3n + 3) = 1010100) ^ Googolplex's long scale name (both traditional British and traditional European) is derived from it being equal to ten thousand of the 1,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666th "-illion"s (This is the value of n when 10,000 × 106n = 1010100). Binary prefixes The International System of Quantities (ISQ) defines a series of prefixes denoting integer powers of 1024 between 10241 and 10248. Power Value ISQsymbol ISQprefix 1 10241 Ki Kibi- 2 10242 Mi Mebi- 3 10243 Gi Gibi- 4 10244 Ti Tebi- 5 10245 Pi Pebi- 6 10246 Ei Exbi- 7 10247 Zi Zebi- 8 10248 Yi Yobi- Other named large numbers used in mathematics, physics and chemistry Avogadro number Graham's number Skewes's number Steinhaus–Moser notation TREE(3) Rayo's number SSCG(3) See also Mathematics portal -yllion – Mathematical notation Infinity – Mathematical concept Asaṃkhyeya – Buddhist name for a large number Chinese numerals – Characters used to denote numbers in Chinese History of large numbers Indefinite and fictitious numbers Indian numbering system – Indian methods of naming large numbers Japanese numerals – Number words used in the Japanese language Knuth's up-arrow notation – Method of notation of very large integers Law of large numbers – Averages of repeated trials converge to the expected value List of numbers – Notable numbers Long and short scale – Two meanings of "billion" and "trillion"Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Metric prefix – Order of magnitude indicator Names of small numbers Number names – Word or phrase which describes a numerical quantity Number prefix – Prefix derived from numerals or other numbersPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Orders of magnitude – Scale of numbers with a fixed ratioPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Orders of magnitude (data) – Computer data measurements and scales Orders of magnitude (numbers) – Comparison of a wide range of numbers Power of 10 – Ten raised to an integer power References ^ Bellos, Alex (2011). Alex's Adventures in Numberland. A&C Black. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-4088-0959-4. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2000. ISBN 0-395-82517-2. ^ "Collins English Dictionary". HarperCollins. ^ "Cambridge Dictionaries Online". Cambridge University Press. ^ The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. 1991. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. ^ "Oxford English Dictionary". Oxford University Press. ^ The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (2nd ed.). Random House. 1987. ^ Brown, Lesley; Little, William (1993). The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198612710. ^ Webster, Noah (1981). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0877792011. ^ Rowlett, Russ. "How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measures". Russ Rowlett and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on 1 March 2000. Retrieved 25 September 2022. ^ Emerson, Oliver Farrar (1894). The History of the English Language. Macmillan and Co. p. 316. ^ "Entry for centillion in dictionary.com". dictionary.com. Retrieved 25 September 2022. ^ "Zimbabwe rolls out Z$100tr note". BBC News. 16 January 2009. Retrieved 25 September 2022. ^ Kasner, Edward; Newman, James (1940). Mathematics and the Imagination. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-486-41703-4. ^ a b c d e f Conway, J. H.; Guy, R. K. (1998). The Book of Numbers. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 15–16. ISBN 0-387-97993-X. ^ Fish. "Conway's illion converter". Retrieved 1 March 2023. ^ Stewart, Ian (2017). Infinity: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-875523-4. ^ "IEC 80000-13:2008". International Organization for Standardization. 15 April 2008. Retrieved 25 September 2022. vteLarge numbersExamples innumerical order Thousand Ten thousand Hundred thousand Million Ten million Hundred million Billion Trillion Quadrillion Quintillion Sextillion Septillion Octillion Nonillion Decillion Eddington number Googol Shannon number Googolplex Skewes's number Moser's number Graham's number TREE(3) SSCG(3) BH(3) Rayo's number Infinity ExpressionmethodsNotations Scientific notation Knuth's up-arrow notation Conway chained arrow notation Steinhaus–Moser notation Operators Hyperoperation Tetration Pentation Ackermann function Grzegorczyk hierarchy Fast-growing hierarchy Related articles(alphabetical order) Busy beaver Extended real number line Indefinite and fictitious numbers Infinitesimal Largest known prime number List of numbers Long and short scales Number systems Number names Orders of magnitude Power of two Power of three Power of 10 Sagan Unit Names History
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"large numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_numbers"},{"link_name":"long and short scales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scale"},{"link_name":"continental Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Europe"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Latin America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America"},{"link_name":"Indian English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_English"},{"link_name":"lakhs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakh"},{"link_name":"crores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crore"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bellos-1"},{"link_name":"indefinite and fictitious numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_and_fictitious_numbers"}],"text":"Two naming scales for large numbers have been used in English and other European languages since the early modern era: the long and short scales. Most English variants use the short scale today, but the long scale remains dominant in many non-English-speaking areas, including continental Europe and Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America. These naming procedures are based on taking the number n occurring in 103n+3 (short scale) or 106n (long scale) and concatenating Latin roots for its units, tens, and hundreds place, together with the suffix -illion.Names of numbers above a trillion are rarely used in practice; such large numbers have practical usage primarily in the scientific domain, where powers of ten are expressed as 10 with a numeric superscript. However, these somewhat rare names are considered acceptable for approximate statements. For example, the statement \"There are approximately 7.1 octillion atoms in an adult human body\" is understood to be in short scale of the table below (and is only accurate if referring to short scale rather than long scale).Indian English do not use millions, but have their own system of large numbers including lakhs (Anglicised as lacs) and crores.[1] English also has many words, such as \"zillion\", used informally to mean large but unspecified amounts; see indefinite and fictitious numbers.","title":"Names of large numbers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Short scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scales"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"English Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_English"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English"},{"link_name":"Eastern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe"},{"link_name":"Long scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scales"},{"link_name":"French Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Canadians"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"Western","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe"},{"link_name":"Central Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-farrar-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-centillion-12"}],"text":"Usage:Short scale: US, English Canada, modern British, Australia, and Eastern Europe\nLong scale: French Canada, older British, Western & Central EuropeApart from million, the words in this list ending with -illion are all derived by adding prefixes (bi-, tri-, etc., derived from Latin) to the stem -illion.[11] Centillion[12] appears to be the highest name ending in -\"illion\" that is included in these dictionaries. Trigintillion, often cited as a word in discussions of names of large numbers, is not included in any of them, nor are any of the names that can easily be created by extending the naming pattern (unvigintillion, duovigintillion, duo­quinqua­gint­illion, etc.).All of the dictionaries included googol and googolplex, generally crediting it to the Kasner and Newman book and to Kasner's nephew (see below). None include any higher names in the googol family (googolduplex, etc.). The Oxford English Dictionary comments that googol and googolplex are \"not in formal mathematical use\".","title":"Standard dictionary numbers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hyperinflation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperinflation"},{"link_name":"pengő","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peng%C5%91"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary"},{"link_name":"Zimbabwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwe"},{"link_name":"Zimbabwean dollar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwean_dollar"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zimbabwe-13"},{"link_name":"scientific notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_notation"},{"link_name":"SI prefixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_prefix"},{"link_name":"femtosecond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Femtosecond"},{"link_name":"parsec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsec"},{"link_name":"light year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_year"},{"link_name":"barn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barn_(unit)"},{"link_name":"The Sand Reckoner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sand_Reckoner"},{"link_name":"Archimedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes"},{"link_name":"myriad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myriad"},{"link_name":"googol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googol"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Some names of large numbers, such as million, billion, and trillion, have real referents in human experience, and are encountered in many contexts. At times, the names of large numbers have been forced into common usage as a result of hyperinflation. The highest numerical value banknote ever printed was a note for 1 sextillion pengő (1021 or 1 milliard bilpengő as printed) printed in Hungary in 1946. In 2009, Zimbabwe printed a 100 trillion (1014) Zimbabwean dollar note, which at the time of printing was worth about US$30.[13]Names of larger numbers, however, have a tenuous, artificial existence, rarely found outside definitions, lists, and discussions of how large numbers are named. Even well-established names like sextillion are rarely used, since in the context of science, including astronomy, where such large numbers often occur, they are nearly always written using scientific notation. In this notation, powers of ten are expressed as 10 with a numeric superscript, e.g. \"The X-ray emission of the radio galaxy is 1.3×1045 joules.\" When a number such as 1045 needs to be referred to in words, it is simply read out as \"ten to the forty-fifth\" or \"ten to the forty-five\". This is easier to say and less ambiguous than \"quattuordecillion\", which means something different in the long scale and the short scale.When a number represents a quantity rather than a count, SI prefixes can be used—thus \"femtosecond\", not \"one quadrillionth of a second\"—although often powers of ten are used instead of some of the very high and very low prefixes. In some cases, specialized units are used, such as the astronomer's parsec and light year or the particle physicist's barn.Nevertheless, large numbers have an intellectual fascination and are of mathematical interest, and giving them names is one way people try to conceptualize and understand them.One of the earliest examples of this is The Sand Reckoner, in which Archimedes gave a system for naming large numbers. To do this, he called the numbers up to a myriad myriad (108) \"first numbers\" and called 108 itself the \"unit of the second numbers\". Multiples of this unit then became the second numbers, up to this unit taken a myriad myriad times, 108·108=1016. This became the \"unit of the third numbers\", whose multiples were the third numbers, and so on. Archimedes continued naming numbers in this way up to a myriad myriad times the unit of the 108-th numbers, i.e. \n \n \n \n (\n \n 10\n \n 8\n \n \n \n )\n \n (\n \n 10\n \n 8\n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n 10\n \n 8\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n 8\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (10^{8})^{(10^{8})}=10^{8\\cdot 10^{8}},}\n \n and embedded this construction within another copy of itself to produce names for numbers up to \n \n \n \n (\n (\n \n 10\n \n 8\n \n \n \n )\n \n (\n \n 10\n \n 8\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n )\n \n (\n \n 10\n \n 8\n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n 10\n \n 8\n ⋅\n \n 10\n \n 16\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ((10^{8})^{(10^{8})})^{(10^{8})}=10^{8\\cdot 10^{16}}.}\n \n Archimedes then estimated the number of grains of sand that would be required to fill the known universe, and found that it was no more than \"one thousand myriad of the eighth numbers\" (1063).Since then, many others have engaged in the pursuit of conceptualizing and naming numbers that have no existence outside the imagination. One motivation for such a pursuit is that attributed to the inventor of the word googol, who was certain that any finite number \"had to have a name\". Another possible motivation is competition between students in computer programming courses, where a common exercise is that of writing a program to output numbers in the form of English words.[citation needed]Most names proposed for large numbers belong to systematic schemes which are extensible. Thus, many names for large numbers are simply the result of following a naming system to its logical conclusion—or extending it further.[citation needed]","title":"Usage of names of large numbers"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chuquet.gif"},{"link_name":"Jehan Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehan_Adam"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Chuquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Chuquet"},{"link_name":"Estienne de La Roche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estienne_de_La_Roche"},{"link_name":"L'arismetique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27arismetique"},{"link_name":"long scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scale"}],"text":"The words bymillion and trimillion were first recorded in 1475 in a manuscript of Jehan Adam. Subsequently, Nicolas Chuquet wrote a book Triparty en la science des nombres which was not published during Chuquet's lifetime. However, most of it was copied by Estienne de La Roche for a portion of his 1520 book, L'arismetique. Chuquet's book contains a passage in which he shows a large number marked off into groups of six digits, with the comment:Ou qui veult le premier point peult signiffier million Le second point byllion Le tiers point tryllion Le quart quadrillion Le cinqe quyllion Le sixe sixlion Le sept.e septyllion Le huyte ottyllion Le neufe nonyllion et ainsi des ault's se plus oultre on vouloit preceder(Or if you prefer the first mark can signify million, the second mark byllion, the third mark tryllion, the fourth quadrillion, the fifth quyillion, the sixth sixlion, the seventh septyllion, the eighth ottyllion, the ninth nonyllion and so on with others as far as you wish to go).Adam and Chuquet used the long scale of powers of a million; that is, Adam's bymillion (Chuquet's byllion) denoted 1012, and Adam's trimillion (Chuquet's tryllion) denoted 1018.","title":"Origins of the \"standard dictionary numbers\""},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"googol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googol"},{"link_name":"googolplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googolplex"},{"link_name":"Edward Kasner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Kasner"},{"link_name":"Mathematics and the Imagination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_and_the_Imagination"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kasner-14"},{"link_name":"Carnera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primo_Carnera"},{"link_name":"Dr. Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"John Horton Conway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Horton_Conway"},{"link_name":"Richard K. Guy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_K._Guy"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conway-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conway-15"},{"link_name":"reciprocal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Internet company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_company"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"corporate headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_headquarters"},{"link_name":"Googleplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Googleplex"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The names googol and googolplex were invented by Edward Kasner's nephew Milton Sirotta and introduced in Kasner and Newman's 1940 book Mathematics and the Imagination[14] in the following passage:The name \"googol\" was invented by a child (Dr. Kasner's nine-year-old nephew) who was asked to think up a name for a very big number, namely 1 with one hundred zeroes after it. He was very certain that this number was not infinite, and therefore equally certain that it had to have a name. At the same time that he suggested \"googol\" he gave a name for a still larger number: \"googolplex.\" A googolplex is much larger than a googol, but is still finite, as the inventor of the name was quick to point out. It was first suggested that a googolplex should be 1, followed by writing zeros until you got tired. This is a description of what would happen if one tried to write a googolplex, but different people get tired at different times and it would never do to have Carnera a better mathematician than Dr. Einstein, simply because he had more endurance. The googolplex is, then, a specific finite number, equal to 1 with a googol zeros after it.John Horton Conway and Richard K. Guy[15] have suggested that N-plex be used as a name for 10N. This gives rise to the name googolplexplex for 10googolplex = 101010100. Conway and Guy[15] have proposed that N-minex be used as a name for 10−N, giving rise to the name googolminex for the reciprocal of a googolplex, which is written as 10-(10100). None of these names are in wide use.The names googol and googolplex inspired the name of the Internet company Google and its corporate headquarters, the Googleplex, respectively.[citation needed]","title":"The googol family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"long scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scale"},{"link_name":"Chuquet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Chuquet"},{"link_name":"short scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scale"},{"link_name":"US dollar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_dollar"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"Jacques Peletier du Mans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Peletier_du_Mans"},{"link_name":"Oxford English Dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"billion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion"},{"link_name":"long and short scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scale"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conway-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_increase"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conway-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conway-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conway-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"^[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_googleplex-shortscale-calculation"},{"link_name":"^[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#ref_googleplex-longscale-calculation"}],"text":"This section illustrates several systems for naming large numbers, and shows how they can be extended past vigintillion.Traditional British usage assigned new names for each power of one million (the long scale): 1,000,000 = 1 million; 1,000,0002 = 1 billion; 1,000,0003 = 1 trillion; and so on. It was adapted from French usage, and is similar to the system that was documented or invented by Chuquet.Traditional American usage (which was also adapted from French usage but at a later date), Canadian, and modern British usage assign new names for each power of one thousand (the short scale). Thus, a billion is 1000 × 10002 = 109; a trillion is 1000 × 10003 = 1012; and so forth. Due to its dominance in the financial world (and by the US dollar), this was adopted for official United Nations documents.Traditional French usage has varied; in 1948, France, which had originally popularized the short scale worldwide, reverted to the long scale.The term milliard is unambiguous and always means 109. It is seldom seen in American usage and rarely in British usage, but frequently in continental European usage. The term is sometimes attributed to French mathematician Jacques Peletier du Mans c. 1550 (for this reason, the long scale is also known as the Chuquet-Peletier system), but the Oxford English Dictionary states that the term derives from post-Classical Latin term milliartum, which became milliare and then milliart and finally our modern term.Concerning names ending in -illiard for numbers 106n+3, milliard is certainly in widespread use in languages other than English, but the degree of actual use of the larger terms is questionable. The terms \"milliardo\" in Italian, \"Milliarde\" in German, \"miljard\" in Dutch, \"milyar\" in Turkish, and \"миллиард,\" milliard (transliterated) in Russian, are standard usage when discussing financial topics.For additional details, see billion and long and short scale.The naming procedure for large numbers is based on taking the number n occurring in 103n+3 (short scale) or 106n (long scale) and concatenating Latin roots for its units, tens, and hundreds place, together with the suffix -illion. In this way, numbers up to 103·999+3 = 103000 (short scale) or 106·999 = 105994 (long scale) may be named. The choice of roots and the concatenation procedure is that of the standard dictionary numbers if n is 9 or smaller. For larger n (between 10 and 999), prefixes can be constructed based on a system described by Conway and Guy.[15] Today, sexdecillion and novemdecillion are standard dictionary numbers and, using the same reasoning as Conway and Guy did for the numbers up to nonillion, could probably be used to form acceptable prefixes. The Conway–Guy system for forming prefixes:(*) ^ When preceding a component marked S or X, \"tre\" changes to \"tres\" and \"se\" to \"ses\" or \"sex\"; similarly, when preceding a component marked M or N, \"septe\" and \"nove\" change to \"septem\" and \"novem\" or \"septen\" and \"noven\".Since the system of using Latin prefixes will become ambiguous for numbers with exponents of a size which the Romans rarely counted to, like 106,000,258, Conway and Guy co-devised with Allan Wechsler the following set of consistent conventions that permit, in principle, the extension of this system indefinitely to provide English short-scale names for any integer whatsoever.[15] The name of a number 103n+3, where n is greater than or equal to 1000, is formed by concatenating the names of the numbers of the form 103m+3, where m represents each group of comma-separated digits of n, with each but the last \"-illion\" trimmed to \"-illi-\", or, in the case of m = 0, either \"-nilli-\" or \"-nillion\".[15] For example, 103,000,012, the 1,000,003rd \"-illion\" number, equals one \"millinillitrillion\"; 1033,002,010,111, the 11,000,670,036th \"-illion\" number, equals one \"undecillinilli­septua­ginta­ses­centilli­sestrigint­illion\"; and 1029,629,629,633, the 9,876,543,210th \"-illion\" number, equals one \"nonillise­septua­ginta­octingentillitres­quadra­ginta­quingentillideciducent­illion\".[15]The following table shows number names generated by the system described by Conway and Guy for the short and long scales.[16]^[1] Googolplex's short scale name is derived from it equal to ten of the 3,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​333,​332nd \"-illion\"s (This is the value of n when 10 × 10(3n + 3) = 1010100)\n^[2] Googolplex's long scale name (both traditional British and traditional European) is derived from it being equal to ten thousand of the 1,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666,​666th \"-illion\"s (This is the value of n when 10,000 × 106n = 1010100).","title":"Extensions of the standard dictionary numbers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International System of Quantities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_System_of_Quantities"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iec_80000-18"}],"text":"The International System of Quantities (ISQ) defines a series of prefixes denoting integer powers of 1024 between 10241 and 10248.[18]","title":"Binary prefixes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Avogadro number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro_number"},{"link_name":"Graham's number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%27s_number"},{"link_name":"Skewes's number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewes%27s_number"},{"link_name":"Steinhaus–Moser notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinhaus%E2%80%93Moser_notation"},{"link_name":"TREE(3)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TREE(3)"},{"link_name":"Rayo's number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayo%27s_number"},{"link_name":"SSCG(3)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSCG(3)"}],"text":"Avogadro number\nGraham's number\nSkewes's number\nSteinhaus–Moser notation\nTREE(3)\nRayo's number\nSSCG(3)","title":"Other named large numbers used in mathematics, physics and chemistry"}]
[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Chuquet.gif/500px-Chuquet.gif"}]
[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg"},{"title":"Mathematics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mathematics"},{"title":"-yllion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-yllion"},{"title":"Infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity"},{"title":"Asaṃkhyeya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa%E1%B9%83khyeya"},{"title":"Chinese numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_numerals"},{"title":"History of large numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_large_numbers"},{"title":"Indefinite and fictitious numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_and_fictitious_numbers"},{"title":"Indian numbering system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_numbering_system"},{"title":"Japanese numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_numerals"},{"title":"Knuth's up-arrow notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knuth%27s_up-arrow_notation"},{"title":"Law of large numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_large_numbers"},{"title":"List of numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_numbers"},{"title":"Long and short scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_and_short_scale"},{"title":"Metric prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_prefix"},{"title":"Names of small numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_small_numbers"},{"title":"Number names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeral_(linguistics)"},{"title":"Number prefix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_prefix"},{"title":"Orders of magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude"},{"title":"Orders of magnitude (data)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(data)"},{"title":"Orders of magnitude (numbers)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(numbers)"},{"title":"Power of 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_of_10"}]
[{"reference":"Bellos, Alex (2011). Alex's Adventures in Numberland. A&C Black. p. 114. ISBN 978-1-4088-0959-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FA_HwoEzSQUC","url_text":"Alex's Adventures in Numberland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-0959-4","url_text":"978-1-4088-0959-4"}]},{"reference":"The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin. 2000. ISBN 0-395-82517-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/americanheritage0000unse_a1o7","url_text":"The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-82517-2","url_text":"0-395-82517-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Collins English Dictionary\". HarperCollins.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/","url_text":"\"Collins English Dictionary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cambridge Dictionaries Online\". Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"http://dictionary.cambridge.org/","url_text":"\"Cambridge Dictionaries Online\""}]},{"reference":"The Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. 1991. ISBN 0-19-861186-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dpIwuwEACAAJ","url_text":"The Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861186-2","url_text":"0-19-861186-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Oxford English Dictionary\". Oxford University Press.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oed.com/","url_text":"\"Oxford English Dictionary\""}]},{"reference":"The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (2nd ed.). Random House. 1987.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Brown, Lesley; Little, William (1993). The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198612710.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UCzGvQEACAAJ","url_text":"The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198612710","url_text":"0198612710"}]},{"reference":"Webster, Noah (1981). Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster. ISBN 0877792011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CXR-tTsHo58C","url_text":"Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0877792011","url_text":"0877792011"}]},{"reference":"Rowlett, Russ. \"How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measures\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation
Adaptation
["1 History","2 General principles","2.1 What adaptation is","2.2 What adaptation is not","2.3 Adaptedness and fitness","3 Types","3.1 Changes in habitat","3.2 Genetic change","3.3 Co-adaptation","3.4 Mimicry","3.5 Trade-offs","3.5.1 Examples","4 Shifts in function","4.1 Pre-adaptation","4.2 Co-option of existing traits: exaptation","5 Niche construction","6 Non-adaptive traits","7 Extinction and coextinction","8 Origin of adaptive capacities","9 Philosophical issues","10 See also","11 References","12 Sources"]
Process that fits organisms to their environment This article is about the evolutionary process. For other uses, see Adaptation (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Adoption or Acclimatization. Part of a series onEvolutionary biologyDarwin's finches by John Gould Index Introduction Main Outline Glossary Evidence History Processes and outcomes Population genetics Variation Diversity Mutation Natural selection Adaptation Polymorphism Genetic drift Gene flow Speciation Adaptive radiation Co-operation Coevolution Coextinction Divergence Convergence Parallel evolution Extinction Natural history Origin of life Common descent History of life Timeline of evolution Human evolution Phylogeny Biodiversity Biogeography Classification Evolutionary taxonomy Cladistics Transitional fossil Extinction event History of evolutionary theory Overview Renaissance Before Darwin Darwin Origin of Species Before synthesis Modern synthesis Molecular evolution Evo-devo Current research History of speciation History of paleontology (timeline) Fields and applications Applications of evolution Biosocial criminology Ecological genetics Evolutionary aesthetics Evolutionary anthropology Evolutionary computation Evolutionary ecology Evolutionary economics Evolutionary epistemology Evolutionary ethics Evolutionary game theory Evolutionary linguistics Evolutionary medicine Evolutionary neuroscience Evolutionary physiology Evolutionary psychology Experimental evolution Phylogenetics Paleontology Selective breeding Speciation experiments Sociobiology Island biogeography Systematics Universal Darwinism Social implications Evolution as fact and theory Social effects Creation–evolution controversy Theistic evolution Objections to evolution Level of support Nature-nurture controversy Evolutionary biology portal  Categoryvte Complex systems Topics Self-organizationEmergence Collective behaviorSocial dynamics Collective intelligence Collective action Self-organized criticality Herd mentality Phase transition Agent-based modelling Synchronization Ant colony optimization Particle swarm optimization Swarm behaviour Collective consciousness NetworksScale-free networks Social network analysis Small-world networks Centrality Motifs Graph theory Scaling Robustness Systems biology Dynamic networks Adaptive networks Evolution and adaptationArtificial neural network Evolutionary computation Genetic algorithms Genetic programming Artificial life Machine learning Evolutionary developmental biology Artificial intelligence Evolutionary robotics Evolvability Pattern formationFractals Reaction–diffusion systems Partial differential equations Dissipative structures Percolation Cellular automata Spatial ecology Self-replication Geomorphology Systems theory and cyberneticsAutopoiesis Conversation theory Entropy Feedback Goal-oriented Homeostasis Information theory Operationalization Second-order cybernetics Self-reference System dynamics Systems science Systems thinking Sensemaking Variety Theory of computation Nonlinear dynamicsTime series analysis Ordinary differential equations Phase space Attractors Population dynamics Chaos Multistability Bifurcation Coupled map lattices Game theoryPrisoner's dilemma Rational choice theory Bounded rationality Evolutionary game theory vte In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a phenotypic trait or adaptive trait, with a functional role in each individual organism, that is maintained and has evolved through natural selection. Historically, adaptation has been described from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers such as Empedocles and Aristotle. In 18th and 19th century natural theology, adaptation was taken as evidence for the existence of a deity. Charles Darwin proposed instead that it was explained by natural selection. Adaptation is related to biological fitness, which governs the rate of evolution as measured by change in allele frequencies. Often, two or more species co-adapt and co-evolve as they develop adaptations that interlock with those of the other species, such as with flowering plants and pollinating insects. In mimicry, species evolve to resemble other species; in Müllerian mimicry this is a mutually beneficial co-evolution as each of a group of strongly defended species (such as wasps able to sting) come to advertise their defenses in the same way. Features evolved for one purpose may be co-opted for a different one, as when the insulating feathers of dinosaurs were co-opted for bird flight. Adaptation is a major topic in the philosophy of biology, as it concerns function and purpose (teleology). Some biologists try to avoid terms which imply purpose in adaptation, not least because it suggests a deity's intentions, but others note that adaptation is necessarily purposeful. History Main article: History of evolutionary thought Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on evolution, but their explanations differed. Empedocles did not believe that adaptation required a final cause (a purpose), but thought that it "came about naturally, since such things survived." Aristotle did believe in final causes, but assumed that species were fixed. The second of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's two factors (the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances by inheritance of acquired characteristics, creating a diversity of species and genera. In natural theology, adaptation was interpreted as the work of a deity and as evidence for the existence of God. William Paley believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who had argued that God had brought about "the best of all possible worlds." Voltaire's satire Dr. Pangloss is a parody of this optimistic idea, and David Hume also argued against design. Charles Darwin broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus "the influence of circumstances", usually expressed as use and disuse. This second, subsidiary element of his theory is what is now called Lamarckism, a proto-evolutionary hypothesis of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, intended to explain adaptations by natural means. Other natural historians, such as Buffon, accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, and secondary figures such as Henry Walter Bates, for putting forward a mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such as E. B. Ford and Theodosius Dobzhansky produced evidence that natural selection was not only the 'engine' behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought. General principles The significance of an adaptation can only be understood in relation to the total biology of the species.— Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis What adaptation is Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body. An internal parasite (such as a liver fluke) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the life cycle, which is often quite complex. However, as a practical term, "adaptation" often refers to a product: those features of a species which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process, and adaptive trait for the bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word. Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of Darwin's finches. The other process is speciation, in which new species arise, typically through reproductive isolation. An example widely used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of cichlid fish in African lakes, where the question of reproductive isolation is complex. Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places constraints on the evolution of development, behaviour, and structure of organisms. The main constraint, over which there has been much debate, is the requirement that each genetic and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what "relatively small" should mean, for example polyploidy in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change. The origin of eukaryotic endosymbiosis is a more dramatic example. All adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches. The adaptive traits may be structural, behavioural or physiological. Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism, such as shape, body covering, armament, and internal organization. Behavioural adaptations are inherited systems of behaviour, whether inherited in detail as instincts, or as a neuropsychological capacity for learning. Examples include searching for food, mating, and vocalizations. Physiological adaptations permit the organism to perform special functions such as making venom, secreting slime, and phototropism, but also involve more general functions such as growth and development, temperature regulation, ionic balance and other aspects of homeostasis. Adaptation affects all aspects of the life of an organism. The following definitions are given by the evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky: 1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats. 2. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats. 3. An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing. What adaptation is not The common kestrel has adapted successfully to urban areas Adaptation differs from flexibility, acclimatization, and learning, all of which are changes during life which are not inherited. Flexibility deals with the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of specialization. Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life; learning means improvement in behavioural performance during life. Flexibility stems from phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism with a given genotype (genetic type) to change its phenotype (observable characteristics) in response to changes in its habitat, or to move to a different habitat. The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many herbivores are like this; extreme examples are koalas which depend on Eucalyptus, and giant pandas which require bamboo. A generalist, on the other hand, eats a range of food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, rats, crabs and many carnivores. The tendency to behave in a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptation. Rather different is developmental flexibility: "An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it is better fitted to survive in the new environment," writes the evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith. If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more red blood cells. The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but the acclimatization itself is not. The reproductive rate declines, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than others. They contribute more heavily to later generations, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurred, as the observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize. Adaptedness and fitness Main articles: Fitness (biology) and Fitness landscape There is a relationship between adaptedness and the concept of fitness used in population genetics. Differences in fitness between genotypes predict the rate of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection changes the relative frequencies of alternative phenotypes, insofar as they are heritable. However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitness. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the Californian redwood, which is highly adapted, but a relict species in danger of extinction. Elliott Sober commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of a trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait's future. 1. Relative fitness. The average contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes, relative to the contributions of other genotypes in the population. This is also known as Darwinian fitness, selection coefficient, and other terms. 2. Absolute fitness. The absolute contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes. Also known as the Malthusian parameter when applied to the population as a whole. 3. Adaptedness. The extent to which a phenotype fits its local ecological niche. Researchers can sometimes test this through a reciprocal transplant. In this sketch of a fitness landscape, a population can evolve by following the arrows to the adaptive peak at point B, and the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trapped. Sewall Wright proposed that populations occupy adaptive peaks on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be "trapped" on a peak that is not optimally adapted. Types Adaptation is the heart and soul of evolution.— Niles Eldredge, Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory Changes in habitat Before Darwin, adaptation was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the climate changed, so did the habitat; and as the habitat changed, so did the biota. Also, habitats are subject to changes in their biota: for example, invasions of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change. When the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation. When a habitat changes, the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying insects or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movement. This common response is called habitat tracking. It is one explanation put forward for the periods of apparent stasis in the fossil record (the punctuated equilibrium theory). Genetic change Without mutation, the ultimate source of all genetic variation, there would be no genetic changes and no subsequent adaptation through evolution by natural selection. Genetic change occurs in a population when mutation increases or decreases in its initial frequency followed by random genetic drift, migration, recombination or natural selection act on this genetic variation. One example is that the first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism at the very origin of life on Earth may have been co-opted components of the already-existing purine nucleotide metabolism, a metabolic pathway that evolved in an ancient RNA world. The co-option requires new mutations and through natural selection, the population then adapts genetically to its present circumstances. Genetic changes may result in entirely new or gradual change to visible structures, or they may adjust physiological activity in a way that suits the habitat. The varying shapes of the beaks of Darwin's finches, for example, are driven by adaptive mutations in the ALX1 gene. The coat color of different wild mouse species matches their environments, whether black lava or light sand, owing to adaptive mutations in the melanocortin 1 receptor and other melanin pathway genes. Physiological resistance to the heart poisons (cardiac glycosides) that monarch butterflies store in their bodies to protect themselves from predators are driven by adaptive mutations in the target of the poison, the sodium pump, resulting in target site insensitivity. These same adaptive mutations and similar changes at the same amino acid sites were found to evolve in a parallel manner in distantly related insects that feed on the same plants, and even in a bird that feeds on monarchs through convergent evolution, a hallmark of adaptation. Convergence at the gene-level across distantly related species can arise because of evolutionary constraint. Habitats and biota do frequently change over time and space. Therefore, it follows that the process of adaptation is never fully complete. Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better, resulting in stabilizing selection. On the other hand, it may happen that changes in the environment occur suddenly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. The only way for it to climb back up that fitness peak is via the introduction of new genetic variation for natural selection to act upon. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic tracking process, which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back from the brink of extinction in a process called evolutionary rescue. Adaptation does affect, to some extent, every species in a particular ecosystem. Leigh Van Valen thought that even in a stable environment, because of antagonistic species interactions and limited resources, a species must constantly had to adapt to maintain its relative standing. This became known as the Red Queen hypothesis, as seen in host-parasite interactions. Existing genetic variation and mutation were the traditional sources of material on which natural selection could act. In addition, horizontal gene transfer is possible between organisms in different species, using mechanisms as varied as gene cassettes, plasmids, transposons and viruses such as bacteriophages. Co-adaptation Main article: Co-adaptation Pollinating insects are co-adapted with flowering plants. In coevolution, where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of corresponding features in the other species. In other words, each species triggers reciprocal natural selection in the other. These co-adaptational relationships are intrinsically dynamic, and may continue on a trajectory for millions of years, as has occurred in the relationship between flowering plants and pollinating insects. Mimicry Main article: Mimicry Images A and B show real wasps; the others show Batesian mimics: three hoverflies and one beetle. Bates' work on Amazonian butterflies led him to develop the first scientific account of mimicry, especially the kind of mimicry which bears his name: Batesian mimicry. This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious species (the model), gaining a selective advantage as predators avoid the model and therefore also the mimic. Mimicry is thus an anti-predator adaptation. A common example seen in temperate gardens is the hoverfly (Syrphidae), many of which—though bearing no sting—mimic the warning coloration of aculeate Hymenoptera (wasps and bees). Such mimicry does not need to be perfect to improve the survival of the palatable species. Bates, Wallace and Fritz Müller believed that Batesian and Müllerian mimicry provided evidence for the action of natural selection, a view which is now standard amongst biologists. Trade-offs All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they cannot scratch their backs; mammals' hair helps temperature, but offers a niche for ectoparasites; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise.It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution... is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder.— Peter Medawar, The Future of Man Since the phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree.— Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance Examples Consider the antlers of the Irish elk, (often supposed to be far too large; in deer antler size has an allometric relationship to body size). Antlers serve positively for defence against predators, and to score victories in the annual rut. But they are costly in terms of resources. Their size during the last glacial period presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time. As another example, camouflage to avoid detection is destroyed when vivid coloration is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity for reproduction. Stream-dwelling salamanders, such as Caucasian salamander or Gold-striped salamander have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at the banks of fast small rivers and mountain brooks. Elongated body protects their larvae from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their fecundity. As a result, fire salamander, less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have a higher fecundity and broader geographic range. An Indian peacock's trainin full display The peacock's ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources. Darwin's explanation of its advantage was in terms of sexual selection: "This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction." The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called 'mate choice,' with an implication that the process selects the more fit over the less fit, and so has survival value. The recognition of sexual selection was for a long time in abeyance, but has been rehabilitated. The conflict between the size of the human foetal brain at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm3, else it will not get through the mother's pelvis) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm3), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright bipedal stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. Neanderthals had a similar problem. As another example, the long neck of a giraffe brings benefits but at a cost. The neck of a giraffe can be up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length. The benefits are that it can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter herbivores cannot reach. The cost is that a long neck is heavy and adds to the animal's body mass, requiring additional energy to build the neck and to carry its weight around. Shifts in function Adaptation and function are two aspects of one problem.— Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis Pre-adaptation Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid cordgrass Spartina townsendii is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats. Among domestic animals, the White Leghorn chicken is markedly more resistant to vitamin B1 deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive. Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability. In diploid eukaryotes, this is a consequence of the system of sexual reproduction, where mutant alleles get partially shielded, for example, by genetic dominance. Microorganisms, with their huge populations, also carry a great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by Salvador Luria and Max Delbrück who developed the Fluctuation Test, a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to bacteriophages in Escherichia coli. The word is controversial because it is teleological and the entire concept of natural selection depends on the presence of genetic variation, regardless of the population size of a species in question. Co-option of existing traits: exaptation The feathers of Sinosauropteryx, a dinosaur with feathers, were used for insulation or display, making them an exaptation for flight. Main article: Exaptation Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example is the ear ossicles of mammals, which we know from paleontological and embryological evidence originated in the upper and lower jaws and the hyoid bone of their synapsid ancestors, and further back still were part of the gill arches of early fish. The word exaptation was coined to cover these common evolutionary shifts in function. The flight feathers of birds evolved from the much earlier feathers of dinosaurs, which might have been used for insulation or for display. Niche construction Animals including earthworms, beavers and humans use some of their adaptations to modify their surroundings, so as to maximize their chances of surviving and reproducing. Beavers create dams and lodges, changing the ecosystems of the valleys around them. Earthworms, as Darwin noted, improve the topsoil in which they live by incorporating organic matter. Humans have constructed extensive civilizations with cities in environments as varied as the Arctic and hot deserts. In all three cases, the construction and maintenance of ecological niches helps drive the continued selection of the genes of these animals, in an environment that the animals have modified. Non-adaptive traits Main articles: Spandrel (biology) and Vestigiality Some traits do not appear to be adaptive as they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes often have pleiotropic effects, not all traits may be functional: they may be what Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin called spandrels, features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, on the analogy with the often highly decorated triangular areas between pairs of arches in architecture, which began as functionless features. Another possibility is that a trait may have been adaptive at some point in an organism's evolutionary history, but a change in habitats caused what used to be an adaptation to become unnecessary or even maladapted. Such adaptations are termed vestigial. Many organisms have vestigial organs, which are the remnants of fully functional structures in their ancestors. As a result of changes in lifestyle the organs became redundant, and are either not functional or reduced in functionality. Since any structure represents some kind of cost to the general economy of the body, an advantage may accrue from their elimination once they are not functional. Examples: wisdom teeth in humans; the loss of pigment and functional eyes in cave fauna; the loss of structure in endoparasites. Extinction and coextinction Main articles: Extinction and Coextinction If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction. Just as there is co-adaptation, there is also coextinction, the loss of a species due to the extinction of another with which it is coadapted, as with the extinction of a parasitic insect following the loss of its host, or when a flowering plant loses its pollinator, or when a food chain is disrupted. Origin of adaptive capacities The first stage in the evolution of life on earth is often hypothesized to be the RNA world in which short self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated before the evolution of DNA and proteins. By this hypothesis, life started when RNA chains began to self-replicate, initiating the three mechanisms of Darwinian selection: heritability, variation of type, and competition for resources. The fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely have been a function of its intrinsic adaptive capacities, determined by its nucleotide sequence, and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities may have been: (1) replication with moderate fidelity, giving rise to heritability while allowing variation of type, (2) resistance to decay, and (3) acquisition of resources. These adaptive capacities would have been determined by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators resulting from their nucleotide sequences. Philosophical issues "Behaviour with a purpose": a young springbok stotting. A biologist might argue that this has the function of signalling to predators, helping the springbok to survive and allowing it to reproduce. Main articles: Adaptationism and Teleology in biology Adaptation raises philosophical issues concerning how biologists speak of function and purpose, as this carries implications of evolutionary history – that a feature evolved by natural selection for a specific reason – and potentially of supernatural intervention – that features and organisms exist because of a deity's conscious intentions. In his biology, Aristotle introduced teleology to describe the adaptedness of organisms, but without accepting the supernatural intention built into Plato's thinking, which Aristotle rejected. Modern biologists continue to face the same difficulty. On the one hand, adaptation is purposeful: natural selection chooses what works and eliminates what does not. On the other hand, biologists by and large reject conscious purpose in evolution. 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In Gangestad, Steven W.; Simpson, Jeffry A. (eds.). The Evolution of Mind: Fundamental Questions and Controversies. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-408-9. OCLC 71005838. Monod, Jacques (1971). Chance and Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology. Translation of Le hasard et la nécessité by Austryn Wainhouse (1st American ed.). Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-46615-6. OCLC 209901. Moon, Harold Philip (1976). Henry Walter Bates FRS, 1825-1892: Explorer, Scientist, and Darwinian. Leicestershire Museums, Art Galleries, and Records Service. ISBN 978-0-904671-19-3. OCLC 3607387. Panchen, Alec L. (1992). Classification, Evolution and the Nature of Biology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31578-4. OCLC 24247430. Patterson, Colin (1999). Evolution. Comstock Book Series (2nd illustrated, revised ed.). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8594-7. OCLC 39724234. Pittendrigh, Colin S. (1958). "Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Behavior". In Roe, Anne; Simpson, George Gaylord (eds.). Behavior and Evolution. Yale University Press. OCLC 191989. Price, Peter W. (1980). The Evolutionary Biology of Parasites. Monographs in Population Biology. Vol. 15. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–237. ISBN 978-0-691-08257-8. OCLC 5706295. PMID 6993919. Provine, William B. (1986). Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-68474-1. OCLC 12808844. Ruxton, Graeme D.; Sherratt, Thomas N.; Speed, Michael P. (2004). Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry. Oxford Biology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852859-3. OCLC 56644492. Sober, Elliott (1984). The Nature of Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19232-3. OCLC 11114517. Sober, Elliott (1993). Philosophy of Biology. Dimensions of Philosophy Series. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0785-5. OCLC 26974492. Stebbins, G. Ledyard Jr. (1950). Variation and Evolution in Plants. Columbia Biological Series. Vol. 16. Columbia University Press. OCLC 294016. Sterelny, Kim; Griffiths, Paul E. (1999). Sex and Death: An Introduction to Philosophy of Biology. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77304-9. OCLC 40193587. Wickler, Wolfgang (1968). Mimicry in Plants and Animals. World University Library. Translated from the German by R. D. Martin. McGraw-Hill. OCLC 160314. Williams, Edgar (2010). Giraffe. Animal (Reaktion Books). Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-764-0. OCLC 587198932. Williams, George C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton Science Library. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02615-2. OCLC 35230452. Wright, Sewall (1932). "The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding and Selection in Evolution". In Jones, Donald F. (ed.). Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics. Vol. 1. Genetics Society of America. OCLC 439596433. vteBiology Introduction (Genetics, Evolution) Outline History Timeline Index BiologyOverview Science Life Properties (Adaptation,  Energy processing, Growth, Order, Regulation, Reproduction, Response to environment) Hierarchy of life (Atom > Molecule > Organelle > Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ system > Organism > Population > Community > Ecosystem > Biosphere) Reductionistic Emergent property Mechanistic Scientific method Theory Law Peer review Biology journals Chemical basis Atoms Amino acids Carbohydrates Chemical bond Chemical element Lipids Matter Quantum Molecules Monomer Nucleic acids Organic compounds pH Polymer Proteins Water Cells ATP Cell cycle Cell theory Cell signaling Cellular respiration Energy transformation Enzyme Eukaryote Fermentation Metabolism Meiosis Mitosis Photosynthesis Prokaryote Genetics DNA Epigenetics Evolutionary developmental biology Gene expression Gene regulation Genomes Mendelian inheritance Post-transcriptional modification Evolution 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Parallel evolution Signalling theory Handicap principle Speciation Species Species complex Taxonomy Unit of selection Gene-centered view of evolution Populationgenetics Artificial selection Biodiversity Evolutionarily stable strategy Fisher's principle Fitness Inclusive Gene flow Genetic drift Kin selection Parental investment Parent–offspring conflict Mutation Population Natural selection Sexual dimorphism Sexual selection Mate choice Social selection Trivers–Willard hypothesis Variation Development Canalisation Evolutionary developmental biology Genetic assimilation Inversion Modularity Phenotypic plasticity Of taxa Bacteria Birds origin Brachiopods Molluscs Cephalopods Dinosaurs Fish Fungi Insects butterflies Life Mammals cats canids wolves dogs hyenas dolphins and whales horses Kangaroos primates humans lemurs sea cows Plants pollinator-mediated Reptiles Spiders Tetrapods Viruses Of organs Cell DNA Flagella Eukaryotes symbiogenesis chromosome endomembrane system mitochondria nucleus plastids In animals eye hair auditory ossicle nervous system brain Of processes Aging Death Programmed cell death Avian flight Biological complexity Cooperation Color vision in primates Emotion Empathy Ethics Eusociality Immune system Metabolism Monogamy Morality Mosaic evolution Multicellularity Sexual reproduction Gamete differentiation/sexes Life cycles/nuclear phases Mating types Meiosis Sex-determination Snake venom Tempo and modes Gradualism/Punctuated equilibrium/Saltationism Micromutation/Macromutation Uniformitarianism/Catastrophism Speciation Allopatric Anagenesis Catagenesis Cladogenesis Cospeciation Ecological Hybrid Non-ecological Parapatric Peripatric Reinforcement Sympatric History Renaissance and Enlightenment Transmutation of species David Hume Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion Charles Darwin On the Origin of Species History of paleontology Transitional fossil Blending inheritance Mendelian inheritance The eclipse of Darwinism Neo-Darwinism Modern synthesis 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Allochrony) Nonecological speciation Assortative mating Haldane's rule Hybrid concepts Hybrid speciation (Polyploidy · Klepton · Recombination) Reinforcement (evidence) Secondary contact Character displacement Speciation in taxa Birds Fish Insects Plants Fossils (Paleopolyploidy · Punctuated equilibrium · Macroevolution · Chronospecies) Category Commons Evolutionary biology Portal WikiProject Portal: Evolutionary biology Authority control databases International FAST National Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Adaptation (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Adoption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoption"},{"link_name":"Acclimatization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclimatization"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"evolutionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution"},{"link_name":"natural selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection"},{"link_name":"organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism"},{"link_name":"evolutionary fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_(biology)"},{"link_name":"phenotypic trait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_trait"},{"link_name":"organism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism"},{"link_name":"Empedocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"natural theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology"},{"link_name":"Charles Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin"},{"link_name":"biological fitness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_fitness"},{"link_name":"allele frequencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele_frequencies"},{"link_name":"co-evolve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-evolve"},{"link_name":"flowering plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant"},{"link_name":"pollinating insects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinating_insect"},{"link_name":"mimicry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimicry"},{"link_name":"Müllerian mimicry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry"},{"link_name":"co-opted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exaptation"},{"link_name":"feathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feather"},{"link_name":"bird flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_flight"},{"link_name":"philosophy of biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology"},{"link_name":"teleology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology_in_biology"}],"text":"Process that fits organisms to their environmentThis article is about the evolutionary process. For other uses, see Adaptation (disambiguation).Not to be confused with Adoption or Acclimatization.In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process of natural selection that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a phenotypic trait or adaptive trait, with a functional role in each individual organism, that is maintained and has evolved through natural selection.Historically, adaptation has been described from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers such as Empedocles and Aristotle. In 18th and 19th century natural theology, adaptation was taken as evidence for the existence of a deity. Charles Darwin proposed instead that it was explained by natural selection.Adaptation is related to biological fitness, which governs the rate of evolution as measured by change in allele frequencies. Often, two or more species co-adapt and co-evolve as they develop adaptations that interlock with those of the other species, such as with flowering plants and pollinating insects. In mimicry, species evolve to resemble other species; in Müllerian mimicry this is a mutually beneficial co-evolution as each of a group of strongly defended species (such as wasps able to sting) come to advertise their defenses in the same way. Features evolved for one purpose may be co-opted for a different one, as when the insulating feathers of dinosaurs were co-opted for bird flight.Adaptation is a major topic in the philosophy of biology, as it concerns function and purpose (teleology). Some biologists try to avoid terms which imply purpose in adaptation, not least because it suggests a deity's intentions, but others note that adaptation is necessarily purposeful.","title":"Adaptation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution"},{"link_name":"Empedocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles"},{"link_name":"final cause","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_cause"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"species were fixed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology#Scale_of_being"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg"},{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck"},{"link_name":"body plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_plan"},{"link_name":"inheritance of acquired characteristics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics"},{"link_name":"species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species"},{"link_name":"genera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"natural theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_theology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"William Paley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Paley"},{"link_name":"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"the best of all possible worlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_of_all_possible_worlds"},{"link_name":"Voltaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire"},{"link_name":"Dr. Pangloss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candide"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"David Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Charles Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Lamarckism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamarckism"},{"link_name":"inheritance of acquired characteristics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Buffon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon"},{"link_name":"Alfred Russel Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace"},{"link_name":"Henry Walter Bates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates"},{"link_name":"E. B. Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._B._Ford"},{"link_name":"Theodosius Dobzhansky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky"},{"link_name":"evidence that natural selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Provine_1986-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Orr_2005-10"}],"text":"Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on evolution, but their explanations differed. Empedocles did not believe that adaptation required a final cause (a purpose), but thought that it \"came about naturally, since such things survived.\" Aristotle did believe in final causes, but assumed that species were fixed.[1]The second of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's two factors (the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances by inheritance of acquired characteristics, creating a diversity of species and genera.In natural theology, adaptation was interpreted as the work of a deity and as evidence for the existence of God.[2] William Paley believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who had argued that God had brought about \"the best of all possible worlds.\" Voltaire's satire Dr. Pangloss[3] is a parody of this optimistic idea, and David Hume also argued against design.[4] Charles Darwin broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds.[5]Jean-Baptiste Lamarck proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus \"the influence of circumstances\", usually expressed as use and disuse.[6] This second, subsidiary element of his theory is what is now called Lamarckism, a proto-evolutionary hypothesis of the inheritance of acquired characteristics, intended to explain adaptations by natural means.[7]Other natural historians, such as Buffon, accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, and secondary figures such as Henry Walter Bates, for putting forward a mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such as E. B. Ford and Theodosius Dobzhansky produced evidence that natural selection was not only the 'engine' behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought.[8][9][10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julian Huxley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Huxley"},{"link_name":"Evolution: The Modern Synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution:_The_Modern_Synthesis"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The significance of an adaptation can only be understood in relation to the total biology of the species.— Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis[11]","title":"General principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"parasite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite"},{"link_name":"liver fluke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver_fluke"},{"link_name":"life cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_life_cycle"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Darwin's finches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches"},{"link_name":"speciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation"},{"link_name":"reproductive isolation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_isolation"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"cichlid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cichlid"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salzburger-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kornfield-21"},{"link_name":"genetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"},{"link_name":"polyploidy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyploid"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"eukaryotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote"},{"link_name":"endosymbiosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiosis"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"ecological niches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_niche"},{"link_name":"physiological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"internal organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative_anatomy"},{"link_name":"Behavioural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology"},{"link_name":"instincts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instinct"},{"link_name":"neuropsychological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropsychology"},{"link_name":"learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning"},{"link_name":"searching for food","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foraging"},{"link_name":"mating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating"},{"link_name":"vocalizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_communication"},{"link_name":"venom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venom"},{"link_name":"slime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snail_slime"},{"link_name":"phototropism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phototropism"},{"link_name":"growth and development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_biology"},{"link_name":"temperature regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoregulation"},{"link_name":"ionic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ions"},{"link_name":"homeostasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeostasis"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Theodosius Dobzhansky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky"},{"link_name":"habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dobzhansky_T_1968-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"What adaptation is","text":"Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body.[12] An internal parasite (such as a liver fluke) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the life cycle, which is often quite complex.[13] However, as a practical term, \"adaptation\" often refers to a product: those features of a species which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term adaptation for the evolutionary process, and adaptive trait for the bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word.[14][15][16][17]Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of Darwin's finches. The other process is speciation, in which new species arise, typically through reproductive isolation.[18][19] An example widely used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of cichlid fish in African lakes, where the question of reproductive isolation is complex.[20][21]Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places constraints on the evolution of development, behaviour, and structure of organisms. The main constraint, over which there has been much debate, is the requirement that each genetic and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what \"relatively small\" should mean, for example polyploidy in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change.[22] The origin of eukaryotic endosymbiosis is a more dramatic example.[23]All adaptations help organisms survive in their ecological niches. The adaptive traits may be structural, behavioural or physiological. Structural adaptations are physical features of an organism, such as shape, body covering, armament, and internal organization. Behavioural adaptations are inherited systems of behaviour, whether inherited in detail as instincts, or as a neuropsychological capacity for learning. Examples include searching for food, mating, and vocalizations. Physiological adaptations permit the organism to perform special functions such as making venom, secreting slime, and phototropism, but also involve more general functions such as growth and development, temperature regulation, ionic balance and other aspects of homeostasis. Adaptation affects all aspects of the life of an organism.[24]The following definitions are given by the evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky:1. Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live in its habitat or habitats.[25][26][27]\n2. Adaptedness is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.[28]\n3. An adaptive trait is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.[29]","title":"General principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Falke_vor_LKW.jpg"},{"link_name":"acclimatization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acclimatization"},{"link_name":"specialization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rymer2013-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"phenotypic plasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity"},{"link_name":"genotype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genotype"},{"link_name":"phenotype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotype"},{"link_name":"habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"herbivores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore"},{"link_name":"koalas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koala"},{"link_name":"Eucalyptus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus"},{"link_name":"giant pandas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_panda"},{"link_name":"bamboo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo"},{"link_name":"evolutionary biologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology"},{"link_name":"John Maynard Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"red blood cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cell"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"What adaptation is not","text":"The common kestrel has adapted successfully to urban areasAdaptation differs from flexibility, acclimatization, and learning, all of which are changes during life which are not inherited. Flexibility deals with the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of specialization. Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life;[30] learning means improvement in behavioural performance during life.[31]Flexibility stems from phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism with a given genotype (genetic type) to change its phenotype (observable characteristics) in response to changes in its habitat, or to move to a different habitat.[32][33] The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many herbivores are like this; extreme examples are koalas which depend on Eucalyptus, and giant pandas which require bamboo. A generalist, on the other hand, eats a range of food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, rats, crabs and many carnivores. The tendency to behave in a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptation. Rather different is developmental flexibility: \"An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it is better fitted to survive in the new environment,\" writes the evolutionary biologist John Maynard Smith.[34]If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more red blood cells. The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but the acclimatization itself is not. The reproductive rate declines, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than others. They contribute more heavily to later generations, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurred, as the observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize.[35]","title":"General principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"population genetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics"},{"link_name":"heritable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritability"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Endler_33-36"},{"link_name":"Californian redwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequoia_sempervirens"},{"link_name":"relict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relict_(biology)"},{"link_name":"extinction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dobzhansky_T_1968-25"},{"link_name":"Elliott Sober","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Sober"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sober2-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Futuyma_Evolution-38"},{"link_name":"selection coefficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection_coefficient"},{"link_name":"Malthusian parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Endler_33-36"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"reciprocal transplant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transplant_experiment"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png"},{"link_name":"fitness landscape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitness_landscape"},{"link_name":"Sewall Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewall_Wright"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Adaptedness and fitness","text":"There is a relationship between adaptedness and the concept of fitness used in population genetics. Differences in fitness between genotypes predict the rate of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection changes the relative frequencies of alternative phenotypes, insofar as they are heritable.[36] However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitness. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the Californian redwood, which is highly adapted, but a relict species in danger of extinction.[25] Elliott Sober commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of a trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait's future.[37]1. Relative fitness. The average contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes, relative to the contributions of other genotypes in the population.[38] This is also known as Darwinian fitness, selection coefficient, and other terms.\n2. Absolute fitness. The absolute contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes. Also known as the Malthusian parameter when applied to the population as a whole.[36][39]\n3. Adaptedness. The extent to which a phenotype fits its local ecological niche. Researchers can sometimes test this through a reciprocal transplant.[40]In this sketch of a fitness landscape, a population can evolve by following the arrows to the adaptive peak at point B, and the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trapped.Sewall Wright proposed that populations occupy adaptive peaks on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be \"trapped\" on a peak that is not optimally adapted.[41]","title":"General principles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Niles Eldredge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niles_Eldredge"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"text":"Adaptation is the heart and soul of evolution.— Niles Eldredge, Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory[42]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate"},{"link_name":"biota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biota_(ecology)"},{"link_name":"invasions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"fossil record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil#Dating"},{"link_name":"punctuated equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Changes in habitat","text":"Before Darwin, adaptation was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the climate changed, so did the habitat; and as the habitat changed, so did the biota. Also, habitats are subject to changes in their biota: for example, invasions of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change.\nWhen the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation.\nWhen a habitat changes, the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying insects or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movement.[43] This common response is called habitat tracking. It is one explanation put forward for the periods of apparent stasis in the fossil record (the punctuated equilibrium theory).[44]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation"},{"link_name":"genetic variation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_variation"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"purine nucleotide metabolism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purine_metabolism"},{"link_name":"RNA world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Orr_2005-10"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"melanocortin 1 receptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanocortin_1_receptor"},{"link_name":"melanin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"cardiac glycosides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_glycoside"},{"link_name":"monarch butterflies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarch_butterfly"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"sodium pump","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%2B/K%2B-ATPase"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"convergent evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_evolution"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"evolutionary rescue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_rescue"},{"link_name":"ecosystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Leigh Van Valen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leigh_Van_Valen"},{"link_name":"Red Queen hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Queen_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"parasite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasite"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"horizontal gene transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer"},{"link_name":"gene cassettes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_cassette"},{"link_name":"plasmids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmid"},{"link_name":"transposons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon"},{"link_name":"bacteriophages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"sub_title":"Genetic change","text":"Without mutation, the ultimate source of all genetic variation, there would be no genetic changes and no subsequent adaptation through evolution by natural selection. Genetic change occurs in a population when mutation increases or decreases in its initial frequency followed by random genetic drift, migration, recombination or natural selection act on this genetic variation.[45] One example is that the first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism at the very origin of life on Earth may have been co-opted components of the already-existing purine nucleotide metabolism, a metabolic pathway that evolved in an ancient RNA world. The co-option requires new mutations and through natural selection, the population then adapts genetically to its present circumstances.[10] Genetic changes may result in entirely new or gradual change to visible structures, or they may adjust physiological activity in a way that suits the habitat. The varying shapes of the beaks of Darwin's finches, for example, are driven by adaptive mutations in the ALX1 gene.[46] The coat color of different wild mouse species matches their environments, whether black lava or light sand, owing to adaptive mutations in the melanocortin 1 receptor and other melanin pathway genes.[47][48] Physiological resistance to the heart poisons (cardiac glycosides) that monarch butterflies store in their bodies to protect themselves from predators[49][50] are driven by adaptive mutations in the target of the poison, the sodium pump, resulting in target site insensitivity.[51][52][53] These same adaptive mutations and similar changes at the same amino acid sites were found to evolve in a parallel manner in distantly related insects that feed on the same plants, and even in a bird that feeds on monarchs through convergent evolution, a hallmark of adaptation.[54][55] Convergence at the gene-level across distantly related species can arise because of evolutionary constraint.[56]Habitats and biota do frequently change over time and space. Therefore, it follows that the process of adaptation is never fully complete.[57] Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better, resulting in stabilizing selection. On the other hand, it may happen that changes in the environment occur suddenly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. The only way for it to climb back up that fitness peak is via the introduction of new genetic variation for natural selection to act upon. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic tracking process, which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back from the brink of extinction in a process called evolutionary rescue. Adaptation does affect, to some extent, every species in a particular ecosystem.[58][59]Leigh Van Valen thought that even in a stable environment, because of antagonistic species interactions and limited resources, a species must constantly had to adapt to maintain its relative standing. This became known as the Red Queen hypothesis, as seen in host-parasite interactions.[60]Existing genetic variation and mutation were the traditional sources of material on which natural selection could act. In addition, horizontal gene transfer is possible between organisms in different species, using mechanisms as varied as gene cassettes, plasmids, transposons and viruses such as bacteriophages.[61][62][63]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plumpollen0060.jpg"},{"link_name":"co-adapted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-adaptation"},{"link_name":"coevolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coevolution"},{"link_name":"co-adaptational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-adaptation"},{"link_name":"flowering plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant"},{"link_name":"pollinating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollination"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"sub_title":"Co-adaptation","text":"Pollinating insects are co-adapted with flowering plants.In coevolution, where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of corresponding features in the other species. In other words, each species triggers reciprocal natural selection in the other. These co-adaptational relationships are intrinsically dynamic, and may continue on a trajectory for millions of years, as has occurred in the relationship between flowering plants and pollinating insects.[64][65]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wasp_mimicry.jpg"},{"link_name":"wasps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasps"},{"link_name":"Batesian mimics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batesian_mimicry"},{"link_name":"hoverflies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoverfly"},{"link_name":"beetle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetle"},{"link_name":"butterflies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly"},{"link_name":"mimicry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimicry"},{"link_name":"Batesian mimicry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batesian_mimicry"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predator"},{"link_name":"anti-predator adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation"},{"link_name":"hoverfly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoverfly"},{"link_name":"warning coloration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warning_coloration"},{"link_name":"Hymenoptera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymenoptera"},{"link_name":"wasps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasp"},{"link_name":"bees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Fritz Müller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_M%C3%BCller"},{"link_name":"Müllerian mimicry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCllerian_mimicry"},{"link_name":"evidence for the action of natural selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloration_evidence_for_natural_selection"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"sub_title":"Mimicry","text":"Images A and B show real wasps; the others show Batesian mimics: three hoverflies and one beetle.Bates' work on Amazonian butterflies led him to develop the first scientific account of mimicry, especially the kind of mimicry which bears his name: Batesian mimicry.[66] This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious species (the model), gaining a selective advantage as predators avoid the model and therefore also the mimic. Mimicry is thus an anti-predator adaptation. A common example seen in temperate gardens is the hoverfly (Syrphidae), many of which—though bearing no sting—mimic the warning coloration of aculeate Hymenoptera (wasps and bees). Such mimicry does not need to be perfect to improve the survival of the palatable species.[67]Bates, Wallace and Fritz Müller believed that Batesian and Müllerian mimicry provided evidence for the action of natural selection, a view which is now standard amongst biologists.[68][69][70]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal"},{"link_name":"ectoparasites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism#Types"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Peter Medawar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Medawar"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Ernst Mayr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mayr"},{"link_name":"The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Growth_of_Biological_Thought"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"sub_title":"Trade-offs","text":"All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they cannot scratch their backs; mammals' hair helps temperature, but offers a niche for ectoparasites; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise.[71]It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution... is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder.— Peter Medawar, The Future of Man[72]Since the phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree.— Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance[73]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Irish elk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_elk"},{"link_name":"deer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deer"},{"link_name":"allometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allometry"},{"link_name":"predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predation"},{"link_name":"rut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rut_(mammalian_reproduction)"},{"link_name":"last glacial period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_glacial_period"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"camouflage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camouflage"},{"link_name":"coloration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_coloration"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garcia2013-75"},{"link_name":"Caucasian salamander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_salamander"},{"link_name":"Gold-striped salamander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold-striped_salamander"},{"link_name":"brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream"},{"link_name":"larvae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva"},{"link_name":"fecundity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fecundity"},{"link_name":"fire salamander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_salamander"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pfau_imponierend.jpg"},{"link_name":"Indian peacock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_peafowl"},{"link_name":"peacock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peafowl"},{"link_name":"sexual selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_selection"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"mate choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mate_choice"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"foetal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetus"},{"link_name":"pelvis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelvis"},{"link_name":"bipedal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipedalism"},{"link_name":"Neanderthals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"}],"sub_title":"Trade-offs - Examples","text":"Consider the antlers of the Irish elk, (often supposed to be far too large; in deer antler size has an allometric relationship to body size). Antlers serve positively for defence against predators, and to score victories in the annual rut. But they are costly in terms of resources. Their size during the last glacial period presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time.[74] As another example, camouflage to avoid detection is destroyed when vivid coloration is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity for reproduction.[75]Stream-dwelling salamanders, such as Caucasian salamander or Gold-striped salamander have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at the banks of fast small rivers and mountain brooks. Elongated body protects their larvae from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their fecundity. As a result, fire salamander, less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have a higher fecundity and broader geographic range.[76]An Indian peacock's trainin full displayThe peacock's ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources. Darwin's explanation of its advantage was in terms of sexual selection: \"This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction.\"[77] The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called 'mate choice,' with an implication that the process selects the more fit over the less fit, and so has survival value.[78] The recognition of sexual selection was for a long time in abeyance, but has been rehabilitated.[79]The conflict between the size of the human foetal brain at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm3, else it will not get through the mother's pelvis) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm3), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright bipedal stance, without which our pelvis could be shaped more suitably for birth. Neanderthals had a similar problem.[80][81][82]As another example, the long neck of a giraffe brings benefits but at a cost. The neck of a giraffe can be up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length.[83] The benefits are that it can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter herbivores cannot reach. The cost is that a long neck is heavy and adds to the animal's body mass, requiring additional energy to build the neck and to carry its weight around.[84]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"text":"Adaptation and function are two aspects of one problem.— Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis[85]","title":"Shifts in function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cordgrass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spartina"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"White Leghorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leghorn_chicken"},{"link_name":"vitamin B1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamine"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dobzhansky_T_1981-88"},{"link_name":"diploid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ploidy#Diploid"},{"link_name":"sexual reproduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproduction"},{"link_name":"genetic dominance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Microorganisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism"},{"link_name":"Salvador Luria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador_Luria"},{"link_name":"Max Delbrück","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck"},{"link_name":"Fluctuation Test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luria%E2%80%93Delbr%C3%BCck_experiment"},{"link_name":"Escherichia coli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escherichia_coli"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Luria_1943_491%E2%80%93511-90"},{"link_name":"teleological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology"}],"sub_title":"Pre-adaptation","text":"Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid cordgrass Spartina townsendii is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats.[86] Among domestic animals, the White Leghorn chicken is markedly more resistant to vitamin B1 deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive.[87]Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability.[88] In diploid eukaryotes, this is a consequence of the system of sexual reproduction, where mutant alleles get partially shielded, for example, by genetic dominance.[89] Microorganisms, with their huge populations, also carry a great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by Salvador Luria and Max Delbrück who developed the Fluctuation Test, a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to bacteriophages in Escherichia coli.[90] The word is controversial because it is teleological and the entire concept of natural selection depends on the presence of genetic variation, regardless of the population size of a species in question.","title":"Shifts in function"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sinosauropteryx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinosauropteryx"},{"link_name":"exaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exaptation"},{"link_name":"ear ossicles of mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles"},{"link_name":"paleontological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleontology"},{"link_name":"embryological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryology"},{"link_name":"jaws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaw"},{"link_name":"hyoid bone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyoid_bone"},{"link_name":"synapsid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsid"},{"link_name":"gill arches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branchial_arch"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"feathers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feather"},{"link_name":"feathers of dinosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feathered_dinosaur#Non-avian_dinosaur_species_preserved_with_evidence_of_feathers"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ornithoscelida-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dimond_et_al-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"}],"sub_title":"Co-option of existing traits: exaptation","text":"The feathers of Sinosauropteryx, a dinosaur with feathers, were used for insulation or display, making them an exaptation for flight.Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example is the ear ossicles of mammals, which we know from paleontological and embryological evidence originated in the upper and lower jaws and the hyoid bone of their synapsid ancestors, and further back still were part of the gill arches of early fish.[91][92] The word exaptation was coined to cover these common evolutionary shifts in function.[93] The flight feathers of birds evolved from the much earlier feathers of dinosaurs,[94] which might have been used for insulation or for display.[95][96]","title":"Shifts in function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"earthworms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthworm"},{"link_name":"beavers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"}],"text":"Animals including earthworms, beavers and humans use some of their adaptations to modify their surroundings, so as to maximize their chances of surviving and reproducing. Beavers create dams and lodges, changing the ecosystems of the valleys around them. Earthworms, as Darwin noted, improve the topsoil in which they live by incorporating organic matter. Humans have constructed extensive civilizations with cities in environments as varied as the Arctic and hot deserts.\nIn all three cases, the construction and maintenance of ecological niches helps drive the continued selection of the genes of these animals, in an environment that the animals have modified.[97]","title":"Niche construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pleiotropic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiotropy"},{"link_name":"Stephen Jay Gould","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould"},{"link_name":"Richard Lewontin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Lewontin"},{"link_name":"spandrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wagner2014-98"},{"link_name":"maladapted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maladaptation"},{"link_name":"vestigial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestigiality"},{"link_name":"wisdom teeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisdom_tooth"},{"link_name":"endoparasites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intestinal_parasite"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"}],"text":"Some traits do not appear to be adaptive as they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes often have pleiotropic effects, not all traits may be functional: they may be what Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin called spandrels, features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, on the analogy with the often highly decorated triangular areas between pairs of arches in architecture, which began as functionless features.[98]Another possibility is that a trait may have been adaptive at some point in an organism's evolutionary history, but a change in habitats caused what used to be an adaptation to become unnecessary or even maladapted. Such adaptations are termed vestigial. Many organisms have vestigial organs, which are the remnants of fully functional structures in their ancestors. As a result of changes in lifestyle the organs became redundant, and are either not functional or reduced in functionality. Since any structure represents some kind of cost to the general economy of the body, an advantage may accrue from their elimination once they are not functional. Examples: wisdom teeth in humans; the loss of pigment and functional eyes in cave fauna; the loss of structure in endoparasites.[99]","title":"Non-adaptive traits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"parasitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism"},{"link_name":"food chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chain"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koh-101"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"text":"If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.[100]Just as there is co-adaptation, there is also coextinction, the loss of a species due to the extinction of another with which it is coadapted, as with the extinction of a parasitic insect following the loss of its host, or when a flowering plant loses its pollinator, or when a food chain is disrupted.[101][102]","title":"Extinction and coextinction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RNA world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"life started","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenesis"},{"link_name":"nucleotide sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_sequence"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bernstein1983-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michod1999-104"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bernstein1983-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michod1999-104"}],"text":"The first stage in the evolution of life on earth is often hypothesized to be the RNA world in which short self-replicating RNA molecules proliferated before the evolution of DNA and proteins. By this hypothesis, life started when RNA chains began to self-replicate, initiating the three mechanisms of Darwinian selection: heritability, variation of type, and competition for resources. The fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely have been a function of its intrinsic adaptive capacities, determined by its nucleotide sequence, and the availability of resources.[103][104] The three primary adaptive capacities may have been: (1) replication with moderate fidelity, giving rise to heritability while allowing variation of type, (2) resistance to decay, and (3) acquisition of resources.[103][104] These adaptive capacities would have been determined by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators resulting from their nucleotide sequences.","title":"Origin of adaptive capacities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Springbok_pronk.jpg"},{"link_name":"springbok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springbok"},{"link_name":"stotting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stotting"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(biology)"},{"link_name":"signalling to predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_theory"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caro-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanford-106"},{"link_name":"philosophical issues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sober1-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"In his biology, Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology"},{"link_name":"teleology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleology"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"Haldane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._B._S._Haldane"},{"link_name":"David Hull","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Ernst Mayr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mayr"},{"link_name":"a posteriori","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"}],"text":"\"Behaviour with a purpose\": a young springbok stotting. A biologist might argue that this has the function of signalling to predators, helping the springbok to survive and allowing it to reproduce.[105][106]Adaptation raises philosophical issues concerning how biologists speak of function and purpose, as this carries implications of evolutionary history – that a feature evolved by natural selection for a specific reason – and potentially of supernatural intervention – that features and organisms exist because of a deity's conscious intentions.[107][108] In his biology, Aristotle introduced teleology to describe the adaptedness of organisms, but without accepting the supernatural intention built into Plato's thinking, which Aristotle rejected.[109][110] Modern biologists continue to face the same difficulty.[111][112][113][114][115] On the one hand, adaptation is purposeful: natural selection chooses what works and eliminates what does not. On the other hand, biologists by and large reject conscious purpose in evolution. The dilemma gave rise to a famous joke by the evolutionary biologist Haldane: \"Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling to be seen with her in public.'\" David Hull commented that Haldane's mistress \"has become a lawfully wedded wife. Biologists no longer feel obligated to apologize for their use of teleological language; they flaunt it.\"[116] Ernst Mayr stated that \"adaptedness... is a posteriori result rather than an a priori goal-seeking\", meaning that the question of whether something is an adaptation can only be determined after the event.[117]","title":"Philosophical issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hopson, James A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hopson"},{"link_name":"Springer-Verlag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7_37","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-2784-7_37"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-387-97588-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-97588-7"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"23582549","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/23582549"},{"link_name":"Mote Marine Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mote_Marine_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Cornell University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-09975-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09975-2"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"16224403","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/16224403"},{"link_name":"Bowler, Peter J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_J._Bowler"},{"link_name":"Evolution: The History of an Idea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl_n7y8"},{"link_name":"University of California Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-23693-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23693-6"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"49824702","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/49824702"},{"link_name":"Carpenter, G.D. 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States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85000800"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00572789"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118251&CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=42642"}],"text":"Allin, Edgar F.; Hopson, James A. 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Appleton-Century-Crofts. pp. 1–34. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1. ISBN 978-1-4684-8096-2. OCLC 24875357.\nDobzhansky, Theodosius (1970). Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-02837-0. OCLC 97663.\nDobzhansky, Theodosius (1981). Lewontin, Richard C.; Moore, John A.; Provine, William B.; et al. (eds.). Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-05132-3. OCLC 7276406. \"Papers by Dobzhansky and his collaborators, originally published 1937-1975 in various journals.\"\nEldredge, Niles (1985). Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-49555-8. OCLC 11443805.\nEldredge, Niles (1995). Reinventing Darwin: The Great Debate at the High Table of Evolutionary Theory. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-30301-5. OCLC 30975979.\nEndler, John A. (1986). \"Fitness and Adaptation\". Natural Selection in the Wild. Monographs in Population Biology. Vol. 21. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-08387-2. OCLC 12262762.\nFisher, Ronald Aylmer (1930). The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. The Clarendon Press. OCLC 493745635.\nFord, E. B. (1975). Ecological Genetics. Vol. 25 (4th ed.). Chapman & Hall; John Wiley & Sons. pp. 227–35. ISBN 978-0-470-26576-5. OCLC 1890603. PMID 5701915. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)\nFreeman, Scott; Herron, Jon C. (2007). Evolutionary Analysis (4th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-227584-2. OCLC 73502978.\nFutuyma, Douglas J. (1986). Evolutionary Biology (2nd ed.). Sinauer Associates. ISBN 978-0-87893-188-0. OCLC 13822044.\nHull, David L. (1982). \"Philosophy and biology\". In Fløistad, Guttorm (ed.). Philosophy of Science. Contemporary Philosophy: A New Survey. Vol. 2. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers; Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-010-9940-0. ISBN 978-90-247-2518-2. OCLC 502399533.\nHutchinson, G. Evelyn (1965). The Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play. Yale University Press. OCLC 250039.\nHuxley, Julian (1942). Evolution: The Modern Synthesis. Allen & Unwin. OCLC 1399386.\nMargulis, Lynn; Fester, René, eds. (1991). Symbiosis as a Source of Evolutionary Innovation: Speciation and Morphogenesis. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-13269-5. OCLC 22597587. \"Based on a conference held in Bellagio, Italy, June 25–30, 1989\"\nMaynard Smith, John (1993). The Theory of Evolution (Canto ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45128-4. OCLC 27676642.\nMayr, Ernst (1963). Animal Species and Evolution. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03750-2. OCLC 899044868.\nMayr, Ernst (1965). \"Cause and Effect in Biology\". In Lerner, Daniel (ed.). Cause and Effect. The Hayden Colloquium on Scientific Method and Concept. Free Press. OCLC 384895.\nMayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36445-5. OCLC 7875904.\nMayr, Ernst (1988). Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-89665-9. OCLC 17108004.\nMedawar, Peter (1960). The Future of Man. The BBC Reith Lectures, 1959. Methuen. OCLC 1374615.\nMiller, Geoffrey (2007). \"Brain Evolution\". In Gangestad, Steven W.; Simpson, Jeffry A. (eds.). The Evolution of Mind: Fundamental Questions and Controversies. Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-59385-408-9. OCLC 71005838.\nMonod, Jacques (1971). Chance and Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology. Translation of Le hasard et la nécessité by Austryn Wainhouse (1st American ed.). Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-46615-6. OCLC 209901.\nMoon, Harold Philip (1976). Henry Walter Bates FRS, 1825-1892: Explorer, Scientist, and Darwinian. Leicestershire Museums, Art Galleries, and Records Service. ISBN 978-0-904671-19-3. OCLC 3607387.\nPanchen, Alec L. (1992). Classification, Evolution and the Nature of Biology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31578-4. OCLC 24247430.\nPatterson, Colin (1999). Evolution. Comstock Book Series (2nd illustrated, revised ed.). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8594-7. OCLC 39724234.\nPittendrigh, Colin S. (1958). \"Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Behavior\". In Roe, Anne; Simpson, George Gaylord (eds.). Behavior and Evolution. Yale University Press. OCLC 191989.\nPrice, Peter W. (1980). The Evolutionary Biology of Parasites. Monographs in Population Biology. Vol. 15. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–237. ISBN 978-0-691-08257-8. OCLC 5706295. PMID 6993919.\nProvine, William B. (1986). Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-68474-1. OCLC 12808844.\nRuxton, Graeme D.; Sherratt, Thomas N.; Speed, Michael P. (2004). Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry. Oxford Biology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852859-3. OCLC 56644492.\nSober, Elliott (1984). The Nature of Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19232-3. OCLC 11114517.\nSober, Elliott (1993). Philosophy of Biology. Dimensions of Philosophy Series. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0785-5. OCLC 26974492.\nStebbins, G. Ledyard Jr. (1950). Variation and Evolution in Plants. Columbia Biological Series. Vol. 16. Columbia University Press. OCLC 294016.\nSterelny, Kim; Griffiths, Paul E. (1999). Sex and Death: An Introduction to Philosophy of Biology. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77304-9. OCLC 40193587.\nWickler, Wolfgang (1968). Mimicry in Plants and Animals. World University Library. Translated from the German by R. D. Martin. McGraw-Hill. OCLC 160314.\nWilliams, Edgar (2010). Giraffe. Animal (Reaktion Books). Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-764-0. OCLC 587198932.\nWilliams, George C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought. Princeton Science Library. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02615-2. OCLC 35230452.\nWright, Sewall (1932). \"The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding and Selection in Evolution\". In Jones, Donald F. (ed.). Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics. Vol. 1. Genetics Society of America. OCLC 439596433.vteBiology\nIntroduction (Genetics, Evolution)\nOutline\nHistory\nTimeline\nIndex\nBiologyOverview\nScience\nLife\nProperties (Adaptation,  Energy processing, Growth, Order, Regulation, Reproduction, Response to environment)\nHierarchy of life (Atom > Molecule > Organelle > Cell > Tissue > Organ > Organ system > Organism > Population > Community > Ecosystem > Biosphere)\nReductionistic\n Emergent property\nMechanistic\nScientific method\n Theory\n Law\nPeer review\nBiology journals\nChemical basis\nAtoms\nAmino acids\nCarbohydrates\nChemical bond\nChemical element\nLipids\nMatter\nQuantum\nMolecules\nMonomer\nNucleic acids\nOrganic compounds\npH\nPolymer\nProteins\nWater\nCells\nATP\nCell cycle\nCell theory\nCell signaling\nCellular respiration\nEnergy transformation\nEnzyme\nEukaryote\nFermentation\nMetabolism\nMeiosis\nMitosis\nPhotosynthesis\nProkaryote\nGenetics\nDNA\nEpigenetics\nEvolutionary developmental biology\nGene expression\nGene 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effect\nCladistics\nCoevolution\nMutualism\nCommon descent\nConvergence\nDivergence\nEarliest known life forms\nEvidence of evolution\nEvolutionary arms race\nEvolutionary pressure\nExaptation\nExtinction\nEvent\nHomology\nLast universal common ancestor\nMacroevolution\nMicroevolution\nMismatch\nNon-adaptive radiation\nOrigin of life\nPanspermia\nParallel evolution\nSignalling theory\nHandicap principle\nSpeciation\nSpecies\nSpecies complex\nTaxonomy\nUnit of selection\nGene-centered view of evolution\nPopulationgenetics\nArtificial selection\nBiodiversity\nEvolutionarily stable strategy\nFisher's principle\nFitness\nInclusive\nGene flow\nGenetic drift\nKin selection\nParental investment\nParent–offspring conflict\nMutation\nPopulation\nNatural selection\nSexual dimorphism\nSexual selection\nMate choice\nSocial selection\nTrivers–Willard hypothesis\nVariation\nDevelopment\nCanalisation\nEvolutionary developmental biology\nGenetic assimilation\nInversion\nModularity\nPhenotypic 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heritability problem\nMolecular evolution\nAstrobiology\nPhylogenetics\nTree\nPolymorphism\nProtocell\nSystematics\nTransgenerational epigenetic inheritance\n\n Category\n PortalvteSpeciation\nIntroduction\nHistory\nLaboratory experiments\nGlossary\nBasic concepts\nSpecies (Species complex)\nReproductive isolation\nAnagenesis\nCladogenesis\nCospeciation\nEvidence of evolution\nGeographic modes\nAllopatric (Peripatric · Quantum · Centrifugal · Founder effect)\nParapatric (Clines · Ring species)\nSympatric\nIsolating factors\nAdaptation\nNatural selection\nSexual selection\nEcological speciation (Parallel speciation · Allochrony)\nNonecological speciation\nAssortative mating\nHaldane's rule\nHybrid concepts\nHybrid speciation (Polyploidy · Klepton · Recombination)\nReinforcement (evidence)\nSecondary contact\nCharacter displacement\nSpeciation in taxa\nBirds\nFish\nInsects\nPlants\nFossils (Paleopolyploidy · Punctuated equilibrium · Macroevolution · Chronospecies)\n\n Category\n 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[{"image_text":"The second of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's two factors (the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances by inheritance of acquired characteristics, creating a diversity of species and genera.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg/370px-Lamarck%27s_Two-Factor_Theory.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The common kestrel has adapted successfully to urban areas","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Falke_vor_LKW.jpg/220px-Falke_vor_LKW.jpg"},{"image_text":"In this sketch of a fitness landscape, a population can evolve by following the arrows to the adaptive peak at point B, and the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trapped.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png/220px-Fitness-landscape-cartoon.png"},{"image_text":"Pollinating insects are co-adapted with flowering plants.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Plumpollen0060.jpg/220px-Plumpollen0060.jpg"},{"image_text":"Images A and B show real wasps; the others show Batesian mimics: three hoverflies and one beetle.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Wasp_mimicry.jpg/220px-Wasp_mimicry.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Indian peacock's trainin full display","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Pfau_imponierend.jpg/220px-Pfau_imponierend.jpg"},{"image_text":"The feathers of Sinosauropteryx, a dinosaur with feathers, were used for insulation or display, making them an exaptation for flight.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg/260px-Sinosauropteryxfossil.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"Behaviour with a purpose\": a young springbok stotting. A biologist might argue that this has the function of signalling to predators, helping the springbok to survive and allowing it to reproduce.[105][106]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/220px-Springbok_pronk.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Adaptive evolution in the human genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_evolution_in_the_human_genome"},{"title":"Adaptive memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_memory"},{"title":"Adaptive mutation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_mutation"},{"title":"Adaptive system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_system"},{"title":"Anti-predator adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation"},{"title":"Body reactivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_reactivity"},{"title":"Ecological trap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_trap"},{"title":"Evolutionary pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure"},{"title":"Evolvability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolvability"},{"title":"Intragenomic conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intragenomic_conflict"},{"title":"Neutral theory of molecular evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_theory_of_molecular_evolution"}]
[{"reference":"Leroi, Armand Marie (2015). The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science. Bloomsbury. pp. 91–92, 273, 288. ISBN 978-1-4088-3622-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Marie_Leroi","url_text":"Leroi, Armand Marie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle%27s_Lagoon","url_text":"The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-3622-4","url_text":"978-1-4088-3622-4"}]},{"reference":"Voltaire (1759). Candide. Cramer et al.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bowler, Peter J. (1989) [1983]. Evolution The History of an Idea (Revised ed.). University of California Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-520-06386-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl/page/86","url_text":"Evolution The History of an Idea"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/evolutionhistory0000bowl/page/86","url_text":"86"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06386-0","url_text":"978-0-520-06386-0"}]},{"reference":"Orr, H. Allen (February 2005). \"The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history\". Nature Reviews Genetics. 6 (2): 119–127. doi:10.1038/nrg1523. PMID 15716908. S2CID 17772950.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Allen_Orr","url_text":"Orr, H. Allen"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics","url_text":"Nature Reviews Genetics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnrg1523","url_text":"10.1038/nrg1523"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15716908","url_text":"15716908"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17772950","url_text":"17772950"}]},{"reference":"Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth A., eds. (2010) [First published 1984 as Concise Science Dictionary]. \"adaptation\". A Dictionary of Science. Oxford Paperback Reference (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. LCCN 2010287468. OCLC 444383696. Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956146-9","url_text":"978-0-19-956146-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/2010287468","url_text":"2010287468"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/444383696","url_text":"444383696"}]},{"reference":"Salzburger, Walter; Mack, Tanja; Verheyen, Erik; Meyer, Axel (21 February 2005). \"Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes\". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 5 (17): 17. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-17. PMC 554777. PMID 15723698.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel_Meyer","url_text":"Meyer, Axel"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC554777","url_text":"\"Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMC_Evolutionary_Biology","url_text":"BMC Evolutionary Biology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2148-5-17","url_text":"10.1186/1471-2148-5-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC554777","url_text":"554777"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15723698","url_text":"15723698"}]},{"reference":"Kornfield, Irv; Smith, Peter F. (November 2000). \"African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology\". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 31: 163–196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Ecology,_Evolution,_and_Systematics","url_text":"Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.31.1.163","url_text":"10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163"}]},{"reference":"Wang, G (2014). \"Chapter 5.6—Zero Order Adaptivity\". Analysis of Complex Diseases: A Mathematical Perspective. Taylor Francis. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-4665-7223-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DmDSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA69","url_text":"\"Chapter 5.6—Zero Order Adaptivity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-7223-2","url_text":"978-1-4665-7223-2"}]},{"reference":"Sejian, V.; Gaughan, J.; Baumgard, L.; Prasad, C., eds. (2015). Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation. Springer. p. 515. ISBN 978-81-322-2265-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=D-G9BwAAQBAJ&pg=PA515","url_text":"Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-322-2265-1","url_text":"978-81-322-2265-1"}]},{"reference":"Dobzhansky, Theodosius (March 1956). \"Genetics of Natural Populations. XXV. Genetic Changes in Populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosophila persimilis in Some Localities in California\". Evolution. 10 (1): 82–92. doi:10.2307/2406099. JSTOR 2406099.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky","url_text":"Dobzhansky, Theodosius"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_(journal)","url_text":"Evolution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2406099","url_text":"10.2307/2406099"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2406099","url_text":"2406099"}]},{"reference":"Rymer, Tasmin; Pillay, Neville; Schradin, Carsten (2013). \"Extinction or Survival? Behavioral Flexibility in Response to Environmental Change in the African Striped Mouse Rhabdomys\". 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OCLC 709606191.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrian_Desmond","url_text":"Desmond, Adrian"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/politicsofevolut00adri","url_text":"The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in Radical London"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press","url_text":"University of Chicago Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-14346-0","url_text":"978-0-226-14346-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/709606191","url_text":"709606191"}]},{"reference":"Dobzhansky, Theodosius (1968). \"On Some Fundamental Concepts of Darwinian Biology\". In Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. (eds.). Evolutionary Biology. Vol. 2. Appleton-Century-Crofts. pp. 1–34. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1. ISBN 978-1-4684-8096-2. 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The Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play. Yale University Press. OCLC 250039.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Evelyn_Hutchinson","url_text":"Hutchinson, G. Evelyn"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/ecologicaltheate00hutc","url_text":"The Ecological Theater and the Evolutionary Play"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University_Press","url_text":"Yale University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/250039","url_text":"250039"}]},{"reference":"Huxley, Julian (1942). Evolution: The Modern Synthesis. Allen & Unwin. 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OCLC 384895.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Mayr","url_text":"Mayr, Ernst"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/causeeffect00lern","url_text":"\"Cause and Effect in Biology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)","url_text":"Free Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/384895","url_text":"384895"}]},{"reference":"Mayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36445-5. 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OCLC 71005838.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Miller_(psychologist)","url_text":"Miller, Geoffrey"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guilford_Press","url_text":"Guilford Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59385-408-9","url_text":"978-1-59385-408-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71005838","url_text":"71005838"}]},{"reference":"Monod, Jacques (1971). Chance and Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology. Translation of Le hasard et la nécessité by Austryn Wainhouse (1st American ed.). Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-46615-6. 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OCLC 3607387.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904671-19-3","url_text":"978-0-904671-19-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3607387","url_text":"3607387"}]},{"reference":"Panchen, Alec L. (1992). Classification, Evolution and the Nature of Biology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31578-4. OCLC 24247430.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31578-4","url_text":"978-0-521-31578-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24247430","url_text":"24247430"}]},{"reference":"Patterson, Colin (1999). Evolution. Comstock Book Series (2nd illustrated, revised ed.). Cornell University Press. 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OCLC 191989.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Pittendrigh","url_text":"Pittendrigh, Colin S."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/behaviorevolutio00roearich","url_text":"\"Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Behavior\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gaylord_Simpson","url_text":"Simpson, George Gaylord"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/191989","url_text":"191989"}]},{"reference":"Price, Peter W. (1980). The Evolutionary Biology of Parasites. Monographs in Population Biology. Vol. 15. Princeton University Press. pp. 1–237. ISBN 978-0-691-08257-8. OCLC 5706295. PMID 6993919.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08257-8","url_text":"978-0-691-08257-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5706295","url_text":"5706295"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6993919","url_text":"6993919"}]},{"reference":"Provine, William B. (1986). Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-68474-1. OCLC 12808844.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sewallwrightevol00will","url_text":"Sewall Wright and Evolutionary Biology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-68474-1","url_text":"978-0-226-68474-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12808844","url_text":"12808844"}]},{"reference":"Ruxton, Graeme D.; Sherratt, Thomas N.; Speed, Michael P. (2004). Avoiding Attack: The Evolutionary Ecology of Crypsis, Warning Signals and Mimicry. Oxford Biology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852859-3. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autokey_cipher
Autokey cipher
["1 History","2 Method","3 Cryptanalysis","4 See also","5 Notes","6 References","7 External links"]
Classic polyalphabet encryption system A tabula recta for use with an autokey cipher An autokey cipher (also known as the autoclave cipher) is a cipher that incorporates the message (the plaintext) into the key. The key is generated from the message in some automated fashion, sometimes by selecting certain letters from the text or, more commonly, by adding a short primer key to the front of the message. There are two forms of autokey cipher: key-autokey and text-autokey ciphers. A key-autokey cipher uses previous members of the keystream to determine the next element in the keystream. A text-autokey uses the previous message text to determine the next element in the keystream. History This cipher was invented in 1586 by Blaise de Vigenère with a reciprocal table of ten alphabets. Vigenère's version used an agreed-upon letter of the alphabet as a primer, making the key by writing down that letter and then the rest of the message. More popular autokeys use a tabula recta, a square with 26 copies of the alphabet, the first line starting with 'A', the next line starting with 'B' etc. Instead of a single letter, a short agreed-upon keyword is used, and the key is generated by writing down the primer and then the rest of the message, as in Vigenère's version. To encrypt a plaintext, the row with the first letter of the message and the column with the first letter of the key are located. The letter in which the row and the column cross is the ciphertext letter. Method The autokey cipher, as used by members of the American Cryptogram Association, starts with a relatively-short keyword, the primer, and appends the message to it. For example, if the keyword is QUEENLY and the message is attack at dawn, then the key would be QUEENLYATTACKATDAWN. Plaintext: attackatdawn Key: QUEENLYATTACKATDAWN Ciphertext: QNXEPVYTWTWP The ciphertext message would thus be "QNXEPVYTWTWP". To decrypt the message, the recipient would start by writing down the agreed-upon keyword. QNXEPVYTWTWP QUEENLY The first letter of the key, Q, would then be taken, and that row would be found in a tabula recta. That column for the first letter of the ciphertext would be looked across, also Q in this case, and the letter to the top would be retrieved, A. Now, that letter would be added to the end of the key: QNXEPVYTWTWP QUEENLYA a Then, since the next letter in the key is U and the next letter in the ciphertext is N, the U row is looked across to find the N to retrieve T: QNXEPVYTWTWP QUEENLYAT at That continues until the entire key is reconstructed, when the primer can be removed from the start. With Vigenère's autokey cipher, a single mistake in encryption renders the rest of the message unintelligible. Cryptanalysis Autokey ciphers are somewhat more secure than polyalphabetic ciphers that use fixed keys since the key does not repeat within a single message. Therefore, methods like the Kasiski examination or index of coincidence analysis will not work on the ciphertext, unlike for similar ciphers that use a single repeated key. A crucial weakness of the system, however, is that the plaintext is part of the key. That means that the key will likely contain common words at various points. The key can be attacked by using a dictionary of common words, bigrams, trigrams etc. and by attempting the decryption of the message by moving that word through the key until potentially-readable text appears. Consider an example message meet at the fountain encrypted with the primer keyword KILT: To start, the autokey would be constructed by placing the primer at the front of the message: plaintext: meetatthefountain primer: KILT autokey: KILTMEETATTHEFOUN The message is then encrypted by using the key and the substitution alphabets, here a tabula recta: plaintext: meetatthefountain key: KILTMEETATTHEFOUN ciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA The attacker receives only the ciphertext and can attack the text by selecting a word that is likely to appear in the plaintext. In this example, the attacker selects the word the as a potential part of the original message and then attempts to decode it by placing THE at every possible location in the key: ciphertext: WMP MMX XAE YHB RYO CA key: THE THE THE THE THE .. plaintext: dfl tft eta fax yrk .. ciphertext: W MPM MXX AEY HBR YOC A key: . THE THE THE THE THE . plaintext: . tii tqt hxu oun fhy . ciphertext: WM PMM XXA EYH BRY OCA key: .. THE THE THE THE THE plaintext: .. wfi eqw lrd iku vvw In each case, the resulting plaintext appears almost random because the key is not aligned for most of the ciphertext. However, examining the results can suggest locations of the key being properly aligned. In those cases, the resulting decrypted text is potentially part of a word. In this example, it is highly unlikely that dfl is the start of the original plaintext and so it is highly unlikely either that the first three letters of the key are THE. Examining the results, a number of fragments that are possibly words can be seen and others can be eliminated. Then, the plaintext fragments can be sorted in their order of likelihood: unlikely ←——————————————————→ promising eqw dfl tqt ... ... ... ... eta oun fax A correct plaintext fragment is also going to appear in the key, shifted right by the length of the keyword. Similarly, the guessed key fragment (THE) also appears in the plaintext shifted left. Thus, by guessing keyword lengths (probably between 3 and 12), more plaintext and key can be revealed. Trying that with oun, possibly after wasting some time with the others, results in the following: shift by 4: ciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA key: ......ETA.THE.OUN plaintext: ......the.oun.ain shift by 5: ciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA key: .....EQW..THE..OU plaintext: .....the..oun..og shift by 6: ciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA key: ....TQT...THE...O plaintext: ....the...oun...m A shift of 4 can be seen to look good (both of the others have unlikely Qs) and so the revealed ETA can be shifted back by 4 into the plaintext: ciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA key: ..LTM.ETA.THE.OUN plaintext: ..eta.the.oun.ain A lot can be worked with now. The keyword is probably 4 characters long (..LT), and some of the message is visible: m.eta.the.oun.ain Because the plaintext guesses have an effect on the key 4 characters to the left, feedback on correct and incorrect guesses is given. The gaps can quickly be filled in: meetatthefountain The ease of cryptanalysis is caused by the feedback from the relationship between plaintext and key. A three-character guess reveals six more characters (three on each side), which then reveal further characters, creating a cascade effect. That allows incorrect guesses to be ruled out quickly. See also Chaocipher Cipher Block Chaining Notes ^ "Vigenère Cipher". Crypto Corner. Retrieved 2018-08-13. ^ "Autokey Calculator". Asecuritysite.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2012-12-26. ^ a b Hoffstein, Jeffrey; Pipher, Jill; Silverman, Joseph (2014). An Introduction to Mathematical Cryptography. Springer. p. 288. ISBN 9781493917112. ^ "Autokey Calculator". Asecuritysite.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2012-12-26. References Bellaso, Giovan Battista, Il vero modo di scrivere in cifra con facilità, prestezza, et securezza di Misser Giovan Battista Bellaso, gentil’huomo bresciano, Iacobo Britannico, Bressa 1564. Vigenère, Blaise de, Traicté des chiffres ou secrètes manières d’escrire, Abel l’Angelier, Paris 1586. ff. 46r-49v. LABRONICUS (Buonafalce, A), Early Forms of the Porta Table, “The Cryptogram”, vol. LX n. 2, Wilbraham 1994. Buonafalce, Augusto, Bellaso’s Reciprocal Ciphers, “Cryptologia” 30 (1):39-51, 2006. LABRONICUS (Buonafalce, A), Vigenère and Autokey. An Update, “The Cryptogram”, vol. LXXIV n. 3, Plano 2008. External links Secret Code Breaker - AutoKey Cipher Decoder and Encoder A Javascript implementation of the Autokey cipher vteClassical cryptographyCiphersby familyPolyalphabetic Alberti Enigma Trithemius Vigenère Polybius square ADFGVX Bifid Nihilist Tap code Trifid VIC cipher Square Playfair Two-square Four-square Substitution Affine Atbash Autokey Beaufort Caesar Chaocipher Great Hill Pigpen ROT13 Running key Transposition Columnar Double Myszkowski Rail fence Route Other BATCO DRYAD Kama Sutra One-time pad Rasterschlüssel 44 Reihenschieber Reservehandverfahren Slidex Solitaire Codes Book Code talker Poem Steganography Bacon Grille Null Cryptanalysis Cryptogram Frequency analysis Index of coincidence (Units: Ban and Nat) Information leakage Kasiski examination vteCryptographyGeneral History of cryptography Outline of cryptography Cryptographic protocol Authentication protocol Cryptographic primitive Cryptanalysis Cryptocurrency Cryptosystem Cryptographic nonce Cryptovirology Hash function Cryptographic hash function Key derivation function Digital signature Kleptography Key (cryptography) Key exchange Key generator Key schedule Key stretching Keygen Cryptojacking malware Ransomware Random number generation Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator (CSPRNG) Pseudorandom noise (PRN) Secure channel Insecure channel Subliminal channel Encryption Decryption End-to-end encryption Harvest now, decrypt later Information-theoretic security Plaintext Codetext Ciphertext Shared secret Trapdoor function Trusted timestamping Key-based routing Onion routing Garlic routing Kademlia Mix network Mathematics Cryptographic hash function Block cipher Stream cipher Symmetric-key algorithm Authenticated encryption Public-key cryptography Quantum key distribution Quantum cryptography Post-quantum cryptography Message authentication code Random numbers Steganography Category
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A key-autokey cipher uses previous members of the keystream to determine the next element in the keystream. A text-autokey uses the previous message text to determine the next element in the keystream.","title":"Autokey cipher"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Blaise de Vigenère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_de_Vigen%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"tabula recta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_recta"}],"text":"This cipher was invented in 1586 by Blaise de Vigenère with a reciprocal table of ten alphabets. Vigenère's version used an agreed-upon letter of the alphabet as a primer, making the key by writing down that letter and then the rest of the message.[1]More popular autokeys use a tabula recta, a square with 26 copies of the alphabet, the first line starting with 'A', the next line starting with 'B' etc. Instead of a single letter, a short agreed-upon keyword is used, and the key is generated by writing down the primer and then the rest of the message, as in Vigenère's version. To encrypt a plaintext, the row with the first letter of the message and the column with the first letter of the key are located. The letter in which the row and the column cross is the ciphertext letter.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Cryptogram Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Cryptogram_Association"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hoffstein-3"}],"text":"The autokey cipher, as used by members of the American Cryptogram Association, starts with a relatively-short keyword, the primer, and appends the message to it. For example, if the keyword is QUEENLY and the message is attack at dawn, then the key would be QUEENLYATTACKATDAWN.[2]Plaintext: attackatdawn\nKey: QUEENLYATTACKATDAWN\nCiphertext: QNXEPVYTWTWPThe ciphertext message would thus be \"QNXEPVYTWTWP\".To decrypt the message, the recipient would start by writing down the agreed-upon keyword.QNXEPVYTWTWP\nQUEENLYThe first letter of the key, Q, would then be taken, and that row would be found in a tabula recta. That column for the first letter of the ciphertext would be looked across, also Q in this case, and the letter to the top would be retrieved, A. Now, that letter would be added to the end of the key:QNXEPVYTWTWP\nQUEENLYA\naThen, since the next letter in the key is U and the next letter in the ciphertext is N, the U row is looked across to find the N to retrieve T:QNXEPVYTWTWP\nQUEENLYAT\natThat continues until the entire key is reconstructed, when the primer can be removed from the start.With Vigenère's autokey cipher, a single mistake in encryption renders the rest of the message unintelligible.[3]","title":"Method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kasiski examination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasiski_examination"},{"link_name":"index of coincidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_coincidence"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hoffstein-3"},{"link_name":"bigrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigram"},{"link_name":"trigrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigram"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis"}],"text":"Autokey ciphers are somewhat more secure than polyalphabetic ciphers that use fixed keys since the key does not repeat within a single message. Therefore, methods like the Kasiski examination or index of coincidence analysis will not work on the ciphertext, unlike for similar ciphers that use a single repeated key.[3]A crucial weakness of the system, however, is that the plaintext is part of the key. That means that the key will likely contain common words at various points. The key can be attacked by using a dictionary of common words, bigrams, trigrams etc. and by attempting the decryption of the message by moving that word through the key until potentially-readable text appears.Consider an example message meet at the fountain encrypted with the primer keyword KILT:[4] To start, the autokey would be constructed by placing the primer at the front of the message:plaintext: meetatthefountain\nprimer: KILT\nautokey: KILTMEETATTHEFOUNThe message is then encrypted by using the key and the substitution alphabets, here a tabula recta:plaintext: meetatthefountain\nkey: KILTMEETATTHEFOUN\nciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCAThe attacker receives only the ciphertext and can attack the text by selecting a word that is likely to appear in the plaintext. In this example, the attacker selects the word the as a potential part of the original message and then attempts to decode it by placing THE at every possible location in the key:ciphertext: WMP MMX XAE YHB RYO CA \nkey: THE THE THE THE THE ..\nplaintext: dfl tft eta fax yrk ..\n\nciphertext: W MPM MXX AEY HBR YOC A\nkey: . THE THE THE THE THE .\nplaintext: . tii tqt hxu oun fhy .\n\nciphertext: WM PMM XXA EYH BRY OCA\nkey: .. THE THE THE THE THE\nplaintext: .. wfi eqw lrd iku vvwIn each case, the resulting plaintext appears almost random because the key is not aligned for most of the ciphertext. However, examining the results can suggest locations of the key being properly aligned. In those cases, the resulting decrypted text is potentially part of a word. In this example, it is highly unlikely that dfl is the start of the original plaintext and so it is highly unlikely either that the first three letters of the key are THE. Examining the results, a number of fragments that are possibly words can be seen and others can be eliminated. Then, the plaintext fragments can be sorted in their order of likelihood:unlikely ←——————————————————→ promising\neqw dfl tqt ... ... ... ... eta oun faxA correct plaintext fragment is also going to appear in the key, shifted right by the length of the keyword. Similarly, the guessed key fragment (THE) also appears in the plaintext shifted left. Thus, by guessing keyword lengths (probably between 3 and 12), more plaintext and key can be revealed.Trying that with oun, possibly after wasting some time with the others, results in the following:shift by 4:\nciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA\nkey: ......ETA.THE.OUN\nplaintext: ......the.oun.ainshift by 5:\nciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA\nkey: .....EQW..THE..OU\nplaintext: .....the..oun..ogshift by 6:\nciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA\nkey: ....TQT...THE...O\nplaintext: ....the...oun...mA shift of 4 can be seen to look good (both of the others have unlikely Qs) and so the revealed ETA can be shifted back by 4 into the plaintext:ciphertext: WMPMMXXAEYHBRYOCA\nkey: ..LTM.ETA.THE.OUN\nplaintext: ..eta.the.oun.ainA lot can be worked with now. The keyword is probably 4 characters long (..LT), and some of the message is visible:m.eta.the.oun.ainBecause the plaintext guesses have an effect on the key 4 characters to the left, feedback on correct and incorrect guesses is given. The gaps can quickly be filled in:meetatthefountainThe ease of cryptanalysis is caused by the feedback from the relationship between plaintext and key. A three-character guess reveals six more characters (three on each side), which then reveal further characters, creating a cascade effect. That allows incorrect guesses to be ruled out quickly.","title":"Cryptanalysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Vigenère Cipher\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//crypto.interactive-maths.com/vigenegravere-cipher.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Autokey Calculator\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131202225102/http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=attackatdawn%2Cqueenly"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=attackatdawn%2Cqueenly"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hoffstein_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-hoffstein_3-1"},{"link_name":"An Introduction to Mathematical Cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=cbl_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA288"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781493917112","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781493917112"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Autokey Calculator\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20131203104209/http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=meetatthefountain%2Ckilt"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=meetatthefountain%2Ckilt"}],"text":"^ \"Vigenère Cipher\". Crypto Corner. Retrieved 2018-08-13.\n\n^ \"Autokey Calculator\". Asecuritysite.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2012-12-26.\n\n^ a b Hoffstein, Jeffrey; Pipher, Jill; Silverman, Joseph (2014). An Introduction to Mathematical Cryptography. Springer. p. 288. ISBN 9781493917112.\n\n^ \"Autokey Calculator\". Asecuritysite.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2012-12-26.","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"A tabula recta for use with an autokey cipher","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Vigen%C3%A8re_square_shading.svg/300px-Vigen%C3%A8re_square_shading.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"Chaocipher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaocipher"},{"title":"Cipher Block Chaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipher_Block_Chaining"}]
[{"reference":"\"Vigenère Cipher\". Crypto Corner. Retrieved 2018-08-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://crypto.interactive-maths.com/vigenegravere-cipher.html","url_text":"\"Vigenère Cipher\""}]},{"reference":"\"Autokey Calculator\". Asecuritysite.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2012-12-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131202225102/http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=attackatdawn%2Cqueenly","url_text":"\"Autokey Calculator\""},{"url":"http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=attackatdawn%2Cqueenly","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hoffstein, Jeffrey; Pipher, Jill; Silverman, Joseph (2014). An Introduction to Mathematical Cryptography. Springer. p. 288. ISBN 9781493917112.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cbl_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA288","url_text":"An Introduction to Mathematical Cryptography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781493917112","url_text":"9781493917112"}]},{"reference":"\"Autokey Calculator\". Asecuritysite.com. Archived from the original on 2013-12-03. Retrieved 2012-12-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104209/http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=meetatthefountain%2Ckilt","url_text":"\"Autokey Calculator\""},{"url":"http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=meetatthefountain%2Ckilt","url_text":"the original"}]}]
[{"Link":"http://crypto.interactive-maths.com/vigenegravere-cipher.html","external_links_name":"\"Vigenère Cipher\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131202225102/http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=attackatdawn%2Cqueenly","external_links_name":"\"Autokey Calculator\""},{"Link":"http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=attackatdawn%2Cqueenly","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cbl_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA288","external_links_name":"An Introduction to Mathematical Cryptography"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131203104209/http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=meetatthefountain%2Ckilt","external_links_name":"\"Autokey Calculator\""},{"Link":"http://asecuritysite.com/security/Coding/autokey?word=meetatthefountain%2Ckilt","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.secretcodebreaker.com/autokey-cipher.html","external_links_name":"Secret Code Breaker"},{"Link":"http://www.practicalcryptography.com/ciphers/autokey-cipher/#javascript-example","external_links_name":"A Javascript implementation of the Autokey cipher"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onizuka_AFS
Onizuka Air Force Station
["1 History","2 Closure","2.1 Demolition","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
Coordinates: 37°24′17.5″N 122°1′43.5″W / 37.404861°N 122.028750°W / 37.404861; -122.028750Military space communications and satellite testing site in Sunnyvale, California Onizuka Air Force StationSunnyvale, California in the United StatesOnizuka AFS in 2009Onizuka AFSShow map of CaliforniaOnizuka AFSShow map of the United StatesCoordinates37°24′17.5″N 122°1′43.5″W / 37.404861°N 122.028750°W / 37.404861; -122.028750TypeUS Air Force stationSite informationOwnerDepartment of DefenseOperatorUnited States Air ForceControlled byAir Force Space CommandConditionClosedWebsiteOfficial website (archived)Site historyBuilt1960 (1960) (as Sunnyvale AFS)In use1960 – 30 September 2010 (2010-09-30)FateDemolished (2014) Onizuka Air Force Station or Onizuka AFS was a United States Air Force installation in Sunnyvale, California, at the intersection of State Route 237 and North Mathilda Avenue. It operated from 1960 to 2010. One of its distinguishing feature was Building 1003, known locally as the Blue Cube and the "Cube" given its shape, color, and lack of windows. The station's other distinguishing features were its three primary parabolic dish antennas, used for communication with remote tracking stations used to control military satellites; these antennas were named Sun East, Sun West, and Sun 3. History In the United States space program's formative stages, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) contracted with the Philco Ford division of Ford Motor Company to provide interim operational facilities at its Palo Alto, California, location. Operation began in the late 1950s. By 1958, the US Air Force sought a permanent home, with larger facilities. Ultimately, the Air Force purchased from Lockheed Corporation about 19 acres (7.7 hectares) of land, which included Lockheed Building 100 and was named Sunnyvale Air Force Station. Construction of the station's original facilities was completed in 1960. More structures were built as operations expanded. Aerial view of Sunnyvale AFS during the 1980s The station was home to the AFSC operational unit known as the Air Force Satellite Test Center (STC, colloquially called the "stick"), and other non-AFSC operational organizations. By 1979, the Air Force Satellite Test Center was renamed the Air Force Satellite Control Facility. In 1986 the base was renamed in honor of Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Ellison S. Onizuka, an astronaut who died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986. Onizuka AFS and the Air Force Satellite Control Facility were transferred from Air Force Systems Command to Air Force Space Command and operated by the 21st Space Operations Squadron, a geographically separated unit (GSU) of the 50th Space Wing. The non-AFSC operational organizations remained under their respective commands. Closure When the station was opened in 1960, the Sunnyvale area was rural and the station was predominantly surrounded by orchards. By the late 1970s, the region had become Silicon Valley and the station's physical security vulnerabilities became apparent. AFSC therefore planned the Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC), which would lie several miles east of Colorado Springs, Colorado, at the to-be-built Falcon Air Force Station (later renamed Schriever Air Force Base). Spacecraft operations would be split between the two locations and each location would serve as a backup to the other. To maintain this redundancy, when Onizuka AFS was selected for closure by the Base Realignment and Closure Commission, the Air Force determined to move Onizuka's remaining operational units to the new Ellison Onizuka Satellite Operations Facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base. Satellite antenna at Onizuka AFS during 2007 Realignment of Onizuka Air Force Station was recommended and accepted as part of the 1995 round of the Base Realignment and Closure Program. The 750th Space Group was to be inactivated and its functions moved to Falcon AFS. Detachment 2 of the Space and Missile Systems Center would move to Falcon AFB and Kirtland AFB, New Mexico; some other, undisclosed tenants would stay in the existing facilities for some time. On May 13, 2005, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld recommended closing the Onizuka Air Force Station in Sunnyvale as part of a fifth round of military base closures and re-sizing. The date by which the realignment and closure must be completed was September 15, 2011. In April 2007, the mission of the National Reconnaissance Office at Onizuka AFS ended after 46 years. Upon completion of this transition, Onizuka AFS was ceremonially closed on July 28, 2010, and officially closed on September 30, 2010. Demolition In April 2014, demolition of the site began. 9 acres (3.6 hectares) of the land was earmarked for conversion to educational space operated by the Foothill–De Anza Community College District. 4.4 acres (1.8 hectares) of the land was to be used by the Department of Veterans Affairs. 1 acre (0.40 hectares) was added to Sunnyvale's existing Fire Station 5 and was subject to a land swap with a developer to relocate Fire Station 5, upgrade it to full service capabilities, and support a shooting range for public safety personnel training. The remaining 5 acres (2.0 hectares) parcel is now owned by the City of Sunnyvale for an unspecified future use. See also San Francisco Bay Area portal List of former United States Air Force installations References ^ "Onizuka Air Force Station Local Redevelopment Authority Redevelopment Plan (Draft)" (PDF). City of Sunnyvale. 19 November 2008. Retrieved 29 October 2020. ^ "Former Onizuka Air Force Station". ^ "Onizuka AFS closes, operations move to Vandenberg". Archived from the original on 2011-09-29. Retrieved 2010-08-05. ^ "Onizuka Air Station, California". Air Force Real Property Agency. Archived from the original on May 10, 2006. Retrieved May 5, 2006. ^ "Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) of Onizuka Air Force Station (AFS) Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)". City of Sunnyvale, California. Retrieved May 8, 2007. ^ "Mission accomplished for NRO at Onizuka AFS". 21st Space Operations Squadron. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2007. ^ "Wrecking crews demolish iconic 'Blue Cube'". San Jose Mercury News. 16 April 2014. Retrieved April 17, 2014. ^ "Onizuka AFS Land Areas" (PDF). City of Sunnyvale. Retrieved April 21, 2014. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Onizuka Air Force Station. Official website (archived November 2008) vteSunnyvale, CaliforniaEducationPrimary and secondary schools Sunnyvale School District Cupertino Union School District Fremont Union High School District Fremont High School Santa Clara Unified School District Other education Sunnyvale Public Library OtherLandmarks Sunnyvale Town Center Closed Onizuka Air Force Station This list is incomplete. vte Space Operations CommandAir Forces Fourteenth (Strategic) Centers Space and Missile Systems Space Innovation and Development 614th Air and Space Operations Bases Buckley Los Angeles Patrick Peterson Schriever Thule Vandenberg Stations Cape Canaveral Cape Cod Cavalier Cheyenne Mountain Clear Eldorado (closed) Kaena Point New Boston Onizuka (closed) Space wings 21st 30th 45th 50th 310th 460th Air Base groups 61st 821st Air Base Group SquadronsCommand and Control 1st 2d 3d 4th 55th Mobile 119th 153d 222d 721st Mobile Space Control 1st 4th 16th 20th 25th 76th 380th Space Launch 1st 2nd 3d Space Launch Squadron 4th 5th Space Operations 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 19th 21st 22d 23d 111th 148th AFSPC Space Warning 2nd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 137th 213th Others 26th Space Aggressor (AFRC) 527th Space Aggressor (ACC) 3d Space Communications 50th Space Communications 850th Space Communications 1st Space Development Squadron 2d Space Development Squadron 3d Space Development Squadron 3rd Space Experimentation 1st Space Surveillance 3d Space Surveillance 5th Space Surveillance 1st Air and Space Test 2d Test Operations Squadron 3d Space Test Squadron 4th Space Test Squadron 55th Space Weather
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Sunnyvale, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnyvale,_California"},{"link_name":"State Route 237","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Route_237"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"dish antennas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dish_antenna"},{"link_name":"remote tracking stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Network#Current_Remote_Tracking_Stations"},{"link_name":"satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite"}],"text":"Military space communications and satellite testing site in Sunnyvale, CaliforniaOnizuka Air Force Station or Onizuka AFS was a United States Air Force installation in Sunnyvale, California, at the intersection of State Route 237 and North Mathilda Avenue.[1] It operated from 1960 to 2010.One of its distinguishing feature was Building 1003, known locally as the Blue Cube and the \"Cube\" given its shape, color, and lack of windows. The station's other distinguishing features were its three primary parabolic dish antennas, used for communication with remote tracking stations used to control military satellites; these antennas were named Sun East, Sun West, and Sun 3.","title":"Onizuka Air Force Station"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States space program's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Air Force Systems Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Systems_Command"},{"link_name":"Philco Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philco"},{"link_name":"Ford Motor Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"Palo Alto, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palo_Alto,_California"},{"link_name":"US Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Lockheed Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Corporation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Air_Force_Satellite_Control_Facility_at_Sunnyvale_AFS,_California_(CSTC).jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant Colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Ellison S. Onizuka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellison_Onizuka"},{"link_name":"Space Shuttle Challenger disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Challenger_disaster"},{"link_name":"Air Force Space Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Space_Command"},{"link_name":"21st Space Operations Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Space_Operations_Squadron"},{"link_name":"50th Space Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Space_Wing"}],"text":"In the United States space program's formative stages, Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) contracted with the Philco Ford division of Ford Motor Company to provide interim operational facilities at its Palo Alto, California, location. Operation began in the late 1950s. By 1958, the US Air Force sought a permanent home, with larger facilities. Ultimately, the Air Force purchased from Lockheed Corporation about 19 acres (7.7 hectares) of land, which included Lockheed Building 100 and was named Sunnyvale Air Force Station. Construction of the station's original facilities was completed in 1960. More structures were built as operations expanded.Aerial view of Sunnyvale AFS during the 1980sThe station was home to the AFSC operational unit known as the Air Force Satellite Test Center (STC, colloquially called the \"stick\"), and other non-AFSC operational organizations. By 1979, the Air Force Satellite Test Center was renamed the Air Force Satellite Control Facility.In 1986 the base was renamed[2] in honor of Air Force Lieutenant Colonel Ellison S. Onizuka, an astronaut who died in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986.Onizuka AFS and the Air Force Satellite Control Facility were transferred from Air Force Systems Command to Air Force Space Command and operated by the 21st Space Operations Squadron, a geographically separated unit (GSU) of the 50th Space Wing. The non-AFSC operational organizations remained under their respective commands.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Silicon Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Valley"},{"link_name":"Colorado Springs, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Falcon Air Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_Air_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"Schriever Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schriever_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Base Realignment and Closure Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure_Commission"},{"link_name":"Vandenberg Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandenberg_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Radio_Telescopes_Front_and_the_Moon.jpg"},{"link_name":"Satellite antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_dish"},{"link_name":"750th Space Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/750th_Space_Group"},{"link_name":"Space and Missile Systems Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_and_Missile_Systems_Center"},{"link_name":"Kirtland AFB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirtland_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brac-4"},{"link_name":"Defense Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Donald Rumsfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld"},{"link_name":"fifth round of military base closures and re-sizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_Realignment_and_Closure,_2005"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"National Reconnaissance Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"When the station was opened in 1960, the Sunnyvale area was rural and the station was predominantly surrounded by orchards. By the late 1970s, the region had become Silicon Valley and the station's physical security vulnerabilities became apparent. AFSC therefore planned the Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC), which would lie several miles east of Colorado Springs, Colorado, at the to-be-built Falcon Air Force Station (later renamed Schriever Air Force Base). Spacecraft operations would be split between the two locations and each location would serve as a backup to the other. To maintain this redundancy, when Onizuka AFS was selected for closure by the Base Realignment and Closure Commission, the Air Force determined to move Onizuka's remaining operational units to the new Ellison Onizuka Satellite Operations Facility at Vandenberg Air Force Base.[3]Satellite antenna at Onizuka AFS during 2007Realignment of Onizuka Air Force Station was recommended and accepted as part of the 1995 round of the Base Realignment and Closure Program. The 750th Space Group was to be inactivated and its functions moved to Falcon AFS. Detachment 2 of the Space and Missile Systems Center would move to Falcon AFB and Kirtland AFB, New Mexico; some other, undisclosed tenants would stay in the existing facilities for some time.[4] On May 13, 2005, Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld recommended closing the Onizuka Air Force Station in Sunnyvale as part of a fifth round of military base closures and re-sizing. The date by which the realignment and closure must be completed was September 15, 2011.[5]In April 2007, the mission of the National Reconnaissance Office at Onizuka AFS ended after 46 years.[6]Upon completion of this transition, Onizuka AFS was ceremonially closed on July 28, 2010, and officially closed on September 30, 2010.","title":"Closure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Foothill–De Anza Community College District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foothill%E2%80%93De_Anza_Community_College_District"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Department of Veterans Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Veterans_Affairs"},{"link_name":"City of Sunnyvale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnyvale,_California"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Demolition","text":"In April 2014, demolition of the site began. 9 acres (3.6 hectares) of the land was earmarked for conversion to educational space operated by the Foothill–De Anza Community College District.[7] 4.4 acres (1.8 hectares) of the land was to be used by the Department of Veterans Affairs. 1 acre (0.40 hectares) was added to Sunnyvale's existing Fire Station 5 and was subject to a land swap with a developer to relocate Fire Station 5, upgrade it to full service capabilities, and support a shooting range for public safety personnel training. The remaining 5 acres (2.0 hectares) parcel is now owned by the City of Sunnyvale for an unspecified future use.[8]","title":"Closure"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Onizuka Air Force Station Local Redevelopment Authority Redevelopment Plan (Draft)\" (PDF). City of Sunnyvale. 19 November 2008. Retrieved 29 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.sunnyvale.ca.gov/Files/RTC/2008/20081202/LRA-08-005-att-a.pdf","url_text":"\"Onizuka Air Force Station Local Redevelopment Authority Redevelopment Plan (Draft)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Former Onizuka Air Force Station\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.afcec.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/466116/former-onizuka-air-force-station/","url_text":"\"Former Onizuka Air Force Station\""}]},{"reference":"\"Onizuka AFS closes, operations move to Vandenberg\". Archived from the original on 2011-09-29. Retrieved 2010-08-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110929153414/http://www.schriever.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123215915","url_text":"\"Onizuka AFS closes, operations move to Vandenberg\""},{"url":"http://www.schriever.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123215915","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Onizuka Air Station, California\". Air Force Real Property Agency. Archived from the original on May 10, 2006. Retrieved May 5, 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060510001113/http://www.afrpa.hq.af.mil/library/BRAC/95commbases/onizuka.html","url_text":"\"Onizuka Air Station, California\""},{"url":"http://www.afrpa.hq.af.mil/library/BRAC/95commbases/onizuka.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) of Onizuka Air Force Station (AFS) Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)\". City of Sunnyvale, California. Retrieved May 8, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://sunnyvale.ca.gov/Departments/Office+of+the+City+Manager/Community+Resources/Frequently+Asked+Questions+%28FAQ%29.htm","url_text":"\"Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) of Onizuka Air Force Station (AFS) Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mission accomplished for NRO at Onizuka AFS\". 21st Space Operations Squadron. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110720192538/http://www.schriever.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123050054","url_text":"\"Mission accomplished for NRO at Onizuka AFS\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_Space_Operations_Squadron","url_text":"21st Space Operations Squadron"},{"url":"http://www.schriever.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123050054","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Wrecking crews demolish iconic 'Blue Cube'\". San Jose Mercury News. 16 April 2014. Retrieved April 17, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mercurynews.com/california/ci_25581167/wrecking-crews-demolish-iconic-blue-cube","url_text":"\"Wrecking crews demolish iconic 'Blue Cube'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Onizuka AFS Land Areas\" (PDF). City of Sunnyvale. Retrieved April 21, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://sunnyvale.ca.gov/Portals/0/Sunnyvale/CDD/Onizuka/Onizuka%20AFS%20Land%20Areas%206-19-13.pdf","url_text":"\"Onizuka AFS Land Areas\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafeNet
SafeNet
["1 History","2 Current and former subsidiaries","3 References","4 External links"]
Information security company Not to be confused with SafeToNet or SaferNet. SafeNet, Inc.Company typePrivate, SubsidiaryIndustryInformation securityFoundedTimonium, Maryland 1983 (1983)HeadquartersBelcamp, Maryland, United StatesArea servedWorldwideProductsEncryption, Semiconductor IP, software monetization, Software as a Service, hardware security modules, authentication, security tokensNumber of employees1,600 (2011)ParentThales GroupDivisionsData Protection, Software MonetizationWebsitecpl.thalesgroup.com SafeNet, Inc. was an information security company based in Belcamp, Maryland, United States, which was acquired in August 2014 by the French security company Gemalto. Gemalto was, in turn, acquired by Thales Group in 2019. The former SafeNet's products include solutions for enterprise authentication, data encryption, and key management. SafeNet's software monetization products are sold under the Thales Sentinel brand. SafeNet was notably one of the largest suppliers of encryption technology to the United States Government. On 8 August 2014, Gemalto announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire 100% of the share capital of SafeNet from Vector Capital for US$890 million on a debt free/cash free basis. A subsequent acquisition of Gemalto by French rival Thales Group was completed on 2 April 2019. History This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) 1983: SafeNet, Inc is founded in 1983 in Timonium, MD as Industrial Resource Engineering by two former NSA engineers, Alan Hastings and technical visionary Douglas Kozlay. 1986: Anthony A. Caputo becomes a silent investor in the company. 1987: Anthony Caputo takes the helm of the company as CEO and changes the name to Information Resource Engineering. 1988: Lawrence Livermore Labs becomes IRE's first major customer. The company moves its operations to White Marsh, MD. 1989: IRE goes public in an IPO initially trading on the OTC pink sheets. 1989: IRE rapidly becomes the leader in banking communications security with seven of the top ten U.S. banks as customers and encryption devices used by SWIFT (global interbank transfer system). An end-to-end encryption system was developed that secured data over an X.25 public network, providing the world's first "virtual private network." Early adopters included the Bank of Montreal and Citibank. 1994: IRE acquires Connective Strategies, Inc., a manufacturer of voice and data ISDN products founded by its CEO, Charles Brown. October 1995: IRE acquires Swiss crypto manufacturer Gretag Data Systems for $4 million. 1996: MCI Communications launches the first commercial VPN service using SafeNet VPN technology. SafeNet is adopted by thirteen of the top fifteen U.S. banks within two years. 1997: IRE stock plunges 50% in one day on the announcement of the restructuring of the MCI contract. July 1998: Major shareholder fails in a hostile takeover attempt of IRE. 2000: IRE is renamed SafeNet, Inc. after the VPN product line. 2001: Company co-founder Doug Kozlay leaves SafeNet to form Biometric Associates, a technology company focused on biometric-based authentication and identity solutions. 2002: SafeNet acquires a Dutch company Securealink. With the collapse of the tech "bubble," SafeNet, as a public company with a strong sales channel, was able to acquire a series of promising security companies at deep discounts. February 2003: SafeNet acquires Cylink and Raqia Networks October 2003: SafeNet acquires the OEM business of SSH Communications Security November 2003: SafeNet moves its corporate offices to Belcamp, MD. March 2004: SafeNet acquires Rainbow Technologies. December 2004: SafeNet acquires Datakey, Inc April 2005: SafeNet acquires DMDSecure B.V. June 2005: SafeNet acquires MediaSentry December 2005: SafeNet acquires Eracom Technologies AG 2006: SafeNet was involved in the options backdating controversy. As a result, both the chief executive officer and the chief financial officer resigned, and in 2008 the company's former CFO was sentenced to six months in prison for manipulating employee stock options. April 2007: a Californian financial company Vector Capital buys Safenet for $634 million, making it private April 2008: SafeNet acquires Ingrian Networks, Inc. May 2008: SafeNet acquires Beep Science AS March 2009: SafeNet parent company, Vector Capital acquires Aladdin Knowledge Systems April 2009: SafeNet sells MediaSentry to ArtistDirect December 2009: SafeNet acquires Assured Decisions, LLC December 2012: SafeNet sells its Government Solutions business unit to Raytheon August 2014: SafeNet announces it is to be acquired by Gemalto by the 4Q of 2014 February 2015: SafeNet Assured Technologies is launched as a fully owned subsidiary of Gemalto to provide high-assurance data security products and technologies to the U.S. government. April 2019: Thales Group closes the acquisition of Gemalto. Thales Cloud Protection and Licensing were formed to serve the global community, and SafeNet Assured Technologies, the entity serving the U.S. government, becomes Thales Trusted Cyber Technologies. Current and former subsidiaries The former Rainbow Technologies subsidiary SafeNet Government Solutions, formerly SafeNet Mykotronx, is still based in Torrance, California with offices in Irvine, California and Columbia, Maryland. The company was founded in 1979 as Myko Enterprises. It changed its name to Mykotronx, Inc in 1987 and merged with SafeNet as part of the SafeNet merger with Rainbow in 2004. SafeNet Government Solutions, LLC has been operationally merged into SafeNet and the lines between the two organizations have been intentionally blurred due to financial reasons. SafeNet Government Solutions is no longer considered a subsidiary. SafeNet Government Solutions provides information security and communications security technology for the US government. The firm has an indefinite-delivery, indefinite-quantity contract for its KIV-7 line of commercial off-the-shelf cryptographic devices that provide protection for digital and voice communications through TOP SECRET, used by agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA) and the National Reconnaissance Office. Other products include the KOV-14 Fortezza Plus PC card which was developed as part of the NSA's NSSI program and is used on Secure Terminal Equipment. They previously developed the Clipper chip. In 2009, Vector Capital acquires Aladdin Knowledge Systems, and placed it under SafeNet with the annotation of 'under common management'. In 2010, the two companies were officially merged. References ^ Roseanne Gerin (2005-04-10). "SafeNet wins DOD network security deal". Washington Technology Magazine. Retrieved 2008-12-08. ^ "Gemalto to acquire SafeNet, the worldwide leader in data and software protection". 2014-08-08. Retrieved 2014-08-13. ^ "Thales Completes Acquisition of Gemalto to Become a Global Leader in Digital Identity and Security, Extending U.S. Footprint" (Press release). ^ "Coup fails". 11 July 1998. ^ EETimes (2003-02-28). "EETimes - SafeNet acquires assets of Raqia Networks -". EETimes. Retrieved 2020-09-17. ^ "SSH sells its OEM business to SafeNet". 2003-10-14. Archived from the original on 2006-11-28. Retrieved 2008-12-03. ^ "SafeNet, Inc. Announces Close of Merger with Rainbow Technologies". 2004-03-14. ^ EETimes (2005-03-25). "EETimes - SafeNet to acquire software provider -". EETimes. Retrieved 2020-09-17. ^ GmbH, finanzen net. "SafeNet Completes Acquisition of Eracom Technologies AG | Markets Insider". markets.businessinsider.com. Retrieved 2020-09-17. ^ Jones/Associated, Dow (October 19, 2006). "SafeNet Is Roiled by Options Inquiry". The New York Times. Retrieved 2013-11-21. ^ Graybow, Martha (28 January 2008). "Ex-Safenet CFO gets prison term in options case". reuters.com. ^ "Cost of Backdating: Six Months, $1 Million". 2008-01-30. Retrieved 2013-11-21. ^ "SafeNet sold, goes private". 2007-04-13. ^ "Aladdin Knowledge Systems Completes Merger with Vector Capital Affiliate" (PDF). 2009-03-24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-04-19. Retrieved 2010-06-02. ^ "SafeNet to Acquire Assured Decisions, LLC". Bloomberg News. 2009-12-23. ^ "Raytheon Acquires SafeNet Inc". finance.yahoo.com. 13 December 2012. Retrieved 2020-09-17. ^ "Gemalto Buys SafeNet for $890 Million". WSJ.com. 2014-08-08. Retrieved 2015-01-09. ^ "SafeNet Assured Technologies, LLC Formally Launches U.S. Based Business". 2015-02-09. ^ "Thales buys Gemalto". 2019-04-02. ^ "SafeNet Offices - North America". ^ "About SafeNet Mykotronx". ^ "KIV-7 Family". Federation of American Scientists. ^ "Mykotronx wins defense card work". ^ "INFORMATION ABOUT THE CLIPPER WIRETAP CHIP". ^ Neumann, Peter G. (21 April 1993). "THE CLIPPER CHIP: A TECHNICAL SUMMARY". The Risks Digest. 14 (52). External links Official website U.S. Subsidiary Website
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SafeToNet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SafeToNet"},{"link_name":"SaferNet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SaferNet"},{"link_name":"information security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security"},{"link_name":"Belcamp, Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belcamp,_Maryland"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Gemalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemalto"},{"link_name":"Thales Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales_Group"},{"link_name":"United States Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Government"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Thales Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales_Group"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Not to be confused with SafeToNet or SaferNet.SafeNet, Inc. was an information security company based in Belcamp, Maryland, United States, which was acquired in August 2014 by the French security company Gemalto. Gemalto was, in turn, acquired by Thales Group in 2019. The former SafeNet's products include solutions for enterprise authentication, data encryption, and key management. SafeNet's software monetization products are sold under the Thales Sentinel brand.SafeNet was notably one of the largest suppliers of encryption technology to the United States Government.[1]On 8 August 2014, Gemalto announced that it had signed a definitive agreement to acquire 100% of the share capital of SafeNet from Vector Capital for US$890 million on a debt free/cash free basis.[2] A subsequent acquisition of Gemalto by French rival Thales Group was completed on 2 April 2019.[3]","title":"SafeNet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSA"},{"link_name":"IPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"SWIFT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Worldwide_Interbank_Financial_Telecommunication"},{"link_name":"VPN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VPN"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OEM"},{"link_name":"SSH Communications Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSH_Communications_Security"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"MediaSentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaSentry"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"options backdating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Options_backdating"},{"link_name":"chief executive officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_executive_officer"},{"link_name":"chief financial officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_financial_officer"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Aladdin Knowledge Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aladdin_Knowledge_Systems"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"MediaSentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaSentry"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Gemalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemalto"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Gemalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemalto"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Thales Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales_Group"},{"link_name":"Gemalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemalto"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"1983: SafeNet, Inc is founded in 1983 in Timonium, MD as Industrial Resource Engineering by two former NSA engineers, Alan Hastings and technical visionary Douglas Kozlay.\n1986: Anthony A. Caputo becomes a silent investor in the company.\n1987: Anthony Caputo takes the helm of the company as CEO and changes the name to Information Resource Engineering.\n1988: Lawrence Livermore Labs becomes IRE's first major customer. The company moves its operations to White Marsh, MD.\n1989: IRE goes public in an IPO initially trading on the OTC pink sheets.\n1989: IRE rapidly becomes the leader in banking communications security with seven of the top ten U.S. banks as customers and encryption devices used by SWIFT (global interbank transfer system). An end-to-end encryption system was developed that secured data over an X.25 public network, providing the world's first \"virtual private network.\" Early adopters included the Bank of Montreal and Citibank.\n1994: IRE acquires Connective Strategies, Inc., a manufacturer of voice and data ISDN products founded by its CEO, Charles Brown.\nOctober 1995: IRE acquires Swiss crypto manufacturer Gretag Data Systems for $4 million.\n1996: MCI Communications launches the first commercial VPN service using SafeNet VPN technology. SafeNet is adopted by thirteen of the top fifteen U.S. banks within two years.\n1997: IRE stock plunges 50% in one day on the announcement of the restructuring of the MCI contract.\nJuly 1998: Major shareholder fails in a hostile takeover attempt of IRE.[4]\n2000: IRE is renamed SafeNet, Inc. after the VPN product line.\n2001: Company co-founder Doug Kozlay leaves SafeNet to form Biometric Associates, a technology company focused on biometric-based authentication and identity solutions.\n2002: SafeNet acquires a Dutch company Securealink. With the collapse of the tech \"bubble,\" SafeNet, as a public company with a strong sales channel[citation needed], was able to acquire a series of promising security companies at deep discounts.\nFebruary 2003: SafeNet acquires Cylink and Raqia Networks[5]\nOctober 2003: SafeNet acquires the OEM business of SSH Communications Security[6]\nNovember 2003: SafeNet moves its corporate offices to Belcamp, MD.\nMarch 2004: SafeNet acquires Rainbow Technologies.[7]\nDecember 2004: SafeNet acquires Datakey, Inc\nApril 2005: SafeNet acquires DMDSecure B.V.[8]\nJune 2005: SafeNet acquires MediaSentry\nDecember 2005: SafeNet acquires Eracom Technologies AG[9]\n2006: SafeNet was involved in the options backdating controversy. As a result, both the chief executive officer and the chief financial officer resigned, and in 2008 the company's former CFO was sentenced to six months in prison for manipulating employee stock options.[10][11][12]\nApril 2007: a Californian financial company Vector Capital buys Safenet for $634 million, making it private[13]\nApril 2008: SafeNet acquires Ingrian Networks, Inc.\nMay 2008: SafeNet acquires Beep Science AS\nMarch 2009: SafeNet parent company, Vector Capital acquires Aladdin Knowledge Systems[14]\nApril 2009: SafeNet sells MediaSentry to ArtistDirect\nDecember 2009: SafeNet acquires Assured Decisions, LLC[15]\nDecember 2012: SafeNet sells its Government Solutions business unit to Raytheon[16]\nAugust 2014: SafeNet announces it is to be acquired by Gemalto by the 4Q of 2014[17]\nFebruary 2015: SafeNet Assured Technologies is launched as a fully owned subsidiary of Gemalto to provide high-assurance data security products and technologies to the U.S. government.[18]\nApril 2019: Thales Group closes the acquisition of Gemalto.[19] Thales Cloud Protection and Licensing were formed to serve the global community, and SafeNet Assured Technologies, the entity serving the U.S. government, becomes Thales Trusted Cyber Technologies.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"information security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_security"},{"link_name":"communications security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_security"},{"link_name":"indefinite-delivery, indefinite-quantity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_delivery-indefinite_quantity"},{"link_name":"KIV-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KIV-7"},{"link_name":"commercial off-the-shelf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_off-the-shelf"},{"link_name":"cryptographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic"},{"link_name":"TOP SECRET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP_SECRET"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"National Reconnaissance Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"KOV-14 Fortezza Plus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KOV-14"},{"link_name":"Secure Terminal Equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Terminal_Equipment"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Clipper chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipper_chip"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Aladdin Knowledge Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aladdin_Knowledge_Systems"}],"text":"The former Rainbow Technologies subsidiary SafeNet Government Solutions, formerly SafeNet Mykotronx, is still based in Torrance, California with offices in Irvine, California and Columbia, Maryland.[20] The company was founded in 1979 as Myko Enterprises. It changed its name to Mykotronx, Inc in 1987 and merged with SafeNet as part of the SafeNet merger with Rainbow in 2004.[21] SafeNet Government Solutions, LLC has been operationally merged into SafeNet and the lines between the two organizations have been intentionally blurred due to financial reasons. SafeNet Government Solutions is no longer considered a subsidiary. SafeNet Government Solutions provides information security and communications security technology for the US government. The firm has an indefinite-delivery, indefinite-quantity contract for its KIV-7 line of commercial off-the-shelf cryptographic devices that provide protection for digital and voice communications through TOP SECRET, used by agencies such as the National Security Agency (NSA) and the National Reconnaissance Office.[22] Other products include the KOV-14 Fortezza Plus PC card which was developed as part of the NSA's NSSI program and is used on Secure Terminal Equipment.[23] They previously developed the Clipper chip.[24][25]In 2009, Vector Capital acquires Aladdin Knowledge Systems, and placed it under SafeNet with the annotation of 'under common management'. In 2010, the two companies were officially merged.","title":"Current and former subsidiaries"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Roseanne Gerin (2005-04-10). \"SafeNet wins DOD network security deal\". Washington Technology Magazine. Retrieved 2008-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.washingtontechnology.com/online/1_1/27110-1.html","url_text":"\"SafeNet wins DOD network security deal\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gemalto to acquire SafeNet, the worldwide leader in data and software protection\". 2014-08-08. Retrieved 2014-08-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gemalto.com/press/Pages/Gemalto-to-acquire-SafeNet,the-worldwide-leader-in-data-and-software-protection.aspx","url_text":"\"Gemalto to acquire SafeNet, the worldwide leader in data and software protection\""}]},{"reference":"\"Thales Completes Acquisition of Gemalto to Become a Global Leader in Digital Identity and Security, Extending U.S. Footprint\" (Press release).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/thales-completes-acquisition-of-gemalto-to-become-a-global-leader-in-digital-identity-and-security-extending-us-footprint-300822871.html","url_text":"\"Thales Completes Acquisition of Gemalto to Become a Global Leader in Digital Identity and Security, Extending U.S. Footprint\""}]},{"reference":"\"Coup fails\". 11 July 1998.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1998-07-11-1998192017-story.html","url_text":"\"Coup fails\""}]},{"reference":"EETimes (2003-02-28). \"EETimes - SafeNet acquires assets of Raqia Networks -\". EETimes. Retrieved 2020-09-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.eetimes.com/safenet-acquires-assets-of-raqia-networks/","url_text":"\"EETimes - SafeNet acquires assets of Raqia Networks -\""}]},{"reference":"\"SSH sells its OEM business to SafeNet\". 2003-10-14. Archived from the original on 2006-11-28. Retrieved 2008-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061128034638/http://www.ssh.com/company/news/article/484/","url_text":"\"SSH sells its OEM business to SafeNet\""},{"url":"http://www.ssh.com/company/news/article/484/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SafeNet, Inc. Announces Close of Merger with Rainbow Technologies\". 2004-03-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bizjournals.com/baltimore/stories/2004/03/15/daily15.html","url_text":"\"SafeNet, Inc. Announces Close of Merger with Rainbow Technologies\""}]},{"reference":"EETimes (2005-03-25). \"EETimes - SafeNet to acquire software provider -\". EETimes. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bent_function
Bent function
["1 Walsh transform","2 Definition and properties","3 Constructions","4 Applications","5 Generalizations","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading"]
Special type of Boolean function The four 2-ary Boolean functions with Hamming weight 1 are bent; i.e., their nonlinearity is 1 (these Hadamard matrices show the Hamming distance to each of the eight linear and affine functions). The following formula shows that a 2-ary function is bent when its nonlinearity is 1: 2 2 − 1 − 2 2 2 − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1 {\displaystyle 2^{2-1}-2^{{\frac {2}{2}}-1}=2-1=1} The Boolean function x 1 x 2 ⊕ x 3 x 4 {\displaystyle x_{1}x_{2}\oplus x_{3}x_{4}} is bent; i.e., its nonlinearity is 6 (which is what these Hadamard Matrices show). The following formula shows that a 4-ary function is bent when its nonlinearity is 6: 2 4 − 1 − 2 4 2 − 1 = 8 − 2 = 6 {\displaystyle 2^{4-1}-2^{{\frac {4}{2}}-1}=8-2=6} In the mathematical field of combinatorics, a bent function is a Boolean function that is maximally non-linear; it is as different as possible from the set of all linear and affine functions when measured by Hamming distance between truth tables. Concretely, this means the maximum correlation between the output of the function and a linear function is minimal. In addition, the derivatives of a bent function are balanced Boolean functions, so for any change in the input variables there is a 50 percent chance that the output value will change. The maximal nonlinearity means approximating a bent function by an affine (linear) function is hard, a useful property in the defence against linear cryptanalysis. In addition, detecting a change in the output of the function yields no information about what change occurred in the inputs, making the function immune to differential cryptanalysis. Bent functions were defined and named in the 1960s by Oscar Rothaus in research not published until 1976. They have been extensively studied for their applications in cryptography, but have also been applied to spread spectrum, coding theory, and combinatorial design. The definition can be extended in several ways, leading to different classes of generalized bent functions that share many of the useful properties of the original. It is known that V. A. Eliseev and O. P. Stepchenkov studied bent functions, which they called minimal functions, in the USSR in 1962. However, their results have still not been declassified. Bent functions are also known as perfectly nonlinear (PN) boolean functions. Certain functions that are as close as possible to perfect nonlinearity (e.g. for functions of an odd number of bits, or vectorial functions) are known as almost perfectly nonlinear (APN). Walsh transform Bent functions are defined in terms of the Walsh transform. The Walsh transform of a Boolean function f : Z 2 n → Z 2 {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} _{2}} is the function f ^ : Z 2 n → Z {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}:\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} } given by f ^ ( a ) = ∑ x ∈ Z 2 n ( − 1 ) f ( x ) + a ⋅ x , {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(a)=\sum _{\scriptstyle {x\in \mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}}}(-1)^{f(x)+a\cdot x},} where a · x = a1x1 + a2x2 + … + anxn (mod 2) is the dot product in Zn2. Alternatively, let S0(a) = { x ∈ Zn2 : f(x) = a · x } and S1(a) = { x ∈ Zn2 : f(x) ≠ a · x }. Then |S0(a)| + |S1(a)| = 2n and hence f ^ ( a ) = | S 0 ( a ) | − | S 1 ( a ) | = 2 | S 0 ( a ) | − 2 n . {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(a)=\left|S_{0}(a)\right|-\left|S_{1}(a)\right|=2\left|S_{0}(a)\right|-2^{n}.} For any Boolean function f and a ∈ Zn2, the transform lies in the range − 2 n ≤ f ^ ( a ) ≤ 2 n . {\displaystyle -2^{n}\leq {\hat {f}}(a)\leq 2^{n}.} Moreover, the linear function f0(x) = a · x and the affine function f1(x) = a · x + 1 correspond to the two extreme cases, since f ^ 0 ( a ) = 2 n ,   f ^ 1 ( a ) = − 2 n . {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}_{0}(a)=2^{n},~{\hat {f}}_{1}(a)=-2^{n}.} Thus, for each a ∈ Zn2 the value of f ^ ( a ) {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(a)} characterizes where the function f(x) lies in the range from f0(x) to f1(x). Definition and properties Rothaus defined a bent function as a Boolean function f : Z 2 n → Z 2 {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} _{2}} whose Walsh transform has constant absolute value. Bent functions are in a sense equidistant from all the affine functions, so they are equally hard to approximate with any affine function. The simplest examples of bent functions, written in algebraic normal form, are F(x1, x2) = x1x2 and G(x1, x2, x3, x4) = x1x2 ⊕ x3x4. This pattern continues: x1x2 ⊕ x3x4 ⊕ … ⊕ xn−1xn is a bent function Z 2 n → Z 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} _{2}} for every even n, but there is a wide variety of other bent functions as n increases. The sequence of values (−1)f(x), with x ∈ Zn2 taken in lexicographical order, is called a bent sequence; bent functions and bent sequences have equivalent properties. In this ±1 form, the Walsh transform is easily computed as f ^ ( a ) = W ( 2 n ) ( − 1 ) f ( a ) , {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(a)=W\left(2^{n}\right)(-1)^{f(a)},} where W(2n) is the natural-ordered Walsh matrix and the sequence is treated as a column vector. Rothaus proved that bent functions exist only for even n, and that for a bent function f, | f ^ ( a ) | = 2 n / 2 {\displaystyle \left|{\hat {f}}(a)\right|=2^{n/2}} for all a ∈ Zn2. In fact, f ^ ( a ) = 2 n / 2 ( − 1 ) g ( a ) {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(a)=2^{n/2}(-1)^{g(a)}} , where g is also bent. In this case, g ^ ( a ) = 2 n / 2 ( − 1 ) f ( a ) {\displaystyle {\hat {g}}(a)=2^{n/2}(-1)^{f(a)}} , so f and g are considered dual functions. Every bent function has a Hamming weight (number of times it takes the value 1) of 2n−1 ± 2n/2−1, and in fact agrees with any affine function at one of those two numbers of points. So the nonlinearity of f (minimum number of times it equals any affine function) is 2n−1 − 2n/2−1, the maximum possible. Conversely, any Boolean function with nonlinearity 2n−1 − 2n/2−1 is bent. The degree of f in algebraic normal form (called the nonlinear order of f) is at most n/2 (for n > 2). Although bent functions are vanishingly rare among Boolean functions of many variables, they come in many different kinds. There has been detailed research into special classes of bent functions, such as the homogeneous ones or those arising from a monomial over a finite field, but so far the bent functions have defied all attempts at a complete enumeration or classification. Constructions There are several types of constructions for bent functions. Combinatorial constructions: iterative constructions, Maiorana–McFarland construction, partial spreads, Dillon's and Dobbertin's bent functions, minterm bent functions, bent iterative functions Algebraic constructions: monomial bent functions with exponents of Gold, Dillon, Kasami, Canteaut–Leander and Canteaut–Charpin–Kuyreghyan; Niho bent functions, etc. Applications As early as 1982 it was discovered that maximum length sequences based on bent functions have cross-correlation and autocorrelation properties rivalling those of the Gold codes and Kasami codes for use in CDMA. These sequences have several applications in spread spectrum techniques. The properties of bent functions are naturally of interest in modern digital cryptography, which seeks to obscure relationships between input and output. By 1988 Forré recognized that the Walsh transform of a function can be used to show that it satisfies the strict avalanche criterion (SAC) and higher-order generalizations, and recommended this tool to select candidates for good S-boxes achieving near-perfect diffusion. Indeed, the functions satisfying the SAC to the highest possible order are always bent. Furthermore, the bent functions are as far as possible from having what are called linear structures, nonzero vectors a such that f(x + a) + f(x) is a constant. In the language of differential cryptanalysis (introduced after this property was discovered) the derivative of a bent function f at every nonzero point a (that is, fa(x) = f(x + a) + f(x)) is a balanced Boolean function, taking on each value exactly half of the time. This property is called perfect nonlinearity. Given such good diffusion properties, apparently perfect resistance to differential cryptanalysis, and resistance by definition to linear cryptanalysis, bent functions might at first seem the ideal choice for secure cryptographic functions such as S-boxes. Their fatal flaw is that they fail to be balanced. In particular, an invertible S-box cannot be constructed directly from bent functions, and a stream cipher using a bent combining function is vulnerable to a correlation attack. Instead, one might start with a bent function and randomly complement appropriate values until the result is balanced. The modified function still has high nonlinearity, and as such functions are very rare the process should be much faster than a brute-force search. But functions produced in this way may lose other desirable properties, even failing to satisfy the SAC – so careful testing is necessary. A number of cryptographers have worked on techniques for generating balanced functions that preserve as many of the good cryptographic qualities of bent functions as possible. Some of this theoretical research has been incorporated into real cryptographic algorithms. The CAST design procedure, used by Carlisle Adams and Stafford Tavares to construct the S-boxes for the block ciphers CAST-128 and CAST-256, makes use of bent functions. The cryptographic hash function HAVAL uses Boolean functions built from representatives of all four of the equivalence classes of bent functions on six variables. The stream cipher Grain uses an NLFSR whose nonlinear feedback polynomial is, by design, the sum of a bent function and a linear function. Generalizations More than 25 different generalizations of bent functions are described in Tokareva's 2015 monograph. There are algebraic generalizations (q-valued bent functions, p-ary bent functions, bent functions over a finite field, generalized Boolean bent functions of Schmidt, bent functions from a finite Abelian group into the set of complex numbers on the unit circle, bent functions from a finite Abelian group into a finite Abelian group, non-Abelian bent functions, vectorial G-bent functions, multidimensional bent functions on a finite Abelian group), combinatorial generalizations (symmetric bent functions, homogeneous bent functions, rotation symmetric bent functions, normal bent functions, self-dual and anti-self-dual bent functions, partially defined bent functions, plateaued functions, Z-bent functions and quantum bent functions) and cryptographic generalizations (semi-bent functions, balanced bent functions, partially bent functions, hyper-bent functions, bent functions of higher order, k-bent functions). The most common class of generalized bent functions is the mod m type, f : Z m n → Z m {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} _{m}} such that f ^ ( a ) = ∑ x ∈ Z m n e 2 π i m ( f ( x ) − a ⋅ x ) {\displaystyle {\hat {f}}(a)=\sum _{x\in \mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}}e^{{\frac {2\pi i}{m}}(f(x)-a\cdot x)}} has constant absolute value mn/2. Perfect nonlinear functions f : Z m n → Z m {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} _{m}} , those such that for all nonzero a, f(x + a) − f(a) takes on each value mn−1 times, are generalized bent. If m is prime, the converse is true. In most cases only prime m are considered. For odd prime m, there are generalized bent functions for every positive n, even and odd. They have many of the same good cryptographic properties as the binary bent functions. Semi-bent functions are an odd-order counterpart to bent functions. A semi-bent function is f : Z m n → Z m {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} _{m}} with n odd, such that | f ^ | {\displaystyle \left|{\hat {f}}\right|} takes only the values 0 and m(n+1)/2. They also have good cryptographic characteristics, and some of them are balanced, taking on all possible values equally often. The partially bent functions form a large class defined by a condition on the Walsh transform and autocorrelation functions. All affine and bent functions are partially bent. This is in turn a proper subclass of the plateaued functions. The idea behind the hyper-bent functions is to maximize the minimum distance to all Boolean functions coming from bijective monomials on the finite field GF(2n), not just the affine functions. For these functions this distance is constant, which may make them resistant to an interpolation attack. Other related names have been given to cryptographically important classes of functions f : Z 2 n → Z 2 n {\displaystyle f:\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\to \mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}} , such as almost bent functions and crooked functions. While not bent functions themselves (these are not even Boolean functions), they are closely related to the bent functions and have good nonlinearity properties. See also Correlation immunity References ^ O. S. Rothaus (May 1976). "On "Bent" Functions". Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A. 20 (3): 300–305. doi:10.1016/0097-3165(76)90024-8. ISSN 0097-3165. ^ a b c N. Tokareva (2015). Bent functions: results and applications to cryptography. Academic Press. ISBN 9780128023181. ^ Blondeau; Nyberg (2015-03-01). "Perfect nonlinear functions and cryptography". Finite Fields and Their Applications. 32: 120–147. doi:10.1016/j.ffa.2014.10.007. ISSN 1071-5797. ^ a b c C. Qu; J. Seberry; T. Xia (29 December 2001). "Boolean Functions in Cryptography". Retrieved 14 September 2009. ^ a b c d W. Meier; O. Staffelbach (April 1989). Nonlinearity Criteria for Cryptographic Functions. Eurocrypt '89. pp. 549–562. ^ a b C. Carlet; L.E. Danielsen; M.G. Parker; P. Solé (19 May 2008). Self Dual Bent Functions (PDF). Fourth International Workshop on Boolean Functions: Cryptography and Applications (BFCA '08). Retrieved 21 September 2009. ^ T. Xia; J. Seberry; J. Pieprzyk; C. Charnes (June 2004). "Homogeneous bent functions of degree n in 2n variables do not exist for n > 3". Discrete Applied Mathematics. 142 (1–3): 127–132. doi:10.1016/j.dam.2004.02.006. ISSN 0166-218X. Retrieved 21 September 2009. ^ A. Canteaut; P. Charpin; G. Kyureghyan (January 2008). "A new class of monomial bent functions" (PDF). Finite Fields and Their Applications. 14 (1): 221–241. doi:10.1016/j.ffa.2007.02.004. ISSN 1071-5797. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2009. ^ J. Olsen; R. Scholtz; L. Welch (November 1982). "Bent-Function Sequences". IEEE Transactions on Information Theory. IT-28 (6): 858–864. doi:10.1109/tit.1982.1056589. ISSN 0018-9448. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2009. ^ R. Forré (August 1988). The Strict Avalanche Criterion: Spectral Properties of Boolean Functions and an Extended Definition. CRYPTO '88. pp. 450–468. ^ a b C. Adams; S. Tavares (January 1990). The Use of Bent Sequences to Achieve Higher-Order Strict Avalanche Criterion in S-box Design. Technical Report TR 90-013. Queen's University. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.41.8374. ^ K. Nyberg (April 1991). Perfect nonlinear S-boxes. Eurocrypt '91. pp. 378–386. ^ J. Seberry; X. Zhang (December 1992). Highly Nonlinear 0–1 Balanced Boolean Functions Satisfying Strict Avalanche Criterion. AUSCRYPT '92. pp. 143–155. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.57.4992. ^ a b C. Adams (November 1997). "Constructing Symmetric Ciphers Using the CAST Design Procedure". Designs, Codes and Cryptography. 12 (3): 283–316. doi:10.1023/A:1008229029587. ISSN 0925-1022. S2CID 14365543. Archived from the original on 26 October 2008. Retrieved 20 September 2009. ^ Y. Zheng; J. Pieprzyk; J. Seberry (December 1992). HAVAL – a one-way hashing algorithm with variable length of output. AUSCRYPT '92. pp. 83–104. Retrieved 20 June 2015. ^ Hell, Martin; Johansson, Thomas; Maximov, Alexander; Meier, Willi (2006). "A Stream Cipher Proposal: Grain-128" (PDF). Proceedings 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Information Theory, ISIT 2006, The Westin Seattle, Seattle, Washington, USA, July 9–14, 2006. IEEE. pp. 1614–1618. doi:10.1109/ISIT.2006.261549. ^ K. Nyberg (May 1990). Constructions of bent functions and difference sets. Eurocrypt '90. pp. 151–160. ^ Shashi Kant Pandey; B.K. Dass (September 2017). "On Walsh Spectrum of Cryptographic Boolean Function". Defence Science Journal. 67 (5): 536–541. doi:10.14429/dsj.67.10638. ISSN 0011-748X. ^ K. Khoo; G. Gong; D. Stinson (February 2006). "A new characterization of semi-bent and bent functions on finite fields" (PostScript). Designs, Codes and Cryptography. 38 (2): 279–295. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.10.6303. doi:10.1007/s10623-005-6345-x. ISSN 0925-1022. S2CID 10572850. Retrieved 24 September 2009. ^ Y. Zheng; X. Zhang (November 1999). Plateaued Functions. Second International Conference on Information and Communication Security (ICICS '99). pp. 284–300. Retrieved 24 September 2009. Further reading C. Carlet (May 1993). Two New Classes of Bent Functions. Eurocrypt '93. pp. 77–101. J. Seberry; X. Zhang (March 1994). "Constructions of Bent Functions from Two Known Bent Functions". Australasian Journal of Combinatorics. 9: 21–35. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.55.531. ISSN 1034-4942. Colbourn, Charles J.; Dinitz, Jeffrey H. (2006). Handbook of Combinatorial Designs (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 337–339. ISBN 978-1-58488-506-1. Cusick, T.W.; Stanica, P. (2009). Cryptographic Boolean Functions and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN 9780123748904.
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boolean_functions_like_1000_nonlinearity.svg"},{"link_name":"Hamming weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_weight"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:0001_0001_0001_1110_nonlinearity.svg"},{"link_name":"mathematical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"combinatorics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics"},{"link_name":"Boolean function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_function"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"affine functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine_function"},{"link_name":"Hamming distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_distance"},{"link_name":"truth tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_table"},{"link_name":"correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_coefficient"},{"link_name":"derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_derivative"},{"link_name":"balanced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_boolean_function"},{"link_name":"linear cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_cryptanalysis"},{"link_name":"differential cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_cryptanalysis"},{"link_name":"Oscar Rothaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oscar_Rothaus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rothaus-1"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"spread spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum"},{"link_name":"coding theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coding_theory"},{"link_name":"combinatorial design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_design"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bent-book-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The four 2-ary Boolean functions with Hamming weight 1 are bent; i.e., their nonlinearity is 1 (these Hadamard matrices show the Hamming distance to each of the eight linear and affine functions). The following formula shows that a 2-ary function is bent when its nonlinearity is 1: \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n 2\n −\n 1\n \n \n −\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n 2\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n 2\n −\n 1\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{2-1}-2^{{\\frac {2}{2}}-1}=2-1=1}The Boolean function \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ⊕\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n x\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}x_{2}\\oplus x_{3}x_{4}}\n \n is bent; i.e., its nonlinearity is 6 (which is what these Hadamard Matrices show). The following formula shows that a 4-ary function is bent when its nonlinearity is 6: \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n 4\n −\n 1\n \n \n −\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 4\n 2\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n 8\n −\n 2\n =\n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{4-1}-2^{{\\frac {4}{2}}-1}=8-2=6}In the mathematical field of combinatorics, a bent function is a Boolean function that is maximally non-linear; it is as different as possible from the set of all linear and affine functions when measured by Hamming distance between truth tables. Concretely, this means the maximum correlation between the output of the function and a linear function is minimal. In addition, the derivatives of a bent function are balanced Boolean functions, so for any change in the input variables there is a 50 percent chance that the output value will change.The maximal nonlinearity means approximating a bent function by an affine (linear) function is hard, a useful property in the defence against linear cryptanalysis. In addition, detecting a change in the output of the function yields no information about what change occurred in the inputs, making the function immune to differential cryptanalysis.Bent functions were defined and named in the 1960s by Oscar Rothaus in research not published until 1976.[1] They have been extensively studied for their applications in cryptography, but have also been applied to spread spectrum, coding theory, and combinatorial design. The definition can be extended in several ways, leading to different classes of generalized bent functions that share many of the useful properties of the original.It is known that V. A. Eliseev and O. P. Stepchenkov studied bent functions, which they called minimal functions, in the USSR in 1962.[2] However, their results have still not been declassified.Bent functions are also known as perfectly nonlinear (PN) boolean functions. Certain functions that are as close as possible to perfect nonlinearity (e.g. for functions of an odd number of bits, or vectorial functions) are known as almost perfectly nonlinear (APN).[3]","title":"Bent function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Walsh transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsh_transform"},{"link_name":"dot product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bool-4"}],"text":"Bent functions are defined in terms of the Walsh transform. The Walsh transform of a Boolean function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:\\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} _{2}}\n \n is the function \n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n ^\n \n \n \n :\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n Z\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}:\\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} }\n \n given byf\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n f\n (\n x\n )\n +\n a\n ⋅\n x\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}(a)=\\sum _{\\scriptstyle {x\\in \\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}}}(-1)^{f(x)+a\\cdot x},}where a · x = a1x1 + a2x2 + … + anxn (mod 2) is the dot product in Zn2.[4] Alternatively, let S0(a) = { x ∈ Zn2 : f(x) = a · x } and S1(a) = { x ∈ Zn2 : f(x) ≠ a · x }. Then |S0(a)| + |S1(a)| = 2n and hencef\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n \n |\n \n \n S\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n a\n )\n \n |\n \n −\n \n |\n \n \n S\n \n 1\n \n \n (\n a\n )\n \n |\n \n =\n 2\n \n |\n \n \n S\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n a\n )\n \n |\n \n −\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}(a)=\\left|S_{0}(a)\\right|-\\left|S_{1}(a)\\right|=2\\left|S_{0}(a)\\right|-2^{n}.}For any Boolean function f and a ∈ Zn2, the transform lies in the range−\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n ≤\n \n \n \n f\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n ≤\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -2^{n}\\leq {\\hat {f}}(a)\\leq 2^{n}.}Moreover, the linear function f0(x) = a · x and the affine function f1(x) = a · x + 1 correspond to the two extreme cases, sincef\n ^\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n ,\n  \n \n \n \n \n f\n ^\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n −\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}_{0}(a)=2^{n},~{\\hat {f}}_{1}(a)=-2^{n}.}Thus, for each a ∈ Zn2 the value of \n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}(a)}\n \n characterizes where the function f(x) lies in the range from f0(x) to f1(x).","title":"Walsh transform"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Walsh transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsh_transform"},{"link_name":"absolute value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value"},{"link_name":"algebraic normal form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_normal_form"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nonlin-5"},{"link_name":"lexicographical order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicographical_order"},{"link_name":"Walsh matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walsh_matrix"},{"link_name":"column vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_vector"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dual-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bool-4"},{"link_name":"dual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dual-6"},{"link_name":"Hamming weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_weight"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bool-4"},{"link_name":"degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_a_polynomial"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nonlin-5"},{"link_name":"homogeneous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_polynomial"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-homo-7"},{"link_name":"monomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomial"},{"link_name":"finite field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mono-8"}],"text":"Rothaus defined a bent function as a Boolean function \n \n \n \n f\n :\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:\\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} _{2}}\n \n whose Walsh transform has constant absolute value. Bent functions are in a sense equidistant from all the affine functions, so they are equally hard to approximate with any affine function.The simplest examples of bent functions, written in algebraic normal form, are F(x1, x2) = x1x2 and G(x1, x2, x3, x4) = x1x2 ⊕ x3x4. This pattern continues: x1x2 ⊕ x3x4 ⊕ … ⊕ xn−1xn is a bent function \n \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} _{2}}\n \n for every even n, but there is a wide variety of other bent functions as n increases.[5] The sequence of values (−1)f(x), with x ∈ Zn2 taken in lexicographical order, is called a bent sequence; bent functions and bent sequences have equivalent properties. In this ±1 form, the Walsh transform is easily computed asf\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n W\n \n (\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n \n )\n \n (\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n f\n (\n a\n )\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}(a)=W\\left(2^{n}\\right)(-1)^{f(a)},}where W(2n) is the natural-ordered Walsh matrix and the sequence is treated as a column vector.[6]Rothaus proved that bent functions exist only for even n, and that for a bent function f, \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n f\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n \n |\n \n =\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|{\\hat {f}}(a)\\right|=2^{n/2}}\n \n for all a ∈ Zn2.[4] In fact, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n f\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n g\n (\n a\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}(a)=2^{n/2}(-1)^{g(a)}}\n \n, where g is also bent. In this case, \n \n \n \n \n \n \n g\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n \n 2\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n −\n 1\n \n )\n \n f\n (\n a\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {g}}(a)=2^{n/2}(-1)^{f(a)}}\n \n, so f and g are considered dual functions.[6]Every bent function has a Hamming weight (number of times it takes the value 1) of 2n−1 ± 2n/2−1, and in fact agrees with any affine function at one of those two numbers of points. So the nonlinearity of f (minimum number of times it equals any affine function) is 2n−1 − 2n/2−1, the maximum possible. Conversely, any Boolean function with nonlinearity 2n−1 − 2n/2−1 is bent.[4] The degree of f in algebraic normal form (called the nonlinear order of f) is at most n/2 (for n > 2).[5]Although bent functions are vanishingly rare among Boolean functions of many variables, they come in many different kinds. There has been detailed research into special classes of bent functions, such as the homogeneous ones[7] or those arising from a monomial over a finite field,[8] but so far the bent functions have defied all attempts at a complete enumeration or classification.","title":"Definition and properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bent-book-2"}],"text":"There are several types of constructions for bent functions.[2]Combinatorial constructions: iterative constructions, Maiorana–McFarland construction, partial spreads, Dillon's and Dobbertin's bent functions, minterm bent functions, bent iterative functions\nAlgebraic constructions: monomial bent functions with exponents of Gold, Dillon, Kasami, Canteaut–Leander and Canteaut–Charpin–Kuyreghyan; Niho bent functions, etc.","title":"Constructions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"maximum length sequences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_length_sequence"},{"link_name":"cross-correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-correlation"},{"link_name":"autocorrelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocorrelation"},{"link_name":"Gold codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_code"},{"link_name":"Kasami codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasami_code"},{"link_name":"CDMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seq-9"},{"link_name":"spread spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"strict avalanche criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict_avalanche_criterion"},{"link_name":"S-boxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-box"},{"link_name":"diffusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confusion_and_diffusion"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spectral-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sac-11"},{"link_name":"differential cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_cryptanalysis"},{"link_name":"balanced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_boolean_function"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nonlin-5"},{"link_name":"linear cryptanalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_cryptanalysis"},{"link_name":"stream cipher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_cipher"},{"link_name":"correlation attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_attack"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nonlin-5"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sac-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyberg-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-highly-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cast-14"},{"link_name":"Carlisle Adams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle_Adams"},{"link_name":"Stafford Tavares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stafford_Tavares"},{"link_name":"block ciphers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_ciphers"},{"link_name":"CAST-128","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAST-128"},{"link_name":"CAST-256","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAST-256"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cast-14"},{"link_name":"cryptographic hash function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function"},{"link_name":"HAVAL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HAVAL"},{"link_name":"equivalence classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_class"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-haval-15"},{"link_name":"Grain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grain_(cipher)"},{"link_name":"NLFSR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NLFSR"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grain-16"}],"text":"As early as 1982 it was discovered that maximum length sequences based on bent functions have cross-correlation and autocorrelation properties rivalling those of the Gold codes and Kasami codes for use in CDMA.[9] These sequences have several applications in spread spectrum techniques.The properties of bent functions are naturally of interest in modern digital cryptography, which seeks to obscure relationships between input and output. By 1988 Forré recognized that the Walsh transform of a function can be used to show that it satisfies the strict avalanche criterion (SAC) and higher-order generalizations, and recommended this tool to select candidates for good S-boxes achieving near-perfect diffusion.[10] Indeed, the functions satisfying the SAC to the highest possible order are always bent.[11] Furthermore, the bent functions are as far as possible from having what are called linear structures, nonzero vectors a such that f(x + a) + f(x) is a constant. In the language of differential cryptanalysis (introduced after this property was discovered) the derivative of a bent function f at every nonzero point a (that is, fa(x) = f(x + a) + f(x)) is a balanced Boolean function, taking on each value exactly half of the time. This property is called perfect nonlinearity.[5]Given such good diffusion properties, apparently perfect resistance to differential cryptanalysis, and resistance by definition to linear cryptanalysis, bent functions might at first seem the ideal choice for secure cryptographic functions such as S-boxes. Their fatal flaw is that they fail to be balanced. In particular, an invertible S-box cannot be constructed directly from bent functions, and a stream cipher using a bent combining function is vulnerable to a correlation attack. Instead, one might start with a bent function and randomly complement appropriate values until the result is balanced. The modified function still has high nonlinearity, and as such functions are very rare the process should be much faster than a brute-force search.[5] But functions produced in this way may lose other desirable properties, even failing to satisfy the SAC – so careful testing is necessary.[11] A number of cryptographers have worked on techniques for generating balanced functions that preserve as many of the good cryptographic qualities of bent functions as possible.[12][13][14]Some of this theoretical research has been incorporated into real cryptographic algorithms. The CAST design procedure, used by Carlisle Adams and Stafford Tavares to construct the S-boxes for the block ciphers CAST-128 and CAST-256, makes use of bent functions.[14] The cryptographic hash function HAVAL uses Boolean functions built from representatives of all four of the equivalence classes of bent functions on six variables.[15] The stream cipher Grain uses an NLFSR whose nonlinear feedback polynomial is, by design, the sum of a bent function and a linear function.[16]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bent-book-2"},{"link_name":"mod m","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyberg2-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gbf2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-semi-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-plat-20"},{"link_name":"bijective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijection"},{"link_name":"interpolation attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpolation_attack"}],"text":"More than 25 different generalizations of bent functions are described in Tokareva's 2015 monograph.[2] There are algebraic generalizations (q-valued bent functions, p-ary bent functions, bent functions over a finite field, generalized Boolean bent functions of Schmidt, bent functions from a finite Abelian group into the set of complex numbers on the unit circle, bent functions from a finite Abelian group into a finite Abelian group, non-Abelian bent functions, vectorial G-bent functions, multidimensional bent functions on a finite Abelian group), combinatorial generalizations (symmetric bent functions, homogeneous bent functions, rotation symmetric bent functions, normal bent functions, self-dual and anti-self-dual bent functions, partially defined bent functions, plateaued functions, Z-bent functions and quantum bent functions) and cryptographic generalizations (semi-bent functions, balanced bent functions, partially bent functions, hyper-bent functions, bent functions of higher order, k-bent functions).The most common class of generalized bent functions is the mod m type, \n \n \n \n f\n :\n \n \n Z\n \n \n m\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n Z\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:\\mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} _{m}}\n \n such thatf\n ^\n \n \n \n (\n a\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n x\n ∈\n \n \n Z\n \n \n m\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n \n \n 2\n π\n i\n \n m\n \n \n (\n f\n (\n x\n )\n −\n a\n ⋅\n x\n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\hat {f}}(a)=\\sum _{x\\in \\mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}}e^{{\\frac {2\\pi i}{m}}(f(x)-a\\cdot x)}}has constant absolute value mn/2. Perfect nonlinear functions \n \n \n \n f\n :\n \n \n Z\n \n \n m\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n Z\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:\\mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} _{m}}\n \n, those such that for all nonzero a, f(x + a) − f(a) takes on each value mn−1 times, are generalized bent. If m is prime, the converse is true. In most cases only prime m are considered. For odd prime m, there are generalized bent functions for every positive n, even and odd. They have many of the same good cryptographic properties as the binary bent functions.[17][18]Semi-bent functions are an odd-order counterpart to bent functions. A semi-bent function is \n \n \n \n f\n :\n \n \n Z\n \n \n m\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n Z\n \n \n m\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:\\mathbb {Z} _{m}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} _{m}}\n \n with n odd, such that \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n f\n ^\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left|{\\hat {f}}\\right|}\n \n takes only the values 0 and m(n+1)/2. They also have good cryptographic characteristics, and some of them are balanced, taking on all possible values equally often.[19]The partially bent functions form a large class defined by a condition on the Walsh transform and autocorrelation functions. All affine and bent functions are partially bent. This is in turn a proper subclass of the plateaued functions.[20]The idea behind the hyper-bent functions is to maximize the minimum distance to all Boolean functions coming from bijective monomials on the finite field GF(2n), not just the affine functions. For these functions this distance is constant, which may make them resistant to an interpolation attack.Other related names have been given to cryptographically important classes of functions \n \n \n \n f\n :\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n \n Z\n \n \n 2\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f:\\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}\\to \\mathbb {Z} _{2}^{n}}\n \n, such as almost bent functions and crooked functions. While not bent functions themselves (these are not even Boolean functions), they are closely related to the bent functions and have good nonlinearity properties.","title":"Generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CiteSeerX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1.1.55.531","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.55.531"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1034-4942","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1034-4942"},{"link_name":"Colbourn, Charles J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Colbourn"},{"link_name":"Dinitz, Jeffrey H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Dinitz"},{"link_name":"Handbook of Combinatorial Designs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/handbookofcombin0000unse/page/337"},{"link_name":"CRC Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press"},{"link_name":"337–339","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/handbookofcombin0000unse/page/337"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-58488-506-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58488-506-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780123748904","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123748904"}],"text":"C. Carlet (May 1993). Two New Classes of Bent Functions. Eurocrypt '93. pp. 77–101.\nJ. Seberry; X. Zhang (March 1994). \"Constructions of Bent Functions from Two Known Bent Functions\". Australasian Journal of Combinatorics. 9: 21–35. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.55.531. ISSN 1034-4942.\nColbourn, Charles J.; Dinitz, Jeffrey H. (2006). Handbook of Combinatorial Designs (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 337–339. ISBN 978-1-58488-506-1.\nCusick, T.W.; Stanica, P. (2009). Cryptographic Boolean Functions and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN 9780123748904.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"The four 2-ary Boolean functions with Hamming weight 1 are bent; i.e., their nonlinearity is 1 (these Hadamard matrices show the Hamming distance to each of the eight linear and affine functions). The following formula shows that a 2-ary function is bent when its nonlinearity is 1: \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n 2\n −\n 1\n \n \n −\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n 2\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n 2\n −\n 1\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{2-1}-2^{{\\frac {2}{2}}-1}=2-1=1}\n \n","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Boolean_functions_like_1000_nonlinearity.svg/220px-Boolean_functions_like_1000_nonlinearity.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The Boolean function \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ⊕\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n x\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1}x_{2}\\oplus x_{3}x_{4}}\n \n is bent; i.e., its nonlinearity is 6 (which is what these Hadamard Matrices show). The following formula shows that a 4-ary function is bent when its nonlinearity is 6: \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n 4\n −\n 1\n \n \n −\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 4\n 2\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n 8\n −\n 2\n =\n 6\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2^{4-1}-2^{{\\frac {4}{2}}-1}=8-2=6}\n \n","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/0001_0001_0001_1110_nonlinearity.svg/220px-0001_0001_0001_1110_nonlinearity.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"Correlation immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correlation_immunity"}]
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Second International Conference on Information and Communication Security (ICICS '99). pp. 284–300. Retrieved 24 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/old/291018.html","url_text":"Plateaued Functions"}]},{"reference":"C. Carlet (May 1993). Two New Classes of Bent Functions. Eurocrypt '93. pp. 77–101.","urls":[]},{"reference":"J. Seberry; X. Zhang (March 1994). \"Constructions of Bent Functions from Two Known Bent Functions\". Australasian Journal of Combinatorics. 9: 21–35. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.55.531. ISSN 1034-4942.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.55.531","url_text":"10.1.1.55.531"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1034-4942","url_text":"1034-4942"}]},{"reference":"Colbourn, Charles J.; Dinitz, Jeffrey H. (2006). Handbook of Combinatorial Designs (2nd ed.). CRC Press. pp. 337–339. ISBN 978-1-58488-506-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Colbourn","url_text":"Colbourn, Charles J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Dinitz","url_text":"Dinitz, Jeffrey H."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/handbookofcombin0000unse/page/337","url_text":"Handbook of Combinatorial Designs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press","url_text":"CRC Press"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/handbookofcombin0000unse/page/337","url_text":"337–339"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58488-506-1","url_text":"978-1-58488-506-1"}]},{"reference":"Cusick, T.W.; Stanica, P. (2009). Cryptographic Boolean Functions and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN 9780123748904.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123748904","url_text":"9780123748904"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(matrix)
Kernel (linear algebra)
["1 Properties","2 Application to modules","3 In functional analysis","4 Representation as matrix multiplication","4.1 Subspace properties","4.2 The row space of a matrix","4.3 Left null space","4.4 Nonhomogeneous systems of linear equations","5 Illustration","6 Examples","7 Computation by Gaussian elimination","8 Numerical computation","8.1 Exact coefficients","8.2 Floating point computation","9 See also","10 Notes and references","11 Bibliography","12 External links"]
Vectors mapped to 0 by a linear map For other uses, see Kernel (disambiguation). In mathematics, the kernel of a linear map, also known as the null space or nullspace, is the part (or linear subspace) of the domain which the map maps to the zero vector. That is, given a linear map L : V → W between two vector spaces V and W, the kernel of L is the vector space of all elements v of V such that L(v) = 0, where 0 denotes the zero vector in W, or more symbolically: ker ⁡ ( L ) = { v ∈ V ∣ L ( v ) = 0 } = L − 1 ( 0 ) . {\displaystyle \ker(L)=\left\{\mathbf {v} \in V\mid L(\mathbf {v} )=\mathbf {0} \right\}=L^{-1}(\mathbf {0} ).} Properties Kernel and image of a linear map L from V to W The kernel of L is a linear subspace of the domain V. In the linear map L : V → W , {\displaystyle L:V\to W,} two elements of V have the same image in W if and only if their difference lies in the kernel of L, that is, L ( v 1 ) = L ( v 2 )  if and only if  L ( v 1 − v 2 ) = 0 . {\displaystyle L\left(\mathbf {v} _{1}\right)=L\left(\mathbf {v} _{2}\right)\quad {\text{ if and only if }}\quad L\left(\mathbf {v} _{1}-\mathbf {v} _{2}\right)=\mathbf {0} .} From this, it follows that the image of L is isomorphic to the quotient of V by the kernel: im ⁡ ( L ) ≅ V / ker ⁡ ( L ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {im} (L)\cong V/\ker(L).} In the case where V is finite-dimensional, this implies the rank–nullity theorem: dim ⁡ ( ker ⁡ L ) + dim ⁡ ( im ⁡ L ) = dim ⁡ ( V ) . {\displaystyle \dim(\ker L)+\dim(\operatorname {im} L)=\dim(V).} where the term rank refers to the dimension of the image of L, dim ⁡ ( im ⁡ L ) , {\displaystyle \dim(\operatorname {im} L),} while nullity refers to the dimension of the kernel of L, dim ⁡ ( ker ⁡ L ) . {\displaystyle \dim(\ker L).} That is, Rank ⁡ ( L ) = dim ⁡ ( im ⁡ L )  and  Nullity ⁡ ( L ) = dim ⁡ ( ker ⁡ L ) , {\displaystyle \operatorname {Rank} (L)=\dim(\operatorname {im} L)\qquad {\text{ and }}\qquad \operatorname {Nullity} (L)=\dim(\ker L),} so that the rank–nullity theorem can be restated as Rank ⁡ ( L ) + Nullity ⁡ ( L ) = dim ⁡ ( domain ⁡ L ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Rank} (L)+\operatorname {Nullity} (L)=\dim \left(\operatorname {domain} L\right).} When V is an inner product space, the quotient V / ker ⁡ ( L ) {\displaystyle V/\ker(L)} can be identified with the orthogonal complement in V of ker ⁡ ( L ) {\displaystyle \ker(L)} This is the generalization to linear operators of the row space, or coimage, of a matrix. Application to modules Main article: Module (mathematics) The notion of kernel also makes sense for homomorphisms of modules, which are generalizations of vector spaces where the scalars are elements of a ring, rather than a field. The domain of the mapping is a module, with the kernel constituting a submodule. Here, the concepts of rank and nullity do not necessarily apply. In functional analysis Main article: Topological vector space If V and W are topological vector spaces such that W is finite-dimensional, then a linear operator L: V → W is continuous if and only if the kernel of L is a closed subspace of V. Representation as matrix multiplication Consider a linear map represented as a m × n matrix A with coefficients in a field K (typically R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } or C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } ), that is operating on column vectors x with n components over K. The kernel of this linear map is the set of solutions to the equation Ax = 0, where 0 is understood as the zero vector. The dimension of the kernel of A is called the nullity of A. In set-builder notation, N ⁡ ( A ) = Null ⁡ ( A ) = ker ⁡ ( A ) = { x ∈ K n ∣ A x = 0 } . {\displaystyle \operatorname {N} (A)=\operatorname {Null} (A)=\operatorname {ker} (A)=\left\{\mathbf {x} \in K^{n}\mid A\mathbf {x} =\mathbf {0} \right\}.} The matrix equation is equivalent to a homogeneous system of linear equations: A x = 0 ⇔ a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ⋯ + a 1 n x n = 0 a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ⋯ + a 2 n x n = 0 ⋮   a m 1 x 1 + a m 2 x 2 + ⋯ + a m n x n = 0 . {\displaystyle A\mathbf {x} =\mathbf {0} \;\;\Leftrightarrow \;\;{\begin{alignedat}{7}a_{11}x_{1}&&\;+\;&&a_{12}x_{2}&&\;+\;\cdots \;+\;&&a_{1n}x_{n}&&\;=\;&&&0\\a_{21}x_{1}&&\;+\;&&a_{22}x_{2}&&\;+\;\cdots \;+\;&&a_{2n}x_{n}&&\;=\;&&&0\\&&&&&&&&&&\vdots \ \;&&&\\a_{m1}x_{1}&&\;+\;&&a_{m2}x_{2}&&\;+\;\cdots \;+\;&&a_{mn}x_{n}&&\;=\;&&&0{\text{.}}\\\end{alignedat}}} Thus the kernel of A is the same as the solution set to the above homogeneous equations. Subspace properties The kernel of a m × n matrix A over a field K is a linear subspace of Kn. That is, the kernel of A, the set Null(A), has the following three properties: Null(A) always contains the zero vector, since A0 = 0. If x ∈ Null(A) and y ∈ Null(A), then x + y ∈ Null(A). This follows from the distributivity of matrix multiplication over addition. If x ∈ Null(A) and c is a scalar c ∈ K, then cx ∈ Null(A), since A(cx) = c(Ax) = c0 = 0. The row space of a matrix Main article: Rank–nullity theorem The product Ax can be written in terms of the dot product of vectors as follows: A x = [ a 1 ⋅ x a 2 ⋅ x ⋮ a m ⋅ x ] . {\displaystyle A\mathbf {x} ={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {a} _{1}\cdot \mathbf {x} \\\mathbf {a} _{2}\cdot \mathbf {x} \\\vdots \\\mathbf {a} _{m}\cdot \mathbf {x} \end{bmatrix}}.} Here, a1, ... , am denote the rows of the matrix A. It follows that x is in the kernel of A, if and only if x is orthogonal (or perpendicular) to each of the row vectors of A (since orthogonality is defined as having a dot product of 0). The row space, or coimage, of a matrix A is the span of the row vectors of A. By the above reasoning, the kernel of A is the orthogonal complement to the row space. That is, a vector x lies in the kernel of A, if and only if it is perpendicular to every vector in the row space of A. The dimension of the row space of A is called the rank of A, and the dimension of the kernel of A is called the nullity of A. These quantities are related by the rank–nullity theorem rank ⁡ ( A ) + nullity ⁡ ( A ) = n . {\displaystyle \operatorname {rank} (A)+\operatorname {nullity} (A)=n.} Left null space The left null space, or cokernel, of a matrix A consists of all column vectors x such that xTA = 0T, where T denotes the transpose of a matrix. The left null space of A is the same as the kernel of AT. The left null space of A is the orthogonal complement to the column space of A, and is dual to the cokernel of the associated linear transformation. The kernel, the row space, the column space, and the left null space of A are the four fundamental subspaces associated with the matrix A. Nonhomogeneous systems of linear equations The kernel also plays a role in the solution to a nonhomogeneous system of linear equations: A x = b or a 11 x 1 + a 12 x 2 + ⋯ + a 1 n x n = b 1 a 21 x 1 + a 22 x 2 + ⋯ + a 2 n x n = b 2 ⋮   a m 1 x 1 + a m 2 x 2 + ⋯ + a m n x n = b m {\displaystyle A\mathbf {x} =\mathbf {b} \quad {\text{or}}\quad {\begin{alignedat}{7}a_{11}x_{1}&&\;+\;&&a_{12}x_{2}&&\;+\;\cdots \;+\;&&a_{1n}x_{n}&&\;=\;&&&b_{1}\\a_{21}x_{1}&&\;+\;&&a_{22}x_{2}&&\;+\;\cdots \;+\;&&a_{2n}x_{n}&&\;=\;&&&b_{2}\\&&&&&&&&&&\vdots \ \;&&&\\a_{m1}x_{1}&&\;+\;&&a_{m2}x_{2}&&\;+\;\cdots \;+\;&&a_{mn}x_{n}&&\;=\;&&&b_{m}\\\end{alignedat}}} If u and v are two possible solutions to the above equation, then A ( u − v ) = A u − A v = b − b = 0 {\displaystyle A(\mathbf {u} -\mathbf {v} )=A\mathbf {u} -A\mathbf {v} =\mathbf {b} -\mathbf {b} =\mathbf {0} \,} Thus, the difference of any two solutions to the equation Ax = b lies in the kernel of A. It follows that any solution to the equation Ax = b can be expressed as the sum of a fixed solution v and an arbitrary element of the kernel. That is, the solution set to the equation Ax = b is { v + x ∣ A v = b ∧ x ∈ Null ⁡ ( A ) } , {\displaystyle \left\{\mathbf {v} +\mathbf {x} \mid A\mathbf {v} =\mathbf {b} \land \mathbf {x} \in \operatorname {Null} (A)\right\},} Geometrically, this says that the solution set to Ax = b is the translation of the kernel of A by the vector v. See also Fredholm alternative and flat (geometry). Illustration The following is a simple illustration of the computation of the kernel of a matrix (see § Computation by Gaussian elimination, below for methods better suited to more complex calculations). The illustration also touches on the row space and its relation to the kernel. Consider the matrix A = [ 2 3 5 − 4 2 3 ] . {\displaystyle A={\begin{bmatrix}2&3&5\\-4&2&3\end{bmatrix}}.} The kernel of this matrix consists of all vectors (x, y, z) ∈ R3 for which [ 2 3 5 − 4 2 3 ] [ x y z ] = [ 0 0 ] , {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&3&5\\-4&2&3\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\end{bmatrix}},} which can be expressed as a homogeneous system of linear equations involving x, y, and z: 2 x + 3 y + 5 z = 0 , − 4 x + 2 y + 3 z = 0. {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}2x+3y+5z&=0,\\-4x+2y+3z&=0.\end{aligned}}} The same linear equations can also be written in matrix form as: [ 2 3 5 0 − 4 2 3 0 ] . {\displaystyle \left.} Through Gauss–Jordan elimination, the matrix can be reduced to: [ 1 0 1 / 16 0 0 1 13 / 8 0 ] . {\displaystyle \left.} Rewriting the matrix in equation form yields: x = − 1 16 z y = − 13 8 z . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}x&=-{\frac {1}{16}}z\\y&=-{\frac {13}{8}}z.\end{aligned}}} The elements of the kernel can be further expressed in parametric vector form, as follows: [ x y z ] = c [ − 1 / 16 − 13 / 8 1 ] ( where  c ∈ R ) {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}}=c{\begin{bmatrix}-1/16\\-13/8\\1\end{bmatrix}}\quad ({\text{where }}c\in \mathbb {R} )} Since c is a free variable ranging over all real numbers, this can be expressed equally well as: [ x y z ] = c [ − 1 − 26 16 ] . {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}x\\y\\z\end{bmatrix}}=c{\begin{bmatrix}-1\\-26\\16\end{bmatrix}}.} The kernel of A is precisely the solution set to these equations (in this case, a line through the origin in R3). Here, since the vector (−1,−26,16)T constitutes a basis of the kernel of A. The nullity of A is 1. The following dot products are zero: [ 2 3 5 ] [ − 1 − 26 16 ] = 0 a n d [ − 4 2 3 ] [ − 1 − 26 16 ] = 0 , {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}2&3&5\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}-1\\-26\\16\end{bmatrix}}=0\quad \mathrm {and} \quad {\begin{bmatrix}-4&2&3\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}-1\\-26\\16\end{bmatrix}}=0\mathrm {,} } which illustrates that vectors in the kernel of A are orthogonal to each of the row vectors of A. These two (linearly independent) row vectors span the row space of A—a plane orthogonal to the vector (−1,−26,16)T. With the rank 2 of A, the nullity 1 of A, and the dimension 3 of A, we have an illustration of the rank-nullity theorem. Examples If L: Rm → Rn, then the kernel of L is the solution set to a homogeneous system of linear equations. As in the above illustration, if L is the operator: L ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) = ( 2 x 1 + 3 x 2 + 5 x 3 , − 4 x 1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 ) {\displaystyle L(x_{1},x_{2},x_{3})=(2x_{1}+3x_{2}+5x_{3},\;-4x_{1}+2x_{2}+3x_{3})} then the kernel of L is the set of solutions to the equations 2 x 1 + 3 x 2 + 5 x 3 = 0 − 4 x 1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x 3 = 0 {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{7}2x_{1}&\;+\;&3x_{2}&\;+\;&5x_{3}&\;=\;&0\\-4x_{1}&\;+\;&2x_{2}&\;+\;&3x_{3}&\;=\;&0\end{alignedat}}} Let C denote the vector space of all continuous real-valued functions on the interval , and define L: C → R by the rule L ( f ) = f ( 0.3 ) . {\displaystyle L(f)=f(0.3).} Then the kernel of L consists of all functions f ∈ C for which f(0.3) = 0. Let C∞(R) be the vector space of all infinitely differentiable functions R → R, and let D: C∞(R) → C∞(R) be the differentiation operator: D ( f ) = d f d x . {\displaystyle D(f)={\frac {df}{dx}}.} Then the kernel of D consists of all functions in C∞(R) whose derivatives are zero, i.e. the set of all constant functions. Let R∞ be the direct product of infinitely many copies of R, and let s: R∞ → R∞ be the shift operator s ( x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , … ) = ( x 2 , x 3 , x 4 , … ) . {\displaystyle s(x_{1},x_{2},x_{3},x_{4},\ldots )=(x_{2},x_{3},x_{4},\ldots ).} Then the kernel of s is the one-dimensional subspace consisting of all vectors (x1, 0, 0, 0, ...). If V is an inner product space and W is a subspace, the kernel of the orthogonal projection V → W is the orthogonal complement to W in V. Computation by Gaussian elimination A basis of the kernel of a matrix may be computed by Gaussian elimination. For this purpose, given an m × n matrix A, we construct first the row augmented matrix [ A I ] , {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}A\\\hline I\end{bmatrix}},} where I is the n × n identity matrix. Computing its column echelon form by Gaussian elimination (or any other suitable method), we get a matrix [ B C ] . {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}B\\\hline C\end{bmatrix}}.} A basis of the kernel of A consists in the non-zero columns of C such that the corresponding column of B is a zero column. In fact, the computation may be stopped as soon as the upper matrix is in column echelon form: the remainder of the computation consists in changing the basis of the vector space generated by the columns whose upper part is zero. For example, suppose that A = [ 1 0 − 3 0 2 − 8 0 1 5 0 − 1 4 0 0 0 1 7 − 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 ] . {\displaystyle A={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&-3&0&2&-8\\0&1&5&0&-1&4\\0&0&0&1&7&-9\\0&0&0&0&0&0\end{bmatrix}}.} Then [ A I ] = [ 1 0 − 3 0 2 − 8 0 1 5 0 − 1 4 0 0 0 1 7 − 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ] . {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}A\\\hline I\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&-3&0&2&-8\\0&1&5&0&-1&4\\0&0&0&1&7&-9\\0&0&0&0&0&0\\\hline 1&0&0&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0&0&0\\0&0&1&0&0&0\\0&0&0&1&0&0\\0&0&0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}.} Putting the upper part in column echelon form by column operations on the whole matrix gives [ B C ] = [ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 3 − 2 8 0 1 0 − 5 1 − 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 − 7 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ] . {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}B\\\hline C\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0&0&0\\0&0&1&0&0&0\\0&0&0&0&0&0\\\hline 1&0&0&3&-2&8\\0&1&0&-5&1&-4\\0&0&0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&0&-7&9\\0&0&0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&0&0&1\end{bmatrix}}.} The last three columns of B are zero columns. Therefore, the three last vectors of C, [ 3 − 5 1 0 0 0 ] , [ − 2 1 0 − 7 1 0 ] , [ 8 − 4 0 9 0 1 ] {\displaystyle \left,\;\left,\;\left} are a basis of the kernel of A. Proof that the method computes the kernel: Since column operations correspond to post-multiplication by invertible matrices, the fact that [ A I ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}A\\\hline I\end{bmatrix}}} reduces to [ B C ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}B\\\hline C\end{bmatrix}}} means that there exists an invertible matrix P {\displaystyle P} such that [ A I ] P = [ B C ] , {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}A\\\hline I\end{bmatrix}}P={\begin{bmatrix}B\\\hline C\end{bmatrix}},} with B {\displaystyle B} in column echelon form. Thus A P = B , {\displaystyle AP=B,} I P = C , {\displaystyle IP=C,} and A C = B . {\displaystyle AC=B.} A column vector v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } belongs to the kernel of A {\displaystyle A} (that is A v = 0 {\displaystyle A\mathbf {v} =\mathbf {0} } ) if and only if B w = 0 , {\displaystyle B\mathbf {w} =\mathbf {0} ,} where w = P − 1 v = C − 1 v . {\displaystyle \mathbf {w} =P^{-1}\mathbf {v} =C^{-1}\mathbf {v} .} As B {\displaystyle B} is in column echelon form, B w = 0 , {\displaystyle B\mathbf {w} =\mathbf {0} ,} if and only if the nonzero entries of w {\displaystyle \mathbf {w} } correspond to the zero columns of B . {\displaystyle B.} By multiplying by C {\displaystyle C} , one may deduce that this is the case if and only if v = C w {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} =C\mathbf {w} } is a linear combination of the corresponding columns of C . {\displaystyle C.} Numerical computation The problem of computing the kernel on a computer depends on the nature of the coefficients. Exact coefficients If the coefficients of the matrix are exactly given numbers, the column echelon form of the matrix may be computed with Bareiss algorithm more efficiently than with Gaussian elimination. It is even more efficient to use modular arithmetic and Chinese remainder theorem, which reduces the problem to several similar ones over finite fields (this avoids the overhead induced by the non-linearity of the computational complexity of integer multiplication). For coefficients in a finite field, Gaussian elimination works well, but for the large matrices that occur in cryptography and Gröbner basis computation, better algorithms are known, which have roughly the same computational complexity, but are faster and behave better with modern computer hardware. Floating point computation For matrices whose entries are floating-point numbers, the problem of computing the kernel makes sense only for matrices such that the number of rows is equal to their rank: because of the rounding errors, a floating-point matrix has almost always a full rank, even when it is an approximation of a matrix of a much smaller rank. Even for a full-rank matrix, it is possible to compute its kernel only if it is well conditioned, i.e. it has a low condition number. Even for a well conditioned full rank matrix, Gaussian elimination does not behave correctly: it introduces rounding errors that are too large for getting a significant result. As the computation of the kernel of a matrix is a special instance of solving a homogeneous system of linear equations, the kernel may be computed with any of the various algorithms designed to solve homogeneous systems. A state of the art software for this purpose is the Lapack library. See also Kernel (algebra) Zero set System of linear equations Row and column spaces Row reduction Four fundamental subspaces Vector space Linear subspace Linear operator Function space Fredholm alternative Notes and references ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Kernel". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09. ^ a b "Kernel (Nullspace) | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki". brilliant.org. Retrieved 2019-12-09. ^ Linear algebra, as discussed in this article, is a very well established mathematical discipline for which there are many sources. Almost all of the material in this article can be found in Lay 2005, Meyer 2001, and Strang's lectures. ^ a b Weisstein, Eric W. "Rank-Nullity Theorem". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2015-04-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Bibliography See also: Linear algebra § Further reading Axler, Sheldon Jay (1997), Linear Algebra Done Right (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-98259-0. Lay, David C. (2005), Linear Algebra and Its Applications (3rd ed.), Addison Wesley, ISBN 978-0-321-28713-7. Meyer, Carl D. (2001), Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), ISBN 978-0-89871-454-8, archived from the original on 2009-10-31. Poole, David (2006), Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction (2nd ed.), Brooks/Cole, ISBN 0-534-99845-3. Anton, Howard (2005), Elementary Linear Algebra (Applications Version) (9th ed.), Wiley International. Leon, Steven J. (2006), Linear Algebra With Applications (7th ed.), Pearson Prentice Hall. Lang, Serge (1987). Linear Algebra. Springer. ISBN 9780387964126. Trefethen, Lloyd N.; Bau, David III (1997), Numerical Linear Algebra, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-89871-361-9. External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Linear Algebra/Null Spaces "Kernel of a matrix", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 Khan Academy, Introduction to the Null Space of a Matrix vteLinear algebra Outline Glossary Basic concepts Scalar Vector Vector space Scalar multiplication Vector projection Linear span Linear map Linear projection Linear independence Linear combination Basis Change of basis Row and column vectors Row and column spaces Kernel Eigenvalues and eigenvectors Transpose Linear equations Matrices Block Decomposition Invertible Minor Multiplication Rank Transformation Cramer's rule Gaussian elimination Bilinear Orthogonality Dot product Hadamard product Inner product space Outer product Kronecker product Gram–Schmidt process Multilinear algebra Determinant Cross product Triple product Seven-dimensional cross product Geometric algebra Exterior algebra Bivector Multivector Tensor Outermorphism Vector space constructions Dual Direct sum Function space Quotient Subspace Tensor product Numerical Floating-point Numerical stability Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms Sparse matrix Comparison of linear algebra libraries Category
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kernel (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"linear map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"linear subspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_subspace"},{"link_name":"domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"vector spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"zero vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_vector"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"}],"text":"For other uses, see Kernel (disambiguation).In mathematics, the kernel of a linear map, also known as the null space or nullspace, is the part (or linear subspace) of the domain which the map maps to the zero vector.[1] That is, given a linear map L : V → W between two vector spaces V and W, the kernel of L is the vector space of all elements v of V such that L(v) = 0, where 0 denotes the zero vector in W,[2] or more symbolically:ker\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n =\n \n {\n \n \n v\n \n ∈\n V\n ∣\n L\n (\n \n v\n \n )\n =\n \n 0\n \n \n }\n \n =\n \n L\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n 0\n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ker(L)=\\left\\{\\mathbf {v} \\in V\\mid L(\\mathbf {v} )=\\mathbf {0} \\right\\}=L^{-1}(\\mathbf {0} ).}","title":"Kernel (linear algebra)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kernel_and_image_of_linear_map.svg"},{"link_name":"linear subspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_subspace"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-textbooks-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"isomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space_isomorphism"},{"link_name":"quotient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_space_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"},{"link_name":"inner product space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_product_space"},{"link_name":"orthogonal complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_complement"},{"link_name":"row space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_space"}],"text":"Kernel and image of a linear map L from V to WThe kernel of L is a linear subspace of the domain V.[3][2]\nIn the linear map \n \n \n \n L\n :\n V\n →\n W\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L:V\\to W,}\n \n two elements of V have the same image in W if and only if their difference lies in the kernel of L, that is,L\n \n (\n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n )\n \n =\n L\n \n (\n \n \n v\n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n  if and only if \n \n \n L\n \n (\n \n \n \n v\n \n \n 1\n \n \n −\n \n \n v\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L\\left(\\mathbf {v} _{1}\\right)=L\\left(\\mathbf {v} _{2}\\right)\\quad {\\text{ if and only if }}\\quad L\\left(\\mathbf {v} _{1}-\\mathbf {v} _{2}\\right)=\\mathbf {0} .}From this, it follows that the image of L is isomorphic to the quotient of V by the kernel:im\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n ≅\n V\n \n /\n \n ker\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {im} (L)\\cong V/\\ker(L).}Vfinite-dimensionalrank–nullity theoremdim\n ⁡\n (\n ker\n ⁡\n L\n )\n +\n dim\n ⁡\n (\n im\n ⁡\n L\n )\n =\n dim\n ⁡\n (\n V\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim(\\ker L)+\\dim(\\operatorname {im} L)=\\dim(V).}rankLdim\n ⁡\n (\n im\n ⁡\n L\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim(\\operatorname {im} L),}nullityLdim\n ⁡\n (\n ker\n ⁡\n L\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\dim(\\ker L).}[4]Rank\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n =\n dim\n ⁡\n (\n im\n ⁡\n L\n )\n \n \n  and \n \n \n Nullity\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n =\n dim\n ⁡\n (\n ker\n ⁡\n L\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Rank} (L)=\\dim(\\operatorname {im} L)\\qquad {\\text{ and }}\\qquad \\operatorname {Nullity} (L)=\\dim(\\ker L),}Rank\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n +\n Nullity\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n =\n dim\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n domain\n ⁡\n L\n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Rank} (L)+\\operatorname {Nullity} (L)=\\dim \\left(\\operatorname {domain} L\\right).}When V is an inner product space, the quotient \n \n \n \n V\n \n /\n \n ker\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V/\\ker(L)}\n \n can be identified with the orthogonal complement in V of \n \n \n \n ker\n ⁡\n (\n L\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ker(L)}\n \n This is the generalization to linear operators of the row space, or coimage, of a matrix.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"homomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphism"},{"link_name":"modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"submodule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submodule"}],"text":"The notion of kernel also makes sense for homomorphisms of modules, which are generalizations of vector spaces where the scalars are elements of a ring, rather than a field. The domain of the mapping is a module, with the kernel constituting a submodule. Here, the concepts of rank and nullity do not necessarily apply.","title":"Application to modules"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"topological vector spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_vector_space"},{"link_name":"continuous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_linear_operator"},{"link_name":"closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_set"}],"text":"If V and W are topological vector spaces such that W is finite-dimensional, then a linear operator L: V → W is continuous if and only if the kernel of L is a closed subspace of V.","title":"In functional analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"zero vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_vector"},{"link_name":"dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(vector_space)"},{"link_name":"set-builder notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set-builder_notation"},{"link_name":"system of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations"}],"text":"Consider a linear map represented as a m × n matrix A with coefficients in a field K (typically \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} }\n \n), that is operating on column vectors x with n components over K.\nThe kernel of this linear map is the set of solutions to the equation Ax = 0, where 0 is understood as the zero vector. The dimension of the kernel of A is called the nullity of A. In set-builder notation,N\n ⁡\n (\n A\n )\n =\n Null\n ⁡\n (\n A\n )\n =\n ker\n ⁡\n (\n A\n )\n =\n \n {\n \n \n x\n \n ∈\n \n K\n \n n\n \n \n ∣\n A\n \n x\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n \n }\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {N} (A)=\\operatorname {Null} (A)=\\operatorname {ker} (A)=\\left\\{\\mathbf {x} \\in K^{n}\\mid A\\mathbf {x} =\\mathbf {0} \\right\\}.}The matrix equation is equivalent to a homogeneous system of linear equations:A\n \n x\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n \n \n ⇔\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 11\n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 12\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n ⋯\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 21\n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 22\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n ⋯\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n  \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n m\n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n m\n 2\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n ⋯\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n m\n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\mathbf {x} =\\mathbf {0} \\;\\;\\Leftrightarrow \\;\\;{\\begin{alignedat}{7}a_{11}x_{1}&&\\;+\\;&&a_{12}x_{2}&&\\;+\\;\\cdots \\;+\\;&&a_{1n}x_{n}&&\\;=\\;&&&0\\\\a_{21}x_{1}&&\\;+\\;&&a_{22}x_{2}&&\\;+\\;\\cdots \\;+\\;&&a_{2n}x_{n}&&\\;=\\;&&&0\\\\&&&&&&&&&&\\vdots \\ \\;&&&\\\\a_{m1}x_{1}&&\\;+\\;&&a_{m2}x_{2}&&\\;+\\;\\cdots \\;+\\;&&a_{mn}x_{n}&&\\;=\\;&&&0{\\text{.}}\\\\\\end{alignedat}}}Thus the kernel of A is the same as the solution set to the above homogeneous equations.","title":"Representation as matrix multiplication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"linear subspace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_subspace"},{"link_name":"zero vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_vector"},{"link_name":"scalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(mathematics)"}],"sub_title":"Subspace properties","text":"The kernel of a m × n matrix A over a field K is a linear subspace of Kn. That is, the kernel of A, the set Null(A), has the following three properties:Null(A) always contains the zero vector, since A0 = 0.\nIf x ∈ Null(A) and y ∈ Null(A), then x + y ∈ Null(A). This follows from the distributivity of matrix multiplication over addition.\nIf x ∈ Null(A) and c is a scalar c ∈ K, then cx ∈ Null(A), since A(cx) = c(Ax) = c0 = 0.","title":"Representation as matrix multiplication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dot product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"orthogonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality"},{"link_name":"row space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row_space"},{"link_name":"span","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_span"},{"link_name":"orthogonal complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_complement"},{"link_name":"rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"rank–nullity theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rank%E2%80%93nullity_theorem"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-4"}],"sub_title":"The row space of a matrix","text":"The product Ax can be written in terms of the dot product of vectors as follows:A\n \n x\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n m\n \n \n ⋅\n \n x\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\mathbf {x} ={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {a} _{1}\\cdot \\mathbf {x} \\\\\\mathbf {a} _{2}\\cdot \\mathbf {x} \\\\\\vdots \\\\\\mathbf {a} _{m}\\cdot \\mathbf {x} \\end{bmatrix}}.}Here, a1, ... , am denote the rows of the matrix A. It follows that x is in the kernel of A, if and only if x is orthogonal (or perpendicular) to each of the row vectors of A (since orthogonality is defined as having a dot product of 0).The row space, or coimage, of a matrix A is the span of the row vectors of A. By the above reasoning, the kernel of A is the orthogonal complement to the row space. That is, a vector x lies in the kernel of A, if and only if it is perpendicular to every vector in the row space of A.The dimension of the row space of A is called the rank of A, and the dimension of the kernel of A is called the nullity of A. These quantities are related by the rank–nullity theorem[4]rank\n ⁡\n (\n A\n )\n +\n nullity\n ⁡\n (\n A\n )\n =\n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {rank} (A)+\\operatorname {nullity} (A)=n.}","title":"Representation as matrix multiplication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cokernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cokernel"},{"link_name":"transpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose"},{"link_name":"column space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_space"},{"link_name":"cokernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cokernel"}],"sub_title":"Left null space","text":"The left null space, or cokernel, of a matrix A consists of all column vectors x such that xTA = 0T, where T denotes the transpose of a matrix. The left null space of A is the same as the kernel of AT. The left null space of A is the orthogonal complement to the column space of A, and is dual to the cokernel of the associated linear transformation. The kernel, the row space, the column space, and the left null space of A are the four fundamental subspaces associated with the matrix A.","title":"Representation as matrix multiplication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"Fredholm alternative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredholm_alternative"},{"link_name":"flat (geometry)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_(geometry)"}],"sub_title":"Nonhomogeneous systems of linear equations","text":"The kernel also plays a role in the solution to a nonhomogeneous system of linear equations:A\n \n x\n \n =\n \n b\n \n \n \n or\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 11\n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 12\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n ⋯\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 1\n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n b\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 21\n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 22\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n ⋯\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 2\n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n b\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n  \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n m\n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n m\n 2\n \n \n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n ⋯\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n m\n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n b\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\mathbf {x} =\\mathbf {b} \\quad {\\text{or}}\\quad {\\begin{alignedat}{7}a_{11}x_{1}&&\\;+\\;&&a_{12}x_{2}&&\\;+\\;\\cdots \\;+\\;&&a_{1n}x_{n}&&\\;=\\;&&&b_{1}\\\\a_{21}x_{1}&&\\;+\\;&&a_{22}x_{2}&&\\;+\\;\\cdots \\;+\\;&&a_{2n}x_{n}&&\\;=\\;&&&b_{2}\\\\&&&&&&&&&&\\vdots \\ \\;&&&\\\\a_{m1}x_{1}&&\\;+\\;&&a_{m2}x_{2}&&\\;+\\;\\cdots \\;+\\;&&a_{mn}x_{n}&&\\;=\\;&&&b_{m}\\\\\\end{alignedat}}}If u and v are two possible solutions to the above equation, thenA\n (\n \n u\n \n −\n \n v\n \n )\n =\n A\n \n u\n \n −\n A\n \n v\n \n =\n \n b\n \n −\n \n b\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(\\mathbf {u} -\\mathbf {v} )=A\\mathbf {u} -A\\mathbf {v} =\\mathbf {b} -\\mathbf {b} =\\mathbf {0} \\,}Thus, the difference of any two solutions to the equation Ax = b lies in the kernel of A.It follows that any solution to the equation Ax = b can be expressed as the sum of a fixed solution v and an arbitrary element of the kernel. That is, the solution set to the equation Ax = b is{\n \n \n v\n \n +\n \n x\n \n ∣\n A\n \n v\n \n =\n \n b\n \n ∧\n \n x\n \n ∈\n Null\n ⁡\n (\n A\n )\n \n }\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\{\\mathbf {v} +\\mathbf {x} \\mid A\\mathbf {v} =\\mathbf {b} \\land \\mathbf {x} \\in \\operatorname {Null} (A)\\right\\},}Geometrically, this says that the solution set to Ax = b is the translation of the kernel of A by the vector v. See also Fredholm alternative and flat (geometry).","title":"Representation as matrix multiplication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"§ Computation by Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Computation_by_Gaussian_elimination"},{"link_name":"R3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_coordinate_space"},{"link_name":"system of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations"},{"link_name":"Gauss–Jordan elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%E2%80%93Jordan_elimination"},{"link_name":"parametric vector form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parametric_equations"},{"link_name":"free variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variables_(system_of_linear_equations)"},{"link_name":"line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_(geometry)"},{"link_name":"basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)"}],"text":"The following is a simple illustration of the computation of the kernel of a matrix (see § Computation by Gaussian elimination, below for methods better suited to more complex calculations). The illustration also touches on the row space and its relation to the kernel.Consider the matrixA\n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A={\\begin{bmatrix}2&3&5\\\\-4&2&3\\end{bmatrix}}.}The kernel of this matrix consists of all vectors (x, y, z) ∈ R3 for which[\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}2&3&5\\\\-4&2&3\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}x\\\\y\\\\z\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}0\\\\0\\end{bmatrix}},}which can be expressed as a homogeneous system of linear equations involving x, y, and z:2\n x\n +\n 3\n y\n +\n 5\n z\n \n \n \n =\n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n \n −\n 4\n x\n +\n 2\n y\n +\n 3\n z\n \n \n \n =\n 0.\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}2x+3y+5z&=0,\\\\-4x+2y+3z&=0.\\end{aligned}}}The same linear equations can also be written in matrix form as:[\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left[{\\begin{array}{ccc|c}2&3&5&0\\\\-4&2&3&0\\end{array}}\\right].}Through Gauss–Jordan elimination, the matrix can be reduced to:[\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 16\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 13\n \n /\n \n 8\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left[{\\begin{array}{ccc|c}1&0&1/16&0\\\\0&1&13/8&0\\end{array}}\\right].}Rewriting the matrix in equation form yields:x\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n 1\n 16\n \n \n z\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n 13\n 8\n \n \n z\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}x&=-{\\frac {1}{16}}z\\\\y&=-{\\frac {13}{8}}z.\\end{aligned}}}The elements of the kernel can be further expressed in parametric vector form, as follows:[\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n c\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n /\n \n 16\n \n \n \n \n −\n 13\n \n /\n \n 8\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n (\n \n where \n \n c\n ∈\n \n R\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}x\\\\y\\\\z\\end{bmatrix}}=c{\\begin{bmatrix}-1/16\\\\-13/8\\\\1\\end{bmatrix}}\\quad ({\\text{where }}c\\in \\mathbb {R} )}Since c is a free variable ranging over all real numbers, this can be expressed equally well as:[\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n z\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n c\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n −\n 26\n \n \n \n \n 16\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}x\\\\y\\\\z\\end{bmatrix}}=c{\\begin{bmatrix}-1\\\\-26\\\\16\\end{bmatrix}}.}The kernel of A is precisely the solution set to these equations (in this case, a line through the origin in R3). Here, since the vector (−1,−26,16)T constitutes a basis of the kernel of A. The nullity of A is 1.The following dot products are zero:[\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n −\n 26\n \n \n \n \n 16\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n a\n n\n d\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n 2\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n −\n 26\n \n \n \n \n 16\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}2&3&5\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}-1\\\\-26\\\\16\\end{bmatrix}}=0\\quad \\mathrm {and} \\quad {\\begin{bmatrix}-4&2&3\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}-1\\\\-26\\\\16\\end{bmatrix}}=0\\mathrm {,} }which illustrates that vectors in the kernel of A are orthogonal to each of the row vectors of A.These two (linearly independent) row vectors span the row space of A—a plane orthogonal to the vector (−1,−26,16)T.With the rank 2 of A, the nullity 1 of A, and the dimension 3 of A, we have an illustration of the rank-nullity theorem.","title":"Illustration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"system of linear equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_of_linear_equations"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"differentiation operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_operator"},{"link_name":"constant functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_function"},{"link_name":"direct product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_product"},{"link_name":"shift operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_operator"},{"link_name":"inner product space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_product_space"},{"link_name":"orthogonal projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projection_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"orthogonal complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_complement"}],"text":"If L: Rm → Rn, then the kernel of L is the solution set to a homogeneous system of linear equations. As in the above illustration, if L is the operator: \n \n \n \n L\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n =\n (\n 2\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n 3\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 5\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n ,\n \n −\n 4\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n 2\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 3\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L(x_{1},x_{2},x_{3})=(2x_{1}+3x_{2}+5x_{3},\\;-4x_{1}+2x_{2}+3x_{3})}\n \n then the kernel of L is the set of solutions to the equations \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 3\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 5\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 4\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 2\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n \n \n 3\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{7}2x_{1}&\\;+\\;&3x_{2}&\\;+\\;&5x_{3}&\\;=\\;&0\\\\-4x_{1}&\\;+\\;&2x_{2}&\\;+\\;&3x_{3}&\\;=\\;&0\\end{alignedat}}}\n \n\nLet C[0,1] denote the vector space of all continuous real-valued functions on the interval [0,1], and define L: C[0,1] → R by the rule \n \n \n \n L\n (\n f\n )\n =\n f\n (\n 0.3\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L(f)=f(0.3).}\n \n Then the kernel of L consists of all functions f ∈ C[0,1] for which f(0.3) = 0.\nLet C∞(R) be the vector space of all infinitely differentiable functions R → R, and let D: C∞(R) → C∞(R) be the differentiation operator: \n \n \n \n D\n (\n f\n )\n =\n \n \n \n d\n f\n \n \n d\n x\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle D(f)={\\frac {df}{dx}}.}\n \n Then the kernel of D consists of all functions in C∞(R) whose derivatives are zero, i.e. the set of all constant functions.\nLet R∞ be the direct product of infinitely many copies of R, and let s: R∞ → R∞ be the shift operator \n \n \n \n s\n (\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 4\n \n \n ,\n …\n )\n =\n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 4\n \n \n ,\n …\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s(x_{1},x_{2},x_{3},x_{4},\\ldots )=(x_{2},x_{3},x_{4},\\ldots ).}\n \n Then the kernel of s is the one-dimensional subspace consisting of all vectors (x1, 0, 0, 0, ...).\nIf V is an inner product space and W is a subspace, the kernel of the orthogonal projection V → W is the orthogonal complement to W in V.","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination"},{"link_name":"augmented matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_matrix"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"column echelon form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_echelon_form"},{"link_name":"zero column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_matrix"}],"text":"A basis of the kernel of a matrix may be computed by Gaussian elimination.For this purpose, given an m × n matrix A, we construct first the row augmented matrix \n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}A\\\\\\hline I\\end{bmatrix}},}\n \n where I is the n × n identity matrix.Computing its column echelon form by Gaussian elimination (or any other suitable method), we get a matrix \n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}B\\\\\\hline C\\end{bmatrix}}.}\n \n A basis of the kernel of A consists in the non-zero columns of C such that the corresponding column of B is a zero column.In fact, the computation may be stopped as soon as the upper matrix is in column echelon form: the remainder of the computation consists in changing the basis of the vector space generated by the columns whose upper part is zero.For example, suppose thatA\n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 8\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 7\n \n \n −\n 9\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A={\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&-3&0&2&-8\\\\0&1&5&0&-1&4\\\\0&0&0&1&7&-9\\\\0&0&0&0&0&0\\end{bmatrix}}.}Then[\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 3\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n 8\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 5\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 7\n \n \n −\n 9\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}A\\\\\\hline I\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&-3&0&2&-8\\\\0&1&5&0&-1&4\\\\0&0&0&1&7&-9\\\\0&0&0&0&0&0\\\\\\hline 1&0&0&0&0&0\\\\0&1&0&0&0&0\\\\0&0&1&0&0&0\\\\0&0&0&1&0&0\\\\0&0&0&0&1&0\\\\0&0&0&0&0&1\\end{bmatrix}}.}Putting the upper part in column echelon form by column operations on the whole matrix gives[\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n 8\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n 1\n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n −\n 7\n \n \n 9\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}B\\\\\\hline C\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}1&0&0&0&0&0\\\\0&1&0&0&0&0\\\\0&0&1&0&0&0\\\\0&0&0&0&0&0\\\\\\hline 1&0&0&3&-2&8\\\\0&1&0&-5&1&-4\\\\0&0&0&1&0&0\\\\0&0&1&0&-7&9\\\\0&0&0&0&1&0\\\\0&0&0&0&0&1\\end{bmatrix}}.}The last three columns of B are zero columns. Therefore, the three last vectors of C,[\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n ,\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n −\n 7\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n ,\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 8\n \n \n \n \n −\n 4\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 9\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left[\\!\\!{\\begin{array}{r}3\\\\-5\\\\1\\\\0\\\\0\\\\0\\end{array}}\\right],\\;\\left[\\!\\!{\\begin{array}{r}-2\\\\1\\\\0\\\\-7\\\\1\\\\0\\end{array}}\\right],\\;\\left[\\!\\!{\\begin{array}{r}8\\\\-4\\\\0\\\\9\\\\0\\\\1\\end{array}}\\right]}are a basis of the kernel of A.Proof that the method computes the kernel: Since column operations correspond to post-multiplication by invertible matrices, the fact that \n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}A\\\\\\hline I\\end{bmatrix}}}\n \n reduces to \n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}B\\\\\\hline C\\end{bmatrix}}}\n \n means that there exists an invertible matrix \n \n \n \n P\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n P\n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}A\\\\\\hline I\\end{bmatrix}}P={\\begin{bmatrix}B\\\\\\hline C\\end{bmatrix}},}\n \n with \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n in column echelon form. Thus \n \n \n \n A\n P\n =\n B\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle AP=B,}\n \n \n \n \n \n I\n P\n =\n C\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle IP=C,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n A\n C\n =\n B\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle AC=B.}\n \n A column vector \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} }\n \n belongs to the kernel of \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n (that is \n \n \n \n A\n \n v\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\mathbf {v} =\\mathbf {0} }\n \n) if and only if \n \n \n \n B\n \n w\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B\\mathbf {w} =\\mathbf {0} ,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n \n w\n \n =\n \n P\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n v\n \n =\n \n C\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n v\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {w} =P^{-1}\\mathbf {v} =C^{-1}\\mathbf {v} .}\n \n As \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n is in column echelon form, \n \n \n \n B\n \n w\n \n =\n \n 0\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B\\mathbf {w} =\\mathbf {0} ,}\n \n if and only if the nonzero entries of \n \n \n \n \n w\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {w} }\n \n correspond to the zero columns of \n \n \n \n B\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B.}\n \n By multiplying by \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n, one may deduce that this is the case if and only if \n \n \n \n \n v\n \n =\n C\n \n w\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} =C\\mathbf {w} }\n \n is a linear combination of the corresponding columns of \n \n \n \n C\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C.}","title":"Computation by Gaussian elimination"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The problem of computing the kernel on a computer depends on the nature of the coefficients.","title":"Numerical computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"column echelon form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_echelon_form"},{"link_name":"Bareiss algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bareiss_algorithm"},{"link_name":"modular arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Chinese remainder theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_remainder_theorem"},{"link_name":"finite fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field"},{"link_name":"computational complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_complexity"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"Gröbner basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%B6bner_basis"},{"link_name":"computational complexity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis_of_algorithms"},{"link_name":"computer hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Exact coefficients","text":"If the coefficients of the matrix are exactly given numbers, the column echelon form of the matrix may be computed with Bareiss algorithm more efficiently than with Gaussian elimination. It is even more efficient to use modular arithmetic and Chinese remainder theorem, which reduces the problem to several similar ones over finite fields (this avoids the overhead induced by the non-linearity of the computational complexity of integer multiplication).[citation needed]For coefficients in a finite field, Gaussian elimination works well, but for the large matrices that occur in cryptography and Gröbner basis computation, better algorithms are known, which have roughly the same computational complexity, but are faster and behave better with modern computer hardware.[citation needed]","title":"Numerical computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"floating-point numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_number"},{"link_name":"rounding errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding_error"},{"link_name":"full rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_rank"},{"link_name":"well conditioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-conditioned_problem"},{"link_name":"condition number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condition_number"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Lapack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapack"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Floating point computation","text":"For matrices whose entries are floating-point numbers, the problem of computing the kernel makes sense only for matrices such that the number of rows is equal to their rank: because of the rounding errors, a floating-point matrix has almost always a full rank, even when it is an approximation of a matrix of a much smaller rank. Even for a full-rank matrix, it is possible to compute its kernel only if it is well conditioned, i.e. it has a low condition number.[5][citation needed]Even for a well conditioned full rank matrix, Gaussian elimination does not behave correctly: it introduces rounding errors that are too large for getting a significant result. As the computation of the kernel of a matrix is a special instance of solving a homogeneous system of linear equations, the kernel may be computed with any of the various algorithms designed to solve homogeneous systems. A state of the art software for this purpose is the Lapack library.[citation needed]","title":"Numerical computation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Kernel\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//mathworld.wolfram.com/Kernel.html"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:0_2-1"},{"link_name":"\"Kernel (Nullspace) | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//brilliant.org/wiki/kernel/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-textbooks_3-0"},{"link_name":"Lay 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLay2005"},{"link_name":"Meyer 2001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMeyer2001"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-:1_4-1"},{"link_name":"\"Rank-Nullity Theorem\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//mathworld.wolfram.com/Rank-NullityTheorem.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Archived copy\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170829031912/http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math3600/lecture11.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math3600/lecture11.pdf"},{"link_name":"cite web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title"}],"text":"^ Weisstein, Eric W. \"Kernel\". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09.\n\n^ a b \"Kernel (Nullspace) | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki\". brilliant.org. Retrieved 2019-12-09.\n\n^ Linear algebra, as discussed in this article, is a very well established mathematical discipline for which there are many sources. Almost all of the material in this article can be found in Lay 2005, Meyer 2001, and Strang's lectures.\n\n^ a b Weisstein, Eric W. \"Rank-Nullity Theorem\". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09.\n\n^ \"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2015-04-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)","title":"Notes and references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linear algebra § Further reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra#Further_reading"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-387-98259-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-98259-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-321-28713-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-28713-7"},{"link_name":"Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20091031193126/http://matrixanalysis.com/DownloadChapters.html"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-89871-454-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-454-8"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.matrixanalysis.com/DownloadChapters.html"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-534-99845-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-99845-3"},{"link_name":"Lang, Serge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Lang"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780387964126","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780387964126"},{"link_name":"Numerical Linear Algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/work/nick.trefethen/text.html"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-89871-361-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-361-9"}],"text":"See also: Linear algebra § Further readingAxler, Sheldon Jay (1997), Linear Algebra Done Right (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-98259-0.\nLay, David C. (2005), Linear Algebra and Its Applications (3rd ed.), Addison Wesley, ISBN 978-0-321-28713-7.\nMeyer, Carl D. (2001), Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), ISBN 978-0-89871-454-8, archived from the original on 2009-10-31.\nPoole, David (2006), Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction (2nd ed.), Brooks/Cole, ISBN 0-534-99845-3.\nAnton, Howard (2005), Elementary Linear Algebra (Applications Version) (9th ed.), Wiley International.\nLeon, Steven J. (2006), Linear Algebra With Applications (7th ed.), Pearson Prentice Hall.\nLang, Serge (1987). Linear Algebra. Springer. ISBN 9780387964126.\nTrefethen, Lloyd N.; Bau, David III (1997), Numerical Linear Algebra, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-89871-361-9.","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Kernel\". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Kernel.html","url_text":"\"Kernel\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kernel (Nullspace) | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki\". brilliant.org. Retrieved 2019-12-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://brilliant.org/wiki/kernel/","url_text":"\"Kernel (Nullspace) | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki\""}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Rank-Nullity Theorem\". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2019-12-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Rank-NullityTheorem.html","url_text":"\"Rank-Nullity Theorem\""}]},{"reference":"\"Archived copy\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2015-04-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170829031912/http://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math3600/lecture11.pdf","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"https://www.math.ohiou.edu/courses/math3600/lecture11.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Axler, Sheldon Jay (1997), Linear Algebra Done Right (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-98259-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-98259-0","url_text":"0-387-98259-0"}]},{"reference":"Lay, David C. (2005), Linear Algebra and Its Applications (3rd ed.), Addison Wesley, ISBN 978-0-321-28713-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-28713-7","url_text":"978-0-321-28713-7"}]},{"reference":"Meyer, Carl D. (2001), Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra, Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM), ISBN 978-0-89871-454-8, archived from the original on 2009-10-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091031193126/http://matrixanalysis.com/DownloadChapters.html","url_text":"Matrix Analysis and Applied Linear Algebra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-454-8","url_text":"978-0-89871-454-8"},{"url":"http://www.matrixanalysis.com/DownloadChapters.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Poole, David (2006), Linear Algebra: A Modern Introduction (2nd ed.), Brooks/Cole, ISBN 0-534-99845-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-534-99845-3","url_text":"0-534-99845-3"}]},{"reference":"Anton, Howard (2005), Elementary Linear Algebra (Applications Version) (9th ed.), Wiley International.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Leon, Steven J. (2006), Linear Algebra With Applications (7th ed.), Pearson Prentice Hall.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lang, Serge (1987). Linear Algebra. Springer. ISBN 9780387964126.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_Lang","url_text":"Lang, Serge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780387964126","url_text":"9780387964126"}]},{"reference":"Trefethen, Lloyd N.; Bau, David III (1997), Numerical Linear Algebra, SIAM, ISBN 978-0-89871-361-9.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/work/nick.trefethen/text.html","url_text":"Numerical Linear Algebra"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89871-361-9","url_text":"978-0-89871-361-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Kernel of a matrix\", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]","urls":[{"url":"https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Kernel_of_a_matrix","url_text":"\"Kernel of a matrix\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Mathematics","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"EMS Press"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyosu
Toyosu
["1 History","2 Education","3 Transportation","4 Economy","5 References","6 External links"]
Coordinates: 35°39′18″N 139°47′46″E / 35.65500°N 139.79611°E / 35.65500; 139.79611Neighborhood in Kōtō, Tokyo, Japan Toyosu as seen from Harumi Ohashi Toyosu (豊洲) is neighborhood in Kōtō, Tokyo. Toyosu has six numbered chome ("blocks"). It is the location of the wholesale Toyosu Market, which took the role of the Tsukiji fish market after it became solely a tourist attraction. Located in Tsukiji in central Tokyo between the Sumida River and the upmarket Ginza shopping district, the wholesale market is open to the trade only and does not allow access to visitors. History Defunct freight railway bridge Toyosu Center Building Annex and station In 1937, the area of Toyosu was created on reclaimed land. There were dockyard, power plant, gas plant, freight station, warehouses till the early 1990s. Its proximity to central Tokyo made it valuable real estate, so the redevelopment was robust. Highrise apartments, office buildings, shopping centres were built one after another. The former gas plant site was chosen in 2001 by former Governor of Tokyo Shintarō Ishihara for relocating Tsukiji fish market, but there was a longstanding controversy over this plan due to the toxic contamination of the chosen relocation area. The move to Toyosu Market was planned to have taken place in November 2016, in preparation for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Part of the plan was to retain a retail market, roughly a quarter of the current operation, in Tsukiji. On 31 August 2016, the Tsukiji fish market move was postponed. The Tsukiji fish market was caught in a controversy with the shop owners surrounding the former fish market rioting as they would lose their job if the fish market transfers its location. Opening of the fish market was subsequently rescheduled for 11 October 2018 despite concerns about pollution. Education Koto Ward Board of Education operates public elementary and junior high schools. Toyosu 1-3-chome are zoned to Toyosu North Elementary School (豊洲北小学校). Toyosu 4-chome is zoned to Toyosu Elementary School (豊洲小学校). Toyosu 5-6-chome are zoned to Toyosu West Elementary School (豊洲西小学校). Toyosu 1-4-chome and much of 5-chome are zoned to Fukagawa 5th Junior High School (深川第五中学校). Toyosu 6-chome and parts of 5-chome are zoned to Ariake Nishi Gakuen (有明西学園) for junior high school. Transportation Toyosu Station (Yurikamome and Tokyo Metro Yurakucho Line) Economy IHI Corporation Biprogy NTT Data Renesas Electronics Tokyo Electric Power Toyosu Market References ^ Tomoko Kamata (9 October 2018). "Tsukiji Market Ends 83-year History". NHK. Retrieved 8 March 2021. ^ Fumito Akiyama, Wataru Suzuki (6 October 2018). "Foodies bid farewell to Tokyo's famed Tsukiji fish market". The Nikkei. Retrieved 8 March 2021. ^ "Tsukiji: Japan's famed fish market to relocate". BBC. 6 October 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2021. ^ Katie Lockhart (1 October 2018). "A Famed Tokyo Fish Market Is Relocating". New York Times. ^ Rich, Motoko (6 October 2018). "As Tokyo Fish Market Closes, Sellers and Customers Honor an Era of Grime". New York Times. ^ McCurry, Justin (5 December 2008). "Tokyo catch: Fish market bars tourists". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 February 2009. ^ Goldberg, Lina (24 February 2013). "10 of the world's best fresh markets". CNN Travel. Retrieved 24 February 2013. ^ "Toyosu History" (in Japanese). Toyosu Business Friends. 2009. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 30 September 2009. ^ "As relocated Toyosu fish market prepares to open, plans for old Tsukiji site in limbo". Mainichi Daily News. 3 September 2018. ^ "Tsukiji to relocate to Toyosu: Ishihara DPJ ranks vow to block budget for shift to toxic site", The Japan times, retrieved 28 October 2010. ^ "Tsukiji fish market to get new home in late 2016 as Olympics beckon". Asahi Shimbun. 18 December 2014. Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2015. ^ Takei, Hiroyuki (9 February 2012). "New fresh fish market planned when Tsukiji market moves". Asahi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 11 February 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2014. ^ Osumi, Magdalena (31 August 2016). "Smelling something fishy, Koike puts Tsukiji fish market relocation on ice". The Japan Times Online. ^ McCurry, Justin (10 November 2016). "Trouble at Tsukiji: World's biggest fish market caught in controversy". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 August 2018. ^ "Tokyo's famous Tsukiji fish market enters final days before big move, with many still sceptical of relocation plan". South China Morning Post. 4 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018. ^ "江東区立 小学校・義務教育学校前期課程 通学区域一覧" (PDF). Koto Ward. Retrieved 9 October 2022. ^ "江東区立 中学校・義務教育学校後期課程 通学区域一覧" (PDF). Koto Ward. Retrieved 9 October 2022. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Toyosu. Kōtō Ward official website (in Japanese) Toyosu Commercial Association (in Japanese) vte Kōtō, TokyoDistrictsFukagawa Area Aomi Ariake Botan Ecchujima Edagawa Eitai Fukagawa Fukuzumi Furuishiba Fuyuki Hirano Ishijima Kiba Kiyosumi Miyoshi Monzennakacho Mori Morishita Ogibashi Saga Sarue Senda Sengoku Shinohashi Shinonome Shiohama Shiomi Shirakawa Sumiyoshi Takabashi Tatsumi Tokiwa Tomioka Toyo Toyosu Umibe Jōtō Area Higashisuna Kameido Kitasuna Minamisuna Ojima Shinsuna Shin-Kiba Wakasu Yumenoshima Education Ariake Junior College of Education and the Arts Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology Shibaura Institute of Technology Major stations Kameido (JR, Tobu) Kiyosumi-Shirakawa (Metro, Toei) Monzen-nakacho (Metro, Toei) Morishita (Toei) Toyosu (Metro, Yurikamome) Shin-Kiba (JR, Metro, Rinkai) Sumiyoshi (Metro, Toei) Landmarks Ariake West Canal Kiba Park Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo Kiyosumi Garden Tokyo Big Sight Tokyo Gate Bridge vteNeighborhoods of Tokyo Akasaka Akihabara Aobadai Aomi Aoyama Ariake Asagaya Asakusa Asakusabashi Azabu Awajichō Bakurochō Daikanyama Den-en-chōfu Ebisu Ebisuminami Futako-tamagawa Ginza Gotanda Hamamatsuchō Harajuku Hibiya Higashi Higashikanda Hongō Ichigaya Iidabashi Ikebukuro Iwamotochō Jiyūgaoka Jinbōchō Jūjō Kabukichō Kagurazaka Kajichō Kamata Kamiikebukuro Kanda Kasumigaseki Kichijōji Komaba Koishikawa Kugayama Kudankita Kyōbashi Kōenji Kōjimachi Marunouchi Mejiro Mita Meguro-mita Muromachi Nagatachō Nakameguro Nishigotanda Nishiogikubo Nihonbashi Nishiōizumi Nishiōizumimachi Nishishinjuku Nishikichō Ochanomizu Odaiba Ogawamachi Ogikubo Ōizumigakuenchō Ōmori Omotesandō Ōsaki Ōtemachi Roppongi Ryōgoku San'ya Sendagaya Shiba Shibaura Shibuya Shimokitazawa Shinbashi Shinjuku Shinjuku Ni-chōme Shinonome Shiodome Shirokane Shirokanedai Shōtō Sudachō Sugamo Surugadai Takadanobaba Takanawa Tamachi Tateishi Tatsumi Toyosu Tsukiji Tsukishima Uchikanda Uchisaiwaichō Ueno Wakasu Yaesu Yanaka Yayoi Yōga Yotsuya Yoyogi Yūrakuchō Zōshigaya Authority control databases: Geographic MusicBrainz area 35°39′18″N 139°47′46″E / 35.65500°N 139.79611°E / 35.65500; 139.79611
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toyosu_2014.JPG"},{"link_name":"Kōtō, Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dt%C5%8D,_Tokyo"},{"link_name":"chome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_addressing_system"},{"link_name":"Toyosu Market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyosu_Market"},{"link_name":"Tsukiji fish market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukiji_fish_market"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nhk-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nikkei-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1-5"},{"link_name":"Tsukiji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukiji"},{"link_name":"Sumida River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumida_River"},{"link_name":"Ginza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginza"},{"link_name":"visitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_Japan"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Neighborhood in Kōtō, Tokyo, JapanToyosu as seen from Harumi OhashiToyosu (豊洲) is neighborhood in Kōtō, Tokyo. Toyosu has six numbered chome (\"blocks\"). It is the location of the wholesale Toyosu Market, which took the role of the Tsukiji fish market after it became solely a tourist attraction.[1][2][3][4][5]Located in Tsukiji in central Tokyo between the Sumida River and the upmarket Ginza shopping district, the wholesale market is open to the trade only and does not allow access to visitors.[6][7]","title":"Toyosu"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harumi_bridge_on_Tokyo_port_railway.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toyosu-from-Yurikamome-01.jpg"},{"link_name":"reclaimed land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reclaimed_land"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-friends-8"},{"link_name":"Shintarō Ishihara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shintar%C5%8D_Ishihara"},{"link_name":"Tsukiji fish market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukiji_fish_market"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-toxic-10"},{"link_name":"2020 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ajw2012-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Defunct freight railway bridgeToyosu Center Building Annex and stationIn 1937, the area of Toyosu was created on reclaimed land.[8] There were dockyard, power plant, gas plant, freight station, warehouses till the early 1990s. Its proximity to central Tokyo made it valuable real estate, so the redevelopment was robust. Highrise apartments, office buildings, shopping centres were built one after another.The former gas plant site was chosen in 2001 by former Governor of Tokyo Shintarō Ishihara for relocating Tsukiji fish market,[9] but there was a longstanding controversy over this plan due to the toxic contamination of the chosen relocation area.[10] The move to Toyosu Market was planned to have taken place in November 2016, in preparation for the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo.[11] Part of the plan was to retain a retail market, roughly a quarter of the current operation, in Tsukiji.[12]On 31 August 2016, the Tsukiji fish market move was postponed.[13] The Tsukiji fish market was caught in a controversy with the shop owners surrounding the former fish market rioting as they would lose their job if the fish market transfers its location.[14] Opening of the fish market was subsequently rescheduled for 11 October 2018 despite concerns about pollution.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chome"},{"link_name":"豊洲北小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%8C%BA%E7%AB%8B%E8%B1%8A%E6%B4%B2%E5%8C%97%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"豊洲小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%8C%BA%E7%AB%8B%E8%B1%8A%E6%B4%B2%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"豊洲西小学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%8C%BA%E7%AB%8B%E8%B1%8A%E6%B4%B2%E8%A5%BF%E5%B0%8F%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"深川第五中学校","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%8C%BA%E7%AB%8B%E6%B7%B1%E5%B7%9D%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%94%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%A6%E6%A0%A1"},{"link_name":"有明西学園","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%9F%E6%9D%B1%E5%8C%BA%E7%AB%8B%E6%9C%89%E6%98%8E%E8%A5%BF%E5%AD%A6%E5%9C%92"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Koto Ward Board of Education operates public elementary and junior high schools.Toyosu 1-3-chome are zoned to Toyosu North Elementary School (豊洲北小学校). Toyosu 4-chome is zoned to Toyosu Elementary School (豊洲小学校). Toyosu 5-6-chome are zoned to Toyosu West Elementary School (豊洲西小学校).[16]Toyosu 1-4-chome and much of 5-chome are zoned to Fukagawa 5th Junior High School (深川第五中学校). Toyosu 6-chome and parts of 5-chome are zoned to Ariake Nishi Gakuen (有明西学園) for junior high school.[17]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Toyosu Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyosu_Station"},{"link_name":"Yurikamome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yurikamome"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Metro Yurakucho Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Metro_Yurakucho_Line"}],"text":"Toyosu Station (Yurikamome and Tokyo Metro Yurakucho Line)","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IHI Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IHI_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Biprogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Biprogy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"NTT Data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTT_Data"},{"link_name":"Renesas Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesas_Electronics"},{"link_name":"Tokyo Electric Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Electric_Power"},{"link_name":"Toyosu Market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyosu_Market"}],"text":"IHI Corporation\nBiprogy\nNTT Data\nRenesas Electronics\nTokyo Electric Power\nToyosu Market","title":"Economy"}]
[{"image_text":"Toyosu as seen from Harumi Ohashi","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Toyosu_2014.JPG/250px-Toyosu_2014.JPG"},{"image_text":"Defunct freight railway bridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Harumi_bridge_on_Tokyo_port_railway.jpg/220px-Harumi_bridge_on_Tokyo_port_railway.jpg"},{"image_text":"Toyosu Center Building Annex and station","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Toyosu-from-Yurikamome-01.jpg/220px-Toyosu-from-Yurikamome-01.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"Tomoko Kamata (9 October 2018). \"Tsukiji Market Ends 83-year History\". NHK. Retrieved 8 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/backstories/263/","url_text":"\"Tsukiji Market Ends 83-year History\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NHK","url_text":"NHK"}]},{"reference":"Fumito Akiyama, Wataru Suzuki (6 October 2018). \"Foodies bid farewell to Tokyo's famed Tsukiji fish market\". The Nikkei. Retrieved 8 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://asia.nikkei.com/Life-Arts/Life/Foodies-bid-farewell-to-Tokyo-s-famed-Tsukiji-fish-market","url_text":"\"Foodies bid farewell to Tokyo's famed Tsukiji fish market\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nikkei","url_text":"The Nikkei"}]},{"reference":"\"Tsukiji: Japan's famed fish market to relocate\". BBC. 6 October 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/business-45755348","url_text":"\"Tsukiji: Japan's famed fish market to relocate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"}]},{"reference":"Katie Lockhart (1 October 2018). \"A Famed Tokyo Fish Market Is Relocating\". New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/01/travel/tsukiji-market-tokyo-move-toyosu-.html","url_text":"\"A Famed Tokyo Fish Market Is Relocating\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times","url_text":"New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Rich, Motoko (6 October 2018). \"As Tokyo Fish Market Closes, Sellers and Customers Honor an Era of Grime\". New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motoko_Rich","url_text":"Rich, Motoko"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/06/world/asia/tokyo-fish-market-tsukiji.html","url_text":"\"As Tokyo Fish Market Closes, Sellers and Customers Honor an Era of Grime\""}]},{"reference":"McCurry, Justin (5 December 2008). \"Tokyo catch: Fish market bars tourists\". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 February 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/05/japan","url_text":"\"Tokyo catch: Fish market bars tourists\""}]},{"reference":"Goldberg, Lina (24 February 2013). \"10 of the world's best fresh markets\". CNN Travel. Retrieved 24 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://travel.cnn.com/explorations/shop/worlds-best-fresh-markets-316265","url_text":"\"10 of the world's best fresh markets\""}]},{"reference":"\"Toyosu History\" (in Japanese). Toyosu Business Friends. 2009. Archived from the original on 22 July 2011. Retrieved 30 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110722122336/http://www.toyosu.or.jp/toyosu/rekisi/","url_text":"\"Toyosu History\""},{"url":"http://www.toyosu.or.jp/toyosu/rekisi/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"As relocated Toyosu fish market prepares to open, plans for old Tsukiji site in limbo\". Mainichi Daily News. 3 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20180903/p2a/00m/0na/024000c","url_text":"\"As relocated Toyosu fish market prepares to open, plans for old Tsukiji site in limbo\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tsukiji to relocate to Toyosu: Ishihara DPJ ranks vow to block budget for shift to toxic site\", The Japan times, retrieved 28 October 2010","urls":[{"url":"http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20101023a1.html","url_text":"\"Tsukiji to relocate to Toyosu: Ishihara DPJ ranks vow to block budget for shift to toxic site\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tsukiji fish market to get new home in late 2016 as Olympics beckon\". Asahi Shimbun. 18 December 2014. Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 11 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150412104640/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201412180071","url_text":"\"Tsukiji fish market to get new home in late 2016 as Olympics beckon\""},{"url":"http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201412180071","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Takei, Hiroyuki (9 February 2012). \"New fresh fish market planned when Tsukiji market moves\". Asahi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 11 February 2014. Retrieved 7 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140211062539/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201202090011","url_text":"\"New fresh fish market planned when Tsukiji market moves\""},{"url":"http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201202090011","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Osumi, Magdalena (31 August 2016). \"Smelling something fishy, Koike puts Tsukiji fish market relocation on ice\". The Japan Times Online.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/08/31/national/smelling-something-fishy-koike-puts-tsukiji-move-ice","url_text":"\"Smelling something fishy, Koike puts Tsukiji fish market relocation on ice\""}]},{"reference":"McCurry, Justin (10 November 2016). \"Trouble at Tsukiji: World's biggest fish market caught in controversy\". The Guardian. Retrieved 3 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/10/trouble-at-tsukiji-worlds-biggest-fish-market-caught-in-controversy","url_text":"\"Trouble at Tsukiji: World's biggest fish market caught in controversy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tokyo's famous Tsukiji fish market enters final days before big move, with many still sceptical of relocation plan\". South China Morning Post. 4 October 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/east-asia/article/2166952/tokyos-famous-tsukiji-fish-market-enters-final-days-big-move","url_text":"\"Tokyo's famous Tsukiji fish market enters final days before big move, with many still sceptical of relocation plan\""}]},{"reference":"\"江東区立 小学校・義務教育学校前期課程 通学区域一覧\" (PDF). Koto Ward. Retrieved 9 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.city.koto.lg.jp/581101/kodomo/gakko/shuen/shogakko/documents/r40401shou-tsuugakukuiki.pdf","url_text":"\"江東区立 小学校・義務教育学校前期課程 通学区域一覧\""}]},{"reference":"\"江東区立 中学校・義務教育学校後期課程 通学区域一覧\" (PDF). Koto Ward. Retrieved 9 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.city.koto.lg.jp/581101/kodomo/gakko/shuen/chugakko/documents/r40401chuu-tsuugakukuiki.pdf","url_text":"\"江東区立 中学校・義務教育学校後期課程 通学区域一覧\""}]}]
[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Toyosu&params=35_39_18_N_139_47_46_E_type:city(28472)_source:kolossus-zhwiki","external_links_name":"35°39′18″N 139°47′46″E / 35.65500°N 139.79611°E / 35.65500; 139.79611"},{"Link":"https://www3.nhk.or.jp/nhkworld/en/news/backstories/263/","external_links_name":"\"Tsukiji Market Ends 83-year History\""},{"Link":"https://asia.nikkei.com/Life-Arts/Life/Foodies-bid-farewell-to-Tokyo-s-famed-Tsukiji-fish-market","external_links_name":"\"Foodies bid farewell to Tokyo's famed Tsukiji fish market\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/business-45755348","external_links_name":"\"Tsukiji: Japan's famed fish market to relocate\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/01/travel/tsukiji-market-tokyo-move-toyosu-.html","external_links_name":"\"A Famed Tokyo Fish Market Is Relocating\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/06/world/asia/tokyo-fish-market-tsukiji.html","external_links_name":"\"As Tokyo Fish Market Closes, Sellers and Customers Honor an Era of Grime\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/dec/05/japan","external_links_name":"\"Tokyo catch: Fish market bars tourists\""},{"Link":"http://travel.cnn.com/explorations/shop/worlds-best-fresh-markets-316265","external_links_name":"\"10 of the world's best fresh markets\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110722122336/http://www.toyosu.or.jp/toyosu/rekisi/","external_links_name":"\"Toyosu History\""},{"Link":"http://www.toyosu.or.jp/toyosu/rekisi/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://mainichi.jp/english/articles/20180903/p2a/00m/0na/024000c","external_links_name":"\"As relocated Toyosu fish market prepares to open, plans for old Tsukiji site in limbo\""},{"Link":"http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20101023a1.html","external_links_name":"\"Tsukiji to relocate to Toyosu: Ishihara DPJ ranks vow to block budget for shift to toxic site\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150412104640/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201412180071","external_links_name":"\"Tsukiji fish market to get new home in late 2016 as Olympics beckon\""},{"Link":"http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201412180071","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140211062539/http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201202090011","external_links_name":"\"New fresh fish market planned when Tsukiji market moves\""},{"Link":"http://ajw.asahi.com/article/behind_news/social_affairs/AJ201202090011","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/08/31/national/smelling-something-fishy-koike-puts-tsukiji-move-ice","external_links_name":"\"Smelling something fishy, Koike puts Tsukiji fish market relocation on ice\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/10/trouble-at-tsukiji-worlds-biggest-fish-market-caught-in-controversy","external_links_name":"\"Trouble at Tsukiji: World's biggest fish market caught in controversy\""},{"Link":"https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/east-asia/article/2166952/tokyos-famous-tsukiji-fish-market-enters-final-days-big-move","external_links_name":"\"Tokyo's famous Tsukiji fish market enters final days before big move, with many still sceptical of relocation plan\""},{"Link":"https://www.city.koto.lg.jp/581101/kodomo/gakko/shuen/shogakko/documents/r40401shou-tsuugakukuiki.pdf","external_links_name":"\"江東区立 小学校・義務教育学校前期課程 通学区域一覧\""},{"Link":"https://www.city.koto.lg.jp/581101/kodomo/gakko/shuen/chugakko/documents/r40401chuu-tsuugakukuiki.pdf","external_links_name":"\"江東区立 中学校・義務教育学校後期課程 通学区域一覧\""},{"Link":"http://www.city.koto.lg.jp/","external_links_name":"Kōtō Ward official website"},{"Link":"http://www.toyosu.or.jp/","external_links_name":"Toyosu Commercial Association"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/area/c85c0b0b-e08a-47d6-b170-e97de772bb8f","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz area"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Toyosu&params=35_39_18_N_139_47_46_E_type:city(28472)_source:kolossus-zhwiki","external_links_name":"35°39′18″N 139°47′46″E / 35.65500°N 139.79611°E / 35.65500; 139.79611"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Volatile_File_System
Non-Volatile File System
["1 Background","1.1 Overview of NVFS","1.2 Architecture and specifications","1.3 Controversy and unfavorable remarks from power users","1.4 Later developments","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Non-Volatile File System" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Non-Volatile File System (NVFS) is a flash memory file system introduced in the release of Palm's Personal Digital Assistant handheld models Tungsten T5, Tungsten E2, Palm TX, Z22, Treo 650/700/680/755p, and Palm Centro. Background Overview of NVFS The NVFS, as claimed by palmOne, is a file system designed to keep all information safe should the battery run out of power. Previous non-flash memory designs would lose all stored data in the event of a power loss. NVFS is a derivative of Flash Memory, which continually stores all data even when no power is applied. palmOne invented NVFS in response to complaints that a handheld's data was destroyed when the battery power ran out. In the past, it was necessary to keep the handheld continuously charged to avoid losing data, since all information was stored in volatile memory. A similar feature has been adopted by PDAs running the Windows Mobile 5.0 operating system, and is named "Persistent Storage". Architecture and specifications NVFS uses NAND flash memory technology to retain the handheld's data in the event of a battery swap or if the battery runs out of power. palmOne claims that Flash memory is a plus for the majority of their consumers since many of them do not want to charge the handheld too often, and it consumes less overall power. NVFS uses a brand-new data architecture which might render incompatible some applications which ran very well with non-NVFS handhelds. Controversy and unfavorable remarks from power users Because the NVFS File System was designed to use clusters of 512 byte blocks, power users have complained that files take approximately 33% more space than in volatile file systems. In fact a volatile file system uses a block size of only 14 bytes, compared to the NVFS File System minimum block size of 512 bytes. palmOne responded to this complaint by offering a free 128 megabyte SD Card on request to selected customers. At the NVFS Early Release, Palm (at the time palmOne) would commit itself to work on a ROM Flash Update to reduce the overhead of the NVFS Architecture. Currently Palm-branded products using NVFS should be shipped with the NVFS Fix already installed. (The Tungsten E2 uses 4kb blocks.) (It is recommended those having earlier versions of the Palm Treo 650 and Tungsten T5 install the NVFS Fix at the earliest possible convenience). Such controversy gave the Tungsten T5 and the Treo 650 unfavorable remarks from power users. Later developments palmOne released the first Sprint Treo 650 Updater which was designed to ensure that the block size overhead was reduced from 512 bytes to 16-32 bytes (Usually 32 bytes, but can be as low as 16 bytes depending on the file's demand), resulting in drastic memory management efficiency improvements of the NVFS File System. A second update to the Sprint Treo 650 was released on June 16, 2005. The Unlocked GSM Firmware Upgrade was also released on the day of the second Sprint Treo 650 firmware update which also improves the efficiency of the NVFS File System in addition to addressing known problems prior to the release of the firmware update. The Rogers Wireless Treo 650 Firmware Update was quietly posted at the Rogers Wireless Treo 650 support site, and shares the same bug fixes and NVFS memory efficiency updates as with the unlocked GSM version. The initial release of the palmOne Tungsten E2, Verizon Wireless Treo 650 and the Earthlink Wireless Treo 650 already has the NVFS Memory System problems assessed. According to Palm Info Center on June 22, 2005, the palmOne Tungsten T5 Version 1.1 Update fixes the NVFS File System Inefficiency Problem since its release in November 2004. The Version 1.1 Update also updates the Tungsten T5's Version Number to Garnet 5.4.8. On July 25, 2005, the Cingular Treo 650 Fix was officially released, with one of the fixes being addressing inefficiency problems associated with the NVFS File System. Cingular Treo 650 holders are encouraged to deploy this Flash ROM Update at the earliest time possible. See also Tungsten T5 and Tungsten E2 Treo Smartphone Line PalmOne, Inc. References ^ "PCWorld.com - New File System Constrains Treo 650 Storage Capacity". Archived from the original on 2005-02-07. ^ "palmOne - Support - Treo 650 Updater 1.08 (Sprint PCS branded version)". April 29, 2005. Archived from the original on 2005-04-29. ^ "PalmOne - Support - Treo 650 Updater 1.13 (Unlocked GSM version)". www.palmone.com. Archived from the original on 19 June 2005. Retrieved 12 January 2022. ^ Technical support ^ "palmOne Releases Tungsten T5 Update v1.1". www.palminfocenter.com. ^ "palmOne - Support - Tungsten T5 Update". June 23, 2005. Archived from the original on 2005-06-23. ^ "palmOne - Support - Treo 650 Updater (Cingular Wireless version)". Archived from the original on 2005-07-28. External links palmOne Treo 650 Updater Information regarding about NVFS Features palmOne Tungsten T5 Version 1.1 Update—Also updates Garnet to 5.4.8. palmOne Tungsten T5 new features palmOne Tungsten T5 KB Article 34247 palmOne Tungsten E2 NVFS Information palmOne NVFS in General Palm Infocenter--palmOne NVFS Controversy Palm Focus--Treo 650 Software Compatibility Information Palm Focus--Tungsten T5 Software Compatibility Information Hobbyist Software--How to fix a cache crash vteFile systems Comparison of file systems distributed Unix filesystem Disk andnon-rotating ADFS AdvFS Amiga FFS Amiga OFS APFS AthFS bcachefs BFS Be File System Boot File System Byte File System (z/VM) Btrfs CVFS CXFS DFS EFS Encrypting File System Extent File System Episode ext ext2 ext3 ext3cow ext4 FAT exFAT Files-11 Fossil GPFS HAMMER HAMMER2 HFS (Classic Mac OS) HFS (MVS) HFS+ HPFS HTFS JFS LFS MFS Macintosh File System TiVo Media File System MINIX NetWare File System Next3 NILFS NILFS2 NSS NTFS OneFS OpenZFS PFS QFS QNX4FS ReFS ReiserFS Reiser4 Reliance Reliance Nitro RFS SFS Shared File System (VM) Smart File System SNFS Soup (Apple) Tux3 UBIFS UFS/UFS2 soft updates WAPBL VxFS WAFL Xiafs XFS Xsan zFS (z/OS) ZFS (Sun) Optical disc HSF ISO 9660 ISO 13490 UDF Flash memory and SSD APFS FAT exFAT TFAT EROFS F2FS JFS NVFS host-side wear leveling CHFS JFFS JFFS2 LogFS NILFS NILFS2 YAFFS UBIFS Distributed parallel BeeGFS Ceph CXFS GFS2 Google File System OCFS2 OrangeFS PVFS QFS Xsan more... NAS 9P AFS (OpenAFS) AFP Coda DFS Google File System GPFS Lustre NCP NFS POHMELFS Hadoop SMB (CIFS) SSHFS more... Specialized Aufs AXFS Boot File System CDfs Compact Disc File System cramfs Davfs2 EROFS FTPFS FUSE Lnfs LTFS NOVA MVFS SquashFS UMSDOS OverlayFS UnionFS Pseudo configfs devfs debugfs kernfs procfs specfs sysfs tmpfs WinFS Encrypted eCryptfs EncFS EFS Rubberhose SSHFS ZFS Types Clustered Global Grid Self-certifying Flash Journaling Log-structured Object Record-oriented Semantic Steganographic Synthetic Versioning Features Case preservation Copy-on-write Data deduplication Data scrubbing Execute in place Extent File attribute Extended file attributes File change log Fork Links Hard Symbolic Access control Access-control list Filesystem-level encryption Permissions Modes Sticky bit Interfaces File manager File system API Installable File System Virtual file system Lists Cryptographic Default Log-structured Layouts Master Boot Record GUID Partition Table Apple Partition Map
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Previous non-flash memory designs would lose all stored data in the event of a power loss. NVFS is a derivative of Flash Memory, which continually stores all data even when no power is applied. palmOne invented NVFS in response to complaints that a handheld's data was destroyed when the battery power ran out. In the past, it was necessary to keep the handheld continuously charged to avoid losing data, since all information was stored in volatile memory.A similar feature has been adopted by PDAs running the Windows Mobile 5.0 operating system, and is named \"Persistent Storage\".","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NAND flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAND_flash_memory"},{"link_name":"palmOne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm,_Inc."}],"sub_title":"Architecture and specifications","text":"NVFS uses NAND flash memory technology to retain the handheld's data in the event of a battery swap or if the battery runs out of power. palmOne claims that Flash memory is a plus for the majority of their consumers since many of them do not want to charge the handheld too often, and it consumes less overall power. NVFS uses a brand-new data architecture which might render incompatible some applications which ran very well with non-NVFS handhelds.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"megabyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabyte"},{"link_name":"SD Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Digital_Card"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Tungsten T5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungsten_T5"},{"link_name":"Treo 650","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treo_650"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Controversy and unfavorable remarks from power users","text":"Because the NVFS File System was designed to use clusters of 512 byte blocks, power users have complained that files take approximately 33% more space than in volatile file systems. In fact a volatile file system uses a block size of only 14 bytes, compared to the NVFS File System minimum block size of 512 bytes. palmOne responded to this complaint by offering a free 128 megabyte SD Card on request to selected customers.[1] At the NVFS Early Release, Palm (at the time palmOne) would[clarification needed] commit itself to work on a ROM Flash Update to reduce the overhead of the NVFS Architecture. Currently Palm-branded products using NVFS should be shipped with the NVFS Fix already installed. (The Tungsten E2 uses 4kb blocks.) (It is recommended those having earlier versions of the Palm Treo 650 and Tungsten T5 install the NVFS Fix at the earliest possible convenience). Such controversy gave the Tungsten T5 and the Treo 650 unfavorable remarks from power users.[citation needed]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Later developments","text":"palmOne released the first Sprint Treo 650 Updater which was designed to ensure that the block size overhead was reduced from 512 bytes to 16-32 bytes (Usually 32 bytes, but can be as low as 16 bytes depending on the file's demand), resulting in drastic memory management efficiency improvements of the NVFS File System.[2] A second update to the Sprint Treo 650 was released on June 16, 2005. The Unlocked GSM Firmware Upgrade was also released on the day of the second Sprint Treo 650 firmware update which also improves the efficiency of the NVFS File System in addition to addressing known problems prior to the release of the firmware update.[3] The Rogers Wireless Treo 650 Firmware Update was quietly posted at the Rogers Wireless Treo 650 support site, and shares the same bug fixes and NVFS memory efficiency updates as with the unlocked GSM version.[4] The initial release of the palmOne Tungsten E2, Verizon Wireless Treo 650 and the Earthlink Wireless Treo 650 already has the NVFS Memory System problems assessed.According to Palm Info Center on June 22, 2005, the palmOne Tungsten T5 Version 1.1 Update fixes the NVFS File System Inefficiency Problem since its release in November 2004.[5][6] The Version 1.1 Update also updates the Tungsten T5's Version Number to Garnet 5.4.8.On July 25, 2005, the Cingular Treo 650 Fix was officially released, with one of the fixes being addressing inefficiency problems associated with the NVFS File System.[7] Cingular Treo 650 holders are encouraged to deploy this Flash ROM Update at the earliest time possible.","title":"Background"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ML/I
ML/I
["1 Overview","2 How ML/1 works","3 Distinctive features of ML/1","4 Limitations","5 References","6 External links"]
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "ML/I" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (January 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) ML/1 (Macro Language/One) is a powerful general-purpose macro processor. Typical uses of ML/1 include: editing, modifying, correcting, or reformatting text files translating source code from one programming language to another acting as a source-code preprocessor to allow the user to add new syntactic forms to an existing programming language supporting program source-code parameterization (e.g. a parameter might determine whether debugging statements are to be included in the program source code that is passed to the compiler) ML/1 was developed in 1966 by Peter J. Brown as part of PhD research at Cambridge University in England. In 1984, Robert D. Eager, one of Peter Brown's colleagues at the University of Kent, rewrote ML/I, first in BCPL in 1981, and later in C in 1984, which increased its portability. Note that Peter Brown's original name for the language was ML/I, where (as in IBM's PL/I) the last character is the Roman numeral "I", not the Arabic numeral "1". Most subsequent implementations however have been called ML/1 (where the last character is the Arabic numeral "1"). Since then, ML/1 has been ported to many platforms and operating systems, including VMS, MVS, MS-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX. In his implementations of ML/1, Robert D. Eager has added features and capabilities in addition to those originally specified in Peter Brown's thesis. That version is available for multiple platforms via the ML/1 web site, http://www.ml1.org.uk . The ML/1 web site provides further information about ML/1, as well as documentation (including a tutorial, simple introductory guide, and full user manual). Although the total number of ML/1 users in the world is small, there are ML/1 users all over the world, and Bob has corresponded with ML/1 users in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Holland, and India. In a 1976 paper, Andrew S. Tanenbaum describes using ML/I as a compiler-compiler. Overview ML/I accepts input in completely free form, treating data as a stream of bytes rather than a series of lines or records. It does not require any particular flag to indicate a macro expansion, which makes it particularly useful for processing arbitrary text. Replacements of text can be simple (e.g. PIG is to be replaced by DOG) or complex (e.g. replace the item between the third and fourth commas after the last full stop, by the contents of some counter). ML/I was used to implement several items of portable software, including itself. It was originally written in a special descriptive language, then mapped into a suitable language for each target system. This mapping was done using ML/I itself. There were two different forms of this descriptive language; high level and low level. After this mapping ML/I was often used to implement SIL's (system implementation languages, such as C) for the new generation of 16-bit architecture minicomputers. How ML/1 works In the most basic terms, here's how ML/1 works. The user supplies ML/1 with a file containing input text. In another file (or, optionally, in the same file) the user supplies a set of ML/1 macros. The macros tell the ML/1 interpreter what insertions, deletions, expansions, translations and other modifications the user wants made to the input text. When ML/1 is run on the input text, ML/1 follows the instructions in the ML/1 macros, changes the text, and writes out a new file containing the modified text. Distinctive features of ML/1 There are several ways in which ML/1 is more powerful than simple "scan and replace" utilities. ML/1 does not process text on a character-string by character-string basis; it processes text on a word by word (or, in ML/1's terminology, on an "atom by atom") basis. For many applications, it is extremely useful to be able to process a text as a sequence of atoms rather than a sequence of characters. Suppose, for example, that we wish to translate a program from a programming language that has a DO ... END syntax, into a language that has a BEGIN ... END syntax. We therefore wish to replace "DO" with "BEGIN". If we do the replacement with an ordinary scan-and-replace utility, all occurrences of the string "DO" will be changed to "BEGIN", including any "DO"s that are embedded in words such as "DOCUMENT" (which will become "BEGINCUMENT"). With ML/1, in contrast, this will not happen because the string "DO" will trigger text-replacement only when it occurs as a word (that is, when it is preceded and followed by delimiters such as spaces, tabs, newlines, or punctuation characters). ML/1, rather than operating on a line-by-line basis, recognizes patterns of text that can be quite complex, nested, with multiple delimiters, and spanning many lines. ML/1 can, for instance, process a pattern such as the common programming language IF ... THEN ... ELSE ... ENDIF structure that spans multiple lines, and contains embedded text that itself may include a nested IF ... THEN ... ELSE ... ENDIF structure. ML/1 can recognize embedded comments and literal quotations, and protect them from alteration. Ordinary scan-and-replace utilities change strings indiscriminately, whether they occur in the program text as a keyword or variable name, embedded in a comment, or in a quoted literal. In order to deal with such complicated patterns, ML/1 needs to be a programming language in its own right. Like other programming languages, ML/1 supports variables and assignment statements, GOTOs and labels, IF... THEN tests and loops. These features give ML/1 an unusual degree of power and flexibility. Limitations ML/1 is case-sensitive, so it does not support case-insensitive text processing. References ^ A. J. Cole (26 November 1981). Macro Processors. CUP Archive. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-521-28560-5. ^ Brown, P. J. (1967). "The ML/I macro processor". Communications of the ACM. 10 (10): 618–623. doi:10.1145/363717.363746. ISSN 0001-0782. ^ Tanenbaum, A.S. (1976). "A General-Purpose Macro Processor as a Poor Man's Compiler-Compiler". IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering. SE-2 (2): 121–125. doi:10.1109/TSE.1976.233539. ISSN 0098-5589. S2CID 16317510. External links http://www.ml1.org.uk
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"general-purpose macro processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose_macro_processor"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cole1981-1"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown1967-2"},{"link_name":"University of Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kent"},{"link_name":"BCPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCPL"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"PL/I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PL/I"},{"link_name":"VMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenVMS"},{"link_name":"MVS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MVS"},{"link_name":"MS-DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS"},{"link_name":"OS/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS/2"},{"link_name":"UNIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"http://www.ml1.org.uk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ml1.org.uk"},{"link_name":"Andrew S. Tanenbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_S._Tanenbaum"},{"link_name":"compiler-compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler-compiler"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tanenbaum1976-3"}],"text":"ML/1 (Macro Language/One) is a powerful general-purpose macro processor.[1]Typical uses of ML/1 include:editing, modifying, correcting, or reformatting text files\ntranslating source code from one programming language to another\nacting as a source-code preprocessor to allow the user to add new syntactic forms to an existing programming language\nsupporting program source-code parameterization (e.g. a parameter might determine whether debugging statements are to be included in the program source code that is passed to the compiler)ML/1 was developed in 1966 by Peter J. Brown as part of PhD research at Cambridge University in England.[2]In 1984, Robert D. Eager, one of Peter Brown's colleagues at the University of Kent, rewrote ML/I, first in BCPL in 1981, and later in C in 1984, which increased its portability.Note that Peter Brown's original name for the language was ML/I, where (as in IBM's PL/I) the last character is the Roman numeral \"I\", not the Arabic numeral \"1\". Most subsequent implementations however have been called ML/1 (where the last character is the Arabic numeral \"1\").Since then, ML/1 has been ported to many platforms and operating systems, including VMS, MVS, MS-DOS, OS/2, and UNIX. In his implementations of ML/1, Robert D. Eager has added features and capabilities in addition to those originally specified in Peter Brown's thesis.That version is available for multiple platforms via the ML/1 web site, http://www.ml1.org.uk . The ML/1 web site provides further information about ML/1, as well as documentation (including a tutorial, simple introductory guide, and full user manual).Although the total number of ML/1 users in the world is small, there are ML/1 users all over the world, and Bob has corresponded with ML/1 users in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Holland, and India.In a 1976 paper, Andrew S. Tanenbaum describes using ML/I as a compiler-compiler.[3]","title":"ML/I"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigil_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"16-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit"},{"link_name":"minicomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"}],"text":"ML/I accepts input in completely free form, treating data as a stream of bytes rather than a series of lines or records. It does not require any particular flag to indicate a macro expansion, which makes it particularly useful for processing arbitrary text. Replacements of text can be simple (e.g. PIG is to be replaced by DOG) or complex (e.g. replace the item between the third and fourth commas after the last full stop, by the contents of some counter).ML/I was used to implement several items of portable software, including itself. It was originally written in a special descriptive language, then mapped into a suitable language for each target system. This mapping was done using ML/I itself. There were two different forms of this descriptive language; high level and low level.After this mapping ML/I was often used to implement SIL's (system implementation languages, such as C) for the new generation of 16-bit architecture minicomputers.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In the most basic terms, here's how ML/1 works.The user supplies ML/1 with a file containing input text.\nIn another file (or, optionally, in the same file) the user supplies a set of ML/1 macros. The macros tell the ML/1 interpreter what insertions, deletions, expansions, translations and other modifications the user wants made to the input text.\nWhen ML/1 is run on the input text, ML/1 follows the instructions in the ML/1 macros, changes the text, and writes out a new file containing the modified text.","title":"How ML/1 works"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"There are several ways in which ML/1 is more powerful than simple \"scan and replace\" utilities.ML/1 does not process text on a character-string by character-string basis; it processes text on a word by word (or, in ML/1's terminology, on an \"atom by atom\") basis. For many applications, it is extremely useful to be able to process a text as a sequence of atoms rather than a sequence of characters. Suppose, for example, that we wish to translate a program from a programming language that has a DO ... END syntax, into a language that has a BEGIN ... END syntax. We therefore wish to replace \"DO\" with \"BEGIN\". If we do the replacement with an ordinary scan-and-replace utility, all occurrences of the string \"DO\" will be changed to \"BEGIN\", including any \"DO\"s that are embedded in words such as \"DOCUMENT\" (which will become \"BEGINCUMENT\"). With ML/1, in contrast, this will not happen because the string \"DO\" will trigger text-replacement only when it occurs as a word (that is, when it is preceded and followed by delimiters such as spaces, tabs, newlines, or punctuation characters).ML/1, rather than operating on a line-by-line basis, recognizes patterns of text that can be quite complex, nested, with multiple delimiters, and spanning many lines. ML/1 can, for instance, process a pattern such as the common programming language IF ... THEN ... ELSE ... ENDIF structure that spans multiple lines, and contains embedded text that itself may include a nested IF ... THEN ... ELSE ... ENDIF structure.ML/1 can recognize embedded comments and literal quotations, and protect them from alteration. Ordinary scan-and-replace utilities change strings indiscriminately, whether they occur in the program text as a keyword or variable name, embedded in a comment, or in a quoted literal.In order to deal with such complicated patterns, ML/1 needs to be a programming language in its own right. Like other programming languages, ML/1 supports variables and assignment statements, GOTOs and labels, IF... THEN tests and loops. These features give ML/1 an unusual degree of power and flexibility.","title":"Distinctive features of ML/1"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"ML/1 is case-sensitive, so it does not support case-insensitive text processing.","title":"Limitations"}]
[]
null
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[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22ML%2FI%22","external_links_name":"\"ML/I\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22ML%2FI%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22ML%2FI%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22ML%2FI%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22ML%2FI%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22ML%2FI%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.ml1.org.uk/","external_links_name":"http://www.ml1.org.uk"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Sz44AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA85","external_links_name":"Macro Processors"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363717.363746","external_links_name":"\"The ML/I macro processor\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F363717.363746","external_links_name":"10.1145/363717.363746"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782","external_links_name":"0001-0782"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSE.1976.233539","external_links_name":"10.1109/TSE.1976.233539"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0098-5589","external_links_name":"0098-5589"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16317510","external_links_name":"16317510"},{"Link":"http://www.ml1.org.uk/","external_links_name":"http://www.ml1.org.uk"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KeyCreator
KeyCreator
["1 History","2 Design","2.1 File formats and versions","2.2 Languages","2.3 Extensions","2.4 Add-On Software","3 Designed with KeyCreator","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
Software KeyCreator3D solid model of a plastic part highlighted using the Verify Thickness function in KeyCreator ProDeveloper(s)Kubotek KosmosInitial release2004Stable release2024 / October 26, 2023 (2023-10-26) Operating systemWindowsPredecessorCADKEYTypeComputer-aided designLicenseCommercial proprietary softwareWebsitewww.kubotekkosmos.com/meet-keycreator.aspx KeyCreator is a commercial software application for 2D and 3D computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting available since 2004. History KeyCreator is a non-parametric, non-history based, "direct" 2D/3D solid modeling CAD program. Originally known as CADKEY, it was first released in 1984, running on DOS, UNIX and Microsoft Windows operating systems. It was among the first CAD programs with 3D capabilities for personal computers. Besides solid modeling, KeyCreator is also capable of wire-frame and surface modeling, as well as drafting. Design File formats and versions KeyCreator’s native file format is .ckd. Languages KeyCreator is available for English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, and Brazilian Portuguese. Extensions KeyCreator is capable of translating and editing the following file formats from other CAD software: AutoCAD .dwg, .dxf Autodesk Inventor .ipt, .iam CADKEY .prt Catia .mod, .model, .catproduct, .catpart SolidWorks .sldprt, .sldasm Pro/Engineer .prt, .asm PTC Creo .prt Siemens NX .prt Unigraphics .prt Neutral formats such as STEP .stp, IGES .igs, Parasolid .x_t, and ACIS .sat Stereolithography (for 3D printing) .stl Add-On Software KeyCreator has several additional software options for varying functions. XMD - Expert Mold Designer provides intelligent automation, custom plate stack layouts, and part revision management. XMD includes tens of thousands of standard components designers need for mold, die, fixture, and machine design. KeyCreator Machinist is a 2 and 3 axis CAM solution for Mold, die & tooling, wood working, rapid prototyping and general machining. KeyCreator Artisan allows 3D models to be turned into photorealistic renderings. KeyCreator CKD Viewer is a no-cost program for reviewing 3D models and drawings stored in CKD files. Designed with KeyCreator Aero Tec Laboratories used KeyCreator to design crash resistant, nonexploding fuel-bladder tanks for aircraft, race cars, and performance boats. They have made custom bladder tanks for NASCAR, Ferrari, Boeing, Lockheed, NASA and the U.S. Military. See also CADKEY References ^ "Kubotek Kosmos". Kubotek. Retrieved 26 May 2023. ^ "Section 10: CAD/CAM/CAE/CADD". Design.osu.edu. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2011-05-25. ^ "CADKEY Definition from PC Magazine Encyclopedia". Pcmag.com. 1994-12-01. Retrieved 2011-05-25. ^ "Kubotek Kosmos Homepage". Kubotek. Retrieved 26 May 2023. ^ "XMD - Expert Mold Designer". Retrieved 16 Mar 2023. ^ "KeyCreator Machinist". Kubotek. Retrieved 26 May 2023. ^ "KeyCreator Artisan". Kubotek. Retrieved 19 Nov 2019. ^ "KeyCreator Viewer". Retrieved 26 May 2023. ^ "Direct Modeler Builds a Better Fuel Tank". Machine Design. Retrieved 23 July 2015. External links Wikibooks has more on the topic of: KeyCreator KeyCreator Official Website vteCAD softwareFree and open-sourceMechanical BRL-CAD FreeCAD HeeksCAD LibreCAD Open Cascade Technology OpenSCAD QCAD rattleCAD Salome SolveSpace Electrical Electric FreePCB Fritzing gEDA KiCad kTechLab Magic ngspice Oregano QUCS XCircuit ProprietaryMechanical Alibre Design AutoCAD Autodesk Alias Autodesk Inventor Autodesk Revit ArchiCAD BricsCAD CADKEY CATIA Cimatron Cobalt DesignSpark Mechanical Creo Elements/Direct Drafting Creo Elements/Pro EasyCAD FastCAD FINE FORAN Fusion 360 GstarCAD IRONCAD KeyCreator MEDUSA MicroStation NX Onshape PDMS Pro/DESKTOP Rhinoceros 3D Grasshopper 3D rattleCAD 4.0 RUCAPS Solid Edge SolidWorks SpaceClaim T-FLEX CAD Tinkercad TurboCAD VariCAD Electrical Allegro AutoCAD Electrical Autotrax Altium Designer BoardStation CADSTAR CircuitMaker CR-2000 CR-3000 CR-5000 CR-8000 Delta Design DesignSpark PCB DipTrace EAGLE EasyEDA Easytrax FreeStyle IntegraStation LTspice Micro-Cap Multisim OrCAD PADS P-CAD PCB Protel Proteus Pulsonix SolidWorks Electrical Tango TARGET TopoR Ultiboard Upverter Xpedition File formats 3MF ACIS AMF C3D CKD DSN DWF DWFX DWG DXF IGES OBJ OpenDWG PLY PSpice SES STEP STL Modeling kernels ACIS C3D Open Cascade Technology Parasolid RGK Romulus KernelCAD ShapeManager Teigha IntelliCAD SMLib Old DAC-1 (1963) Sketchpad (1963) UNISURF (1968) History of CAD software
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"commercial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_software"},{"link_name":"software application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_application"},{"link_name":"2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"computer-aided design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_design"},{"link_name":"drafting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawing"}],"text":"KeyCreator is a commercial software application for 2D and 3D computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting available since 2004.","title":"KeyCreator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CADKEY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CADKEY"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"UNIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pcmag1-3"},{"link_name":"personal computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"wire-frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire-frame_model"},{"link_name":"drafting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_drawing"}],"text":"KeyCreator is a non-parametric, non-history based, \"direct\" 2D/3D solid modeling CAD program. Originally known as CADKEY,[2] it was first released in 1984, running on DOS, UNIX and Microsoft Windows operating systems. It was among the first CAD programs[3] with 3D capabilities for personal computers. Besides solid modeling, KeyCreator is also capable of wire-frame and surface modeling, as well as drafting.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"File formats and versions","text":"KeyCreator’s native file format is .ckd.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_language"},{"link_name":"Brazilian Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Languages","text":"KeyCreator is available for English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Japanese, and Brazilian Portuguese.[4]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CAD software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAD_software"},{"link_name":"AutoCAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AutoCAD"},{"link_name":".dwg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dwg"},{"link_name":".dxf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.dxf"},{"link_name":"Autodesk Inventor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodesk_Inventor"},{"link_name":"CADKEY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CADKEY"},{"link_name":"Catia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CATIA"},{"link_name":"SolidWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SolidWorks"},{"link_name":"Pro/Engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro/Engineer"},{"link_name":"PTC Creo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PTC_Creo"},{"link_name":"Siemens NX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_NX"},{"link_name":"Unigraphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unigraphics"},{"link_name":"STEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10303-21"},{"link_name":"IGES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGES"},{"link_name":"Parasolid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasolid"},{"link_name":".x_t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.x_t"},{"link_name":"ACIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACIS"},{"link_name":".sat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.sat"},{"link_name":"Stereolithography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereolithography"},{"link_name":"3D printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing"},{"link_name":".stl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STL_(file_format)"}],"sub_title":"Extensions","text":"KeyCreator is capable of translating and editing the following file formats from other CAD software:AutoCAD .dwg, .dxf\nAutodesk Inventor .ipt, .iam\nCADKEY .prt\nCatia .mod, .model, .catproduct, .catpart\nSolidWorks .sldprt, .sldasm\nPro/Engineer .prt, .asm\nPTC Creo .prt\nSiemens NX .prt\nUnigraphics .prt\nNeutral formats such as STEP .stp, IGES .igs, Parasolid .x_t, and ACIS .sat\nStereolithography (for 3D printing) .stl","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Add-On Software","text":"KeyCreator has several additional software options for varying functions.XMD - Expert Mold Designer provides intelligent automation, custom plate stack layouts, and part revision management. XMD includes tens of thousands of standard components designers need for mold, die, fixture, and machine design.[5]\nKeyCreator Machinist is a 2 and 3 axis CAM solution for Mold, die & tooling, wood working, rapid prototyping and general machining.[6]\nKeyCreator Artisan allows 3D models to be turned into photorealistic renderings.[7]\nKeyCreator CKD Viewer is a no-cost program for reviewing 3D models and drawings stored in CKD files.[8]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aero Tec Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aero_Tec_Laboratories&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"NASCAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR"},{"link_name":"Ferrari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrari"},{"link_name":"Lockheed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_Martin"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"U.S. Military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Military"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Aero Tec Laboratories used KeyCreator to design crash resistant, nonexploding fuel-bladder tanks for aircraft, race cars, and performance boats. They have made custom bladder tanks for NASCAR, Ferrari, Boeing, Lockheed, NASA and the U.S. Military.[9]","title":"Designed with KeyCreator"}]
[]
[{"title":"CADKEY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CADKEY"}]
[{"reference":"\"Kubotek Kosmos\". Kubotek. Retrieved 26 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kubotekkosmos.com/","url_text":"\"Kubotek Kosmos\""}]},{"reference":"\"Section 10: CAD/CAM/CAE/CADD\". Design.osu.edu. Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2011-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716202544/http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson10.html","url_text":"\"Section 10: CAD/CAM/CAE/CADD\""},{"url":"http://design.osu.edu/carlson/history/lesson10.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"CADKEY Definition from PC Magazine Encyclopedia\". Pcmag.com. 1994-12-01. Retrieved 2011-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=CADKEY&i=39198,00.asp","url_text":"\"CADKEY Definition from PC Magazine Encyclopedia\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kubotek Kosmos Homepage\". Kubotek. Retrieved 26 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://kubotekkosmos.com/","url_text":"\"Kubotek Kosmos Homepage\""}]},{"reference":"\"XMD - Expert Mold Designer\". Retrieved 16 Mar 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.molddesignsoftware.com/","url_text":"\"XMD - Expert Mold Designer\""}]},{"reference":"\"KeyCreator Machinist\". Kubotek. Retrieved 26 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kubotekkosmos.com/products/keycreator/features","url_text":"\"KeyCreator Machinist\""}]},{"reference":"\"KeyCreator Artisan\". Kubotek. Retrieved 19 Nov 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kubotekkosmos.com/store/partners/artisan","url_text":"\"KeyCreator Artisan\""}]},{"reference":"\"KeyCreator Viewer\". Retrieved 26 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kubotekkosmos.com/products/keycreator-viewer","url_text":"\"KeyCreator Viewer\""}]},{"reference":"\"Direct Modeler Builds a Better Fuel Tank\". Machine Design. Retrieved 23 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.machinedesign.com/fea-and-simulation/direct-modeler-builds-better-fuel-tank","url_text":"\"Direct Modeler Builds a Better Fuel Tank\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_Fibonacci_constant
Reciprocal Fibonacci constant
["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
Mathematical constant defined as the sum of the reciprocals of the Fibonacci numbers The reciprocal Fibonacci constant, or ψ, is defined as the sum of the reciprocals of the Fibonacci numbers: ψ = ∑ k = 1 ∞ 1 F k = 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 2 + 1 3 + 1 5 + 1 8 + 1 13 + 1 21 + ⋯ . {\displaystyle \psi =\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{F_{k}}}={\frac {1}{1}}+{\frac {1}{1}}+{\frac {1}{2}}+{\frac {1}{3}}+{\frac {1}{5}}+{\frac {1}{8}}+{\frac {1}{13}}+{\frac {1}{21}}+\cdots .} The ratio of successive terms in this sum tends to the reciprocal of the golden ratio. Since this is less than 1, the ratio test shows that the sum converges. The value of ψ is known to be approximately ψ = 3.359885666243177553172011302918927179688905133732 … {\displaystyle \psi =3.359885666243177553172011302918927179688905133732\dots } (sequence A079586 in the OEIS). Gosper describes an algorithm for fast numerical approximation of its value. The reciprocal Fibonacci series itself provides O(k) digits of accuracy for k terms of expansion, while Gosper's accelerated series provides O(k 2) digits. ψ is known to be irrational; this property was conjectured by Paul Erdős, Ronald Graham, and Leonard Carlitz, and proved in 1989 by Richard André-Jeannin. The continued fraction representation of the constant is: ψ = [ 3 ; 2 , 1 , 3 , 1 , 1 , 13 , 2 , 3 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 1 , 6 , 3 , 2 , 4 , 362 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 6 , 30 , 50 , 1 , 6 , 3 , 3 , 2 , 7 , 2 , 3 , 1 , 3 , 2 , … ] {\displaystyle \psi =\!\,} (sequence A079587 in the OEIS). See also List of sums of reciprocals References ^ Gosper, William R. (1974), Acceleration of Series, Artificial Intelligence Memo #304, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, p. 66, hdl:1721.1/6088. ^ André-Jeannin, Richard (1989), "Irrationalité de la somme des inverses de certaines suites récurrentes", Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences, Série I, 308 (19): 539–541, MR 0999451 External links Weisstein, Eric W. "Reciprocal Fibonacci Constant". MathWorld. This mathematics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ψ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A8"},{"link_name":"reciprocals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number"},{"link_name":"golden ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio"},{"link_name":"ratio test","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratio_test"},{"link_name":"converges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergent_series"},{"link_name":"A079586","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A079586"},{"link_name":"OEIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences"},{"link_name":"Gosper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gosper"},{"link_name":"algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"accelerated series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series_acceleration"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"irrational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrational_number"},{"link_name":"conjectured","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjecture"},{"link_name":"Paul Erdős","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s"},{"link_name":"Ronald Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Graham"},{"link_name":"Leonard Carlitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Carlitz"},{"link_name":"proved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_proof"},{"link_name":"Richard André-Jeannin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Andr%C3%A9-Jeannin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"continued fraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continued_fraction"},{"link_name":"A079587","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//oeis.org/A079587"},{"link_name":"OEIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-Line_Encyclopedia_of_Integer_Sequences"}],"text":"The reciprocal Fibonacci constant, or ψ, is defined as the sum of the reciprocals of the Fibonacci numbers:ψ\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n F\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 1\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 3\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 5\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 8\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 13\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 21\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi =\\sum _{k=1}^{\\infty }{\\frac {1}{F_{k}}}={\\frac {1}{1}}+{\\frac {1}{1}}+{\\frac {1}{2}}+{\\frac {1}{3}}+{\\frac {1}{5}}+{\\frac {1}{8}}+{\\frac {1}{13}}+{\\frac {1}{21}}+\\cdots .}The ratio of successive terms in this sum tends to the reciprocal of the golden ratio. Since this is less than 1, the ratio test shows that the sum converges.The value of ψ is known to be approximatelyψ\n =\n 3.359885666243177553172011302918927179688905133732\n …\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi =3.359885666243177553172011302918927179688905133732\\dots }\n \n (sequence A079586 in the OEIS).Gosper describes an algorithm for fast numerical approximation of its value. The reciprocal Fibonacci series itself provides O(k) digits of accuracy for k terms of expansion, while Gosper's accelerated series provides O(k 2) digits.[1]\nψ is known to be irrational; this property was conjectured by Paul Erdős, Ronald Graham, and Leonard Carlitz, and proved in 1989 by Richard André-Jeannin.[2]The continued fraction representation of the constant is:ψ\n =\n [\n 3\n ;\n 2\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 13\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 6\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 4\n ,\n 362\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 4\n ,\n 8\n ,\n 6\n ,\n 30\n ,\n 50\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 6\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 7\n ,\n 2\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 3\n ,\n 2\n ,\n …\n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi =[3;2,1,3,1,1,13,2,3,3,2,1,1,6,3,2,4,362,2,4,8,6,30,50,1,6,3,3,2,7,2,3,1,3,2,\\dots ]\\!\\,}\n \n (sequence A079587 in the OEIS).","title":"Reciprocal Fibonacci constant"}]
[]
[{"title":"List of sums of reciprocals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sums_of_reciprocals"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEWS-OS
Sony NEWS
["1 History","1.1 1980s","1.2 1990s","2 Hardware","3 Software","3.1 NEWS-OS","3.2 Third-party software","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
UNIX workstation series This article is about the UNIX workstation series produced by Sony. For the windowing system by Sun Microsystems, see NeWS. Sony NEWSSony NEWS workstation: 2x 68030 @ 25 MHz, 1280x1024 256-color displayManufacturerSonyTypeComputer hardwareRelease dateJanuary 1987 (1987-01)Discontinued1998Operating systemNEWS-OSCPU680x0 and MIPSWebsitewww.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-12.html Sony NWS-3710 front Sony NWS-3710 front detail Sony NWS-3710 with front door open Rear view of the Sony NWS-3710 The Sony NEWS ("Network Engineering Workstation", later "NetWorkStation") is a series of Unix workstations sold during the late 1980s and 1990s. The first NEWS machine was the NWS-800, which originally appeared in Japan in January 1987 and was conceived as a desktop replacement for the VAX series of minicomputers. History 1980s Sony's NEWS project leader, Toshitada Doi, originally wanted to develop a computer for business applications, but his engineers wanted to develop a replacement for minicomputers running Unix that they preferred to use: In the beginning, Doi's concept of the workstation was a device, which was essentially an extension of current projects. He saw it as consisting of "a 32-bit CPU developed in a short time with unrestricted applications." Basically, he thought of it as an OA computer. However, the engineers Doi selected for his team did not listen to what Doi told them to do. They wanted to develop a workstation that could replace the VAX Super Mini Computer developed by Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC). This was a computer that the engineers often fought with each other to use while at MIPS because of the limited number. They wanted to develop something they themselves could use for their own day to day work. Initial development of the NEWS was completed in 1986 after only one year of development. It launched at a lower price than competitors (US$5,600–16,300), and it outperformed conventional minicomputers. After a successful launch, the line expanded and the new focus for the NEWS became desktop publishing and CAD/CAM. 1990s In 1991, Sony broadened the NEWS range with the 3250 portable workstation, reportedly described in product literature as a laptop but weighing 18 pounds and having more in common with portable computers, being "designed to be set up on a desk and plugged in". Featuring an 11-inch monochrome liquid crystal display with a resolution of 1120 x 780 and keyboard with "75 full travel keys", the machine was fitted with an internal hard drive and a 3.5-inch floppy drive. A SCSI port permitted the addition of other storage devices, and Ethernet, parallel and serial ports were provided, along with a mouse port and audio in/out ports for audio processing. In terms of its fundamental computing facilities, the system employed a 20 MHz MIPS R3000 CPU with R3010 floating-point coprocessor, offered 8 MB of RAM expandable to 36 MB, running an implementation of Unix System V Release 4 and providing an Open Software Foundation Motif graphical environment. In the United States, a configuration with 240 MB hard drive cost $9,900, with the 406 MB configuration costing $11,900. Early PlayStation development kits were based on Sony NEWS hardware, with added Playstation hardware. The Sony NEWS was unable to break into the U.S. market, where Sun Microsystems was dominant, and also did not fare well in Europe. The NEWS platform was later used for video-on-demand applications, and for Internet server applications. The NEWS division at Sony was dissolved in 1998. Hardware The Sony NEWS originally came equipped with a dual 680x0 (68020 or 68030) processor configuration running at 16-25 MHz. Later, the Sony NEWS was moved to the MIPS architecture, with MIPS III and MIPS IV microprocessors such as the R3000, R4000, R4400, R4600, R4700, and R10000. The fastest MIPS processors used in Sony NEWS workstations run at 200 MHz. Both 680x0 and MIPS models share the same case, which has a large door covering a 3 1/2" micro-diskette drive and a 5.25-in expansion bay, which can house a SCSI tape or CD-ROM drive. The details of the door are slightly different: two windows for the 680x0 models, while the MIPS ones have a single large window. Also hidden by the cover are a reset button and a series of DIP switches used to configure some bootup parameters. On the back are 3 expansion slots, one of which normally houses a video card. Underneath those are connectors for SCSI, network (an AUI connector), serial (CH0, normally used for console, and CH1), parallel, and a keyboard. Software NEWS-OS Originally, the Sony NEWS team had to decide which version of Unix to use: BSD or AT&T System V. The project leader was interested in the potential commercial support for System V, but the engineering team preferred BSD because it had rich networking features, including TCP/IP. Eventually BSD was chosen because they believed that computer networks would be important in the future. NEWS-OS releases were based on three different versions of Unix: NEWS-OS 1.x: 4.2BSD, Shift JIS, introduced in 1987 NEWS-OS 2.x: 4.2BSD, Shift JIS, introduced in 1987 NEWS-OS 3.x: 4.3BSD, EUC, introduced in 1988 NEWS-OS 4.x: 4.3BSD, EUC, introduced in 1990 NEWS-OS 5.x: SVR4.2, EUC, introduced in 1992 NEWS-OS 6.x: SVR4.2, EUC, introduced in 1993 Prior to NEWS-OS 3.9, all versions of NEWS-OS were released exclusively for the 680x0 series of processors. NEWS-OS 3.9 was released in both CISC ("C") versions and RISC ("R") versions, for the 680x0 and the MIPS architecture, respectively. For example, NEWS-OS 3.9 was released as "NEWS-OS 3.9C" and "NEWS-OS 3.9R", with the same functionality in both the CISC and RISC versions. The NEWS-OS 4.x series was also released in both CISC and RISC versions. Third-party software Yukihiro Matsumoto originally implemented the Ruby programming language on the 4.3BSD-based NEWS-OS 3.x, but later migrated his work to SunOS 4.x, and finally to Linux. In 1999, Ruby was known to work across many different operating systems, including NEWS-OS. See also EWS-UX References ^ SONY History 第12章 苦闘する新分野への進出 第2話 社内ベンチャーから生まれた「NEWS」 - Sony official Web site　(Japanese) ^ IPSJ Computer Museum - Historical Computers in Japan, Workstations - Sony NWS-800 Series (Prototype) ^ a b c d "Sony History: NEWS – An Independent Venture". Retrieved 3 February 2013. ^ Smith, Ben (March 1991). "Sony's Portable News". Byte. pp. 46, 48. Retrieved 18 June 2022. ^ "Official PlayStation 1 Development Kit (Hardware) · RetroReversing". ^ Yager, Tom (December 1990). "Sony NeWS and MIPS Magnum: A Double Shot of RISC". BYTE. Vol. 15, no. 13. pp. 172–175. ^ Katsu Watanabe. "SONY NEWS Series hardware specifications". Retrieved 2015-12-10. ^ "NEWS --- 一人1台を実現したワークステーション" (in Japanese). 20 September 2006. Retrieved 4 February 2014. ^ a b "Sony NEWS-OS Releases". ^ Maya Stodte (February 2000). "IBM developerWorks – Ruby: a new language". Archived from the original on August 18, 2000. Retrieved 3 March 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ Yukihiro Matsumoto (August 2002). "lang-ruby-general: Re: question about Ruby initial development". Retrieved 3 March 2014. ^ Yukihiro Matsumoto (5 January 1999). "ruby-talk: Re: hah, check these errors". Retrieved 3 March 2014. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sony NEWS. Sony History: NEWS – An Independent Venture SONY NEWS Series hardware specifications Xi FTP service software repository for NEWS-OS 6.1 webpage about SONY NEWS 1580 webpage about Sony NEWS 1580 webpage about SONY NEWS 1580(web archive) webpage about Sony NEWS 1580 FAQ on running netbsd on a SONY NEWS 68030-based (news68k) workstation. A version for the RISC version is also available. History for the Sony NEWS workstations vteSonyHistoryFounders Masaru Ibuka Akio Morita Primary businesses Sony Corporation Sony Semiconductor Solutions Sony Entertainment Sony Music Group Entertainment Publishing Sony Pictures Sony Financial Group Sony Life Sony Bank Sony Interactive Entertainment PlayStation Sony Music Entertainment Japan Aniplex Technologiesand brands α (Alpha) Betacam Bionz Blu-ray Bravia CD Cell Cyber-shot Dash Dream Machine DVD Exmor FeliCa Handycam HDCAM/HDCAM-SR HMZ-T1 Inzone LocationFree Memory Stick MiniDisc MiniDV MicroMV mylo PlayNow PlayStation Reader S/PDIF SDDS 8 channel films Sony Entertainment Network SXRD Sony Tablet Tunnel diode TransferJet UMD Vaio Video8/Hi8/Digital8 Vision-S Walkman XDCAM Xperia Historical products AIBO CV-2000 DAT Betamax Sony CLIÉ Discman Jumbotron Lissa Mavica NEWS Optiarc Qualia Rolly TR-55 Trinitron FD series 1 inch Type C U-matic Vaio Watchman WEGA Electronics Sony Creative Software FeliCa Networks (57%) Online distributionplatforms PlayStation Network PlayStation Now PlayStation Store Sony Pictures Core SonyLIV Crunchyroll Great American Pure Flix (joint venture with Great American Media) Former/Defunct PlayNow PlayStation Video PlayStation Vue Anime Digital Network Anime on Demand AnimeLab Funimation Wakanim VRV Sony Entertainment Network Crackle Minisodes Other businesses Sony DADC Sony Network Communications Sony Professional Solutions Sony Honda Mobility (50%) M3 (39.4%) Vaio (4.9%) Other assets Sony Corporation of America (umbrella company in the US) Other subsidiaries List of acquisitions List of libraries Nonprofit organizations Sony Institute of Higher Education Shohoku College Other Sony Toshiba IBM Center of Competence for the Cell Processor Sony timer
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For the windowing system by Sun Microsystems, see NeWS.Sony NWS-3710 frontSony NWS-3710 front detailSony NWS-3710 with front door openRear view of the Sony NWS-3710The Sony NEWS (\"Network Engineering Workstation\", later \"NetWorkStation\") is a series of Unix workstations sold during the late 1980s and 1990s. The first NEWS machine was the NWS-800, which originally appeared in Japan in January 1987 and was conceived as a desktop replacement for the VAX series of minicomputers.[1][2]","title":"Sony NEWS"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Toshitada Doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshitada_Doi"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sony-history-news-3"},{"link_name":"OA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_automation"},{"link_name":"Super Mini Computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superminicomputer"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sony-history-news-3"},{"link_name":"desktop publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_publishing"},{"link_name":"CAD/CAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAD/CAM"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sony-history-news-3"}],"sub_title":"1980s","text":"Sony's NEWS project leader, Toshitada Doi, originally wanted to develop a computer for business applications, but his engineers wanted to develop a replacement for minicomputers running Unix that they preferred to use:[3]In the beginning, Doi's concept of the workstation was a device, which was essentially an extension of current [MIPS (Media Information Products and System) Business Group] projects. He saw it as consisting of \"a 32-bit CPU developed in a short time with unrestricted applications.\" Basically, he thought of it as an OA computer. However, the engineers Doi selected for his team did not listen to what Doi told them to do. They wanted to develop a workstation that could replace the VAX Super Mini Computer developed by Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC). This was a computer that the engineers often fought with each other to use while at MIPS because of the limited number. They wanted to develop something they themselves could use for their own day to day work.Initial development of the NEWS was completed in 1986 after only one year of development. It launched at a lower price than competitors (US$5,600–16,300), and it outperformed conventional minicomputers.[3] After a successful launch, the line expanded and the new focus for the NEWS became desktop publishing and CAD/CAM.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI"},{"link_name":"Open Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-byte199103_news3250-4"},{"link_name":"PlayStation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_(console)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sony-history-news-3"}],"sub_title":"1990s","text":"In 1991, Sony broadened the NEWS range with the 3250 portable workstation, reportedly described in product literature as a laptop but weighing 18 pounds and having more in common with portable computers, being \"designed to be set up on a desk and plugged in\". Featuring an 11-inch monochrome liquid crystal display with a resolution of 1120 x 780 and keyboard with \"75 full travel keys\", the machine was fitted with an internal hard drive and a 3.5-inch floppy drive. A SCSI port permitted the addition of other storage devices, and Ethernet, parallel and serial ports were provided, along with a mouse port and audio in/out ports for audio processing. In terms of its fundamental computing facilities, the system employed a 20 MHz MIPS R3000 CPU with R3010 floating-point coprocessor, offered 8 MB of RAM expandable to 36 MB, running an implementation of Unix System V Release 4 and providing an Open Software Foundation Motif graphical environment. In the United States, a configuration with 240 MB hard drive cost $9,900, with the 406 MB configuration costing $11,900.[4]Early PlayStation development kits were based on Sony NEWS hardware, with added Playstation hardware.[5]The Sony NEWS was unable to break into the U.S. market, where Sun Microsystems was dominant, and also did not fare well in Europe.[3]The NEWS platform was later used for video-on-demand applications, and for Internet server applications.The NEWS division at Sony was dissolved in 1998.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"680x0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68000_series"},{"link_name":"68020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68020"},{"link_name":"68030","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68030"},{"link_name":"MIPS architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture"},{"link_name":"MIPS III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_III"},{"link_name":"MIPS IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_IV"},{"link_name":"R3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R3000"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-byte1990_12-6"},{"link_name":"R4000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R4000"},{"link_name":"R4400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R4000#R4400"},{"link_name":"R4600","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R4600"},{"link_name":"R4700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R4600#R4700"},{"link_name":"R10000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R10000"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-katsu_hw-7"},{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI"},{"link_name":"DIP switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIP_switch"},{"link_name":"SCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI"},{"link_name":"AUI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_Unit_Interface"},{"link_name":"parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_port"}],"text":"The Sony NEWS originally came equipped with a dual 680x0 (68020 or 68030) processor configuration running at 16-25 MHz. Later, the Sony NEWS was moved to the MIPS architecture, with MIPS III and MIPS IV microprocessors such as the R3000,[6] R4000, R4400, R4600, R4700, and R10000. The fastest MIPS processors used in Sony NEWS workstations run at 200 MHz.[7]Both 680x0 and MIPS models share the same case, which has a large door covering a 3 1/2\" micro-diskette drive and a 5.25-in expansion bay, which can house a SCSI tape or CD-ROM drive. The details of the door are slightly different: two windows for the 680x0 models, while the MIPS ones have a single large window. Also hidden by the cover are a reset button and a series of DIP switches used to configure some bootup parameters.On the back are 3 expansion slots, one of which normally houses a video card. Underneath those are connectors for SCSI, network (an AUI connector), serial (CH0, normally used for console, and CH1), parallel, and a keyboard.","title":"Hardware"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD"},{"link_name":"AT&T System V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_V"},{"link_name":"TCP/IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP"},{"link_name":"computer networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-news_os_versions-9"},{"link_name":"Shift JIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shift_JIS"},{"link_name":"EUC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Unix_Code"},{"link_name":"SVR4.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SVR4"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-news_os_versions-9"}],"sub_title":"NEWS-OS","text":"Originally, the Sony NEWS team had to decide which version of Unix to use: BSD or AT&T System V. The project leader was interested in the potential commercial support for System V, but the engineering team preferred BSD because it had rich networking features, including TCP/IP. Eventually BSD was chosen because they believed that computer networks would be important in the future.[8]NEWS-OS releases were based on three different versions of Unix:[9]NEWS-OS 1.x: 4.2BSD, Shift JIS, introduced in 1987\nNEWS-OS 2.x: 4.2BSD, Shift JIS, introduced in 1987\nNEWS-OS 3.x: 4.3BSD, EUC, introduced in 1988\nNEWS-OS 4.x: 4.3BSD, EUC, introduced in 1990\nNEWS-OS 5.x: SVR4.2, EUC, introduced in 1992\nNEWS-OS 6.x: SVR4.2, EUC, introduced in 1993Prior to NEWS-OS 3.9, all versions of NEWS-OS were released exclusively for the 680x0 series of processors. NEWS-OS 3.9 was released in both CISC (\"C\") versions and RISC (\"R\") versions, for the 680x0 and the MIPS architecture, respectively. For example, NEWS-OS 3.9 was released as \"NEWS-OS 3.9C\" and \"NEWS-OS 3.9R\", with the same functionality in both the CISC and RISC versions. The NEWS-OS 4.x series was also released in both CISC and RISC versions.[9]","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yukihiro Matsumoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukihiro_Matsumoto"},{"link_name":"Ruby programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"SunOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunOS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Third-party software","text":"Yukihiro Matsumoto originally implemented the Ruby programming language on the 4.3BSD-based NEWS-OS 3.x, but later migrated his work to SunOS 4.x, and finally to Linux.[10][11] In 1999, Ruby was known to work across many different operating systems, including NEWS-OS.[12]","title":"Software"}]
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[{"title":"EWS-UX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EWS-UX"}]
[{"reference":"\"Sony History: NEWS – An Independent Venture\". Retrieved 3 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-12.html","url_text":"\"Sony History: NEWS – An Independent Venture\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Ben (March 1991). \"Sony's Portable News\". Byte. pp. 46, 48. Retrieved 18 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/eu_BYTE-1991-03_OCR/page/n57/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Sony's Portable News\""}]},{"reference":"\"Official PlayStation 1 Development Kit (Hardware) · RetroReversing\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.retroreversing.com/official-playStation-devkit","url_text":"\"Official PlayStation 1 Development Kit (Hardware) · RetroReversing\""}]},{"reference":"Yager, Tom (December 1990). \"Sony NeWS and MIPS Magnum: A Double Shot of RISC\". BYTE. Vol. 15, no. 13. pp. 172–175.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1990-12/page/n213/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Sony NeWS and MIPS Magnum: A Double Shot of RISC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_(magazine)","url_text":"BYTE"}]},{"reference":"Katsu Watanabe. \"SONY NEWS Series hardware specifications\". Retrieved 2015-12-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://katsu.watanabe.name/doc/sonynews/model.html","url_text":"\"SONY NEWS Series hardware specifications\""}]},{"reference":"\"NEWS --- 一人1台を実現したワークステーション\" (in Japanese). 20 September 2006. Retrieved 4 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://itpro.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/COLUMN/20060912/247835/","url_text":"\"NEWS --- 一人1台を実現したワークステーション\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sony NEWS-OS Releases\".","urls":[{"url":"http://katsu.watanabe.name/doc/sonynews/newsos.html","url_text":"\"Sony NEWS-OS Releases\""}]},{"reference":"Maya Stodte (February 2000). \"IBM developerWorks – Ruby: a new language\". Archived from the original on August 18, 2000. Retrieved 3 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000818164241/http://www-4.ibm.com/software/developer/library/ruby.html","url_text":"\"IBM developerWorks – Ruby: a new language\""}]},{"reference":"Yukihiro Matsumoto (August 2002). \"lang-ruby-general: Re: question about Ruby initial development\". Retrieved 3 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://osdir.com/ml/lang-ruby-general/2002-08/msg02494.html","url_text":"\"lang-ruby-general: Re: question about Ruby initial development\""}]},{"reference":"Yukihiro Matsumoto (5 January 1999). \"ruby-talk: Re: hah, check these errors\". Retrieved 3 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://blade.nagaokaut.ac.jp/cgi-bin/scat.rb/ruby/ruby-talk/170","url_text":"\"ruby-talk: Re: hah, check these errors\""}]}]
[{"Link":"http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-12.html","external_links_name":"www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-12.html"},{"Link":"http://www.sony.co.jp/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-12.html","external_links_name":"SONY History 第12章 苦闘する新分野への進出 第2話 社内ベンチャーから生まれた「NEWS」"},{"Link":"http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/work/0005.html","external_links_name":"IPSJ Computer Museum - Historical Computers in Japan, Workstations - Sony NWS-800 Series (Prototype)"},{"Link":"http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-12.html","external_links_name":"\"Sony History: NEWS – An Independent Venture\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/eu_BYTE-1991-03_OCR/page/n57/mode/1up","external_links_name":"\"Sony's Portable News\""},{"Link":"https://www.retroreversing.com/official-playStation-devkit","external_links_name":"\"Official PlayStation 1 Development Kit (Hardware) · RetroReversing\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1990-12/page/n213/mode/1up","external_links_name":"\"Sony NeWS and MIPS Magnum: A Double Shot of RISC\""},{"Link":"http://katsu.watanabe.name/doc/sonynews/model.html","external_links_name":"\"SONY NEWS Series hardware specifications\""},{"Link":"http://itpro.nikkeibp.co.jp/article/COLUMN/20060912/247835/","external_links_name":"\"NEWS --- 一人1台を実現したワークステーション\""},{"Link":"http://katsu.watanabe.name/doc/sonynews/newsos.html","external_links_name":"\"Sony NEWS-OS Releases\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000818164241/http://www-4.ibm.com/software/developer/library/ruby.html","external_links_name":"\"IBM developerWorks – Ruby: a new language\""},{"Link":"http://osdir.com/ml/lang-ruby-general/2002-08/msg02494.html","external_links_name":"\"lang-ruby-general: Re: question about Ruby initial development\""},{"Link":"http://blade.nagaokaut.ac.jp/cgi-bin/scat.rb/ruby/ruby-talk/170","external_links_name":"\"ruby-talk: Re: hah, check these errors\""},{"Link":"http://www.sony.net/SonyInfo/CorporateInfo/History/SonyHistory/2-12.html#block3","external_links_name":"Sony History: NEWS – An Independent Venture"},{"Link":"http://katsu.watanabe.name/doc/sonynews/model.html","external_links_name":"SONY NEWS Series hardware specifications"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080321103102/http://www.xi.kaiyodai.ac.jp/FTP/newsos.6.1.html","external_links_name":"Xi FTP service"},{"Link":"http://www.tollari.org/news.php","external_links_name":"webpage about SONY NEWS 1580"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141106100847/http://www.tollari.org/news.php","external_links_name":"webpage about SONY NEWS 1580(web archive)"},{"Link":"http://netbsd.org/ports/news68k/faq.html","external_links_name":"FAQ on running netbsd on a SONY NEWS 68030-based (news68k) workstation"},{"Link":"http://www.netbsd.org/ports/newsmips/","external_links_name":"RISC"},{"Link":"http://www.netbsd.org/ports/newsmips/history.html","external_links_name":"History for the Sony NEWS workstations"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salts
Salt (chemistry)
["1 History of discovery","2 Formation","3 Bonding","4 Structure","4.1 Defects","5 Properties","5.1 Acidity/basicity","5.2 Melting and boiling points","5.3 Brittleness","5.4 Compressibility","5.5 Solubility","5.6 Electrical conductivity","5.7 Colour","5.8 Taste and odor","6 Uses","7 Nomenclature","8 Strength","9 Zwitterion","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","12.1 Bibliography"]
Chemical compound involving ionic bonding "Ionic compound" redirects here. Not to be confused with Salt or Sodium chloride. The crystal structure of sodium chloride, NaCl, a typical ionic compound. The purple spheres represent sodium cations, Na+, and the green spheres represent chloride anions, Cl−. The yellow stipples show the electrostatic forces. In chemistry, a salt or ionic compound is a chemical compound consisting of an assembly of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions), which results in a compound with no net electric charge (electrically neutral). The constituent ions are held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonds. The component ions in a salt can be either inorganic, such as chloride (Cl−), or organic, such as acetate (CH3COO−). Each ion can be either monatomic (termed simple ion), such as fluoride (F−), and sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) in sodium chloride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate (SO2−4), and ammonium (NH+4) and carbonate (CO2−3) ions in ammonium carbonate. Salt containing basic ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases, for example sodium hydroxide. Individual ions within a salt usually have multiple near neighbours, so they are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network. Salts usually form crystalline structures when solid. Salts composed of small ions typically have high melting and boiling points, and are hard and brittle. As solids they are almost always electrically insulating, but when melted or dissolved they become highly conductive, because the ions become mobile. Some salts have large cations, large anions, or both. In terms of their properties, such species often are more similar to organic compounds. History of discovery X-ray spectrometer developed by W. H. Bragg In 1913 the structure of sodium chloride was determined by William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg. This revealed that there were six equidistant nearest-neighbours for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long-range crystalline order. Many other inorganic compounds were also found to have similar structural features. These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral atoms, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when X-ray reflection experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed. Principal contributors to the development of a theoretical treatment of ionic crystal structures were Max Born, Fritz Haber, Alfred Landé, Erwin Madelung, Paul Peter Ewald, and Kazimierz Fajans. Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to thermochemical measurements, further supporting the assumption. Formation Halite, the mineral form of sodium chloride, forms when salty water evaporates leaving the ions behind. Solid lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4) Many metals such as the alkali metals react directly with the electronegative halogens gases to salts. Salts form upon evaporation of their solutions. Once the solution is supersaturated and the solid compound nucleates. This process occurs widely in nature and is the means of formation of the evaporite minerals. Insoluble ionic compounds can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain counterions of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated ionic compound, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate. If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an acid–base reaction or a neutralization reaction to form water. Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as spectator ions. If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the ionic crystal formed also includes water of crystallization, so the product is known as a hydrate, and can have very different chemical properties compared to the anhydrous material. Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their freezing point. This is sometimes used for the solid-state synthesis of complex ionic compounds from solid reactants, which are first melted together. In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a solid-state reaction route. In this method, the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighboring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven. Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct stoichiometric ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species. In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from Group 1 or Group 2) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by electron transfer, a process thermodynamically understood using the Born–Haber cycle. Salts are formed by salt-forming reactions A base and an acid, e.g., NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl A metal and an acid, e.g., Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2 A metal and a non-metal, e.g., Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2 A base and an acid anhydride, e.g., 2 NaOH + Cl2O → 2 NaClO + H2O An acid and a base anhydride, e.g., 2 HNO3 + Na2O → 2 NaNO3 + H2O In the salt metathesis reaction where two different salts are mixed in water, their ions recombine, and the new salt is insoluble and precipitates. For example: Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → PbSO4↓ + 2 NaNO3 Bonding A schematic electron shell diagram of sodium and fluorine atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically. The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are then attracted to each other to form a solid. Main article: Ionic bonding Ions in ionic compounds are primarily held together by the electrostatic forces between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular, the ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged Coulomb attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations. There is also a small additional attractive force from van der Waals interactions which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions. When a pair of ions comes close enough for their outer electron shells (most simple ions have closed shells) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs, due to the Pauli exclusion principle. The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance. If the electronic structure of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed. Ionic compounds are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most electronegative/electropositive pairs such as those in caesium fluoride exhibit a small degree of covalency. Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character. The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using Fajans' rules, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge. More generally HSAB theory can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation. This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations). Although chemists classify idealized bond types as being ionic or covalent, the existence of additional types such as hydrogen bonds and metallic bonds, for example, has led some philosophers of science to suggest that alternative approaches to understanding bonding are required. This could be by applying quantum mechanics to calculate binding energies. Structure The unit cell of the zinc blende structure The lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions, only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighboring distance by a multiplicative constant called the Madelung constant that can be efficiently computed using an Ewald sum. When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the Born–Landé equation, the Born–Mayer equation, or in the absence of structural information, the Kapustinskii equation. Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to close-packed arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral interstices. Depending on the stoichiometry of the ionic compound, and the coordination (principally determined by the radius ratio) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed, and theoretically rationalized by Pauling's rules. Common ionic compound structures with close-packed anions Stoichiometry Cation:anioncoordination Interstitial sites Cubic close packing of anions Hexagonal close packing of anions Occupancy Critical radiusratio Name Madelung constant Name Madelung constant MX 6:6 all octahedral 0.4142 sodium chloride 1.747565 nickeline <1.73 4:4 alternate tetrahedral 0.2247 zinc blende 1.6381 wurtzite 1.641 MX2 8:4 all tetrahedral 0.2247 fluorite 5.03878 6:3 half octahedral (alternate layers fully occupied) 0.4142 cadmium chloride 5.61 cadmium iodide 4.71 MX3 6:2 one-third octahedral 0.4142 rhodium(III) bromide 6.67 bismuth iodide 8.26 M2X3 6:4 two-thirds octahedral 0.4142 corundum 25.0312 ABO3 two-thirds octahedral 0.4142 ilmenite Depends on chargesand structure AB2O4 one-eighth tetrahedral and one-half octahedral rA/rO = 0.2247,rB/rO = 0.4142 spinel, inverse spinel Depends on cationsite distributions olivine Depends on cationsite distributions In some cases, the anions take on a simple cubic packing and the resulting common structures observed are: Common ionic compound structures with simple cubic packed anions Stoichiometry Cation:anioncoordination Interstitial sites occupied Example structure Name Critical radiusratio Madelung constant MX 8:8 entirely filled cesium chloride 0.7321 1.762675 MX2 8:4 half filled calcium fluoride M2X 4:8 half filled lithium oxide Some ionic liquids, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal nucleation to occur, so an ionic glass is formed (with no long-range order). Defects Frenkel defectSchottky defect See also: crystallographic defect Within any crystal, there will usually be some defects. To maintain electroneutrality of the crystals, defects that involve loss of a cation will be associated with loss of an anion, i.e. these defects come in pairs. Frenkel defects consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions. Schottky defects consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal, occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size. If the cations have multiple possible oxidation states, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a non-stoichiometric compound. Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an F-center, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy. When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible. All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an equilibrium concentration. Because they are energetically costly but entropically beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and solid state ionic conductivity. When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly, vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the lattice parameters, reducing the overall density of the crystal. Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different crystal-field symmetry, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites. This results in a different splitting of d-electron orbitals, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration. Properties +−, an ionic liquid Acidity/basicity Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H+) are classified as acids, and those containing electropositive cations and basic anions ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions. Salts that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are called alkali salts, and salts that produce hydrogen ions when dissolved in water are called acid salts. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base, the result is an acid salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong base and a weak acid, the result is a base salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the conjugate base ion and conjugate acid ion, such as ammonium acetate. Some ions are classed as amphoteric, being able to react with either an acid or a base. This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as zinc oxide, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide and lead(II) oxide. Melting and boiling points Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high melting and boiling points and a low vapour pressure. Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account. Above their melting point, ionic solids melt and become molten salts (although some ionic compounds such as aluminium chloride and iron(III) chloride show molecule-like structures in the liquid phase). Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up to 100 °C), and are termed ionic liquids. Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky substituents like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt. Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase. This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil. Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions. When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic "molecules". Brittleness Most ionic compounds are very brittle. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they cannot deform malleably, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes fracture via cleavage. As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a ductile–brittle transition occurs, and plastic flow becomes possible by the motion of dislocations. Compressibility The compressibility of an ionic compound is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the coordination number. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4. Solubility The aqueous solubility of a variety of ionic compounds as a function of temperature. Some compounds exhibiting unusual solubility behavior have been included. See also: Solubility § Solubility of ionic compounds in water When simple salts dissolve, they dissociate into individual ions, which are solvated and dispersed throughout the resulting solution. Salts do not exist in solution. In contrast, molecular compounds, which includes most organic compounds, remain intact in solution. The solubility of salts is highest in polar solvents (such as water) or ionic liquids, but tends to be low in nonpolar solvents (such as petrol/gasoline). This contrast is principally because the resulting ion–dipole interactions are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the heat of solution is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases. There are some unusual ionic compounds such as cerium(III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature. The lattice energy, the cohesive forces between these ions within a solid, determines the solubility. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so certain patterns become apparent. For example, salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are usually soluble in water. Notable exceptions include ammonium hexachloroplatinate and potassium cobaltinitrite. Most nitrates and many sulfates are water-soluble. Exceptions include barium sulfate, calcium sulfate (sparingly soluble), and lead(II) sulfate, where the 2+/2− pairing leads to high lattice energies. For similar reasons, most metal carbonates are not soluble in water. Some soluble carbonate salts are: sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate. Electrical conductivity Edge-on view of portion of crystal structure of hexamethyleneTTF/TCNQ charge transfer salt. Salts are characteristically insulators. Although they contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. For this reason, liquified (molten) salts and solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) can be used as electrolytes. This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds. In some unusual ionic compounds: fast ion conductors, and ionic glasses, one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid. This is often highly temperature dependent, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration. These materials are used in all solid-state supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, and in various kinds of chemical sensors. Colour Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride,CoCl2Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate,CoCl2·6H2O See also: Color of chemicals The colour of an ionic compound is often different from the colour of an aqueous solution containing the constituent ions, or the hydrated form of the same compound. The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colorless (with an absorption band in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum). In compounds with less ionic character, their color deepens through yellow, orange, red, and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum). The absorption band of simple cations shifts toward a shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions. This occurs during hydration of metal ions, so colorless anhydrous ionic compounds with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colorful in solution. Salts exist in many different colors, which arise either from their constituent anions, cations or solvates. For example: sodium chromate Na2CrO4 is made yellow by the chromate ion CrO2−4. potassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 is made red-orange by the dichromate ion Cr2O2−7. cobalt(II) nitrate hexahydrate Co(NO3)2·6H2O is made red by the chromophore of hydrated cobalt(II) 2+. copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4·5H2O is made blue by the hydrated copper(II) cation. potassium permanganate KMnO4 is made violet by the permanganate anion MnO−4. nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate NiCl2·6H2O is made green by the hydrated nickel(II) chloride . sodium chloride NaCl and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate MgSO4·7H2O are colorless or white because the constituent cations and anions do not absorb light in the part of the spectrum that is visible to humans. Some minerals are salts, some of which are soluble in water. Similarly, inorganic pigments tend not to be salts, because insolubility is required for fastness. Some organic dyes are salts, but they are virtually insoluble in water. Taste and odor Salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e.g., salty (sodium chloride), sweet (lead diacetate, which will cause lead poisoning if ingested), sour (potassium bitartrate), bitter (magnesium sulfate), and umami or savory (monosodium glutamate). Salts of strong acids and strong bases ("strong salts") are non-volatile and often odorless, whereas salts of either weak acids or weak bases ("weak salts") may smell like the conjugate acid (e.g., acetates like acetic acid (vinegar) and cyanides like hydrogen cyanide (almonds)) or the conjugate base (e.g., ammonium salts like ammonia) of the component ions. That slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts. Uses Ionic compounds have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many minerals are ionic. Humans have processed common salt (sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, agriculture, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses. Many ionic compounds are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include borax, calomel, milk of magnesia, muriatic acid, oil of vitriol, saltpeter, and slaked lime. Soluble ionic compounds like salt can easily be dissolved to provide electrolyte solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and ionic strength. The concentration of solutes affects many colligative properties, including increasing the osmotic pressure, and causing freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation. Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution. The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the electrical double layer around colloidal particles, and therefore the stability of emulsions and suspensions. The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example, fluoride containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for water fluoridation. Solid ionic compounds have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity. Since 1801 pyrotechnicians have described and widely used metal-containing ionic compounds as sources of colour in fireworks. Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited. These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species present. In chemistry, ionic compounds are often used as precursors for high-temperature solid-state synthesis. Many metals are geologically most abundant as ionic compounds within ores. To obtain the elemental materials, these ores are processed by smelting or electrolysis, in which redox reactions occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms. Nomenclature See also: IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry According to the nomenclature recommended by IUPAC, ionic compounds are named according to their composition, not their structure. In the most simple case of a binary ionic compound with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the stoichiometry, the common name is written using two words. The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion. For example, MgCl2 is named magnesium chloride, and Na2SO4 is named sodium sulfate (SO2−4, sulfate, is an example of a polyatomic ion). To obtain the empirical formula from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality. If there are multiple different cations and/or anions, multiplicative prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, ...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions, and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order. For example, KMgCl3 is named magnesium potassium trichloride to distinguish it from K2MgCl4, magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride (note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the symbol for potassium is K). When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, ...) are used. For example, Ba(BrF4)2 is named barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate). Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge/oxidation states will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions. Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states, IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers. These are written as an arabic integer followed by the sign (... , 2−, 1−, 1+, 2+, ...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them). For example, FeSO4 is named iron(2+) sulfate (with the 2+ charge on the Fe2+ ions balancing the 2− charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe2(SO4)3 is named iron(3+) sulfate (because the two iron ions in each formula unit each have a charge of 3+, to balance the 2− on each of the three sulfate ions). Stock nomenclature, still in common use, writes the oxidation number in Roman numerals (... , −II, −I, 0, I, II, ...). So the examples given above would be named iron(II) sulfate and iron(III) sulfate respectively. For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the uranyl(2+) ion, UO2+2, has uranium in an oxidation state of +6, so would be called a dioxouranium(VI) ion in Stock nomenclature. An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes -ous and -ic to the Latin root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states. For example, this scheme uses "ferrous" and "ferric", for iron(II) and iron(III) respectively, so the examples given above were classically named ferrous sulfate and ferric sulfate. Common salt-forming cations include: Ammonium NH+4 Calcium Ca2+ Iron Fe2+ and Fe3+ Magnesium Mg2+ Potassium K+ Pyridinium C5H5NH+ Quaternary ammonium NR+4, R being an alkyl group or an aryl group Sodium Na+ Copper Cu2+ Common salt-forming anions (parent acids in parentheses where available) include: Acetate CH3COO− (acetic acid) Carbonate CO2−3 (carbonic acid) Chloride Cl− (hydrochloric acid) Citrate HOC(COO−)(CH2COO−)2 (citric acid) Cyanide C≡N− (hydrocyanic acid) Fluoride F− (hydrofluoric acid) Nitrate NO−3 (nitric acid) Nitrite NO−2 (nitrous acid) Oxide O2− (water) Phosphate PO3−4 (phosphoric acid) Sulfate SO2−4 (sulfuric acid) Salts with varying number of hydrogen atoms replaced by cations as compared to their parent acid can be referred to as monobasic, dibasic, or tribasic, identifying that one, two, or three hydrogen atoms have been replaced; polybasic salts refer to those with more than one hydrogen atom replaced. Examples include: Sodium phosphate monobasic (NaH2PO4) Sodium phosphate dibasic (Na2HPO4) Sodium phosphate tribasic (Na3PO4) Strength Strong salts or strong electrolyte salts are chemical salts composed of strong electrolytes. These salts dissociate completely or almost completely in water. They are generally odorless and nonvolatile. Strong salts start with Na__, K__, NH4__, or they end with __NO3, __ClO4, or __CH3COO. Most group 1 and 2 metals form strong salts. Strong salts are especially useful when creating conductive compounds as their constituent ions allow for greater conductivity. Weak salts or weak electrolyte salts are composed of weak electrolytes. These salts do not dissociate well in water. They are generally more volatile than strong salts. They may be similar in odor to the acid or base they are derived from. For example, sodium acetate, CH3COONa, smells similar to acetic acid CH3COOH. Zwitterion Zwitterions contain an anionic and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered salts. Examples of zwitterions are amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, and proteins. See also Bonding in solids Ioliomics Salt metathesis reaction Bresle method (the method used to test for salt presence during coating applications) Carboxylate Halide Ionic bonds Natron Salinity Notes ^ This structure type has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this. ^ This structure has been referred to in references as yttrium(III) chloride and chromium(III) chloride, but both are now known as the RhBr3 structure type. ^ The reference lists this structure as MoCl3, which is now known as the RhBr3 structure. ^ The reference lists this structure as FeCl3, which is now known as the BiI3 structure type. ^ This structure type can accommodate any charges on A and B that add up to six. 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Bibcode:1967PMag...15..567K. doi:10.1080/14786436708220903. ISSN 0031-8086. ^ Stillwell, Charles W. (January 1937). "Crystal chemistry. V. The properties of binary compounds". Journal of Chemical Education. 14 (1): 34. Bibcode:1937JChEd..14...34S. doi:10.1021/ed014p34. ^ Brown 2009, pp. 89–91. ^ Brown 2009, pp. 413–415. ^ a b Brown 2009, p. 422. ^ D. Chasseau; G. Comberton; J. Gaultier; C. Hauw (1978). "Réexamen de la structure du complexe hexaméthylène-tétrathiafulvalène-tétracyanoquinodiméthane". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 34 (2): 689. doi:10.1107/S0567740878003830. ^ "Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compound". 2011-05-22. Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2012. ^ Zumdahl 1989, p. 341. ^ a b Gao, Wei; Sammes, Nigel M (1999). An Introduction to Electronic and Ionic Materials. World Scientific. p. 261. ISBN 978-981-02-3473-7. Archived from the original on 2017-12-03. ^ West, Anthony R. (1991). "Solid electrolytes and mixed ionic?electronic conductors: an applications overview". Journal of Materials Chemistry. 1 (2): 157. doi:10.1039/JM9910100157. ^ Boivin, J. C.; Mairesse, G. (October 1998). "Recent Material Developments in Fast Oxide Ion Conductors". Chemistry of Materials. 10 (10): 2870–2888. doi:10.1021/cm980236q. ^ Pauling 1960, p. 105. ^ a b c d Pauling 1960, p. 107. ^ Wenk & Bulakh 2004, p. 774. ^ Kurlansky, Mark (2003). Salt: a world history (1st ed.). London: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-09-928199-3. ^ Lower, Simon (2014). "Naming Chemical Substances". Chem1 General Chemistry Virtual Textbook. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2016. ^ Atkins & de Paula 2006, pp. 150–157. ^ Atkins & de Paula 2006, pp. 761–770. ^ Atkins & de Paula 2006, pp. 163–169. ^ Reeves TG (1986). "Water fluoridation: a manual for engineers and technicians" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-02-08. Retrieved 2016-01-18. ^ Satake, M; Mido, Y (1995). Chemistry of Colour. Discovery Publishing House. p. 230. ISBN 978-81-7141-276-1. Archived from the original on 2017-12-03. ^ Russell 2009, p. 14. ^ Russell 2009, p. 82. ^ Russell 2009, pp. 108–117. ^ Russell 2009, pp. 129–133. ^ Xu, Ruren; Pang, Wenqin; Huo, Qisheng (2011). Modern inorganic synthetic chemistry. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-444-53599-3. ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2015, pp. 822. ^ Zumdahl & Zumdahl 2015, pp. 823. ^ Gupta, Chiranjib Kumar (2003). Chemical metallurgy principles and practice. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 359–365. ISBN 978-3-527-60525-5. ^ IUPAC 2005, p. 68. ^ IUPAC 2005, p. 70. ^ IUPAC 2005, p. 69. ^ Kotz, John C.; Treichel, Paul M; Weaver, Gabriela C. (2006). Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity (Sixth ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-534-99766-3. ^ Brown 2009, pp. 36–37. ^ IUPAC 2005, pp. 75–76. ^ IUPAC 2005, p. 75. ^ Gibbons, Cyril S.; Reinsborough, Vincent C.; Whitla, W. Alexander (January 1975). "Crystal Structures of K2MgCl4 and Cs2MgCl4". Canadian Journal of Chemistry. 53 (1): 114–118. doi:10.1139/v75-015. ^ IUPAC 2005, p. 76. ^ IUPAC 2005, pp. 76–77. ^ a b c d e IUPAC 2005, p. 77. ^ IUPAC 2005, pp. 77–78. ^ Fernelius, W. Conard (November 1982). "Numbers in chemical names". Journal of Chemical Education. 59 (11): 964. Bibcode:1982JChEd..59..964F. doi:10.1021/ed059p964. ^ a b Brown 2009, p. 38. ^ Voet, D. & Voet, J. G. (2005). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 68. ISBN 9780471193500. Archived from the original on 2007-09-11. Mark Kurlansky (2002). Salt: A World History. Walker Publishing Company. ISBN 0-14-200161-9. Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Bibliography Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27th repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-083993-1. Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2006). Atkins' physical chemistry (8th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-870072-2. Barrow, Gordon M. (1988). Physical chemistry (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-003905-6. Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. Eugene Jr; Bursten, Bruce E.; Lanford, Steven; Sagatys, Dalius; Duffy, Neil (2009). Chemistry: the central science: a broad perspective (2nd ed.). Frenchs Forest, N.S.W.: Pearson Australia. ISBN 978-1-4425-1147-7. Freemantle, Michael (2009). An introduction to ionic liquids. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-1-84755-161-0. International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, Division of Chemical Nomenclature (2005). Neil G. Connelly (ed.). Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry: IUPAC recommendations 2005 (New ed.). Cambridge: RSC Publ. ISBN 978-0-85404-438-2. Archived from the original on 2016-02-03. Retrieved 2023-02-05. Kittel, Charles (2005). Introduction to Solid State Physics (8th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-41526-8. McQuarrie, Donald A.; Rock, Peter A. (1991). General chemistry (3rd ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. ISBN 978-0-7167-2169-7. Pauling, Linus (1960). The nature of the chemical bond and the structure of molecules and crystals: an introduction to modern structural chemistry (3rd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-0333-0. Russell, Michael S. (2009). The chemistry of fireworks (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: RSC Pub. ISBN 978-0-85404-127-5. Wenk, Hans-Rudolph; Bulakh, Andrei (2004). Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin (1st ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-39390-5. Wold, Aaron; Dwight, Kirby (1993). Solid State Chemistry Synthesis, Structure, and Properties of Selected Oxides and Sulfides. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-011-1476-9. Zumdahl, Steven S. (1989). Chemistry (2nd ed.). Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath. ISBN 978-0-669-16708-5. Zumdahl, Steven; Zumdahl, Susan (2015). Chemistry: An Atoms First Approach. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-68804-9.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt"},{"link_name":"Sodium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaCl_bonds.svg"},{"link_name":"crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal"},{"link_name":"sodium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"cations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation"},{"link_name":"chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride"},{"link_name":"anions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anion"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"chemical compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_compound"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ions"},{"link_name":"cations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation"},{"link_name":"anions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anion"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"electric charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"electrostatic forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law"},{"link_name":"ionic bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_bonding"},{"link_name":"inorganic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride"},{"link_name":"organic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"acetate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetate"},{"link_name":"monatomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monatomic_ion"},{"link_name":"simple ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_ion"},{"link_name":"fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride"},{"link_name":"sodium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride"},{"link_name":"polyatomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyatomic_ion"},{"link_name":"sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate"},{"link_name":"ammonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium"},{"link_name":"carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate"},{"link_name":"ammonium carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_carbonate"},{"link_name":"hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxide"},{"link_name":"oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide"},{"link_name":"bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"sodium hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide"},{"link_name":"crystalline structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structure"},{"link_name":"melting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_point"},{"link_name":"boiling points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point"},{"link_name":"hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardness"},{"link_name":"brittle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittleness"},{"link_name":"electrically insulating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"melted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting"},{"link_name":"dissolved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"conductive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity"}],"text":"\"Ionic compound\" redirects here. Not to be confused with Salt or Sodium chloride.The crystal structure of sodium chloride, NaCl, a typical ionic compound. The purple spheres represent sodium cations, Na+, and the green spheres represent chloride anions, Cl−. The yellow stipples show the electrostatic forces.In chemistry, a salt or ionic compound is a chemical compound consisting of an assembly of positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions),[1] which results in a compound with no net electric charge (electrically neutral). The constituent ions are held together by electrostatic forces termed ionic bonds.The component ions in a salt can be either inorganic, such as chloride (Cl−), or organic, such as acetate (CH3COO−). Each ion can be either monatomic (termed simple ion), such as fluoride (F−), and sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl−) in sodium chloride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate (SO2−4), and ammonium (NH+4) and carbonate (CO2−3) ions in ammonium carbonate. Salt containing basic ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases, for example sodium hydroxide.Individual ions within a salt usually have multiple near neighbours, so they are not considered to be part of molecules, but instead part of a continuous three-dimensional network. Salts usually form crystalline structures when solid.Salts composed of small ions typically have high melting and boiling points, and are hard and brittle. As solids they are almost always electrically insulating, but when melted or dissolved they become highly conductive, because the ions become mobile. Some salts have large cations, large anions, or both. In terms of their properties, such species often are more similar to organic compounds.","title":"Salt (chemistry)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:X-ray_spectrometer,_1912._(9660569929).jpg"},{"link_name":"sodium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride"},{"link_name":"William Henry Bragg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg"},{"link_name":"William Lawrence Bragg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sherman-4"},{"link_name":"nearest-neighbours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_number"},{"link_name":"crystalline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structure"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sherman-4"},{"link_name":"inorganic compounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sherman-4"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"X-ray reflection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_reflectivity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sherman-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"theoretical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical"},{"link_name":"Max Born","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Born"},{"link_name":"Fritz Haber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Haber"},{"link_name":"Alfred Landé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Land%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Erwin Madelung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Madelung"},{"link_name":"Paul Peter Ewald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald"},{"link_name":"Kazimierz Fajans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimierz_Fajans"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960505-6"},{"link_name":"thermochemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermochemistry"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sherman-4"}],"text":"X-ray spectrometer developed by W. H. BraggIn 1913 the structure of sodium chloride was determined by William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg.[2][3][4] This revealed that there were six equidistant nearest-neighbours for each atom, demonstrating that the constituents were not arranged in molecules or finite aggregates, but instead as a network with long-range crystalline order.[4] Many other inorganic compounds were also found to have similar structural features.[4] These compounds were soon described as being constituted of ions rather than neutral atoms, but proof of this hypothesis was not found until the mid-1920s, when X-ray reflection experiments (which detect the density of electrons), were performed.[4][5]Principal contributors to the development of a theoretical treatment of ionic crystal structures were Max Born, Fritz Haber, Alfred Landé, Erwin Madelung, Paul Peter Ewald, and Kazimierz Fajans.[6] Born predicted crystal energies based on the assumption of ionic constituents, which showed good correspondence to thermochemical measurements, further supporting the assumption.[4]","title":"History of discovery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Halite-57430.jpg"},{"link_name":"Halite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halite"},{"link_name":"sodium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lead(II)_sulfate.jpg"},{"link_name":"alkali metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal"},{"link_name":"electronegative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity"},{"link_name":"halogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989312-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199371-8"},{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199382-9"},{"link_name":"supersaturated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersaturation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199382-9"},{"link_name":"evaporite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporite"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"counterions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterion"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989133%E2%80%93140-11"},{"link_name":"acid–base reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction#Arrhenius_theory"},{"link_name":"neutralization reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralization_reaction"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989144%E2%80%93145-12"},{"link_name":"spectator ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectator_ions"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989133%E2%80%93140-11"},{"link_name":"ionic crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_crystal"},{"link_name":"water of crystallization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_of_crystallization"},{"link_name":"hydrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrate"},{"link_name":"anhydrous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydrous"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009417-13"},{"link_name":"freezing point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_point"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199379-14"},{"link_name":"solid-state synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199379%E2%80%9381-15"},{"link_name":"solid-state reaction route","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-state_reaction_route"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199371-8"},{"link_name":"stoichiometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometry"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoldDwight199371-8"},{"link_name":"Group 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metal"},{"link_name":"Group 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal"},{"link_name":"electron transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transfer"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989312%E2%80%93313-16"},{"link_name":"Born–Haber cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Haber_cycle"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrow1988161%E2%80%93162-17"},{"link_name":"salt-forming reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salt-forming_reaction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid"},{"link_name":"NH3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia"},{"link_name":"HCl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid"},{"link_name":"NH4Cl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloride"},{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid"},{"link_name":"Mg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"H2SO4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid"},{"link_name":"MgSO4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"H2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"Ca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"},{"link_name":"Cl2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorine"},{"link_name":"CaCl2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_chloride"},{"link_name":"base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"acid anhydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_anhydride"},{"link_name":"NaOH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_Hydroxide"},{"link_name":"Cl2O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichlorine_monoxide"},{"link_name":"NaClO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hypochlorite"},{"link_name":"H2O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid"},{"link_name":"base anhydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_anhydride"},{"link_name":"HNO3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid"},{"link_name":"Na2O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_oxide"},{"link_name":"NaNO3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_nitrate"},{"link_name":"H2O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"salt metathesis reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_metathesis_reaction"}],"text":"Halite, the mineral form of sodium chloride, forms when salty water evaporates leaving the ions behind.Solid lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4)Many metals such as the alkali metals react directly with the electronegative halogens gases to salts.[7][8]Salts form upon evaporation of their solutions.[9] Once the solution is supersaturated and the solid compound nucleates.[9] This process occurs widely in nature and is the means of formation of the evaporite minerals.[10]Insoluble ionic compounds can be precipitated by mixing two solutions, one with the cation and one with the anion in it. Because all solutions are electrically neutral, the two solutions mixed must also contain counterions of the opposite charges. To ensure that these do not contaminate the precipitated ionic compound, it is important to ensure they do not also precipitate.[11] If the two solutions have hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions as the counterions, they will react with one another in what is called an acid–base reaction or a neutralization reaction to form water.[12] Alternately the counterions can be chosen to ensure that even when combined into a single solution they will remain soluble as spectator ions.[11]If the solvent is water in either the evaporation or precipitation method of formation, in many cases the ionic crystal formed also includes water of crystallization, so the product is known as a hydrate, and can have very different chemical properties compared to the anhydrous material.[13]Molten salts will solidify on cooling to below their freezing point.[14] This is sometimes used for the solid-state synthesis of complex ionic compounds from solid reactants, which are first melted together.[15] In other cases, the solid reactants do not need to be melted, but instead can react through a solid-state reaction route. In this method, the reactants are repeatedly finely ground into a paste and then heated to a temperature where the ions in neighboring reactants can diffuse together during the time the reactant mixture remains in the oven.[8] Other synthetic routes use a solid precursor with the correct stoichiometric ratio of non-volatile ions, which is heated to drive off other species.[8]In some reactions between highly reactive metals (usually from Group 1 or Group 2) and highly electronegative halogen gases, or water, the atoms can be ionized by electron transfer,[16] a process thermodynamically understood using the Born–Haber cycle.[17]Salts are formed by salt-forming reactionsA base and an acid, e.g., NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl\nA metal and an acid, e.g., Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2\nA metal and a non-metal, e.g., Ca + Cl2 → CaCl2\nA base and an acid anhydride, e.g., 2 NaOH + Cl2O → 2 NaClO + H2O\nAn acid and a base anhydride, e.g., 2 HNO3 + Na2O → 2 NaNO3 + H2O\nIn the salt metathesis reaction where two different salts are mixed in water, their ions recombine, and the new salt is insoluble and precipitates. For example:\nPb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 → PbSO4↓ + 2 NaNO3","title":"Formation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaF.gif"},{"link_name":"electron shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_shell"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"fluorine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine"},{"link_name":"sodium fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_fluoride"},{"link_name":"electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"electron configuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_configuration"},{"link_name":"exothermically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exothermic"},{"link_name":"electrostatic forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_force"},{"link_name":"Coulomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling19606-18"},{"link_name":"van der Waals interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_interactions"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel200561-19"},{"link_name":"outer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_shell"},{"link_name":"electron shells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_shell"},{"link_name":"closed shells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed_shell"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960507-20"},{"link_name":"Pauli exclusion principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977379-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960507-20"},{"link_name":"electronic structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_structure"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling196065-22"},{"link_name":"electronegative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegative"},{"link_name":"electropositive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electropositive"},{"link_name":"caesium fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium_fluoride"},{"link_name":"covalency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bond"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling196065-22"},{"link_name":"Fajans' rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fajans%27_rules"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"HSAB theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSAB_theory"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarrow1988676-28"},{"link_name":"hydrogen bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds"},{"link_name":"metallic bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallic_bonds"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"A schematic electron shell diagram of sodium and fluorine atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically. The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are then attracted to each other to form a solid.Ions in ionic compounds are primarily held together by the electrostatic forces between the charge distribution of these bodies, and in particular, the ionic bond resulting from the long-ranged Coulomb attraction between the net negative charge of the anions and net positive charge of the cations.[18] There is also a small additional attractive force from van der Waals interactions which contributes only around 1–2% of the cohesive energy for small ions.[19] When a pair of ions comes close enough for their outer electron shells (most simple ions have closed shells) to overlap, a short-ranged repulsive force occurs,[20] due to the Pauli exclusion principle.[21] The balance between these forces leads to a potential energy well with minimum energy when the nuclei are separated by a specific equilibrium distance.[20]If the electronic structure of the two interacting bodies is affected by the presence of one another, covalent interactions (non-ionic) also contribute to the overall energy of the compound formed.[22] Ionic compounds are rarely purely ionic, i.e. held together only by electrostatic forces. The bonds between even the most electronegative/electropositive pairs such as those in caesium fluoride exhibit a small degree of covalency.[23][24] Conversely, covalent bonds between unlike atoms often exhibit some charge separation and can be considered to have a partial ionic character.[22] The circumstances under which a compound will have ionic or covalent character can typically be understood using Fajans' rules, which use only charges and the sizes of each ion. According to these rules, compounds with the most ionic character will have large positive ions with a low charge, bonded to a small negative ion with a high charge.[25] More generally HSAB theory can be applied, whereby the compounds with the most ionic character are those consisting of hard acids and hard bases: small, highly charged ions with a high difference in electronegativities between the anion and cation.[26][27] This difference in electronegativities means that the charge separation, and resulting dipole moment, is maintained even when the ions are in contact (the excess electrons on the anions are not transferred or polarized to neutralize the cations).[28]Although chemists classify idealized bond types as being ionic or covalent, the existence of additional types such as hydrogen bonds and metallic bonds, for example, has led some philosophers of science to suggest that alternative approaches to understanding bonding are required. This could be by applying quantum mechanics to calculate binding energies.[29][30]","title":"Bonding"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png"},{"link_name":"zinc blende","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_blende"},{"link_name":"Madelung constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madelung_constant"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960507-20"},{"link_name":"Ewald sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewald_sum"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel200564-31"},{"link_name":"Born–Landé equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Land%C3%A9_equation"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960509-32"},{"link_name":"Born–Mayer equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born%E2%80%93Mayer_equation"},{"link_name":"Kapustinskii equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kapustinskii_equation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"close-packed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-packing_of_equal_spheres"},{"link_name":"interstices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstitial_site"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977383-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989444%E2%80%93445-35"},{"link_name":"stoichiometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometry"},{"link_name":"coordination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_sphere"},{"link_name":"radius ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation-anion_radius_ratio"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moore-36"},{"link_name":"Pauling's rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauling%27s_rules"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshcroftMermin1977382%E2%80%93387-37"},{"link_name":"nucleation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleation"},{"link_name":"glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-59"}],"text":"The unit cell of the zinc blende structureThe lattice energy is the summation of the interaction of all sites with all other sites. For unpolarizable spherical ions, only the charges and distances are required to determine the electrostatic interaction energy. For any particular ideal crystal structure, all distances are geometrically related to the smallest internuclear distance. So for each possible crystal structure, the total electrostatic energy can be related to the electrostatic energy of unit charges at the nearest neighboring distance by a multiplicative constant called the Madelung constant[20] that can be efficiently computed using an Ewald sum.[31] When a reasonable form is assumed for the additional repulsive energy, the total lattice energy can be modelled using the Born–Landé equation,[32] the Born–Mayer equation, or in the absence of structural information, the Kapustinskii equation.[33]Using an even simpler approximation of the ions as impenetrable hard spheres, the arrangement of anions in these systems are often related to close-packed arrangements of spheres, with the cations occupying tetrahedral or octahedral interstices.[34][35] Depending on the stoichiometry of the ionic compound, and the coordination (principally determined by the radius ratio) of cations and anions, a variety of structures are commonly observed,[36] and theoretically rationalized by Pauling's rules.[37]In some cases, the anions take on a simple cubic packing and the resulting common structures observed are:Some ionic liquids, particularly with mixtures of anions or cations, can be cooled rapidly enough that there is not enough time for crystal nucleation to occur, so an ionic glass is formed (with no long-range order).[53]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:D%C3%A9faut_de_Frenkel.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schottky-Defekt.svg"},{"link_name":"crystallographic defect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallographic_defect"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"Frenkel defects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frenkel_defect"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash-61"},{"link_name":"Schottky defects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_defect"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prakash-61"},{"link_name":"oxidation states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation_state"},{"link_name":"non-stoichiometric compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-stoichiometric_compound"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"F-center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F-center"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKittel2005376-62"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"entropically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"},{"link_name":"solid state ionic conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_ionic_conductivity"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"lattice parameters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_parameter"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"crystal-field symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_field_theory"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"},{"link_name":"splitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal-field_splitting_parameter"},{"link_name":"d-electron orbitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Orbitals"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-60"}],"sub_title":"Defects","text":"Frenkel defectSchottky defectSee also: crystallographic defectWithin any crystal, there will usually be some defects. To maintain electroneutrality of the crystals, defects that involve loss of a cation will be associated with loss of an anion, i.e. these defects come in pairs.[54] Frenkel defects consist of a cation vacancy paired with a cation interstitial and can be generated anywhere in the bulk of the crystal,[54] occurring most commonly in compounds with a low coordination number and cations that are much smaller than the anions.[55] Schottky defects consist of one vacancy of each type, and are generated at the surfaces of a crystal,[54] occurring most commonly in compounds with a high coordination number and when the anions and cations are of similar size.[55] If the cations have multiple possible oxidation states, then it is possible for cation vacancies to compensate for electron deficiencies on cation sites with higher oxidation numbers, resulting in a non-stoichiometric compound.[54] Another non-stoichiometric possibility is the formation of an F-center, a free electron occupying an anion vacancy.[56] When the compound has three or more ionic components, even more defect types are possible.[54] All of these point defects can be generated via thermal vibrations and have an equilibrium concentration. Because they are energetically costly but entropically beneficial, they occur in greater concentration at higher temperatures. Once generated, these pairs of defects can diffuse mostly independently of one another, by hopping between lattice sites. This defect mobility is the source of most transport phenomena within an ionic crystal, including diffusion and solid state ionic conductivity.[54] When vacancies collide with interstitials (Frenkel), they can recombine and annihilate one another. Similarly, vacancies are removed when they reach the surface of the crystal (Schottky). Defects in the crystal structure generally expand the lattice parameters, reducing the overall density of the crystal.[54] Defects also result in ions in distinctly different local environments, which causes them to experience a different crystal-field symmetry, especially in the case of different cations exchanging lattice sites.[54] This results in a different splitting of d-electron orbitals, so that the optical absorption (and hence colour) can change with defect concentration.[54]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ILfromOS.svg"},{"link_name":"[BMIM]+[PF6]−","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMIM-PF6"},{"link_name":"ionic liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_liquid"}],"text":"[BMIM]+[PF6]−, an ionic liquid","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hydrogen ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_ion"},{"link_name":"acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid"},{"link_name":"electropositive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electropositivity"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxide"},{"link_name":"oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide"},{"link_name":"bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"acid–base reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction#Arrhenius_theory"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxide"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ions"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"alkali salts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_salt"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ions"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"acid salts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_salt"},{"link_name":"strong acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_acid"},{"link_name":"weak base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_base"},{"link_name":"acid salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_salt"},{"link_name":"strong base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_base"},{"link_name":"weak acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_acid"},{"link_name":"base salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_salt"},{"link_name":"conjugate base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_base"},{"link_name":"ammonium acetate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_acetate"},{"link_name":"amphoteric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphoterism"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"zinc oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc_oxide"},{"link_name":"aluminium hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxide"},{"link_name":"aluminium oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxide"},{"link_name":"lead(II) oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_oxide"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"Acidity/basicity","text":"Ionic compounds containing hydrogen ions (H+) are classified as acids, and those containing electropositive cations[57] and basic anions ions hydroxide (OH−) or oxide (O2−) are classified as bases. Other ionic compounds are known as salts and can be formed by acid–base reactions.[58] Salts that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are called alkali salts, and salts that produce hydrogen ions when dissolved in water are called acid salts. If the compound is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base, the result is an acid salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong base and a weak acid, the result is a base salt. If it is the result of a reaction between a strong acid and a strong base, the result is a neutral salt. Weak acids reacted with weak bases can produce ionic compounds with both the conjugate base ion and conjugate acid ion, such as ammonium acetate.Some ions are classed as amphoteric, being able to react with either an acid or a base.[59] This is also true of some compounds with ionic character, typically oxides or hydroxides of less-electropositive metals (so the compound also has significant covalent character), such as zinc oxide, aluminium hydroxide, aluminium oxide and lead(II) oxide.[60]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"melting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_point"},{"link_name":"boiling points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point"},{"link_name":"vapour pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressure"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcQuarrieRock1991503-67"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"molten salts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molten_salt"},{"link_name":"aluminium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_chloride"},{"link_name":"iron(III) chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)_chloride"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"ionic liquids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_liquid"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20091-70"},{"link_name":"substituents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substituent"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreemantle20093%E2%80%934-71"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-72"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-72"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-72"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"sub_title":"Melting and boiling points","text":"Electrostatic forces between particles are strongest when the charges are high, and the distance between the nuclei of the ions is small. In such cases, the compounds generally have very high melting and boiling points and a low vapour pressure.[61] Trends in melting points can be even better explained when the structure and ionic size ratio is taken into account.[62] Above their melting point, ionic solids melt and become molten salts (although some ionic compounds such as aluminium chloride and iron(III) chloride show molecule-like structures in the liquid phase).[63] Inorganic compounds with simple ions typically have small ions, and thus have high melting points, so are solids at room temperature. Some substances with larger ions, however, have a melting point below or near room temperature (often defined as up to 100 °C), and are termed ionic liquids.[64] Ions in ionic liquids often have uneven charge distributions, or bulky substituents like hydrocarbon chains, which also play a role in determining the strength of the interactions and propensity to melt.[65]Even when the local structure and bonding of an ionic solid is disrupted sufficiently to melt it, there are still strong long-range electrostatic forces of attraction holding the liquid together and preventing ions boiling to form a gas phase.[66] This means that even room temperature ionic liquids have low vapour pressures, and require substantially higher temperatures to boil.[66] Boiling points exhibit similar trends to melting points in terms of the size of ions and strength of other interactions.[66] When vapourized, the ions are still not freed of one another. For example, in the vapour phase sodium chloride exists as diatomic \"molecules\".[67]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"brittle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittle"},{"link_name":"malleably","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malleability"},{"link_name":"fracture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracture"},{"link_name":"cleavage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-74"},{"link_name":"ductile–brittle transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ductile-brittle_transition_temperature"},{"link_name":"plastic flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_flow"},{"link_name":"dislocations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocation"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-74"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"sub_title":"Brittleness","text":"Most ionic compounds are very brittle. Once they reach the limit of their strength, they cannot deform malleably, because the strict alignment of positive and negative ions must be maintained. Instead the material undergoes fracture via cleavage.[68] As the temperature is elevated (usually close to the melting point) a ductile–brittle transition occurs, and plastic flow becomes possible by the motion of dislocations.[68][69]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"compressibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressibility"},{"link_name":"coordination number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_number"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"}],"sub_title":"Compressibility","text":"The compressibility of an ionic compound is strongly determined by its structure, and in particular the coordination number. For example, halides with the caesium chloride structure (coordination number 8) are less compressible than those with the sodium chloride structure (coordination number 6), and less again than those with a coordination number of 4.[70]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SolubilityVsTemperature.png"},{"link_name":"Solubility § Solubility of ionic compounds in water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility#Solubility_of_ionic_compounds_in_water"},{"link_name":"dissolve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"dissociate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"solvated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvation"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200989%E2%80%9391-77"},{"link_name":"solubility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility"},{"link_name":"polar solvents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_solvent"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"ionic liquids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_liquid"},{"link_name":"nonpolar solvents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonpolar_solvent"},{"link_name":"petrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrol"},{"link_name":"gasoline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009413%E2%80%93415-78"},{"link_name":"ion–dipole interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force#Ion%E2%80%93dipole_and_ion%E2%80%93induced_dipole_forces"},{"link_name":"heat of solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy_change_of_solution"},{"link_name":"solvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvation"},{"link_name":"lattice energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_energy"},{"link_name":"enthalpy change of solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpy_change_of_solution"},{"link_name":"entropy change of solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_of_mixing"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009422-79"},{"link_name":"cerium(III) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerium(III)_sulfate"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009422-79"},{"link_name":"lattice energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_energy"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"potassium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"},{"link_name":"ammonium hexachloroplatinate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_hexachloroplatinate"},{"link_name":"potassium cobaltinitrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_cobaltinitrite"},{"link_name":"nitrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrates"},{"link_name":"sulfates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate"},{"link_name":"barium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"calcium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"lead(II) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate"},{"link_name":"carbonates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate"},{"link_name":"sodium carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate"},{"link_name":"potassium carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_carbonate"},{"link_name":"ammonium carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_carbonate"}],"sub_title":"Solubility","text":"The aqueous solubility of a variety of ionic compounds as a function of temperature. Some compounds exhibiting unusual solubility behavior have been included.See also: Solubility § Solubility of ionic compounds in waterWhen simple salts dissolve, they dissociate into individual ions, which are solvated and dispersed throughout the resulting solution. Salts do not exist in solution. [71] In contrast, molecular compounds, which includes most organic compounds, remain intact in solution.The solubility of salts is highest in polar solvents (such as water) or ionic liquids, but tends to be low in nonpolar solvents (such as petrol/gasoline).[72] This contrast is principally because the resulting ion–dipole interactions are significantly stronger than ion-induced dipole interactions, so the heat of solution is higher. When the oppositely charged ions in the solid ionic lattice are surrounded by the opposite pole of a polar molecule, the solid ions are pulled out of the lattice and into the liquid. If the solvation energy exceeds the lattice energy, the negative net enthalpy change of solution provides a thermodynamic drive to remove ions from their positions in the crystal and dissolve in the liquid. In addition, the entropy change of solution is usually positive for most solid solutes like ionic compounds, which means that their solubility increases when the temperature increases.[73] There are some unusual ionic compounds such as cerium(III) sulfate, where this entropy change is negative, due to extra order induced in the water upon solution, and the solubility decreases with temperature.[73]The lattice energy, the cohesive forces between these ions within a solid, determines the solubility. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, so certain patterns become apparent. For example, salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are usually soluble in water. Notable exceptions include ammonium hexachloroplatinate and potassium cobaltinitrite. Most nitrates and many sulfates are water-soluble. Exceptions include barium sulfate, calcium sulfate (sparingly soluble), and lead(II) sulfate, where the 2+/2− pairing leads to high lattice energies. For similar reasons, most metal carbonates are not soluble in water. Some soluble carbonate salts are: sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and ammonium carbonate.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg"},{"link_name":"TTF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrathiafulvene"},{"link_name":"TCNQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCNQ"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"insulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulator_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"conduct electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity"},{"link_name":"mobile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_mobility"},{"link_name":"crystal lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_structure"},{"link_name":"solid state ionic conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_ionic_conductivity"},{"link_name":"dissolved in a liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid"},{"link_name":"electrolytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahl1989341-82"},{"link_name":"fast ion conductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_ion_conductor"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-59"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-83"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-83"},{"link_name":"supercapacitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercapacitor"},{"link_name":"batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"fuel cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell"},{"link_name":"chemical sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_sensor"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"sub_title":"Electrical conductivity","text":"Edge-on view of portion of crystal structure of hexamethyleneTTF/TCNQ charge transfer salt.[74]Salts are characteristically insulators. Although they contain charged atoms or clusters, these materials do not typically conduct electricity to any significant extent when the substance is solid. In order to conduct, the charged particles must be mobile rather than stationary in a crystal lattice. This is achieved to some degree at high temperatures when the defect concentration increases the ionic mobility and solid state ionic conductivity is observed. When the ionic compounds are dissolved in a liquid or are melted into a liquid, they can conduct electricity because the ions become completely mobile. For this reason, liquified (molten) salts and solutions containing dissolved salts (e.g., sodium chloride in water) can be used as electrolytes.[75] This conductivity gain upon dissolving or melting is sometimes used as a defining characteristic of ionic compounds.[76]In some unusual ionic compounds: fast ion conductors, and ionic glasses,[53] one or more of the ionic components has a significant mobility, allowing conductivity even while the material as a whole remains solid.[77] This is often highly temperature dependent, and may be the result of either a phase change or a high defect concentration.[77] These materials are used in all solid-state supercapacitors, batteries, and fuel cells, and in various kinds of chemical sensors.[78][79]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cobalt(II)_chloride.jpg"},{"link_name":"Anhydrous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydrous"},{"link_name":"cobalt(II) chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt(II)_chloride"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cobalt(II)-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg"},{"link_name":"Color of chemicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_of_chemicals"},{"link_name":"colour of an ionic compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_of_chemicals#salts"},{"link_name":"colour of an aqueous solution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_of_chemicals#ions_in_aqueous_solution"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960105-86"},{"link_name":"hydrated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrate"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2009417-13"},{"link_name":"absorption band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_band"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87"},{"link_name":"hydration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvation"},{"link_name":"anhydrous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhydrous"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPauling1960107-87"},{"link_name":"colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color"},{"link_name":"solvates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvation"},{"link_name":"sodium chromate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chromate"},{"link_name":"chromate ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromate_ion"},{"link_name":"potassium dichromate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_dichromate"},{"link_name":"dichromate ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichromate_ion"},{"link_name":"cobalt(II) nitrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt(II)_nitrate"},{"link_name":"hydrated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_of_crystallization"},{"link_name":"copper(II) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate"},{"link_name":"potassium permanganate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_permanganate"},{"link_name":"permanganate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanganate"},{"link_name":"nickel(II) chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel(II)_chloride"},{"link_name":"sodium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride"},{"link_name":"magnesium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"cations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cations"},{"link_name":"anions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anions"},{"link_name":"minerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minerals"},{"link_name":"soluble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soluble"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Salt_(chemistry)#Dubious"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"pigments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigment"},{"link_name":"dyes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye"}],"sub_title":"Colour","text":"Anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride,CoCl2Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate,CoCl2·6H2OSee also: Color of chemicalsThe colour of an ionic compound is often different from the colour of an aqueous solution containing the constituent ions,[80] or the hydrated form of the same compound.[13]The anions in compounds with bonds with the most ionic character tend to be colorless (with an absorption band in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum).[81] In compounds with less ionic character, their color deepens through yellow, orange, red, and black (as the absorption band shifts to longer wavelengths into the visible spectrum). [81]The absorption band of simple cations shifts toward a shorter wavelength when they are involved in more covalent interactions.[81] This occurs during hydration of metal ions, so colorless anhydrous ionic compounds with an anion absorbing in the infrared can become colorful in solution.[81]Salts exist in many different colors, which arise either from their constituent anions, cations or solvates. For example:sodium chromate Na2CrO4 is made yellow by the chromate ion CrO2−4.\npotassium dichromate K2Cr2O7 is made red-orange by the dichromate ion Cr2O2−7.\ncobalt(II) nitrate hexahydrate Co(NO3)2·6H2O is made red by the chromophore of hydrated cobalt(II) [Co(H2O)6]2+.\ncopper(II) sulfate pentahydrate CuSO4·5H2O is made blue by the hydrated copper(II) cation.\npotassium permanganate KMnO4 is made violet by the permanganate anion MnO−4.\nnickel(II) chloride hexahydrate NiCl2·6H2O is made green by the hydrated nickel(II) chloride [NiCl2(H2O)4].\nsodium chloride NaCl and magnesium sulfate heptahydrate MgSO4·7H2O are colorless or white because the constituent cations and anions do not absorb light in the part of the spectrum that is visible to humans.Some minerals are salts, some of which are soluble in water.[dubious – discuss][clarification needed] Similarly, inorganic pigments tend not to be salts, because insolubility is required for fastness. Some organic dyes are salts, but they are virtually insoluble in water.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"basic tastes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_taste"},{"link_name":"salty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltiness"},{"link_name":"sodium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloride"},{"link_name":"sweet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet"},{"link_name":"lead diacetate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_diacetate"},{"link_name":"lead poisoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoning"},{"link_name":"sour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sour_(taste)"},{"link_name":"potassium bitartrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_bitartrate"},{"link_name":"bitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitter_(taste)"},{"link_name":"magnesium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"umami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umami"},{"link_name":"savory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umami"},{"link_name":"monosodium glutamate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate"},{"link_name":"strong salts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Strong_salt"},{"link_name":"volatile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"weak salts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Weak_salt"},{"link_name":"conjugate acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_acid"},{"link_name":"vinegar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegar"},{"link_name":"hydrogen cyanide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide"},{"link_name":"almonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almond"},{"link_name":"ammonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia"},{"link_name":"hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"reversible reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reversible_reaction"}],"sub_title":"Taste and odor","text":"Salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e.g., salty (sodium chloride), sweet (lead diacetate, which will cause lead poisoning if ingested), sour (potassium bitartrate), bitter (magnesium sulfate), and umami or savory (monosodium glutamate).Salts of strong acids and strong bases (\"strong salts\") are non-volatile and often odorless, whereas salts of either weak acids or weak bases (\"weak salts\") may smell like the conjugate acid (e.g., acetates like acetic acid (vinegar) and cyanides like hydrogen cyanide (almonds)) or the conjugate base (e.g., ammonium salts like ammonia) of the component ions. That slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts.","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"minerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minerals"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWenkBulakh2004774-88"},{"link_name":"common salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_salt"},{"link_name":"agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"borax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borax"},{"link_name":"calomel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calomel"},{"link_name":"milk of magnesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk_of_magnesia"},{"link_name":"muriatic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muriatic_acid"},{"link_name":"oil of vitriol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_of_vitriol"},{"link_name":"saltpeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltpeter"},{"link_name":"slaked lime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaked_lime"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"electrolyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte"},{"link_name":"ionic strength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_strength"},{"link_name":"colligative properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colligative_properties"},{"link_name":"osmotic pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmotic_pressure"},{"link_name":"freezing-point depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing-point_depression"},{"link_name":"boiling-point elevation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling-point_elevation"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula2006150%E2%80%93157-91"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula2006761%E2%80%93770-92"},{"link_name":"electrical double layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_double_layer"},{"link_name":"colloidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloid"},{"link_name":"emulsions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion"},{"link_name":"suspensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula2006163%E2%80%93169-93"},{"link_name":"fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride"},{"link_name":"water fluoridation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_fluoridation"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reeves-94"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"pyrotechnicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrotechnician"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200914-96"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell200982-97"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2009108%E2%80%93117-98"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell2009129%E2%80%93133-99"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"ores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015822-101"},{"link_name":"elemental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_element"},{"link_name":"smelting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting"},{"link_name":"electrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolysis"},{"link_name":"redox reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox_reaction"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZumdahlZumdahl2015823-102"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"text":"Ionic compounds have long had a wide variety of uses and applications. Many minerals are ionic.[82] Humans have processed common salt (sodium chloride) for over 8000 years, using it first as a food seasoning and preservative, and now also in manufacturing, agriculture, water conditioning, for de-icing roads, and many other uses.[83] Many ionic compounds are so widely used in society that they go by common names unrelated to their chemical identity. Examples of this include borax, calomel, milk of magnesia, muriatic acid, oil of vitriol, saltpeter, and slaked lime.[84]Soluble ionic compounds like salt can easily be dissolved to provide electrolyte solutions. This is a simple way to control the concentration and ionic strength. The concentration of solutes affects many colligative properties, including increasing the osmotic pressure, and causing freezing-point depression and boiling-point elevation.[85] Because the solutes are charged ions they also increase the electrical conductivity of the solution.[86] The increased ionic strength reduces the thickness of the electrical double layer around colloidal particles, and therefore the stability of emulsions and suspensions.[87]The chemical identity of the ions added is also important in many uses. For example, fluoride containing compounds are dissolved to supply fluoride ions for water fluoridation.[88]Solid ionic compounds have long been used as paint pigments, and are resistant to organic solvents, but are sensitive to acidity or basicity.[89] Since 1801 pyrotechnicians have described and widely used metal-containing ionic compounds as sources of colour in fireworks.[90] Under intense heat, the electrons in the metal ions or small molecules can be excited.[91] These electrons later return to lower energy states, and release light with a colour spectrum characteristic of the species present.[92][93]In chemistry, ionic compounds are often used as precursors for high-temperature solid-state synthesis.[94]Many metals are geologically most abundant as ionic compounds within ores.[95] To obtain the elemental materials, these ores are processed by smelting or electrolysis, in which redox reactions occur (often with a reducing agent such as carbon) such that the metal ions gain electrons to become neutral atoms.[96][97]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC_nomenclature_of_inorganic_chemistry"},{"link_name":"nomenclature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomenclature"},{"link_name":"IUPAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200568-104"},{"link_name":"stoichiometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoichiometry"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200570-105"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200569-106"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kotz-107"},{"link_name":"magnesium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_chloride"},{"link_name":"sodium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate"},{"link_name":"polyatomic ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyatomic_ion"},{"link_name":"empirical formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_formula"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200936%E2%80%9337-108"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575%E2%80%9376-109"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200575-110"},{"link_name":"magnesium potassium trichloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_potassium_trichloride"},{"link_name":"magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magnesium_dipotassium_tetrachloride&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"potassium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576-112"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200576%E2%80%9377-113"},{"link_name":"barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barium_bis(tetrafluoridobromate)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114"},{"link_name":"oxidation states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation_state"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114"},{"link_name":"arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114"},{"link_name":"iron(2+) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(2%2B)_sulfate"},{"link_name":"Fe2+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fe2%2B"},{"link_name":"iron(3+) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(3%2B)_sulfate"},{"link_name":"formula unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_unit"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577-114"},{"link_name":"Stock nomenclature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stock_nomenclature"},{"link_name":"oxidation number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation_number"},{"link_name":"Roman numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals"},{"link_name":"iron(II) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate"},{"link_name":"iron(III) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)_sulfate"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIUPAC200577%E2%80%9378-115"},{"link_name":"uranyl(2+)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranyl(2%2B)"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200938-117"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200938-117"},{"link_name":"ferrous sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrous_sulfate"},{"link_name":"ferric sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferric_sulfate"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ammonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium"},{"link_name":"Calcium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"},{"link_name":"Iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"Magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"Potassium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium"},{"link_name":"Pyridinium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridinium"},{"link_name":"Quaternary ammonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_ammonium_cation"},{"link_name":"alkyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkyl"},{"link_name":"aryl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryl"},{"link_name":"Sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"Copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"Acetate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetate"},{"link_name":"acetic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid"},{"link_name":"Carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonate"},{"link_name":"carbonic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_acid"},{"link_name":"Chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride"},{"link_name":"hydrochloric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid"},{"link_name":"Citrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrate"},{"link_name":"citric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid"},{"link_name":"Cyanide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide"},{"link_name":"hydrocyanic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocyanic_acid"},{"link_name":"Fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride"},{"link_name":"hydrofluoric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid"},{"link_name":"Nitrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrate"},{"link_name":"nitric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_acid"},{"link_name":"Nitrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrite"},{"link_name":"nitrous acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_acid"},{"link_name":"Oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxide"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"Phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate"},{"link_name":"phosphoric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphoric_acid"},{"link_name":"Sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate"},{"link_name":"sulfuric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid"},{"link_name":"Sodium phosphate monobasic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monosodium_phosphate"},{"link_name":"Sodium phosphate dibasic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disodium_phosphate"},{"link_name":"Sodium phosphate tribasic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisodium_phosphate"}],"text":"See also: IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistryAccording to the nomenclature recommended by IUPAC, ionic compounds are named according to their composition, not their structure.[98] In the most simple case of a binary ionic compound with no possible ambiguity about the charges and thus the stoichiometry, the common name is written using two words.[99] The name of the cation (the unmodified element name for monatomic cations) comes first, followed by the name of the anion.[100][101] For example, MgCl2 is named magnesium chloride, and Na2SO4 is named sodium sulfate (SO2−4, sulfate, is an example of a polyatomic ion). To obtain the empirical formula from these names, the stoichiometry can be deduced from the charges on the ions, and the requirement of overall charge neutrality.[102]If there are multiple different cations and/or anions, multiplicative prefixes (di-, tri-, tetra-, ...) are often required to indicate the relative compositions,[103] and cations then anions are listed in alphabetical order.[104] For example, KMgCl3 is named magnesium potassium trichloride to distinguish it from K2MgCl4, magnesium dipotassium tetrachloride[105] (note that in both the empirical formula and the written name, the cations appear in alphabetical order, but the order varies between them because the symbol for potassium is K).[106] When one of the ions already has a multiplicative prefix within its name, the alternate multiplicative prefixes (bis-, tris-, tetrakis-, ...) are used.[107] For example, Ba(BrF4)2 is named barium bis(tetrafluoridobromate).[108]Compounds containing one or more elements which can exist in a variety of charge/oxidation states will have a stoichiometry that depends on which oxidation states are present, to ensure overall neutrality. This can be indicated in the name by specifying either the oxidation state of the elements present, or the charge on the ions.[108] Because of the risk of ambiguity in allocating oxidation states, IUPAC prefers direct indication of the ionic charge numbers.[108] These are written as an arabic integer followed by the sign (... , 2−, 1−, 1+, 2+, ...) in parentheses directly after the name of the cation (without a space separating them).[108] For example, FeSO4 is named iron(2+) sulfate (with the 2+ charge on the Fe2+ ions balancing the 2− charge on the sulfate ion), whereas Fe2(SO4)3 is named iron(3+) sulfate (because the two iron ions in each formula unit each have a charge of 3+, to balance the 2− on each of the three sulfate ions).[108] Stock nomenclature, still in common use, writes the oxidation number in Roman numerals (... , −II, −I, 0, I, II, ...). So the examples given above would be named iron(II) sulfate and iron(III) sulfate respectively.[109] For simple ions the ionic charge and the oxidation number are identical, but for polyatomic ions they often differ. For example, the uranyl(2+) ion, UO2+2, has uranium in an oxidation state of +6, so would be called a dioxouranium(VI) ion in Stock nomenclature.[110] An even older naming system for metal cations, also still widely used, appended the suffixes -ous and -ic to the Latin root of the name, to give special names for the low and high oxidation states.[111] For example, this scheme uses \"ferrous\" and \"ferric\", for iron(II) and iron(III) respectively,[111] so the examples given above were classically named ferrous sulfate and ferric sulfate.[citation needed]Common salt-forming cations include:Ammonium NH+4\nCalcium Ca2+\nIron Fe2+ and Fe3+\nMagnesium Mg2+\nPotassium K+\nPyridinium C5H5NH+\nQuaternary ammonium NR+4, R being an alkyl group or an aryl group\nSodium Na+\nCopper Cu2+Common salt-forming anions (parent acids in parentheses where available) include:Acetate CH3COO− (acetic acid)\nCarbonate CO2−3 (carbonic acid)\nChloride Cl− (hydrochloric acid)\nCitrate HOC(COO−)(CH2COO−)2 (citric acid)\nCyanide C≡N− (hydrocyanic acid)\nFluoride F− (hydrofluoric acid)\nNitrate NO−3 (nitric acid)\nNitrite NO−2 (nitrous acid)\nOxide O2− (water)\nPhosphate PO3−4 (phosphoric acid)\nSulfate SO2−4 (sulfuric acid)Salts with varying number of hydrogen atoms replaced by cations as compared to their parent acid can be referred to as monobasic, dibasic, or tribasic, identifying that one, two, or three hydrogen atoms have been replaced; polybasic salts refer to those with more than one hydrogen atom replaced. Examples include:Sodium phosphate monobasic (NaH2PO4)\nSodium phosphate dibasic (Na2HPO4)\nSodium phosphate tribasic (Na3PO4)","title":"Nomenclature"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electrolyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte"},{"link_name":"strong electrolytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_electrolyte"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"nonvolatile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"electrolytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte"},{"link_name":"volatile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"odor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odor"},{"link_name":"acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid"},{"link_name":"base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"sodium acetate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_acetate"},{"link_name":"acetic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid"}],"text":"Strong salts or strong electrolyte salts are chemical salts composed of strong electrolytes. These salts dissociate completely or almost completely in water. They are generally odorless and nonvolatile.Strong salts start with Na__, K__, NH4__, or they end with __NO3, __ClO4, or __CH3COO. Most group 1 and 2 metals form strong salts. Strong salts are especially useful when creating conductive compounds as their constituent ions allow for greater conductivity.[citation needed]Weak salts or weak electrolyte salts are composed of weak electrolytes. These salts do not dissociate well in water. They are generally more volatile than strong salts. They may be similar in odor to the acid or base they are derived from. For example, sodium acetate, CH3COONa, smells similar to acetic acid CH3COOH.","title":"Strength"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Zwitterions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwitterion"},{"link_name":"molecule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule"},{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"metabolites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolite"},{"link_name":"peptides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"}],"text":"Zwitterions contain an anionic and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered salts. Examples of zwitterions are amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, and proteins.[112]","title":"Zwitterion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-44"},{"link_name":"yttrium(III) chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium(III)_chloride"},{"link_name":"chromium(III) chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium(III)_chloride"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-48"},{"link_name":"MoCl3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molybdenum(III)_chloride"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-49"},{"link_name":"FeCl3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)_chloride"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-51"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-53"},{"link_name":"MgAl2O4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinel"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWenkBulakh2004778-52"}],"text":"^ This structure type has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this.\n\n^ This structure has been referred to in references as yttrium(III) chloride and chromium(III) chloride, but both are now known as the RhBr3 structure type.\n\n^ The reference lists this structure as MoCl3, which is now known as the RhBr3 structure.\n\n^ The reference lists this structure as FeCl3, which is now known as the BiI3 structure type.\n\n^ This structure type can accommodate any charges on A and B that add up to six. When both are three the charge structure is equivalent to that of corrundum.[46] The structure also has a variable lattice parameter c/a ratio, and the exact Madelung constant depends on this.\n\n^ However, in some cases such as MgAl2O4 the larger cation occupies the smaller tetrahedral site.[47]","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"The crystal structure of sodium chloride, NaCl, a typical ionic compound. The purple spheres represent sodium cations, Na+, and the green spheres represent chloride anions, Cl−. The yellow stipples show the electrostatic forces.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/NaCl_bonds.svg/220px-NaCl_bonds.svg.png"},{"image_text":"X-ray spectrometer developed by W. H. Bragg","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg/220px-X-ray_spectrometer%2C_1912._%289660569929%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Halite, the mineral form of sodium chloride, forms when salty water evaporates leaving the ions behind.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Halite-57430.jpg/220px-Halite-57430.jpg"},{"image_text":"Solid lead(II) sulfate (PbSO4)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg/220px-Lead%28II%29_sulfate.jpg"},{"image_text":"A schematic electron shell diagram of sodium and fluorine atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form sodium fluoride. Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom exothermically. The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are then attracted to each other to form a solid.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/NaF.gif/300px-NaF.gif"},{"image_text":"The unit cell of the zinc blende structure","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png/220px-Mercury-telluride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png"},{"image_text":"[BMIM]+[PF6]−, an ionic liquid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/ILfromOS.svg/220px-ILfromOS.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The aqueous solubility of a variety of ionic compounds as a function of temperature. Some compounds exhibiting unusual solubility behavior have been included.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/SolubilityVsTemperature.png/317px-SolubilityVsTemperature.png"},{"image_text":"Edge-on view of portion of crystal structure of hexamethyleneTTF/TCNQ charge transfer salt.[74]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg/220px-SegStackEdgeOnHMTFCQ.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Bonding in solids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonding_in_solids"},{"title":"Ioliomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioliomics"},{"title":"Salt metathesis reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_metathesis_reaction"},{"title":"Bresle method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bresle_method"},{"title":"Carboxylate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylate"},{"title":"Halide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halide"},{"title":"Ionic bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_bond"},{"title":"Natron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natron"},{"title":"Salinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinity"}]
[{"reference":"Bragg, W. H.; Bragg, W. L. (1 July 1913). \"The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 88 (605): 428–438. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..88..428B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0040. S2CID 13112732.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913RSPSA..88..428B","url_text":"1913RSPSA..88..428B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0040","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1913.0040"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13112732","url_text":"13112732"}]},{"reference":"Bragg, W. H. (22 September 1913). \"The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals. (II.)\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 89 (610): 246–248. Bibcode:1913RSPSA..89..246B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1913.0082.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0082","url_text":"\"The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals. (II.)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1913RSPSA..89..246B","url_text":"1913RSPSA..89..246B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1913.0082","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1913.0082"}]},{"reference":"Sherman, Jack (August 1932). \"Crystal Energies of Ionic Compounds and Thermochemical Applications\". Chemical Reviews. 11 (1): 93–170. doi:10.1021/cr60038a002.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcr60038a002","url_text":"10.1021/cr60038a002"}]},{"reference":"James, R. W.; Brindley, G. W. (1 November 1928). \"A Quantitative Study of the Reflexion of X-Rays by Sylvine\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 121 (787): 155–171. Bibcode:1928RSPSA.121..155J. doi:10.1098/rspa.1928.0188.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1928.0188","url_text":"\"A Quantitative Study of the Reflexion of X-Rays by Sylvine\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928RSPSA.121..155J","url_text":"1928RSPSA.121..155J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1928.0188","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1928.0188"}]},{"reference":"Wenk, Hans-Rudolf; Bulakh, Andrei (2003). Minerals: their constitution and origin (Reprinted with corrections. ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-521-52958-7. Archived from the original on 2017-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5r5M5ebK7YC&pg=PA351","url_text":"Minerals: their constitution and origin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52958-7","url_text":"978-0-521-52958-7"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171203204320/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5r5M5ebK7YC&lpg=PA358&pg=PA351","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hannay, N. Bruce; Smyth, Charles P. (February 1946). \"The Dipole Moment of Hydrogen Fluoride and the Ionic Character of Bonds\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 68 (2): 171–173. doi:10.1021/ja01206a003.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja01206a003","url_text":"10.1021/ja01206a003"}]},{"reference":"Pauling, Linus (1948). \"The modern theory of valency\". Journal of the Chemical Society (Resumed). 17: 1461–1467. doi:10.1039/JR9480001461. PMID 18893624. Archived from the original on 2021-12-07. Retrieved 2021-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211207153730/https://authors.library.caltech.edu/59671/","url_text":"\"The modern theory of valency\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1039%2FJR9480001461","url_text":"10.1039/JR9480001461"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18893624","url_text":"18893624"},{"url":"https://authors.library.caltech.edu/59671/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lalena, John. N.; Cleary, David. A. (2010). Principles of inorganic materials design (2nd ed.). Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-56753-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-56753-1","url_text":"978-0-470-56753-1"}]},{"reference":"Pearson, Ralph G. (November 1963). \"Hard and Soft Acids and Bases\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 85 (22): 3533–3539. doi:10.1021/ja00905a001.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fja00905a001","url_text":"10.1021/ja00905a001"}]},{"reference":"Pearson, Ralph G. (October 1968). \"Hard and soft acids and bases, HSAB, part II: Underlying theories\". Journal of Chemical Education. 45 (10): 643. Bibcode:1968JChEd..45..643P. doi:10.1021/ed045p643.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1968JChEd..45..643P","url_text":"1968JChEd..45..643P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed045p643","url_text":"10.1021/ed045p643"}]},{"reference":"Hendry, Robin Findlay (2008). \"Two Conceptions of the Chemical Bond\". Philosophy of Science. 75 (5): 909–920. doi:10.1086/594534. S2CID 120135228.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F594534","url_text":"10.1086/594534"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:120135228","url_text":"120135228"}]},{"reference":"Seifert, Vanessa (27 November 2023). \"Do bond classifications help or hinder chemistry?\". chemistryworld.com. 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ISBN 978-0-7487-7516-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7487-7516-3","url_text":"978-0-7487-7516-3"}]},{"reference":"Zemann, J. (1 January 1958). \"Berechnung von Madelung'schen Zahlen für den NiAs-Typ\". Acta Crystallographica. 11 (1): 55–56. doi:10.1107/S0365110X5800013X.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0365110X5800013X","url_text":"\"Berechnung von Madelung'schen Zahlen für den NiAs-Typ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0365110X5800013X","url_text":"10.1107/S0365110X5800013X"}]},{"reference":"Dienes, Richard J. Borg, G.J. (1992). The physical chemistry of solids. Boston: Academic Press. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-12-118420-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-118420-9","url_text":"978-0-12-118420-9"}]},{"reference":"Brackett, Thomas E.; Brackett, Elizabeth B. (1965). \"The Lattice Energies of the Alkaline Earth Halides\". Journal of Physical Chemistry. 69 (10): 3611–3614. doi:10.1021/j100894a062.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fj100894a062","url_text":"10.1021/j100894a062"}]},{"reference":"\"YCl3 – Yttrium trichloride\". ChemTube3D. University of Liverpool. 2008. Archived from the original on 27 January 2016. 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Angewandte Chemie International Edition in English. 5 (1): 95–106. doi:10.1002/anie.196600951.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.196600951","url_text":"10.1002/anie.196600951"}]},{"reference":"Bhagi, Ajay; Raj, Gurdeep (2010). Krishna's IAS Chemistry. Meerut: Krishna Prakashan Media. p. 171. ISBN 978-81-87224-70-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-87224-70-9","url_text":"978-81-87224-70-9"}]},{"reference":"Verwey, E. J. W. (1947). \"Physical Properties and Cation Arrangement of Oxides with Spinel Structures I. Cation Arrangement in Spinels\". Journal of Chemical Physics. 15 (4): 174–180. Bibcode:1947JChPh..15..174V. doi:10.1063/1.1746464.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947JChPh..15..174V","url_text":"1947JChPh..15..174V"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1746464","url_text":"10.1063/1.1746464"}]},{"reference":"Verwey, E. J. W.; de Boer, F.; van Santen, J. H. (1948). \"Cation Arrangement in Spinels\". The Journal of Chemical Physics. 16 (12): 1091. Bibcode:1948JChPh..16.1091V. doi:10.1063/1.1746736.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1746736","url_text":"\"Cation Arrangement in Spinels\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948JChPh..16.1091V","url_text":"1948JChPh..16.1091V"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1746736","url_text":"10.1063/1.1746736"}]},{"reference":"Thompson, P.; Grimes, N. W. (27 September 2006). \"Madelung calculations for the spinel structure\". Philosophical Magazine. Vol. 36, no. 3. pp. 501–505. Bibcode:1977PMag...36..501T. doi:10.1080/14786437708239734.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977PMag...36..501T","url_text":"1977PMag...36..501T"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786437708239734","url_text":"10.1080/14786437708239734"}]},{"reference":"Alberti, A.; Vezzalini, G. (1978). \"Madelung energies and cation distributions in olivine-type structures\". Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials. 147 (1–4): 167–176. Bibcode:1978ZK....147..167A. doi:10.1524/zkri.1978.147.14.167. hdl:11380/738457. 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Solid State Ionics. 5: 77–82. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(81)90198-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0167-2738%2881%2990198-3","url_text":"10.1016/0167-2738(81)90198-3"}]},{"reference":"Schmalzried, Hermann (1965). \"Point defects in ternary ionic crystals\". Progress in Solid State Chemistry. 2: 265–303. doi:10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0079-6786%2865%2990009-9","url_text":"10.1016/0079-6786(65)90009-9"}]},{"reference":"Prakash, Satya (1945). Advanced inorganic chemistry. New Delhi: S. Chand & Company Ltd. p. 554. ISBN 978-81-219-0263-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-219-0263-2","url_text":"978-81-219-0263-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Periodic Trends and Oxides\". Archived from the original on 2015-12-29. Retrieved 2015-11-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/oxides.html","url_text":"\"Periodic Trends and Oxides\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151229143840/http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/oxides.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Whitten, Kenneth W.; Galley, Kenneth D.; Davis, Raymond E. (1992). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Saunders. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-03-072373-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00whit_0","url_text":"General Chemistry"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00whit_0/page/128","url_text":"128"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-072373-5","url_text":"978-0-03-072373-5"}]},{"reference":"Davidson, David (November 1955). \"Amphoteric molecules, ions and salts\". Journal of Chemical Education. 32 (11): 550. Bibcode:1955JChEd..32..550D. doi:10.1021/ed032p550.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1955JChEd..32..550D","url_text":"1955JChEd..32..550D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed032p550","url_text":"10.1021/ed032p550"}]},{"reference":"Weller, Mark; Overton, Tina; Rourke, Jonathan; Armstrong, Fraser (2014). Inorganic chemistry (Sixth ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 129–130. ISBN 978-0-19-964182-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964182-6","url_text":"978-0-19-964182-6"}]},{"reference":"Pauling, Linus (1928-04-01). \"The Influence of Relative Ionic Sizes on the Properties of Ionic Compounds\". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 50 (4): 1036–1045. doi:10.1021/ja01391a014. 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Archived from the original on 2017-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=K24W4LMy5dIC&q=inorganic%20chemistry&pg=PA63","url_text":"Inorganic Chemistry a Unified Approach"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-13894-9","url_text":"978-0-323-13894-9"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171203204320/https://books.google.com/books?id=K24W4LMy5dIC&lpg=PP1&dq=inorganic%20chemistry&pg=PA63","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Johnston, T. L.; Stokes, R. J.; Li, C. H. (December 1959). \"The ductile–brittle transition in ionic solids\". Philosophical Magazine. Vol. 4, no. 48. pp. 1316–1324. Bibcode:1959PMag....4.1316J. doi:10.1080/14786435908233367.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1959PMag....4.1316J","url_text":"1959PMag....4.1316J"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786435908233367","url_text":"10.1080/14786435908233367"}]},{"reference":"Kelly, A.; Tyson, W. R.; Cottrell, A. H. (1967-03-01). \"Ductile and brittle crystals\". Philosophical Magazine. Vol. 15, no. 135. pp. 567–586. Bibcode:1967PMag...15..567K. doi:10.1080/14786436708220903. 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Bibcode:1937JChEd..14...34S. doi:10.1021/ed014p34.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1937JChEd..14...34S","url_text":"1937JChEd..14...34S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed014p34","url_text":"10.1021/ed014p34"}]},{"reference":"D. Chasseau; G. Comberton; J. Gaultier; C. Hauw (1978). \"Réexamen de la structure du complexe hexaméthylène-tétrathiafulvalène-tétracyanoquinodiméthane\". Acta Crystallographica Section B. 34 (2): 689. doi:10.1107/S0567740878003830.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1107%2FS0567740878003830","url_text":"10.1107/S0567740878003830"}]},{"reference":"\"Electrical Conductivity of Ionic Compound\". 2011-05-22. Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyback_diode
Flyback diode
["1 Operation","2 Design","3 Induction at the opening of a contact","3.1 Derivation","4 Applications","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
Voltage-spike stopping diode across an inductor This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Flyback diode" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Diagram of a simple circuit with an inductance L and a flyback diode D. The resistor R represents the resistance of the inductor's windings A flyback diode is any diode connected across an inductor used to eliminate flyback, which is the sudden voltage spike seen across an inductive load when its supply current is suddenly reduced or interrupted. It is used in circuits in which inductive loads are controlled by switches, and in switching power supplies and inverters. Flyback circuits have been used since 1930 and were refined starting in 1950 for use in television receivers. The word flyback comes from the horizontal movement of the electron beam in a cathode ray tube, because the beam flew back to begin the next horizontal line. This diode is known by many other names, such as snubber diode, commutating diode, freewheeling diode, flywheel diode, suppressor diode, clamp diode, or catch diode. Operation Circuits illustrating the use of a flyback diode Fig. 1 shows an inductor connected to a battery - a constant voltage source. The resistor represents the small residual resistance of the inductor's wire windings. When the switch is closed, the voltage from the battery is applied to the inductor, causing current from the battery's positive terminal to flow down through the inductor and resistor. The increase in current causes a back EMF (voltage) across the inductor due to Faraday's law of induction which opposes the change in current. Since the voltage across the inductor is limited to the battery's voltage of 24 volts, the rate of increase of the current is limited to an initial value of d I d t = V B L , {\displaystyle {dI \over dt}={V_{B} \over L},} so the current through the inductor increases slowly as energy from the battery is stored in the inductor's magnetic field. As the current rises, more voltage is dropped across the resistor and less across the inductor, until the current reaches a steady value of I = V B / R {\displaystyle I=V_{B}/R} with all the battery voltage across the resistance and none across the inductance. However, the current drops rapidly when the switch is opened in Fig. 2. The inductor resists the drop in current by developing a very large induced voltage of polarity in the opposite direction of the battery, positive at the lower end of the inductor and negative at the upper end. This voltage pulse, sometimes called the inductive "kick", which can be much larger than the battery voltage, appears across the switch contacts. It causes electrons to jump the air gap between the contacts, causing a momentary electric arc to develop across the contacts as the switch is opened. The arc continues until the energy stored in the inductor's magnetic field is dissipated as heat in the arc. The arc can damage the switch contacts, causing pitting and burning, eventually destroying them. If a transistor is used to switch the current, such as switching power supplies, the high reverse voltage can destroy the transistor. To prevent the inductive voltage pulse on turnoff, a diode is connected across the inductor, as shown in Fig. 3. The diode doesn't conduct current while the switch is closed because it is reverse-biased by the battery voltage, so it doesn't interfere with the normal operation of the circuit. However, when the switch is opened, the induced voltage across the inductor of opposite polarity forward biases the diode, and it conducts current, limiting the voltage across the inductor and thus preventing the arc from forming at the switch. The inductor and diode momentarily form a loop or circuit powered by the stored energy in the inductor. This circuit supplies a current path to the inductor to replace the current from the battery, so the inductor current does not drop abruptly and does not develop a high voltage. The voltage across the inductor is limited to the forward voltage of the diode, around 0.7 - 1.5V. This "freewheeling" or "flyback" current through the diode and inductor decreases slowly to zero as the magnetic energy in the inductor is dissipated as heat in the series resistance of the windings. This may take a few milliseconds in a small inductor. (left) Oscilloscope trace showing inductive voltage spike in solenoid connected to a 24 VDC power supply. (right) The same switching transient with a flyback diode (1N4007) connected across the solenoid. Note the different scaling (50 V / division on the left, 1 V / division on the right). These images show the voltage spike and its elimination through the use of a flyback diode (1N4007). In this case, the inductor is a solenoid connected to a 24V DC power supply. Each waveform was taken using a digital oscilloscope set to trigger when the voltage across the inductor dipped below zero. Note the different scaling: left image 50V/division, right image 1V/division. In Figure 1, the voltage as measured across the switch, bounces/spikes to around -300 V. In Figure 2, a flyback diode was added in antiparallel with the solenoid. Instead of spiking to -300 V, the flyback diode only allows approximately -1.4 V of potential to be built up (-1.4 V is a combination of the forward bias of the 1N4007 diode (1.1 V) and the foot of wiring separating the diode and the solenoid). The waveform in Figure 2 is also smoother than the waveform in Figure 1, perhaps due to arcing at the switch for Figure 1. In both cases, the total time for the solenoid to discharge is a few milliseconds, though the lower voltage drop across the diode will slow relay dropout. Design When used with a DC coil relay, a flyback diode can cause delayed drop-out of the contacts when power is removed, due to the continued circulation of current in the relay coil and diode. When rapid opening of the contacts is important, a resistor or reverse-biased Zener diode can be placed in series with the diode to help dissipate the coil energy faster, at the expense of higher voltage at the switch. Schottky diodes are preferred in flyback diode applications for switching power converters because they have the lowest forward drop (~0.2 V rather than >0.7 V for low currents) and are able to quickly respond to reverse bias (when the inductor is being re-energized). They, therefore, dissipate less energy while transferring energy from the inductor to a capacitor. Induction at the opening of a contact According to Faraday's law of induction, if the current through an inductance changes, this inductance induces a voltage, so the current will flow as long as there is energy in the magnetic field. If the current can only flow through the air, the voltage is so high that the air conducts. That is why in mechanically switched circuits, the near-instantaneous dissipation which occurs without a flyback diode is often observed as an arc across the opening mechanical contacts. Energy is dissipated in this arc primarily as intense heat, which causes undesirable premature erosion of the contacts. Another way to dissipate energy is through electromagnetic radiation. Similarly, for non-mechanical solid-state switching (i.e., a transistor), large voltage drops across an unactivated solid-state switch can destroy the component in question (either instantaneously or through accelerated wear and tear). Some energy is also lost from the system as a whole and from the arc as a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, in the form of radio waves and light. These radio waves can cause undesirable clicks and pops on nearby radio receivers. To minimise the antenna-like radiation of this electromagnetic energy from wires connected to the inductor, the flyback diode should be connected as physically close to the inductor as practicable. This approach also minimises those parts of the circuit that are subject to an unwanted high-voltage — a good engineering practice. Derivation The voltage at an inductor is, by the law of electromagnetic induction and the definition of inductance: V L = − d Φ B d t = − L d I d t {\displaystyle V_{L}=-{d\Phi _{B} \over dt}=-L{dI \over dt}} If there is no flyback diode but only something with great resistance (such as the air between two metal contacts), say, R2, we will approximate it as: V R 2 = R 2 ⋅ I {\displaystyle V_{R_{2}}=R_{2}\cdot I} If we open the switch and ignore VCC and R1, we get: V L = V R 2 {\displaystyle V_{L}=V_{R_{2}}} or − L d I d t = R 2 ⋅ I {\displaystyle -L{dI \over dt}=R_{2}\cdot I} which is a differential equation with the solution: I ( t ) = I 0 ⋅ e − R 2 L t {\displaystyle I(t)=I_{0}\cdot e^{-{R_{2} \over L}t}} We observe that the current will decrease faster if the resistance is high, such as with air. Now if we open the switch with the diode in place, we only need to consider L1, R1 and D1. For I > 0, we can assume: V D = c o n s t a n t {\displaystyle V_{D}=\mathrm {constant} } so: V L = V R 1 + V D {\displaystyle V_{L}=V_{R_{1}}+V_{D}} which is: − L d I d t = R 1 ⋅ I + V D {\displaystyle -L{dI \over dt}=R_{1}\cdot I+V_{D}} whose (first order differential equation) solution is: I ( t ) = ( I 0 + 1 R 1 V D ) ⋅ e − R 1 L t − 1 R 1 V D {\displaystyle I(t)=(I_{0}+{1 \over R_{1}}V_{D})\cdot e^{-{R_{1} \over L}t}-{1 \over R_{1}}V_{D}} We can calculate the time it needs to switch off by determining for which t it is I(t) = 0. t = − L R 1 ⋅ l n ( V D V D + I 0 R 1 ) {\displaystyle t={-L \over R_{1}}\cdot ln{\left({V_{D} \over {V_{D}+I_{0}{R_{1}}}}\right)}} If VCC = I0R1, then t = − L R 1 ⋅ l n ( 1 V C C V D + 1 ) = L R 1 ⋅ l n ( V C C V D + 1 ) {\displaystyle t={-L \over R_{1}}\cdot ln{\left({1 \over {{\frac {V_{CC}}{V_{D}}}+1}}\right)}={L \over R_{1}}\cdot ln{\left({{\frac {V_{CC}}{V_{D}}}+1}\right)}} Applications Flyback diodes are commonly used when semiconductor devices switch inductive loads off: in relay drivers, H-bridge motor drivers, and so on. A switched-mode power supply also exploits this effect, but the energy is not dissipated to heat and is instead used to pump a packet of additional charge into a capacitor, in order to supply power to a load. When the inductive load is a relay, the flyback diode can noticeably delay the release of the relay by keeping the coil current flowing longer. A resistor in series with the diode will make the circulating current decay faster at the drawback of an increased reverse voltage. A zener diode in series but with reverse polarity with regard to the flyback diode has the same properties, albeit with a fixed reverse voltage increase. Both the transistor voltages and the resistor or zener diode power ratings should be checked in this case. See also 1N400x general-purpose diodes 1N4148 signal diode 1N58xx Schottky diodes Lenz's law References ^ Schweber, Bill (December 10, 2019). "The Flyback Power-Supply Architecture and Operation". www.electronicdesign.com. Endeavor Business Media. Retrieved March 28, 2023. ^ "Introduction to Flyback Transformer". Utmel Electronics. January 29, 2021. Retrieved March 28, 2023. ^ a b c Wilcher, Don (2012). Learn Electronics with Arduino. Apress. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-1430242673. Retrieved 2020-05-14. ^ Agarwal, Tarun (2016-08-26). "Freewheeling or Flyback Diode Working and Their Functions". ELPROCUS. Retrieved 21 May 2018. ^ a b c Herrick, Robert J. (2003). DC/AC Circuits and Electronics: Principles & Applications. Cengage Learning. pp. 879–881. ISBN 0766820831. ^ a b c Jacob, J. (2001). Power Electronics: Principles and Applications. Cengage Learning. pp. 292–294. ISBN 0766823326. Further reading Ott, Henry (1988). Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0471850687. External links Relay Technical Notes - American Zettler Relay Application Notes - TE Connectivity Relay RC Circuit - Evox Rifa Application Circuits of Miniature Signal Relays - NEC/Tokin Diode Turn-on/off Time and Relay Snubbing - Clifton Laboratories "diode for relay coil spikes and motor shutoff spikes?" - sci.electronics.design Flyback Switch Mode Regulator Calculator - All About Circuits
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The resistor R represents the resistance of the inductor's windingsA flyback diode is any diode connected across an inductor used to eliminate flyback, which is the sudden voltage spike seen across an inductive load when its supply current is suddenly reduced or interrupted. It is used in circuits in which inductive loads are controlled by switches, and in switching power supplies and inverters.Flyback circuits have been used since 1930 and were refined starting in 1950 for use in television receivers. The word flyback comes from the horizontal movement of the electron beam in a cathode ray tube, because the beam flew back to begin the next horizontal line.[1][2]This diode is known by many other names, such as snubber diode, commutating diode, freewheeling diode, flywheel diode, suppressor diode, clamp diode, or catch diode.[3][4]","title":"Flyback diode"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FlybackExample.GIF"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrick-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacob-6"},{"link_name":"back EMF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_EMF"},{"link_name":"Faraday's law of induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrick-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilcher-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacob-6"},{"link_name":"electric arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrick-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilcher-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jacob-6"},{"link_name":"reverse-biased","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_bias"},{"link_name":"forward biases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_bias"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BackEMFWaveform.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FlybackWaveform.gif"},{"link_name":"1N4007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1N4007"},{"link_name":"1N4007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1N4007"},{"link_name":"antiparallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparallel_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"1N4007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1N4007"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Flyback_diode#Dubious"}],"text":"Circuits illustrating the use of a flyback diodeFig. 1 shows an inductor connected to a battery - a constant voltage source. The resistor represents the small residual resistance of the inductor's wire windings. When the switch is closed, the voltage from the battery is applied to the inductor, causing current from the battery's positive terminal to flow down through the inductor and resistor.[5][6] The increase in current causes a back EMF (voltage) across the inductor due to Faraday's law of induction which opposes the change in current. Since the voltage across the inductor is limited to the battery's voltage of 24 volts, the rate of increase of the current is limited to an initial value of \n \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n I\n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n V\n \n B\n \n \n L\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {dI \\over dt}={V_{B} \\over L},}\n \n so the current through the inductor increases slowly as energy from the battery is stored in the inductor's magnetic field. As the current rises, more voltage is dropped across the resistor and less across the inductor, until the current reaches a steady value of \n \n \n \n I\n =\n \n V\n \n B\n \n \n \n /\n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I=V_{B}/R}\n \n with all the battery voltage across the resistance and none across the inductance.However, the current drops rapidly when the switch is opened in Fig. 2. The inductor resists the drop in current by developing a very large induced voltage of polarity in the opposite direction of the battery, positive at the lower end of the inductor and negative at the upper end.[5][3][6] This voltage pulse, sometimes called the inductive \"kick\", which can be much larger than the battery voltage, appears across the switch contacts. It causes electrons to jump the air gap between the contacts, causing a momentary electric arc to develop across the contacts as the switch is opened. The arc continues until the energy stored in the inductor's magnetic field is dissipated as heat in the arc. The arc can damage the switch contacts, causing pitting and burning, eventually destroying them. If a transistor is used to switch the current, such as switching power supplies, the high reverse voltage can destroy the transistor.To prevent the inductive voltage pulse on turnoff, a diode is connected across the inductor, as shown in Fig. 3.[5][3][6] The diode doesn't conduct current while the switch is closed because it is reverse-biased by the battery voltage, so it doesn't interfere with the normal operation of the circuit. However, when the switch is opened, the induced voltage across the inductor of opposite polarity forward biases the diode, and it conducts current, limiting the voltage across the inductor and thus preventing the arc from forming at the switch. The inductor and diode momentarily form a loop or circuit powered by the stored energy in the inductor. This circuit supplies a current path to the inductor to replace the current from the battery, so the inductor current does not drop abruptly and does not develop a high voltage. The voltage across the inductor is limited to the forward voltage of the diode, around 0.7 - 1.5V. This \"freewheeling\" or \"flyback\" current through the diode and inductor decreases slowly to zero as the magnetic energy in the inductor is dissipated as heat in the series resistance of the windings. This may take a few milliseconds in a small inductor.(left) Oscilloscope trace showing inductive voltage spike in solenoid connected to a 24 VDC power supply. (right) The same switching transient with a flyback diode (1N4007) connected across the solenoid. Note the different scaling (50 V / division on the left, 1 V / division on the right).These images show the voltage spike and its elimination through the use of a flyback diode (1N4007). In this case, the inductor is a solenoid connected to a 24V DC power supply. Each waveform was taken using a digital oscilloscope set to trigger when the voltage across the inductor dipped below zero. Note the different scaling: left image 50V/division, right image 1V/division. In Figure 1, the voltage as measured across the switch, bounces/spikes to around -300 V. In Figure 2, a flyback diode was added in antiparallel with the solenoid. Instead of spiking to -300 V, the flyback diode only allows approximately -1.4 V of potential to be built up (-1.4 V is a combination of the forward bias of the 1N4007 diode (1.1 V) and the foot of wiring separating the diode and the solenoid[dubious – discuss]). The waveform in Figure 2 is also smoother than the waveform in Figure 1, perhaps due to arcing at the switch for Figure 1. In both cases, the total time for the solenoid to discharge is a few milliseconds, though the lower voltage drop across the diode will slow relay dropout.","title":"Operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"Zener diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zener_diode"},{"link_name":"Schottky diodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schottky_diode"}],"text":"When used with a DC coil relay, a flyback diode can cause delayed drop-out of the contacts when power is removed, due to the continued circulation of current in the relay coil and diode. When rapid opening of the contacts is important, a resistor or reverse-biased Zener diode can be placed in series with the diode to help dissipate the coil energy faster, at the expense of higher voltage at the switch.Schottky diodes are preferred in flyback diode applications for switching power converters because they have the lowest forward drop (~0.2 V rather than >0.7 V for low currents) and are able to quickly respond to reverse bias (when the inductor is being re-energized). They, therefore, dissipate less energy while transferring energy from the inductor to a capacitor.","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Faraday's law of induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction"}],"text":"According to Faraday's law of induction, if the current through an inductance changes, this inductance induces a voltage, so the current will flow as long as there is energy in the magnetic field. If the current can only flow through the air, the voltage is so high that the air conducts. That is why in mechanically switched circuits, the near-instantaneous dissipation which occurs without a flyback diode is often observed as an arc across the opening mechanical contacts. Energy is dissipated in this arc primarily as intense heat, which causes undesirable premature erosion of the contacts. Another way to dissipate energy is through electromagnetic radiation.Similarly, for non-mechanical solid-state switching (i.e., a transistor), large voltage drops across an unactivated solid-state switch can destroy the component in question (either instantaneously or through accelerated wear and tear).Some energy is also lost from the system as a whole and from the arc as a broad spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, in the form of radio waves and light. These radio waves can cause undesirable clicks and pops on nearby radio receivers.To minimise the antenna-like radiation of this electromagnetic energy from wires connected to the inductor, the flyback diode should be connected as physically close to the inductor as practicable. This approach also minimises those parts of the circuit that are subject to an unwanted high-voltage — a good engineering practice.","title":"Induction at the opening of a contact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electromagnetic induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction"},{"link_name":"inductance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance"},{"link_name":"differential equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"}],"sub_title":"Derivation","text":"The voltage at an inductor is, by the law of electromagnetic induction and the definition of inductance:V\n \n L\n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n d\n \n Φ\n \n B\n \n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n =\n −\n L\n \n \n \n d\n I\n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{L}=-{d\\Phi _{B} \\over dt}=-L{dI \\over dt}}If there is no flyback diode but only something with great resistance (such as the air between two metal contacts), say, R2, we will approximate it as:V\n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n I\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{R_{2}}=R_{2}\\cdot I}If we open the switch and ignore VCC and R1, we get:V\n \n L\n \n \n =\n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{L}=V_{R_{2}}}or−\n L\n \n \n \n d\n I\n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋅\n I\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -L{dI \\over dt}=R_{2}\\cdot I}which is a differential equation with the solution:I\n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n I\n \n 0\n \n \n ⋅\n \n e\n \n −\n \n \n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n L\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I(t)=I_{0}\\cdot e^{-{R_{2} \\over L}t}}We observe that the current will decrease faster if the resistance is high, such as with air.Now if we open the switch with the diode in place, we only need to consider L1, R1 and D1.\nFor I > 0, we can assume:V\n \n D\n \n \n =\n \n c\n o\n n\n s\n t\n a\n n\n t\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{D}=\\mathrm {constant} }so:V\n \n L\n \n \n =\n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n +\n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{L}=V_{R_{1}}+V_{D}}which is:−\n L\n \n \n \n d\n I\n \n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n ⋅\n I\n +\n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle -L{dI \\over dt}=R_{1}\\cdot I+V_{D}}whose (first order differential equation) solution is:I\n (\n t\n )\n =\n (\n \n I\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n 1\n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n )\n ⋅\n \n e\n \n −\n \n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n L\n \n \n t\n \n \n −\n \n \n 1\n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle I(t)=(I_{0}+{1 \\over R_{1}}V_{D})\\cdot e^{-{R_{1} \\over L}t}-{1 \\over R_{1}}V_{D}}We can calculate the time it needs to switch off by determining for which t it is I(t) = 0.t\n =\n \n \n \n −\n L\n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n l\n n\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n +\n \n I\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle t={-L \\over R_{1}}\\cdot ln{\\left({V_{D} \\over {V_{D}+I_{0}{R_{1}}}}\\right)}}If VCC = I0R1, thent\n =\n \n \n \n −\n L\n \n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n l\n n\n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n C\n C\n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n L\n \n R\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n l\n n\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n V\n \n C\n C\n \n \n \n V\n \n D\n \n \n \n \n +\n 1\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle t={-L \\over R_{1}}\\cdot ln{\\left({1 \\over {{\\frac {V_{CC}}{V_{D}}}+1}}\\right)}={L \\over R_{1}}\\cdot ln{\\left({{\\frac {V_{CC}}{V_{D}}}+1}\\right)}}","title":"Induction at the opening of a contact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"relay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"H-bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-bridge"},{"link_name":"switched-mode power supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply"}],"text":"Flyback diodes are commonly used when semiconductor devices switch inductive loads off: in relay drivers, H-bridge motor drivers, and so on. A switched-mode power supply also exploits this effect, but the energy is not dissipated to heat and is instead used to pump a packet of additional charge into a capacitor, in order to supply power to a load.When the inductive load is a relay, the flyback diode can noticeably delay the release of the relay by keeping the coil current flowing longer. A resistor in series with the diode will make the circulating current decay faster at the drawback of an increased reverse voltage. A zener diode in series but with reverse polarity with regard to the flyback diode has the same properties, albeit with a fixed reverse voltage increase. Both the transistor voltages and the resistor or zener diode power ratings should be checked in this case.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0471850687","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471850687"}],"text":"Ott, Henry (1988). Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0471850687.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Diagram of a simple circuit with an inductance L and a flyback diode D. The resistor R represents the resistance of the inductor's windings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flyback_Diode.svg/300px-Flyback_Diode.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Circuits illustrating the use of a flyback diode","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/FlybackExample.GIF/600px-FlybackExample.GIF"}]
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[{"reference":"Schweber, Bill (December 10, 2019). \"The Flyback Power-Supply Architecture and Operation\". www.electronicdesign.com. Endeavor Business Media. Retrieved March 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.electronicdesign.com/12345/whitepaper/21808957/the-flyback-powersupply-architecture-and-operation","url_text":"\"The Flyback Power-Supply Architecture and Operation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introduction to Flyback Transformer\". Utmel Electronics. January 29, 2021. Retrieved March 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.utmel.com/blog/categories/transformers/introduction-to-flyback-transformer","url_text":"\"Introduction to Flyback Transformer\""}]},{"reference":"Wilcher, Don (2012). Learn Electronics with Arduino. Apress. pp. 74–75. ISBN 978-1430242673. Retrieved 2020-05-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NiFpaZFqzRsC&pg=PA74","url_text":"Learn Electronics with Arduino"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1430242673","url_text":"978-1430242673"}]},{"reference":"Agarwal, Tarun (2016-08-26). \"Freewheeling or Flyback Diode Working and Their Functions\". ELPROCUS. Retrieved 21 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.elprocus.com/freewheeling-or-flyback-diode-circuit-working-functions/","url_text":"\"Freewheeling or Flyback Diode Working and Their Functions\""}]},{"reference":"Herrick, Robert J. (2003). DC/AC Circuits and Electronics: Principles & Applications. Cengage Learning. pp. 879–881. ISBN 0766820831.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=E_wKgWBu8rUC&dq=%22flyback+diode%22+inductor&pg=PA880","url_text":"DC/AC Circuits and Electronics: Principles & Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0766820831","url_text":"0766820831"}]},{"reference":"Jacob, J. (2001). Power Electronics: Principles and Applications. Cengage Learning. pp. 292–294. ISBN 0766823326.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=FSpC6yNyNWcC&dq=flyback+diode&pg=PA293","url_text":"Power Electronics: Principles and Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0766823326","url_text":"0766823326"}]},{"reference":"Ott, Henry (1988). Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems (2nd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0471850687.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471850687","url_text":"978-0471850687"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selene
Selene
["1 Etymology and origins","1.1 Names","1.2 Origin","2 Descriptions","3 Family","3.1 Parents","3.2 Offspring","4 Mythology","4.1 Goddess of the Moon","4.2 Endymion","4.3 Gigantomachy","4.4 Fight with Typhon","4.5 Ampelus","4.6 Heracles","4.7 Pan","4.8 Other accounts","5 Iconography","6 Cult","7 Orphic literature","8 Namesakes","9 Gallery","10 Genealogy","11 See also","12 Notes","13 References","14 External links"]
Ancient Greek goddess of the Moon This article is about the Greek goddess. For other uses, see Selene (disambiguation). SelenePersonification of the MoonDetail of Selene from a Roman sarcophagusOther namesMene (Μήνη)GreekΣελήνηAbodeSkyPlanetMoonAnimalsHorse, bull, muleSymbolCrescent, chariot, torch, billowing cloak, bull, moonDayMonday (hēméra Selḗnēs)Personal informationParentsHyperion and TheiaSiblingsHelios and EosConsortEndymionChildrenFifty daughters, Narcissus, Pandia, Ersa, Horae, MusaeusEquivalentsRoman equivalentLunaPhrygian equivalentMen In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Selene (/sɪˈliːniː/; Greek: Σελήνη pronounced seh-LEH-neh, meaning "Moon") is the goddess and personification of the Moon. Also known as Mene, she is traditionally the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, and sister of the sun god Helios and the dawn goddess Eos. She drives her moon chariot across the heavens. Several lovers are attributed to her in various myths, including Zeus, Pan, and the mortal Endymion. In post-classical times, Selene was often identified with Artemis, much as her brother, Helios, was identified with Apollo. Selene and Artemis were also associated with Hecate and all three were regarded as moon and lunar goddesses, but only Selene was regarded as the personification of the Moon itself. Her equivalent in Roman religion and mythology is the goddess Luna. Part of a series onAncient Greek religion Origins Ancient Greek religion Mycenaean Greece, Mycenaean religion and Mycenaean deities Minoan Civilization, Minoan religion Classical Greece Hellenistic Greece, Hellenistic religion Sacred PlacesSacred Islands Delos Ithaca Naxos Kythira Samothrace Crete Lemnos Sacred Mountains Mount Lykaion Mount Ida (Turkey) Mount Ida (Crete) Mount Olympus Mount Kyllini Mount Othrys Sanctuaries Aornum Delphi Didyma Dion Dodona Eleusis Olympia Other Cave of Zeus Troy Deities Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Other deities Aether Amphitrite Ananke Asclepius Bia Boreas Chronos Eileithyia Eros Eos Eris Gaia Hades Hebe Hecate Helios Hemera Heracles Iris Kratos Leto Nemesis Nike Nyx Pan Persephone Phobos Priapus Rhea Selene Thanatos Themis Triptolemus Uranus Zephyrus ConceptsWorldview Greek mythology Orphic Egg Underworld and Afterlife Miasma Daimon Greek Heroic Age Divine and Reality Apeiron Monism Polytheism Pantheism Form of the Good Theory of forms Mind Anamnesis Ataraxia Apatheia Episteme Epoché Katalepsis Logos Nous Phronesis Soul Anima mundi Metempsychosis Henosis Plato's theory of soul Ethics Arete Hubris Xenia Ethic of Reciprocity Delphic maxims Adiaphora Eudaimonia Kathekon Oikeiôsis Mysteries Eleusinian Mysteries Orphism Dionysian Mysteries PracticesWorship Agalma Dithyramb Paean Orgion Hiera Orgas Hero Cult Oracle and Pythia Sacrifices and Offerings Holokaustos Libation Votive offering Animal Sacrifice Temples and holy sites Temple Temenos Meditation and Charity Eusebeia Meditation Euergetism Rites of passage Amphidromia Marriage Funeral Rites Festivals Thesmophoria Dionysia Daphnephoria Anthesteria Arrephoria Kronia Genesia Elaphebolia Pyanopsia Khalkeia Haloa Halieia Thargelia Three Monthly Festivals Deipnon Noumenia Agathodaemon Religious Games Panathenaia Herakleia Panhellenic Games Olympic Games Nemean Games Pythian Games Isthmian Games Philosophy Pythagoreanism Neopythagoreanism Platonism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism Philosophers Ancient Hesiod Homer Pherecydes of Syros Pythagoras Xenophanes Parmenides Empedocles Socrates Plato Aratus Plutarch Plotinus Iamblichus Julian (emperor) Texts Argonautica Bibliotheca Corpus Hermeticum Delphic maxims Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Epic Cycle Homeric Hymns Iliad Odyssey Orphic Hymns Theogony Works and Days Other Topics Pilgrimage Sites Calendar Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism Julian restoration Modern Restoration Religion portal Ancient Greece portalvte Etymology and origins Names Detail of a sarcophagus depicting Endymion and Selene, shown with her characteristic attributes of lunate crown, billowing veil (velificatio) and heavenly chariot, from 3rd century AD, Roman Empire period. The name "Selene" is derived from the Greek noun selas (σέλας), meaning "light, brightness, gleam". In the Doric and Aeolic dialects, her name was also spelled Σελάνα (Selána) and Σελάννα (Selánna) respectively. Selene was also called Mene. The Greek word mene, meant the moon, and the lunar month. The masculine form of mene (men) was also the name of the Phrygian moon-god Men. Mene and Men both derive from Proto-Hellenic *méns ("month"), itself from Proto-Indo-European *mḗh₁n̥s (meaning moon, the lunar month), which probably comes from the root *meh₁- ("to measure"), and is cognate with the English words "Moon" and "month". The Greek Stoic philosopher Chrysippus interpreted Selene and Men as, respectively, the female and male aspects of the same god. Although no clear attestation for Selene herself (or any prodecessor of hers) has been discovered, in Mycenaean Greek the word for month 'men' has been found in Linear B spelled as 𐀕𐀜 (me-no, from genitive form μηνός, mēnós). Just as Helios, from his identification with Apollo, is called Phoebus ("bright"), Selene, from her identification with Artemis, is also called Phoebe (feminine form). Also from Artemis, Selene was sometimes called "Cynthia", meaning "she of Mount Cynthus" (the birthplace of Artemis). Origin Selene, along with her brother, her sister and the sky-god Zeus, is one of the few Greek deities of a clear Proto-Indo-European origin, although they were sidelined by later non-PIE newcomers to the pantheon, as remaining on the sidelines became their primary function, to be the minor deities the major ones were juxtaposed to, thus helping keep the Greek religion Greek. The original PIE moon deity has been reconstructed as *Meh₁not (from which 'Mene', Selene's byname, is derived), and it appears that it was a male god. The Greek offshoot of this deity however is female, as the ancient Greeks' gender view of the world was reflected in their language. The ancient Greek language had three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), so when a god or a goddess personified an object or a concept, they inherited the gender of the corresponding noun; selene, the Greek noun for 'Moon', is a feminine one (whereas men is a masculine one), so the deity embodying it is also by necessity female. In PIE mythology, the Moon, which is a male figure, was seen as forming a pair–usually wedlock–with the Sun, which is a female figure, and which in Greek mythology is recognized in the male deity and Selene's brother Helios. It seems however that unlike the Dawn (Eos) and the Sun (Helios), the Moon had very little importance in PIE mythology. Although attempts have been made to connect Selene to Helen of Troy due to the similarity of their names, in two early dedications to Helen from Laconia her name is spelled with a digamma (Ancient Greek: Ϝελένα, romanized: Weléna), ruling out any possible connection between them. 'Helen' is more likely related to 'Helios' instead, and it seems that the two figures stem from a common Proto-Indo-European ancestor, the Sun Maiden. Descriptions Statue of Selene in white marble, second half of the 3rd century AD Surviving descriptions of Selene's physical appearance and character, apart from those which would apply to the moon itself, are scant. There is no mention of Selene as a goddess in either the Iliad or the Odyssey of Homer, while her only mention in Hesiod's Theogony is as the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Eos. She was, however, the subject of one of the thirty-three Homeric Hymns, which gives the following description: And next, sweet voiced Muses, daughters of Zeus, well-skilled in song, tell of the long-winged Moon. From her immortal head a radiance is shown from heaven and embraces earth; and great is the beauty that ariseth from her shining light. The air, unlit before, glows with the light of her golden crown, and her rays beam clear, whensoever bright Selene having bathed her lovely body in the waters of Ocean, and donned her far-gleaming raiment, and yoked her strong-necked, shining team, drives on her long-maned horses at full speed, at eventime in the mid-month: then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men. ... Hail, white-armed goddess, bright Selene, mild, bright-tressed queen! Two other sources also mention her hair. The Homeric Hymn to Helios uses the same epithet εὐπλόκαμος ("bright-tressed"), used in the above Hymn to Selene (elsewhere translated as "rich-", "lovely-", or "well-tressed"), while Epimenides uses the epithet ἠυκόμοιο ("lovely-haired"). In late accounts, Selene (like the moon itself) is often described as having horns. The Orphic Hymn to Selene addresses her as "O bull-horned Moon", and further describes her as "torch-bearing, ... feminine and masculine, ... lover of horses," and grantor of "fulfillment and favor". Empedocles, Euripides and Nonnus all describe her as γλαυκῶπις (glaukṓpis, "bright-eyed", a common epithet of the goddess Athena) while in a fragment from a poem, possibly written by Pamprepius, she is called κυανῶπις (kyanṓpis, "dark-eyed"). Mesomedes of Crete calls her γλαυκὰ (glaukà, "silvery grey"). Family Parents Selene in a flying chariot drawn by two white horses from "Flora, seu florum...", Ferrari 1646. The usual account of Selene's origin is given by Hesiod in his Theogony, where the sun-god Hyperion espoused his sister Theia, who gave birth to "great Helios and clear Selene and Eos who shines upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven". The Homeric Hymn to Helios follows this tradition: "Hyperion wedded glorious Euryphaëssa, his own sister, who bare him lovely children, rosy-armed Eos and rich-tressed Selene and tireless Helios", with Euryphaëssa ("widely shining") probably being an epithet of Theia. However, the Homeric Hymn to Hermes has Selene as the daughter of Pallas, the son of an otherwise unknown Megamedes. This Pallas is possibly identified with the Pallas, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, was the son of the Titan Crius, and thus Selene's cousin. Other accounts give still other parents for Selene: Euripides has Selene as the daughter of Helios (rather than sister), while an Aeschylus fragment possibly has Selene as the daughter of Leto, as does a scholium on Euripides's play The Phoenician Women which adds Zeus as the father. Furthermore, in Virgil's Aeneid, when Nisus calls upon Selene/the Moon, he addresses her as "daughter of Latona." Offspring According to the Homeric Hymn to Selene, the goddess bore Zeus a daughter, Pandia ("All-brightness"), "exceeding lovely amongst the deathless gods". The 7th century BC Greek poet Alcman makes Ersa ("Dew") the daughter of Selene and Zeus. Selene and Zeus were also said to be the parents of Nemea, the eponymous nymph of Nemea, where Heracles slew the Nemean Lion, and where the Nemean Games were held. From Pausanias we hear that Selene was supposed to have had fifty daughters, by her lover Endymion, often assumed to represent the fifty lunar months of the Olympiad. Nonnus has Selene and Endymion as the parents of the beautiful Narcissus, although in other accounts, including Ovid's Metamorphoses, Narcissus was the son of Cephissus and Liriope. Quintus Smyrnaeus makes Selene, by her brother Helios, the mother of the Horae, goddesses and personifications of the four seasons; Winter, Spring, Summer, and Autumn. Quintus describes them as the four handmaidens of Hera, but in most other accounts their number is three; Eirene ("peace"), Eunomia ("order"), and Dike ("justice"), and their parents are Zeus and Themis instead. Lastly, Selene was said to be the mother of the legendary Greek poet Musaeus, with, according to Philochorus, the father being the legendary seer Eumolpus. Mythology Goddess of the Moon Statue of Selene, shown wearing the crescent on her forehead and holding a torch in her right hand, while her veil billows over her head. Like her brother Helios, the Sun god, who drives his sun chariot across the sky each day, Selene is also said to drive a chariot across the heavens. There are no mentions of Selene's chariot in either Homer or Hesiod, but the Homeric Hymn to Selene, gives the following description: The air, unlit before, glows with the light of her golden crown, and her rays beam clear, whensoever bright Selene having bathed her lovely body in the waters of Ocean, and donned her far-gleaming raiment, and yoked her strong-necked, shining team, drives on her long-maned horses at full speed, at eventime in the mid-month: then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men. The earliest known depiction of Selene driving a chariot adorns the inside of an early 5th century BC red-figure cup attributed to the Brygos Painter, showing Selene plunging her chariot, drawn by two winged horses, into the sea (Berlin Antikensammlung F 2293). The geographer Pausanias, reports seeing a relief of Selene driving a single horse, as it seemed to him, or as some said, a mule, on the pedestal of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c. 435 BC). While the sun chariot has four horses, Selene's usually has two, described as "snow-white" by Ovid. In some later accounts the chariot was drawn by oxen or bulls. Though the moon chariot is often described as being silver, for Pindar it was golden. In antiquity, the lunar eclipse phenomena were thought to be caused by witches, particularly the ones from Thessaly, who brought the Moon/Selene down with spells and invocations of magic. References to this magical trick, variously referred to as καθαιρεῖν (kathaireĩn), are scattered throughout ancient literature, whereas eclipses of both the Sun and the Moon were called kathaireseis ("casting-downs") by the Greek populace. A famous example of that is Aglaonice of Thessaly, an ancient Greek astronomer, who was regarded as a sorceress for her (self-proclaimed) ability to make the Moon disappear from the sky (καθαιρεῖν τὴν σελήνην: kathaireĩn tén selénen). This claim has been taken–by Plutarch at first, and subsequently by modern astronomers–to mean that she could predict the time and general area where an eclipse of the Moon would occur. Those who brought down the Moon were thought to bring ill fortune upon themselves, as evidenced by the proverb ἐπὶ σαυτῷ τὴν σελήνην καθαιρεῖς ("you are bringing down the Moon on yourself") said for those who caused self-inflicted evils; some witches supposedly avoided this fate by sacrificing their children or their eyeballs. In popular and common belief, Selene as the Moon came to be associated with physical growth, menstruation and sickness, the latter particularly in the context of demonic possession or even epilepsy. Owing to her role as the moon goddess, she was sometimes called Nyctimedusa (Ancient Greek: Νυκτιμέδουσα, romanized: Nuktimédousa), meaning "queen of the night". Endymion Endymion as hunter (with dog), sitting on rocks in a landscape, holding 2 spears, looking at Selene who descends to him. Antique fresco from Pompeii. Selene and Endymion, by Sebastiano Ricci (1713), Chiswick House, England. Selene is best known for her affair with the beautiful mortal Endymion. The late 7th-century – early 6th-century BC poet Sappho apparently mentioned Selene and Endymion. However, the first account of the story comes from the third-century BC Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes, which tells of Selene's "mad passion" and her visiting the "fair Endymion" in a cave on Mount Latmus: And the Titanian goddess, the moon, rising from a far land, beheld her as she fled distraught, and fiercely exulted over her, and thus spake to her own heart: "Not I alone then stray to the Latmian cave, nor do I alone burn with love for fair Endymion; oft times with thoughts of love have I been driven away by thy crafty spells, in order that in the darkness of night thou mightest work thy sorcery at ease, even the deeds dear to thee. And now thou thyself too hast part in a like mad passion; and some god of affliction has given thee Jason to be thy grievous woe. Well, go on, and steel thy heart, wise though thou be, to take up thy burden of pain, fraught with many sighs." The eternally sleeping Endymion was proverbial, but exactly how this eternal sleep came about and what role, if any, Selene may have had in it is unclear. According to the Catalogue of Women, Endymion was the son of Aethlius (a son of Zeus), and Zeus granted him the right to choose when he would die. A scholiast on Apollonius says that, according to Epimenides, Endymion fell in love with Hera, and Zeus punished him with eternal sleep. However, Apollodorus says that because of Endymion's "surpassing beauty, the Moon fell in love with him, and Zeus allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to sleep for ever, remaining deathless and ageless". Theocritus portrays Endymion's sleep as enviable because (presumably) of Selene's love for him. Cicero seems to make Selene responsible for Endymion's sleep, so that "she might kiss him while sleeping". The Roman playwright Seneca, has Selene abandoned the night sky for Endymion's sake having entrusted her "shining" moon chariot to her brother Helios to drive. The Greek satirist Lucian's dialogue between Selene and the love goddess Aphrodite has the two goddesses commiserate about their love affairs with Endymion and Adonis, and suggests that Selene has fallen in love with Endymion while watching him sleep each night. In his dialogue between Aphrodite and Eros, Lucian also has Aphrodite admonish her son Eros for bringing Selene "down from the sky". While Quintus Smyrnaeus wrote that, while Endymion slept in his cave beside his cattle: Divine Selene watched him from on high, and slid from heaven to earth; for passionate love drew down the immortal stainless Queen of Night." Lucian also records an otherwise unattested myth where a pretty young girl called Muia becomes Selene's rival for Endymion's affections; the chatty maiden would endlessly talk to him while he slept, causing him to wake up. This irritated Endymion, and enraged Selene, who transforms the girl into a fly (Ancient Greek: μυῖα, romanized: muía). In memory of the beautiful Endymion, the fly still grudges all sleepers their rest and annoys them. Philologist Max Müller's interpretation of solar mythology as it related to Selene and Endymion concluded that the myth was a narrativized version of linguistic terminology. Because the Greek endyein meant "to dive," the name Endymion ("Diver") at first simply described the process of the setting sun "diving" into the sea. In this case, the story of Selene embracing Endymion, or Moon embraces Diver, refers to the sun setting and the moon rising. Gigantomachy Selene riding horseback, detail of the Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon museum, Berlin, c. 180–159 BC. Gaia, angered about her children the Titans being thrown into Tartarus following their defeat, brought forth the Giants, to attack the gods, in a war that was called the Gigantomachy. When Gaia heard of a prophecy that a mortal would help the gods to defeat the giants, she sought to find a herb that would make them undefeatable. Zeus heard of that, and ordered Selene as well as her siblings Helios (Sun) and Eos (Dawn) not to shine, and harvested all of that plant for himself. Selene's participation in the battle is evidenced by her inclusion in the Gigantomachy frieze of the Pergamon Altar, fighting against Giants next to her siblings Helios and Eos and her mother Theia in the southern frieze. Selene gallops sidesaddle in advance, and wears a woolen undergarment and a mantle. Additionally, on a rein guide for a chariot a goddess thought to be Selene with a crescent and veil over her head is depicted, who stands with Helios on a gate tower and tries to repel the attacks of snake-legged Giants. Fight with Typhon According to the late account of Nonnus, when the gigantic monster Typhon laid siege against the heavens, he attacked Selene as well by hurling bulls at her, though she managed to stay in her course, and rushed at her hissing like a viper. Selene fought back the giant, locking horns with Typhon; afterwards, she carried many scars on her orb, reminiscent of their battle. Ampelus Ampelus was a very beautiful satyr youth, loved by the god Dionysus. One day, in Nonnus' account, Ampelus rode on a bull, and proceeded to compare himself to Selene, saying that he was her equal, having horns and riding bulls just like her. The goddess took offense, and sent a gadfly to sting Ampelus' bull. The bull panicked, threw Ampelus and gored him to death. Heracles Roman-era bronze statuette of Selene velificans or Nyx (Night) (Getty Villa). When Zeus desired to sleep with the mortal queen Alcmene and sire Heracles, he made the night last three days, and ordered Selene via Hermes to dawdle in the sky during that time. Selene also played a small role in the first of Heracles' twelve labours; whereas for Hesiod, the Nemean Lion was born to Orthrus and the Chimera (or perhaps Echidna) and raised by Hera, other accounts have Selene involved in some way in its birth or rearing. Aelian states: "They say that the Lion of Nemea fell from the moon", and quotes Epimenides as saying: For I am sprung from fair-tressed Selene the Moon, who in a fearful shudder shook off the savage lion in Nemea, and brought him forth at the bidding of Queen Hera. Anaxagoras also reports that the Nemean lion was said to have fallen from the moon. Pseudo-Plutarch's On Rivers has Hera collaborating with Selene, "employing magical incantations" to create the Nemean Lion from a chest filled with foam. Hyginus says that Selene had "nourished" the lion in a "two-mouthed cave". Pan According to Virgil, Selene also had a tryst with the god Pan, who seduced her with a "snowy bribe of wool". Scholia on Virgil add the story, ascribed to Nicander, that as part of the seduction, Pan wrapped himself in a sheepskin. Other accounts Bust of Selene, in the courtyard of Palazzo Gerini. Diodorus Siculus recorded an unorthodox version of the myth, in which Basileia, who had succeeded her father Uranus to his royal throne, married her brother Hyperion, and had two children, a son Helios and a daughter Selene, "admired for both their beauty and their chastity". Because Basileia's other brothers envied these offspring, and feared that Hyperion would try to seize power for himself, they conspired against him. They put Hyperion to the sword, and drowned Helios in the river Eridanus. Selene herself, upon discovering this, took her own life. After these deaths, her brother appeared in a dream to their grieving mother and assured her that he and his sister would now transform into divine natures; and: Roman statue of Selene, marble 2nd century AD, Museum of Antalya. that which had formerly been called the "holy fire" in the heavens would be called by men Helius ("the sun") and that addressed as "menê" would be called Selenê ("the moon"). Plutarch recorded a fable-like story in which Selene asked her mother to weave her a garment to fit her measure, and her mother replied that she was unable to do so, as she kept changing shape and size, sometimes full, then crescent-shaped and others yet half her size. In Lucian's Icaromenippus, Selene complains to the titular Menippus of all the outrageous claims philosophers are making about her, such as wondering why she is ever waxing or gibbous, whether she is populated or not, and stating that she is getting her stolen light from the Sun, causing strife and ill feelings between her and her brother. She asks Menippus to report her grievances to Zeus, with the request that Zeus wipes all these natural philosophers from the face of the earth. Zeus agrees, urged by Selene's complaints and having long intended to deal with the philosophers himself. Claudian wrote that in her infancy, when her horns had not yet grown, Selene (along with Helios – their sister Eos is not mentioned with them) was nursed by her aunt, the water goddess Tethys. According to pseudo-Plutarch, Lilaeus was an Indian shepherd who only worshipped Selene among the gods and performed her rituals and mysteries at night. The other gods, angered, sent him two lions to tear him apart. Selene then turned Lilaeus into a mountain, Mt. Lilaeon. Ovid mentions how in the myth of Phaethon, Helios' son who drove his father's chariot for a day, when Phaethon lost control of the chariot and burned the earth, Selene in the sky looked down to see in amazement her brother's horses running wild lower than normal. Iconography Selene and Endymion, antique fresco in Pompeii In antiquity, artistic representations of Selene/Luna included sculptural reliefs, vase paintings, coins, and gems. In red-figure pottery before the early 5th century BC, she is depicted only as a bust, or in profile against a lunar disk. In later art, like other celestial divinities such as Helios, Eos, and Nyx (Night), Selene rides across the heavens. She is usually portrayed either driving a chariot (see above) or riding sideways on horseback (sometimes riding an ox, a mule or a ram). Selene and Endymion, by Albert Aublet. Selene was often paired with her brother Helios. Selene (probably) and Helios adorned the east pediment of the Parthenon, where the two, each driving a four-horsed chariot, framed a scene depicting the birth of Athena, with Helios and his chariot rising from the ocean on the left, and Selene and her chariot descending into the sea on the right. Selene and Helios also appear on the North Metopes of the Parthenon, with Selene this time entering the sea on horseback. From Pausanias, we learn that Selene and Helios also framed the birth of Aphrodite on the base of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. There are indications of a similar framing by Selene and Helios of the birth of Pandora on the base of the Athena Parthenos. Pausanias also reports seeing stone images of Helios, and Selene, in the market-place at Elea, with rays projecting from the head of Helios, and horns from the head of Selene. Selene also appears on horseback as part of the Gigantomachy frieze of the Pergamon Altar. Selene is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by stars; sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used. Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders. Selene's head is sometimes surrounded by a nimbus, and from the Hellenistic period onwards, she is sometimes pictured with a torch. In later second and third century AD Roman funerary art, the love of Selene for Endymion and his eternal sleep was a popular subject for artists. As frequently depicted on Roman sarcophagi, Selene, holding a billowing veil forming a crescent over her head, descends from her chariot to join her lover, who slumbers at her feet. Cult Selene from an altar piece, flanked by either the Dioscuri, or by Phosphorus and Hesperus. Selene's presence in ancient Greek worship is very limited, even in comparison to her brother. Her presence in cult was linked to her connection to more major, important divinities such as Artemis and Hecate, and she is hardly divorced from her identifications when it comes to worship; in later times, she was adopted into pre-existing cults that had not originally included her, along with several other figures. Moon figures are found on Cretan rings and gems (perhaps indicating a Minoan moon cult), but apart from the role played by the moon itself in magic, folklore, and poetry, and despite the later worship of the Phrygian moon-god Men, there was relatively little worship of Selene. An oracular sanctuary existed near Thalamai in Laconia. Described by Pausanias, it contained statues of Pasiphaë and Helios. Here Pasiphaë is used as an epithet of Selene, instead of referring to the daughter of Helios and wife of Minos. Pausanias also described seeing two stone images in the market-place of Elis, one of the sun and the other of the moon, from the heads of which projected the rays of the sun and the horns of the crescent moon. Selene (along with Helios, Nyx and others) received an altar at the sanctuary of Demeter at Pergamon, possibly in connection with the Orphic mysteries. Attic Kylix with Selene and her horse and crescent Moon, circa 4950 BC, by the Brygos Painter. Originally, Pandia may have been an epithet of Selene, but by at least the time of the late Hymn to Selene, Pandia had become a daughter of Zeus and Selene. Pandia (or Pandia Selene) may have personified the full moon, and an Athenian festival, called the Pandia, usually considered to be a festival for Zeus, was perhaps celebrated on the full moon and may have been associated with Selene. At Athens, wineless offerings (nephalia) were made to Selene, along with other celestial gods, Selene's siblings Helios and Eos, and Aphrodite Ourania; in Attica, it seems that Selene was identified with Aphrodite. Kushan coinage of Kanishka I with Selene (Greek legend "CAΛHNH") on the reverse, wearing lunar horns, c. AD 127 – 151. Selene was sometimes associated with childbirth, for it was believed that during the full moon women had the easiest labours; this helped in her identification with the goddess Artemis, as well as other goddesses connected to women's labours. The idea that Selene would also give easy labours to women paved way for identification with Hera and the Roman Juno and Lucina, three other childbirth goddesses; Plutarch calls Selene "Hera in material form." Roman philosopher Cicero connected Selene's Roman counterpart Luna's name to childbirth goddess Lucina's, both deriving from "light" (thus bringing the unborn child into the light). Nonnus also identified Selene with Eileithyia. Selene with her chariot in the relief of Rosenstein Palace, Germany. Selene played an important role in love magic. In Theocritus' second Idyll, a young girl invokes Selene in a love-spell. The idyll opens with the girl ordering her maid to bring potions and magical utensils, followed by an invocation to Selene and Hecate, and finally the rather lengthy spell itself; once she finishes her spell, the girl recounts to Selene of how she met and was betrayed by her lover, and calls upon the goddess to witness and help her, hence the love tail is woven into the love spell. And, according to a scholium on Theocritus, Pindar wrote that lovesick women would pray to Selene for help, as Euripides apparently had Phaedra, Selene's great-niece, do in his lost play Hippolytus Veiled. Plutarch wrote that Selene was called upon in love affairs because she, the Moon, constantly yearns for the Sun, and compared her in that regard to Isis. Her and her brother's worship is also attested in Gytheum, a town in Laconia near Sparta, via an inscription (C.I.G. 1392). In the city of Epidaurus, in Argolis, Selene had an altar dedicated to her. Records show that a type of cake called βοῦς (boûs, "ox") decorated with horns to represent the full moon or an ox was offered to her and other divinities like Hecate, Artemis and Apollo. In addition, a type of flat, round moon-shaped cake was called 'selene' ("moon") and was offered "to the goddess." The ancient Greeks also called Monday "day of the Moon" (ἡμέρα Σελήνης) after her. Orphic literature According to a certain Epigenes, the three Moirai, or Fates, were regarded in the Orphic tradition as representing the three divisions of Selene, "the thirtieth and the fifteenth and the first" (i.e. the crescent moon, full moon, and dark moon, as delinted by the divisions of the calendar month). Namesakes Selene is the Greek proper name for the Moon, and 580 Selene, a minor planet in the asteroid belt, is also named after this goddess. Scientific study of the Moon, particularly lunar geology, is sometimes referred to as selenology, and its practitioners selenologists, to distinguish from Earth-based study. The chemical element Selenium was named after Selene by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, because of the element's similarity to the element tellurium, named for the Earth (Tellus). The second Japanese lunar orbiter spacecraft following was named SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) after Selene, and was also known as Kaguya in Japan. HMS Selene (P254), a 1944 British submarine and Ghia Selene, a concept car from the Ghia design studio from 1959, also bore her name. Gallery Selene in art Selene and Endymion relief, Alessandro and Lancellotto Pusterla's gravestone, 16th century. Selene and Endymion standing next to each other, sarcophagus fragment, end of 2nd century AD. Selene, 1880 painting by Albert Aublet. Selene with sleeping Endymion, fresco in the fourth Pompeian style. Selene detail from a sarcophagus, imperial period. Selene, engraving by François Chauveau. Head of one of Selene's horses. Statue of Selene from the Silahtarağa group representing the Gigantomachy, Istanbul Archeology Museum. Oil lamp fragment with the head of Selene, early classical period, Musée de Die. Selene and Endymion, in the mural above the stage of the Friedrich von Thiersch Saal in the Wiesbaden Kurhaus. Selene leaving her chariot, Roman mosaic, Andalusia. Selene and Endymion, fresco on ceiling by Giuseppe Antonio Orelli, circa 1730–1770, Palazzo Riva. Torso of Selene from the east pediment of the Parthenon, Acropolis Museum. Selene and the Horae, by Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher. Selene or Nyx in the Academy of Athens, Greece. One of the oldest recovered depictions of Selene, circa 490 BC, by the Brygos Painter. Genealogy Selene's family tree UranusGaiaPontus OceanusTethysHyperionTheiaCriusEurybia The RiversThe OceanidsHeliosSELENEEosAstraeusPallasPerses CronusRheaCoeusPhoebe HestiaHeraHadesZeusLetoAsteria DemeterPoseidon IapetusClymene (or Asia)Mnemosyne(Zeus)Themis AtlasMenoetiusPrometheusEpimetheusThe MusesThe Horae See also Ancient Greece portalMythology portalReligion portal Horned deity List of lunar deities Diana (mythology) Star and crescent Notes ^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 2008-02-04. ^ a b c A Greek–English Lexicon s.v. σελήνη. ^ Hard, p. 46; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Morford, pp. 64, 219–220; Smith, s.v. Selene. ^ Smith, s.v. Selene; Kerényi, pp. 196–197; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Hard, p. 46; Morford, pp. 64, 219–221. ^ Sorrenti, p. 370. ^ Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 90, on lines 1–2; Kerényi, pp. 196–197; Keightley, p. 56. ^ Hard, p. 46; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Smith, s.v. Selene. ^ Athanassakis and Wolkow, pp. 90, on lines 1–2, 91, on line 5; Kerényi, p. 197. Athanassakis and Wolkow speculate that Selene's name 'might have developed as a euphemism for the moon proper (Greek "mēnē")'. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Kerényi, p. 197. ^ Beekes, p. 945. ^ Obbink 2002, p. 200. ^ "The Linear B word me-no". www.palaeolexicon.com. Retrieved April 8, 2023. ^ Morford, p. 64; Smith, s.v. Selene. Phoebe was also the name of Selene's aunt, the Titan mother of Leto and Asteria, and grandmother of Apollo, Artemis, and Hecate. ^ Pannen, p. 96. For example see Ovid, Heroides 18.59–74. The English Romantic poet John Keats calls Selene Cynthia in his poem Endymion. ^ Davidson 2010, p. 205. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 385. ^ a b West 2007, p. 351. ^ Hansen 2004, p. 27 ^ Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1995, p. 590-591. ^ Matasović 2009, p. 155. ^ West 2007, p. 231. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 164. ^ West 2007, p. 137. ^ Stoll, p. 61. ^ Hesiod, Theogony 371–374. ^ A winged Selene seems to be unique to this Hymn, see Allen, "τανυσίπτερον". ^ Hymn to Selene (32) 1–17, translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. ^ Homeric Hymn to Helios (31) 6 (Evelyn-White: "rich-tressed"; West 2003: "lovely-tressed"), Homeric Hymn to Selene, (32) 18 (West 2003: "lovely-tressed"; Keightley, pp. 55–56: "well-tressed"). Keightley, describes εὐπλόκαμος, along with λευκώλενος also used in the Hymn to Selene, "white-armed", as being two of the "usual epithets of the goddesses". ^ Aelian, On Animals, 12.7 [= Epimenides fr. 3B2 Diels = fr. 2 Freeman (Online version at Demonax | Hellenic Library; A Greek–English Lexicon s.v. εὔκομος. ^ For a horned Selene see for example: Seneca, Medea 98, Phaedra 419; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 8.29; Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 1.147–149; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.221, 5.163, 11.186, 48.583. For a horned moon see, for example: Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.179–180; Aratus, Phaenomena 733; Virgil, Georgics 1.436; Statius, Thebaid 12.1–3; Tryphiodorus, The Taking of Ilios 514–519. ^ Orphic Hymn to Selene (Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 11). ^ Keightley, p. 56; Plutarch, Moralia 929 C–D (Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon 16) , 934 D (Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon 21); Euripides fr. 1009 ; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5.70. ^ Select Papyri 3.140 Page, pp. 566, 567. ^ Mesomedes, Hymn to the Sun 15 (Psaroudakes, p. 122). ^ Hard, p. 43; Hesiod, Theogony 371–374. See also Apollodorus 1.2.2, Hyginus, Fabulae Preface 12. ^ Hard, p. 46; Homeric Hymn to Helios (31) 4–7. Assuming that their order of mention is meant to be their order of birth, Hesiod and Hyginus (Fabulae Preface 12) make Helios the oldest of the siblings, with Eos the youngest, while the Hymn swaps the order of Eos and Helios, and Apollodorus (1.2.2) has Selene as the youngest, with Eos as the oldest. ^ Morford, p. 61; West 2003, p. 215 n. 61. ^ Vergados, p. 313; Hard, p. 46; Gantz, p. 34; Homeric Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100. ^ Vergados, p. 313; Hard, p. 46; Hesiod, Theogony 375–377. As Vergados points out, there is no indication of this genealogy elsewhere in Greek texts, however for Ovid, Aurora (Dawn), the Roman counterpart of Selene's sister Eos, was the daughter of Pallas, see Fasti 4.373–374, Metamorphoses 9.421, 15.191, 15.700. ^ Hard, p. 46; Keightley, p. 54 with n. 9; Euripides, The Phoenician Women 175–176 (with scholia); so also Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5.162–166, 44.191; Scholia on Aratus 445. Keightley quotes the Euripides scholiast as saying that Aeschylus (and others) said that Selene is Helios' daughter "because she partakes of the solar light, and changes her form according to the solar positions". ^ Hard, p. 46, Gantz, pp. 34–35; Aeschylus fr. 170 Sommerstein . ^ Smith, s.v. Selene; Scholia on Euripides' The Phoenician Women 179. ^ Virgil, Aeneid 9.404. ^ Fairbanks, p. 162. ^ Hard, p. 46; Gantz, p. 34; Homeric Hymn to Selene (32) 15–16; so also Hyginus, Fabulae Preface 28. Allen, "ΠανδείηΝ", says that Pandia, "elsewhere unknown as a daughter of Selene ... seems to be merely an abstraction of the moon herself". Cook p. 732 says that it seems probable that, instead of being her daughter, "Pandia was originally an epithet of Selene". Either Selene or her daughter may have been connected to the Athenian festival Pandia. ^ Hard, p. 46; ní Mheallaigh, p. 26; Keightley, p. 55; Alcman fr. 57 Campbell (see also Plutarch, Moralia 918 A, 940 A). According to Hard, "this is really no more than an allegorical fancy referring to the heavy dew-fall associated with clear moonlit nights". ^ Cook, p. 456; Smith, s.v. Selene; Pausanias, 2.15.3 has Asopus as the father of Nemea, with no mention of a mother. ^ Pausanias, 5.1.4; Mayerson p. 167. For the assumption that the daughters represent the fifty lunar months of the Olympiad, see for example: Cashford 2003b, p. 137; Davidson, pp. 204–205; Jebb, pp. 296–297, note on VII, 1–3 πεντήκοντα (μῆνες); Seyffert, s.v. Endymion; Stoll, p. 61. There are other accounts of fifty daughters in Greek mythology: the Nereids, the fifty sea nymphs born to Nereus and Doris (Hesiod, Theogony 240–264), the Danaides, the fifty daughters of Danaus, who killed all but one of their fifty husbands (Apollodorus), 2.1.4, and the Thespiades, the fifty daughters of Thespius, each of whom bore a son to Heracles (Apollodorus, 2.4.10, 2.7.8). Astour, p. 78, connects the number of daughters with the approximate number of seven-day weeks in a lunar year. ^ Verhelst, p. 253 with n. 59; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48.581–583 (however compare with Dionysiaca 10.214–216, which suggests that Selene and Helios are the parents of Narcissus); Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.341–346. ^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Keightley, pp. 54–55; Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 10.336–343. Compare with Nonnus, Dionysiaca 12.1–2, which has the Horae as the daughters of Helios, without mentioning a mother. ^ Burkert 1972, p. 346 n. 48; Plato, Republic 2.364e; Philodemus, De Pietate (On Piety) Herculaneum Papyrus 243 fr. 6 (Obbink 2011, p. 353). ^ Smith, s.v. Musaeus (literary 1); Philochorus FHG fr. 200 (Müller) . ^ Hard, p. 46; Keightley; p. 54; Pindar, Olympian 3.19–20; Euripides, The Suppliants, 990–994; Theocritus, 2.163–166; Ovid, Fasti 3.109–110, 4.373–374, Metamorphoses 2.208–209; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 5.410–415; Statius, Thebaid 1.336–341. ^ Keightley, p. 54. ^ Homeric Hymn to Selene (32) 5–14. ^ Cohen, pp. 156–157, 177–179; Savignoni, pp. 267–268; LIMC 11564 (Selene, Luna 47), image 11842X101.jpg; Beazley Archive 203909. For Selene (?) driving another pair of winged horses see Savignoni, Plate X (following p. 264); Zschietzschmann, pp. XII, 23; Beazley Archive, 15412; note however LIMC 31573, which identifies this figure as Nyx (Night). ^ Keightley, p. 54; Pausanias, 5.11.8. ^ Morford, p. 63; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Kerényi, p. 196. For an example of Selene driving the less usual four horses see Morford, p. 353. ^ Ovid, Fasti 4.374. ^ Keightley, p. 54; Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 3.403; Libanius, Progymnasmata Encomium 8; Nonnus, Dionysiaca , 1.222, 2.406, 7.247, 11.186; 12.5; 48.668. For an image of Selene driving bulls, see British Museum 1956,0517.1 = LIMC 13303 (Selene, Luna 61). ^ Grimal, s.v. Selene; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44.192. ^ Pindar, Olympian 3.19–20. For the use of "golden" in reference to the moon, see: Allen, "χρυσέου". ^ ní Mheallaigh, p. 38 ^ a b Hill, D. E. "THE THESSALIAN TRICK." Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie, vol. 116, no. 3/4, 1973, pp. 221–38. JSTOR. Accessed 18 Jul. 2022. ^ Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey (1986). Women in Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-15031-X. ^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Aganice", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 1, Boston, p. 59, archived from the original on 2010-06-16, retrieved 2007-12-28{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Scholia ad Zenobius Epitome 401 ^ Gordon, Richard L. (2006). "Selene". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.). Brill's New Pauly. Translated by Christine F. Salazar. Ilmmünster: Brill Reference Online. doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1107170. Retrieved September 15, 2023. ^ "νυκτιμέδουσα". lsj.gr. Retrieved April 9, 2023. ^ Roman and Roman, p. 434; Hard, pp. 46, 411; Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 89; Gantz, p. 35. The story was especially popular with Hellenistic and Roman poets, for which Fowler 2013, p. 134, describes the theme as "irresistible", e.g. Catullus, 66.5–6; Palatine Anthology, 5.123, 5.165, 6.58; Propertius, Elegies 2.15.15–16; Ovid, Amores 11.13.43–44, Ars Amatoria 3.83, Heroides 15.89–90, 18.59–74; Seneca, Medea 93–101, Phaedra 309–316, 406–422, 785–794; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 8.28–30. Hyginus, Fabulae 271, includes "Endymion, son of Aetolus, whom Luna loved" under the heading "Youths Who Were Most Handsome". ^ Fowler 2013, p. 133; Gantz, p. 35; Sappho fr. 199 Campbell . ^ Gantz, p. 35. ^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 4.54–65. ^ Fowler 2013, pp. 133–134; Frazer's note to Apollodorus, 1.7.5; e.g. Plato, Phaedo, 72c; Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 10.8.7. ^ Gantz, p. 35; Fowler 2013, p. 134; Hard, p. 411; Hesiod fr. 10.58–62 Most . ^ Fowler 2013, pp. 133– 134; Hard, p. 411; Gantz, p. 35; Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes’ Argonautica 4.57–58 . The same scholiast gives another story involving Endymion's love for Hera, this time attributed to the Great Ehoiai, saying that "Endymion was carried up by Zeus to heaven, but that he was seized by desire for Hera and was deceived by the phantom of a cloud, and that because of this desire he was thrown out and went down to Hades", see Hesiod fr. 198 Most ; see also Acusilaus fr. 36 Fowler. ^ Apollodorus, 1.7.5 . ^ Gantz, p. 35; Theocritus, 3.49–50. See also Theocritus, 20.37–39. ^ Hard, p. 411; Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 1.38.92, p. 50. See also Ovid, Amores, 11.13.43–44: "Look, how many hours of slumber has Luna bestowed upon the youth she loves! "; Gantz, p. 35, discussing Selene's role, says that "no source claims that the sleep was her idea, and likely enough (given its role in some quarters as a punishment, and his love for Hera), she was not always a part of the story." Gantz also notes that "Vases and artifacts from the second half of the fifth century on may possibly show Selene leaving an awake Endymion." ^ Seneca, Phaedra, 309–316. ^ Gantz, p. 35; Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 19 (11). ^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 20 (12). ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 10.125–131. ^ Lucian, The Fly 10. ^ Powell, pp. 670–671. ^ Museum of Classical Archaeology Databases 385a. ^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1. ^ Picón and Hemingway, p. 47 ^ a b Honan, p. 20 ^ Now housed in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and can be seen here. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.213–223. ^ Ovid, Fasti 3.409–410. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 11.167–223. ^ Stuttard, p. 114; Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 14 (10). ^ Hard, p. 63; Hesiod, Theogony 326–329 (Most). ^ Cook, pp. 456–457; Hard, p. 256. ^ Cook, p. 456; Gantz, p. 25; Burkert 1972, p. 346 n. 47; West 1983, pp. 47–48. ^ Aelian, On Animals 12.7 [= Epimenides fr. 3B2 Diels = fr. 2 Freeman (Online version at Demonax | Hellenic Library. Gantz, p. 25, remarks that this refers to Selene "probably in her role as the moon rather than the goddess". ^ Burkert 1972, p. 346 with n. 48; Anaxagoras, fr. A77 Curd . See also Plutarch, Moralia 677 A (Nemean Lion called "Menê’s fierce-eyed son"). For other accounts see Cook, p. 457 notes 2 and 3. ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 18.4; Cook, p. 457 n. 3. ^ Hyginus, Fabulae 30; Cook, p. 456. ^ Virgil, Georgics 3.391–393. ^ Hard, p. 46; Gantz, p. 36; Kerényi, pp. 175, 196; Grimal, s.v. Selene; Keightley, p. 55; Servius, Commentary on the Georgics of Vergil 3.391; Macrobius, Saturnalia 5.22.9–10. Hard describes this "tale" as "interesting but poorly attested", and says that the "rusticity of the tale suggests that it may have originated as a local legend in Arcadia." ^ Caldwell, p. 40, on lines 207–210; Diodorus Siculus, 3.57. ^ Diodorus Siculus, 3.57.5. ^ Plutarch, Moralia 157 C. ^ Lucian, Icaromenippus 20–21. ^ Lucian, Icaromenippus 29-33 ^ Claudian, Rape of Persephone 2.44–54. ^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 25.4; Grimal s.v. Lilaeus. Pseudo-Plutarch attributes this story to Clitophon's Indica, perhaps recording an Indian tale using names of Greek gods. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.208–209 ^ Roman and Roman, p. 434; Gury, pp. 706–715. For an example of a coin see British Museum, R.7248; for an example of a gem see the British Museum 1923,0401.199. ^ Cohen, p. 157; Savignoni, p. 270 with nn. 4, 5. ^ Hard, p. 46; Savignoni, p. 271; Walters, p. 79. ^ Hard, p. 46; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Murray 1903, p. 47. Hansen, p. 221 shows two illustrations one captioned "Selene riding a mule", the other "Selene riding a ram". Note however that both LIMC 13265 (Selene, Luna 35) (image 13603X001.jpg) and Beazley Archive 211530 describe the vase (Florence, Museo Archeologico Etrusco 3996) from which Hansen's first illustration is drawn, as depicting Selene riding on a horse. Cf. Pausanias, 5.11.8. ^ Hurwit 2017, pp. 527–532; Shear, pp. 112–114; Palagia 2005, pp. 236–237; Palagia 1998, pp. 22–23; Murray 1892, pp. 271–272. The goddess paired with Helios here is most often identified as Selene (e.g. Shear, Palagia, and Murray, with no mention of any alternative), however Hurwit 2017, which concludes that the goddess is "probably" Selene, also notes that there is a "strong argument" for the goddess instead being Nyx (Night), while Robertson 1981, p. 96 also includes Eos as a possibility. "Selene's" torso, from the Parthenon pediment is in Athens at the Acropolis Museum, inventory number 881, while the head of one of her pediment horses is in London at the British Museum, museum number 1816,0610.98. ^ Hurwit 1999, p. 170; LIMC 7734 (Selene, Luna 38), image 7919X001.jpg. ^ Robertson 1981, p. 96, Pausanias, 5.11.8. ^ Osborne, p. 87. For another example of Helios and Selene framing a scene, in this case the Judgement of Paris, see Robertson 1992, p. 255. ^ Pausanias, 6.24.6. ^ Thomas, p. 17; Mitchell, p. 92; Museum of Classical Archaeology Databases 385a. ^ Savignoni, pp. 270–271; e.g. crescent moon and stars: Florence, Museo Archeologico Etrusco 3996 (LIMC 13265 (Selene, Luna 35), image 13603X001.jpg), lunar disk: Berlin, Antikensammlung F 2293 (LIMC 11564 (Selene, Luna 47), image 11842X101.jpg). ^ British Museum 1923,0401.199; LIMC 13213 (Selene, Luna 21); LIMC 13181 (Selene, Luna 4); LIMC 18206 (Mithras 113); LIMC 13207 (Selene, Luna 15); LIMC 13264 (Selene, Luna 34); LIMC 6780 (Selene, Luna 2); LIMC 13186 (Selene, Luna 7); LIMC 13188 (Selene, Luna 9); LIMC 3076 (Selene, Luna 10); LIMC 13211 (Selene, Luna 19). For the close association between the crescent moon and horns see Cashford 2003b. ^ Parisinou, p. 34. ^ Fowler 2013, p. 134; Sorabella, p. 70; Morford, p. 65. ^ Examples, among many others, include sarcophagi in the Capitoline Museum in Rome (c. 135 AD), two in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (c. 160 AD and c. 220 AD), and one in Palazzo Doria Pamphilj Rome (c. 310 AD), for images see Sorabella, figs. 1–7, 12. ^ de Clarac, p. 340; "Site officiel du musée du Louvre". cartelfr.louvre.fr. Retrieved 2020-04-22.; "Image gallery: drawing / album". British Museum. Retrieved 2020-04-22.. ^ Athanassakis & Wolkow 2013, p. 89 ^ Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 89; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Burkert 1991, p. 176. ^ Plutarch, Agis 9; Pausanias, 3.26.1. ^ Pausanias, 6.24.6. ^ Ridgeway, p. 55. ^ Hard, p. 46; Cashford 2003a, p. 174; Willetts, p. 178; Cook, p. 732; Roscher, p. 100. ^ Cashford 2003a, p. 174; Kerényi, p. 197; Cox, pp. 138, 140. ^ Parker, pp. 477–478. ^ Robertson 1996, p. 75 n. 109; Willetts, pp. 178–179; Cook, 732; Harpers, s.v. Selene; Smith, s.v. Pandia. ^ Meagher, p. 142 n. 137; Scholia on Sophocles Oedipus at Colonus 91 (Xenis, pp. 70–71). ^ Müller, p. 531 ^ British Museum IOC.282; Errington, Elizabeth (2017). Charles Masson and the Buddhist Sites of Afghanistan. London: British Museum Research Publications. pp. 158–159, Fig. 242.14. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3355036. ^ Chrysippus fr. 748. ^ Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae 77. ^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2.68. ^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.150. ^ Hard, p. 46. ^ Hard, p. 46; Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 90; Theocritus, 2.10–11, 69–166. ^ ní Mheallaigh, pp. 33-34 ^ Faraone, p. 139; Collard and Cropp, p. 469; Scholia on Theocritus 2.10. ^ Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris 52 ^ The Classical Review, volume VII, University of Illinois Library, 1893, p. 77, vol. VII ^ Vermaseren, p. 149. ^ Julius Pollux 6.76 ^ a b Allaire Brumfield, Cakes in the Liknon: Votives from the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on Acrocorinth, Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens Vol. 66, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1997), pp. 157; 171, The American School of Classical Studies at Athens. ^ "Selenai." Suda On Line. Trans. Rocco Marseglia on 9 November 2012. ^ Olderr, p. 98. ^ This Epigenes has been tentatively identified with Epigenes, the follower of Socrates, see Blum, p. 180; Edmonds 2013, p. 14. ^ Jones, pp. 50–51, citing Clement of Alexandria, Stromata: Abel, frg. 253. ^ "Planetary Names". planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov. Retrieved Jan 7, 2023. ^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). "(580) Selene". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (580) Selene. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 160. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_581. ISBN 978-3-540-29925-7. ^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). "The discovery of the elements. VI. Tellurium and selenium". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (3): 474. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9..474W. doi:10.1021/ed009p474. ^ Trofast, Jan (2011). "Berzelius' Discovery of Selenium". Chemistry International. 33 (5): 16–19. PDF ^ "Kaguya – Another Chapter for the Lunar Saga". Red Orbit. September 14, 2007. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. 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Shackleton Bailey, Loeb Classical Library No. 498. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-674-01209-7. Online version at Harvard University Press. Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm, Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks, With a Short Account of The Religious System of the Romans, tr. by R.B. Paul, and ed. by T.K. Arnold, London, Francis & John Rivington, 1852. Strabo, Geography, Editors, H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A., London. George Bell & Sons. 1903. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Stuttard, David (2016). Greek Mythology: A Traveler's Guide. London and New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0500518328. Taylor, Thomas, The Hymns of Orpheus, Philosophical Research Society; Limited edition (June 1987). ISBN 978-0893144159. Theocritus in Theocritus, Moschus, Bion, edited and translated by Neil Hopkinson, Loeb Classical Library No. 28, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-674-99644-1. Online version at Harvard University Press. Theocritus, Bion of Smyrna, Moschus, Theocritus, Bion et Moschus. Graece et Latine. Accedunt virorum doctorum animadversiones, scholia, indices; et M. Æmilii Porti Lexicon Doricum, Volume 2, London Sumptibus Ricardi Priestley, 1826. Thomas, Edmund. "From the panteon of the gods to the Pantheon of Rome" in Pantheons: Transformations of a Monumental Idea, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN 9780754608080. Tryphiodorus, The Taking of Ilios in Oppian, Colluthus, and Tryphiodorus, translated by A. W. Mair, Loeb Classical Library No. 219, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1928. ISBN 978-0-674-99241-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. Internet Archive. Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica, translated by J. H. Mozley, Loeb Classical Library No. 286. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928. Online version at Harvard University Press. Vergados, Athanassios, The "Homeric Hymn to Hermes": Introduction, Text and Commentary, Walter de Gruyter, 2012. ISBN 9783110259704. Verhelst, Berenice, Direct Speech in Nonnus’ Dionysiaca: Narrative and rhetorical functions of the characters' "varied" and "many-faceted" words, BRILL, 2016. ISBN 978-90-04-33465-6 (e-book). ISBN 978-90-04-32589-0 (hardback). Vermaseren, M. J (1982). Graecia atque Insulae. Leiden: Brill Publications. ISBN 90-04-05399-9. Virgil, Georgics in Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics Of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Walters, Henry Beauchamp, Samuel Birch, History of Ancient Pottery: Greek, Etruscan, and Roman, Volume 2, John Murray, 1905. West, M. L. (1983), The Orphic Poems, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1983. ISBN 978-0-19-814854-8. West, M. L. (2003), Homeric Hymns. Homeric Apocrypha. Lives of Homer, edited and translated by Martin L. West, Loeb Classical Library No. 496, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-674-99606-9. Online version at Harvard University Press. West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Willetts, R. F., Cretan Cults and Festivals, Greenwood Press, 1980. ISBN 9780313220500. Xenis, Georgios A., Scholia vetera in Sophoclis "Oedipum Coloneum", De Gruyter, 2018. ISBN 978-3-11-044733-0. Online version at De Gruyter. Google Books. Zschietzschmann, W, Hellas and Rome: The Classical World in Pictures, Kessinger Publishing, 2006. ISBN 9781428655447. External links The dictionary definition of selene at Wiktionary Media related to Selene at Wikimedia Commons Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Selēnē" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 601. SELENE in The Theoi Project SELENE in Mythopedia The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of Selene) vteAncient Greek religion and mythologyReligion and religious practiceMain beliefs Ages of Man Golden Age Heroic Age Ancient accounts of Homer Apotheosis Arete Daemon Destiny Eudaimonia Euhemerism Eunoia Eusebeia Golden mean Golden Rule Greek words for love Hemitheos Hero cult Hubris Interpretatio graeca Katabasis Know thyself Metamorphosis Metempsychosis Nympholepsy Paradoxography Patron gods Pederasty Phronesis Polytheism Sophrosyne Soter Theia mania Xenia Texts / odes /epic poemsEpic Cycle Aethiopis Cypria Iliad Iliupersis Little Iliad Nostoi Odyssey Telegony Theban Cycle Oedipodea Thebaid Epigoni Alcmeonis Others Aesop's Fables Aretalogy Argonautica Bibliotheca Catalogue of Women Cyranides Delphic maxims Derveni papyrus Dionysiaca Golden Verses of Pythagoras Greek Magical Papyri Homerica Homeric Hymns Interpretation of Dreams Myth of Er Oneirocritica Papyrus Graecus 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spirits Ascalaphus Ceuthonymus Eurynomos Menoetius MythicalBeingsLists Greek mythological creatures Greek mythological figures Minor figures Trojan War Minor spirits Daemon Agathodaemon Cacodaemon Eudaemon Nymph Satyr Beasts / creatures Centaur Centaurides Ichthyocentaur Cyclops Dragon Drakaina Echidna Giant Gorgon Harpy Hecatonchires Hippocampus Horses of Helios Lamia Phoenix Python Siren Scylla and Charybdis Sphinx Typhon Captured / slain by heroes Calydonian boar Cerberus Cerynian Hind Chimera Cretan Bull Crommyonian Sow Erymanthian boar Khalkotauroi Lernaean Hydra Mares of Diomedes Medusa Minotaur Nemean lion Orthrus Polyphemus Stymphalian birds Talos Teumessian fox Tribes Achaeans Amazons Anthropophagi Bebryces Cicones Curetes Dactyls Gargareans Halizones Korybantes Laestrygonians Lapiths Lotus-eaters Myrmidons Pygmies Spartoi Telchines Places / Realms Aethiopia Ara Colchis Erytheia Hyperborea Ismarus Ithaca Libya Nysa Ogygia Panchaia Phlegra Scheria Scythia Symplegades Tartessos 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culture Modern understanding of Greek mythology vteAncient Greek deitiesPrimordial deities Aether Aion Ananke Chaos Chronos Erebus Eros Gaia Hemera Nyx The Ourea Phanes Pontus Tartarus Uranus TitansTitans (male) Coeus Crius Kronus Hyperion Iapetus Oceanus Titanides (female) Dione Mnemosyne Phoebe Rhea Tethys Theia Themis Children of Hyperion Eos Helios Selene Children of Coeus Asteria Leto Children of Crius Astraeus Pallas Perses Children of Iapetus Atlas Epimetheus Menoetius Prometheus Olympian deitiesTwelve Olympians Aphrodite Apollo Ares Artemis Athena Demeter Dionysus Hephaestus Hera Hermes Hestia Poseidon Zeus Olympian Gods Asclepius Eileithyia Enyo Eris Iris Harmonia Hebe Heracles Paean Pan Muses Daughters of Zeus Calliope Clio Euterpe Erato Melpomene Polyhymnia Terpsichore Thalia Urania Daughters of Apollo Apollonis Borysthenis Cephisso Boeotian Muses Aoide Melete Mneme Muses of the Lyre Hypate Mese Nete Muses at Sicyon Polymatheia Charites (Graces) Aglaea Antheia Euphrosyne Hegemone Pasithea Thalia Horae (Hours) Dike Eirene Eunomia Children of Styx Bia Kratos Nike Zelus Water deitiesSea deities Amphitrite Benthesikyme Brizo Calliste Calypso Ceto Eurybia Glaucus The Ichthyocentaurs Leucothea Melicertes Nereus Nerites The Nesoi Oceanus Old Man of the Sea Phorcys Pontus Poseidon Proteus Rhodos Tethys Thalassa Thaumas Thetis Triton Oceanids Acaste Admete Amalthea Asia Callirhoe Ceto Clymene (consort of Helios) Clymene (wife of Iapetus) Clytie Dione Dodone Doris Electra Eurynome Idyia Melia (consort of Apollo) Melia (consort of Inachus) Metis Perse Philyra Pleione Plouto Styx Telesto Theia Zeuxo Nereids Amatheia Amphithoe Amphitrite Arethusa Cymatolege Cymo Dynamene Galatea Galene Protomedeia Psamathe Sao Spio Thalia Thetis Potamoi Achelous Almo Alpheus Anapus Asopus Asterion Axius Caanthus Cebren Cephissus Clitumnus Enipeus Kladeos Meander Nilus Numicus Phyllis Peneus Rivers of the Underworld Acheron Cocytus Eridanos Lethe Phlegethon Styx Sangarius Scamander Simoeis Strymon Naiads Aegina Achiroe Aganippe The Anigrides Argyra Bistonis Bolbe Caliadne Cassotis Castalia Cleocharia Creusa Daphne Drosera Harpina The Ionides Ismenis Larunda Lilaea Liriope Melite Metope Minthe Moria Nana Nicaea Orseis Pallas Pirene Salmacis Stilbe The Thriae Corycia Cleodora Melaina Tiasa Chthonic deitiesTheoi Chthonioi Angelos Gaia Hades Hecate The Lampads Macaria Melinoë Persephone Zagreus Erinyes (Furies) Alecto Megaera Tisiphone Earthborn Cyclopes Gigantes Hecatonchires Kouretes Meliae Telchines Typhon Apotheothenai Aeacus Minos Orpheus Rhadamanthus Triptolemus Trophonius PersonificationsChildren of Eris Algos Amphillogiai The Androktasiai Atë Dysnomia Horkos Hysminai Lethe Logoi Limos Machai Neikea Phonoi Ponos Pseudea Children of Nyx Apate Eleos Eris Geras Hesperides Hypnos The Keres The Moirai Atropos Clotho Lachesis Momus Moros Nemesis Oizys The Oneiroi Philotes Thanatos Children of Phorcys Echidna The Graeae Deino Enyo Pemphredo The Gorgons Medusa Stheno and Euryale The Sirenes Aglaopheme Leucosia Ligeia Molpe Parthenope Peisinoe Thelxiepeia Children of Thaumas Arke The Harpies Aello Celaeno Ocypete Podarge Iris Children of other gods Aergia Aidos Alala Aletheia Angelia Arete Astraea Caerus The Younger Charites Eucleia Eupheme Euthenia Philophrosyne Corus Deimos The Erotes Anteros Eros Hedylogos Hermaphroditus Hymen Pothos Ersa Eupraxia Hedone Homonoia Iacchus The Litae Peitho Phobos Tyche Others Achlys Adephagia Alala Alke Amechania Anaideia Alastor Apheleia The Arae Dikaiosyne Dyssebeia Chrysus Eiresione Ekecheiria Eulabeia Eusebeia Gelos Heimarmene Homados Horme Ioke Kakia Koalemos Kydoimos Lyssa The Maniae Methe Nomos Palioxis Peitharchia Penia Penthus Pepromene Pheme Phrike Phthonus Poine Polemos Poros Praxidice Proioxis Prophasis Soter Soteria Thrasos Other deitiesSky The Anemoi Boreas Eurus Notus Zephyrus The Astra Planeti Stilbon Hesperus Phosphorus Pyroeis Phaethon Phaenon Astrape and Bronte Aura Chione The Hesperides The Hyades Nephele The Pleiades Alcyone Sterope Celaeno Electra Maia Merope Taygete Sirius Tritopatores Agriculture Aphaea Demeter Despoina Eunostus Opora Philomelus Plutus Health Asclepius Aceso Darrhon Epione Iaso Hygieia Paean Panacea Telesphorus Rustic deities Aetna Agdistis The Alseids Amphictyonis The Anthousai Aristaeus Attis The Auloniads Britomartis The Cabeiri Comus The Dryades Erato The Hamadryades Chrysopeleia The Epimeliades Hecaterus Leuce The Maenades The Meliae The Napaeae The Nymphai Hyperboreioi The Oreads Adrasteia Cyllene Echo Helice Iynx Nomia Oenone Pitys The Pegasides Priapus Rhapso Silenus Telete Others Alexiares and Anicetus Aphroditus Enodia Circe Enyalius Palaestra Pasiphaë Sosipolis Authority control databases International VIAF 2 National Germany Israel United States Other IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Selene (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selene_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Greek mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology"},{"link_name":"religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion"},{"link_name":"/sɪˈliːniː/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Σελήνη","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%B5%CE%BB%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B7"},{"link_name":"[selɛ̌ːnɛː]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek"},{"link_name":"seh-LEH-neh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:lsj-2"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"Titans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titans"},{"link_name":"Hyperion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion_(Titan)"},{"link_name":"Theia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theia"},{"link_name":"sun god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_deity"},{"link_name":"Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios"},{"link_name":"dawn goddess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn_deities"},{"link_name":"Eos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eos"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Pan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_(god)"},{"link_name":"Endymion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Artemis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Hecate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hecate"},{"link_name":"moon and lunar goddesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_deity"},{"link_name":"Luna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"This article is about the Greek goddess. For other uses, see Selene (disambiguation).In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Selene (/sɪˈliːniː/; Greek: Σελήνη pronounced [selɛ̌ːnɛː] seh-LEH-neh, meaning \"Moon\")[2] is the goddess and personification of the Moon. Also known as Mene, she is traditionally the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, and sister of the sun god Helios and the dawn goddess Eos. She drives her moon chariot across the heavens. Several lovers are attributed to her in various myths, including Zeus, Pan, and the mortal Endymion. In post-classical times, Selene was often identified with Artemis, much as her brother, Helios, was identified with Apollo.[3] Selene and Artemis were also associated with Hecate and all three were regarded as moon and lunar goddesses, but only Selene was regarded as the personification of the Moon itself.Her equivalent in Roman religion and mythology is the goddess Luna.[4]","title":"Selene"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Etymology and origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sarcophagus_Selene_Endymion_Met_47.100.4ab_n03.jpg"},{"link_name":"sarcophagus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcophagus"},{"link_name":"velificatio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velificatio"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Doric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_Greek"},{"link_name":"Aeolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeolic_Greek"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:lsj-2"},{"link_name":"Mene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mene_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Phrygian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygia"},{"link_name":"Men","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men_(god)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Proto-Hellenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Greek"},{"link_name":"Proto-Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Stoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism"},{"link_name":"Chrysippus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysippus"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Mycenaean Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek"},{"link_name":"Linear B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_B"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Cynthus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthus"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Names","text":"Detail of a sarcophagus depicting Endymion and Selene, shown with her characteristic attributes of lunate crown, billowing veil (velificatio) and heavenly chariot, from 3rd century AD, Roman Empire period.[5]The name \"Selene\" is derived from the Greek noun selas (σέλας), meaning \"light, brightness, gleam\".[6] In the Doric and Aeolic dialects, her name was also spelled Σελάνα (Selána) and Σελάννα (Selánna) respectively.[2]Selene was also called Mene.[7] The Greek word mene, meant the moon, and the lunar month.[8] The masculine form of mene (men) was also the name of the Phrygian moon-god Men.[9] Mene and Men both derive from Proto-Hellenic *méns (\"month\"), itself from Proto-Indo-European *mḗh₁n̥s (meaning moon, the lunar month), which probably comes from the root *meh₁- (\"to measure\"), and is cognate with the English words \"Moon\" and \"month\".[10] The Greek Stoic philosopher Chrysippus interpreted Selene and Men as, respectively, the female and male aspects of the same god.[11]Although no clear attestation for Selene herself (or any prodecessor of hers) has been discovered, in Mycenaean Greek the word for month 'men' has been found in Linear B spelled as 𐀕𐀜 (me-no, from genitive form μηνός, mēnós).[12]Just as Helios, from his identification with Apollo, is called Phoebus (\"bright\"), Selene, from her identification with Artemis, is also called Phoebe (feminine form).[13] Also from Artemis, Selene was sometimes called \"Cynthia\", meaning \"she of Mount Cynthus\" (the birthplace of Artemis).[14]","title":"Etymology and origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Proto-Indo-European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidyOQtHNJJU9UCpgPA205_205]-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtzU3RIV2BWICpgPA385_385]-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZXrJA_5LKlYCpgPA351_351]-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGamkrelidzeIvanov1995[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidM2aqp2n2mKkCpgPA590_590-591]-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZXrJA_5LKlYCpgPA351_351]-17"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatasovi%C4%872009155-20"},{"link_name":"Helen of Troy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_of_Troy"},{"link_name":"Laconia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laconia"},{"link_name":"digamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digamma"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZXrJA_5LKlYCpgPA231_231]-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalloryAdams1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidtzU3RIV2BWICpgPA164_164]-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWest2007[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidZXrJA_5LKlYCpgPA137_137]-23"}],"sub_title":"Origin","text":"Selene, along with her brother, her sister and the sky-god Zeus, is one of the few Greek deities of a clear Proto-Indo-European origin, although they were sidelined by later non-PIE newcomers to the pantheon, as remaining on the sidelines became their primary function, to be the minor deities the major ones were juxtaposed to, thus helping keep the Greek religion Greek.[15]The original PIE moon deity has been reconstructed as *Meh₁not (from which 'Mene', Selene's byname, is derived),[16] and it appears that it was a male god.[17] The Greek offshoot of this deity however is female, as the ancient Greeks' gender view of the world was reflected in their language. The ancient Greek language had three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), so when a god or a goddess personified an object or a concept, they inherited the gender of the corresponding noun; selene, the Greek noun for 'Moon', is a feminine one (whereas men is a masculine one), so the deity embodying it is also by necessity female.[18] In PIE mythology, the Moon, which is a male figure, was seen as forming a pair–usually wedlock–with the Sun, which is a female figure, and which in Greek mythology is recognized in the male deity and Selene's brother Helios.[19] It seems however that unlike the Dawn (Eos) and the Sun (Helios), the Moon had very little importance in PIE mythology.[17][20]Although attempts have been made to connect Selene to Helen of Troy due to the similarity of their names, in two early dedications to Helen from Laconia her name is spelled with a digamma (Ancient Greek: Ϝελένα, romanized: Weléna), ruling out any possible connection between them.[21] 'Helen' is more likely related to 'Helios' instead, and it seems that the two figures stem from a common Proto-Indo-European ancestor, the Sun Maiden.[22][23]","title":"Etymology and origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statua_di_Selene.jpg"},{"link_name":"Iliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliad"},{"link_name":"Odyssey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odyssey"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"Hyperion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion_(Titan)"},{"link_name":"Theia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theia"},{"link_name":"Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios"},{"link_name":"Eos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eos"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Homeric Hymns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymns"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Orphic Hymn to Selene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphic_Hymns"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Empedocles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empedocles"},{"link_name":"Euripides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides"},{"link_name":"Nonnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonnus"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Pamprepius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamprepius"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Mesomedes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesomedes"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Statue of Selene in white marble, second half of the 3rd century ADSurviving descriptions of Selene's physical appearance and character, apart from those which would apply to the moon itself, are scant. There is no mention of Selene as a goddess in either the Iliad or the Odyssey of Homer,[24] while her only mention in Hesiod's Theogony is as the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and sister of Helios and Eos.[25] She was, however, the subject of one of the thirty-three Homeric Hymns, which gives the following description:And next, sweet voiced Muses, daughters of Zeus, well-skilled in song, tell of the long-winged[26] Moon. From her immortal head a radiance is shown from heaven and embraces earth; and great is the beauty that ariseth from her shining light. The air, unlit before, glows with the light of her golden crown, and her rays beam clear, whensoever bright Selene having bathed her lovely body in the waters of Ocean, and donned her far-gleaming raiment, and yoked her strong-necked, shining team, drives on her long-maned horses at full speed, at eventime in the mid-month: then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men.\n...\n\nHail, white-armed goddess, bright Selene, mild, bright-tressed queen![27]Two other sources also mention her hair. The Homeric Hymn to Helios uses the same epithet εὐπλόκαμος (\"bright-tressed\"), used in the above Hymn to Selene (elsewhere translated as \"rich-\", \"lovely-\", or \"well-tressed\"),[28] while Epimenides uses the epithet ἠυκόμοιο (\"lovely-haired\").[29]In late accounts, Selene (like the moon itself) is often described as having horns.[30] The Orphic Hymn to Selene addresses her as \"O bull-horned Moon\", and further describes her as \"torch-bearing, ... feminine and masculine, ... lover of horses,\" and grantor of \"fulfillment and favor\".[31] Empedocles, Euripides and Nonnus all describe her as γλαυκῶπις (glaukṓpis, \"bright-eyed\", a common epithet of the goddess Athena)[32] while in a fragment from a poem, possibly written by Pamprepius, she is called κυανῶπις (kyanṓpis, \"dark-eyed\").[33] Mesomedes of Crete calls her γλαυκὰ (glaukà, \"silvery grey\").[34]","title":"Descriptions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_of_Selene_from,_%22Flora,_seu_florum...%22,_Ferrari_1646_Wellcome_L0007609.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"Theogony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theogony"},{"link_name":"sun-god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun-god"},{"link_name":"Hyperion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion_(Titan)"},{"link_name":"Theia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theia"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Homeric Hymn to Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymns"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Homeric Hymn to Hermes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymns"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Pallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallas_(Titan)"},{"link_name":"Crius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crius"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Euripides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Aeschylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeschylus"},{"link_name":"Leto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leto"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"scholium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholia"},{"link_name":"Euripides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides"},{"link_name":"The Phoenician Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Phoenician_Women"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"Aeneid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeneid"},{"link_name":"Nisus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisus_and_Euryalus"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Parents","text":"Selene in a flying chariot drawn by two white horses from \"Flora, seu florum...\", Ferrari 1646.The usual account of Selene's origin is given by Hesiod in his Theogony, where the sun-god Hyperion espoused his sister Theia, who gave birth to \"great Helios and clear Selene and Eos who shines upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven\".[35] The Homeric Hymn to Helios follows this tradition: \"Hyperion wedded glorious Euryphaëssa, his own sister, who bare him lovely children, rosy-armed Eos and rich-tressed Selene and tireless Helios\",[36] with Euryphaëssa (\"widely shining\") probably being an epithet of Theia.[37] However, the Homeric Hymn to Hermes has Selene as the daughter of Pallas, the son of an otherwise unknown Megamedes.[38] This Pallas is possibly identified with the Pallas, who, according to Hesiod's Theogony, was the son of the Titan Crius, and thus Selene's cousin.[39] Other accounts give still other parents for Selene: Euripides has Selene as the daughter of Helios (rather than sister),[40] while an Aeschylus fragment possibly has Selene as the daughter of Leto,[41] as does a scholium on Euripides's play The Phoenician Women which adds Zeus as the father.[42] Furthermore, in Virgil's Aeneid, when Nisus calls upon Selene/the Moon, he addresses her as \"daughter of Latona.\"[43]","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Homeric Hymn to Selene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymns"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Pandia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandia"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Alcman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcman"},{"link_name":"Ersa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ersa"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"nymph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nymph"},{"link_name":"Nemea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemea"},{"link_name":"Heracles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heracles"},{"link_name":"Nemean Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemean_Lion"},{"link_name":"Nemean Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemean_Games"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"Endymion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Olympiad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympiad"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Nonnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonnus"},{"link_name":"Narcissus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narcissus_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Metamorphoses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses"},{"link_name":"Cephissus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephissus_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Liriope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liriope_(nymph)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Quintus Smyrnaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Smyrnaeus"},{"link_name":"Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios"},{"link_name":"Horae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horae"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Eirene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eirene_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"Eunomia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunomia"},{"link_name":"Dike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dike_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"Themis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themis"},{"link_name":"Musaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musaeus_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Philochorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philochorus"},{"link_name":"Eumolpus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumolpus"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Offspring","text":"According to the Homeric Hymn to Selene, the goddess bore Zeus a daughter, Pandia (\"All-brightness\"),[44] \"exceeding lovely amongst the deathless gods\".[45] The 7th century BC Greek poet Alcman makes Ersa (\"Dew\") the daughter of Selene and Zeus.[46] Selene and Zeus were also said to be the parents of Nemea, the eponymous nymph of Nemea, where Heracles slew the Nemean Lion, and where the Nemean Games were held.[47]From Pausanias we hear that Selene was supposed to have had fifty daughters, by her lover Endymion, often assumed to represent the fifty lunar months of the Olympiad.[48] Nonnus has Selene and Endymion as the parents of the beautiful Narcissus, although in other accounts, including Ovid's Metamorphoses, Narcissus was the son of Cephissus and Liriope.[49]Quintus Smyrnaeus makes Selene, by her brother Helios, the mother of the Horae, goddesses and personifications of the four seasons; Winter, Spring, Summer, and Autumn.[50] Quintus describes them as the four handmaidens of Hera, but in most other accounts their number is three; Eirene (\"peace\"), Eunomia (\"order\"), and Dike (\"justice\"), and their parents are Zeus and Themis instead.Lastly, Selene was said to be the mother of the legendary Greek poet Musaeus,[51] with, according to Philochorus, the father being the legendary seer Eumolpus.[52]","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diana-selene,_da_originale_ellenistico,_da_porta_s._sebastiano_02.JPG"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Homer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer"},{"link_name":"Hesiod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Homeric Hymn to Selene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeric_Hymns"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"red-figure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-figure"},{"link_name":"Brygos Painter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brygos_Painter"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"Statue of Zeus at Olympia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Pindar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pindar"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"lunar eclipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse"},{"link_name":"Thessaly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaly"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:hill-64"},{"link_name":"Aglaonice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aglaonice"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:hill-64"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"}],"sub_title":"Goddess of the Moon","text":"Statue of Selene, shown wearing the crescent on her forehead and holding a torch in her right hand, while her veil billows over her head.Like her brother Helios, the Sun god, who drives his sun chariot across the sky each day, Selene is also said to drive a chariot across the heavens.[53] There are no mentions of Selene's chariot in either Homer or Hesiod,[54] but the Homeric Hymn to Selene, gives the following description:The air, unlit before, glows with the light of her golden crown, and her rays beam clear, whensoever bright Selene having bathed her lovely body in the waters of Ocean, and donned her far-gleaming raiment, and yoked her strong-necked, shining team, drives on her long-maned horses at full speed, at eventime in the mid-month: then her great orbit is full and then her beams shine brightest as she increases. So she is a sure token and a sign to mortal men.[55]The earliest known depiction of Selene driving a chariot adorns the inside of an early 5th century BC red-figure cup attributed to the Brygos Painter, showing Selene plunging her chariot, drawn by two winged horses, into the sea (Berlin Antikensammlung F 2293).[56] The geographer Pausanias, reports seeing a relief of Selene driving a single horse, as it seemed to him, or as some said, a mule, on the pedestal of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c. 435 BC).[57] While the sun chariot has four horses, Selene's usually has two,[58] described as \"snow-white\" by Ovid.[59] In some later accounts the chariot was drawn by oxen or bulls.[60] Though the moon chariot is often described as being silver,[61] for Pindar it was golden.[62]In antiquity, the lunar eclipse phenomena were thought to be caused by witches, particularly the ones from Thessaly, who brought the Moon/Selene down with spells and invocations of magic.[63] References to this magical trick, variously referred to as καθαιρεῖν (kathaireĩn), are scattered throughout ancient literature, whereas eclipses of both the Sun and the Moon were called kathaireseis (\"casting-downs\") by the Greek populace.[64] A famous example of that is Aglaonice of Thessaly, an ancient Greek astronomer, who was regarded as a sorceress for her (self-proclaimed) ability to make the Moon disappear from the sky (καθαιρεῖν τὴν σελήνην: kathaireĩn tén selénen). This claim has been taken–by Plutarch at first, and subsequently by modern astronomers–to mean that she could predict the time and general area where an eclipse of the Moon would occur.[65][66] Those who brought down the Moon were thought to bring ill fortune upon themselves, as evidenced by the proverb ἐπὶ σαυτῷ τὴν σελήνην καθαιρεῖς (\"you are bringing down the Moon on yourself\") said for those who caused self-inflicted evils; some witches supposedly avoided this fate by sacrificing their children or their eyeballs.[64][67]In popular and common belief, Selene as the Moon came to be associated with physical growth, menstruation and sickness, the latter particularly in the context of demonic possession or even epilepsy.[68] Owing to her role as the moon goddess, she was sometimes called Nyctimedusa (Ancient Greek: Νυκτιμέδουσα, romanized: Nuktimédousa), meaning \"queen of the night\".[69]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wall_painting_-_Selene_and_Endymion_-_Pompeii_(VI_9_6-7)_-_Napoli_MAN_9240.jpg"},{"link_name":"Endymion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Pompeii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sebastiano_Ricci_015.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sebastiano Ricci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastiano_Ricci"},{"link_name":"Chiswick House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiswick_House"},{"link_name":"Endymion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Sappho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sappho"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Argonautica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argonautica"},{"link_name":"Apollonius of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Mount Latmus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Latmus"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Catalogue of Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalogue_of_Women"},{"link_name":"Aethlius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aethlius"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Epimenides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimenides"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Apollodorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus)"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Theocritus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocritus"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Seneca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Lucian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucian"},{"link_name":"love goddess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_love_and_lust_deities"},{"link_name":"Aphrodite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite"},{"link_name":"Adonis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adonis"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Quintus Smyrnaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quintus_Smyrnaeus"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Lucian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucian"},{"link_name":"Muia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myia_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Max Müller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"sub_title":"Endymion","text":"Endymion as hunter (with dog), sitting on rocks in a landscape, holding 2 spears, looking at Selene who descends to him. Antique fresco from Pompeii.Selene and Endymion, by Sebastiano Ricci (1713), Chiswick House, England.Selene is best known for her affair with the beautiful mortal Endymion.[70] The late 7th-century – early 6th-century BC poet Sappho apparently mentioned Selene and Endymion.[71] However, the first account of the story comes from the third-century BC Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes, which tells of Selene's \"mad passion\" and her visiting the \"fair Endymion\" in a cave on Mount Latmus:[72]And the Titanian goddess, the moon, rising from a far land, beheld her [Medea] as she fled distraught, and fiercely exulted over her, and thus spake to her own heart:\n\n\"Not I alone then stray to the Latmian cave, nor do I alone burn with love for fair Endymion; oft times with thoughts of love have I been driven away by thy crafty spells, in order that in the darkness of night thou mightest work thy sorcery at ease, even the deeds dear to thee. And now thou thyself too hast part in a like mad passion; and some god of affliction has given thee Jason to be thy grievous woe. Well, go on, and steel thy heart, wise though thou be, to take up thy burden of pain, fraught with many sighs.\"[73]The eternally sleeping Endymion was proverbial,[74] but exactly how this eternal sleep came about and what role, if any, Selene may have had in it is unclear. According to the Catalogue of Women, Endymion was the son of Aethlius (a son of Zeus), and Zeus granted him the right to choose when he would die.[75] A scholiast on Apollonius says that, according to Epimenides, Endymion fell in love with Hera, and Zeus punished him with eternal sleep.[76] However, Apollodorus says that because of Endymion's \"surpassing beauty, the Moon fell in love with him, and Zeus allowed him to choose what he would, and he chose to sleep for ever, remaining deathless and ageless\".[77] Theocritus portrays Endymion's sleep as enviable because (presumably) of Selene's love for him.[78] Cicero seems to make Selene responsible for Endymion's sleep, so that \"she might kiss him while sleeping\".[79] The Roman playwright Seneca, has Selene abandoned the night sky for Endymion's sake having entrusted her \"shining\" moon chariot to her brother Helios to drive.[80] The Greek satirist Lucian's dialogue between Selene and the love goddess Aphrodite has the two goddesses commiserate about their love affairs with Endymion and Adonis, and suggests that Selene has fallen in love with Endymion while watching him sleep each night.[81] In his dialogue between Aphrodite and Eros, Lucian also has Aphrodite admonish her son Eros for bringing Selene \"down from the sky\".[82] While Quintus Smyrnaeus wrote that, while Endymion slept in his cave beside his cattle:Divine Selene watched him from on high,\nand slid from heaven to earth; for passionate love\n\ndrew down the immortal stainless Queen of Night.\"[83]Lucian also records an otherwise unattested myth where a pretty young girl called Muia becomes Selene's rival for Endymion's affections; the chatty maiden would endlessly talk to him while he slept, causing him to wake up. This irritated Endymion, and enraged Selene, who transforms the girl into a fly (Ancient Greek: μυῖα, romanized: muía). In memory of the beautiful Endymion, the fly still grudges all sleepers their rest and annoys them.[84]Philologist Max Müller's interpretation of solar mythology as it related to Selene and Endymion concluded that the myth was a narrativized version of linguistic terminology. Because the Greek endyein meant \"to dive,\" the name Endymion (\"Diver\") at first simply described the process of the setting sun \"diving\" into the sea. In this case, the story of Selene embracing Endymion, or Moon embraces Diver, refers to the sun setting and the moon rising.[85]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altar_P%C3%A9rgamo_Selene_02.JPG"},{"link_name":"Pergamon Altar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Altar"},{"link_name":"Pergamon museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_museum"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Gaia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia"},{"link_name":"Titans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titans"},{"link_name":"Tartarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartarus"},{"link_name":"Giants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giants_(Greek_mythology)"},{"link_name":"Gigantomachy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantomachy"},{"link_name":"Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Eos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eos"},{"link_name":"Dawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Pergamon Altar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Altar"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:han-89"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:han-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"}],"sub_title":"Gigantomachy","text":"Selene riding horseback, detail of the Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon museum, Berlin, c. 180–159 BC.[86]Gaia, angered about her children the Titans being thrown into Tartarus following their defeat, brought forth the Giants, to attack the gods, in a war that was called the Gigantomachy. When Gaia heard of a prophecy that a mortal would help the gods to defeat the giants, she sought to find a herb that would make them undefeatable. Zeus heard of that, and ordered Selene as well as her siblings Helios (Sun) and Eos (Dawn) not to shine, and harvested all of that plant for himself.[87] Selene's participation in the battle is evidenced by her inclusion in the Gigantomachy frieze of the Pergamon Altar, fighting against Giants next to her siblings Helios and Eos and her mother Theia in the southern frieze.[88][89] Selene gallops sidesaddle in advance, and wears a woolen undergarment and a mantle.[89] Additionally, on a rein guide for a chariot a goddess thought to be Selene with a crescent and veil over her head is depicted, who stands with Helios on a gate tower and tries to repel the attacks of snake-legged Giants.[90]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nonnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonnus"},{"link_name":"Typhon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhon"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"}],"sub_title":"Fight with Typhon","text":"According to the late account of Nonnus, when the gigantic monster Typhon laid siege against the heavens, he attacked Selene as well by hurling bulls at her, though she managed to stay in her course, and rushed at her hissing like a viper. Selene fought back the giant, locking horns with Typhon; afterwards, she carried many scars on her orb, reminiscent of their battle.[91]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ampelus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampelos"},{"link_name":"Dionysus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dionysus"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"sub_title":"Ampelus","text":"Ampelus was a very beautiful satyr youth, loved by the god Dionysus.[92] One day, in Nonnus' account, Ampelus rode on a bull, and proceeded to compare himself to Selene, saying that he was her equal, having horns and riding bulls just like her. The goddess took offense, and sent a gadfly to sting Ampelus' bull. The bull panicked, threw Ampelus and gored him to death.[93]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arte_romana,_statuetta_di_nyx_o_selene,_I_secolo_ac.JPG"},{"link_name":"Roman-era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"velificans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velificans"},{"link_name":"Nyx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyx"},{"link_name":"Getty Villa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Getty_Villa"},{"link_name":"Alcmene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcmene"},{"link_name":"Hermes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermes"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"labours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labours_of_Hercules"},{"link_name":"Nemean Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemean_Lion"},{"link_name":"Orthrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthrus"},{"link_name":"Chimera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimera_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Echidna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echidna_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Hera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Aelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus"},{"link_name":"Epimenides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epimenides"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Anaxagoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Pseudo-Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Plutarch"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"}],"sub_title":"Heracles","text":"Roman-era bronze statuette of Selene velificans or Nyx (Night) (Getty Villa).When Zeus desired to sleep with the mortal queen Alcmene and sire Heracles, he made the night last three days, and ordered Selene via Hermes to dawdle in the sky during that time.[94]Selene also played a small role in the first of Heracles' twelve labours; whereas for Hesiod, the Nemean Lion was born to Orthrus and the Chimera (or perhaps Echidna) and raised by Hera,[95] other accounts have Selene involved in some way in its birth or rearing.[96] Aelian states: \"They say that the Lion of Nemea fell from the moon\", and quotes Epimenides as saying:[97]For I am sprung from fair-tressed Selene the Moon, who in a fearful shudder shook off the savage lion in Nemea, and brought him forth at the bidding of Queen Hera.[98]Anaxagoras also reports that the Nemean lion was said to have fallen from the moon.[99] Pseudo-Plutarch's On Rivers has Hera collaborating with Selene, \"employing magical incantations\" to create the Nemean Lion from a chest filled with foam.[100] Hyginus says that Selene had \"nourished\" the lion in a \"two-mouthed cave\".[101]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Virgil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil"},{"link_name":"Pan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_(god)"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Nicander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicander"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"sub_title":"Pan","text":"According to Virgil, Selene also had a tryst with the god Pan, who seduced her with a \"snowy bribe of wool\".[102] Scholia on Virgil add the story, ascribed to Nicander, that as part of the seduction, Pan wrapped himself in a sheepskin.[103]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palazzo_gerini,_cortile,_busti_11_selene.JPG"},{"link_name":"Palazzo Gerini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palazzo_Gerini"},{"link_name":"Diodorus Siculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antalya_Museum_Selene_statue_9650.jpg"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"fable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fable"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"Menippus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menippus"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"brother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Claudian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudian"},{"link_name":"Eos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eos"},{"link_name":"Tethys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"pseudo-Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Plutarch"},{"link_name":"Lilaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilaeus_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Phaethon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaethon"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"}],"sub_title":"Other accounts","text":"Bust of Selene, in the courtyard of Palazzo Gerini.Diodorus Siculus recorded an unorthodox version of the myth, in which Basileia, who had succeeded her father Uranus to his royal throne, married her brother Hyperion, and had two children, a son Helios and a daughter Selene, \"admired for both their beauty and their chastity\". Because Basileia's other brothers envied these offspring, and feared that Hyperion would try to seize power for himself, they conspired against him. They put Hyperion to the sword, and drowned Helios in the river Eridanus. Selene herself, upon discovering this, took her own life. After these deaths, her brother appeared in a dream to their grieving mother and assured her that he and his sister would now transform into divine natures; and:[104]Roman statue of Selene, marble 2nd century AD, Museum of Antalya.that which had formerly been called the \"holy fire\" in the heavens would be called by men Helius (\"the sun\") and that addressed as \"menê\" would be called Selenê (\"the moon\").[105]Plutarch recorded a fable-like story in which Selene asked her mother to weave her a garment to fit her measure, and her mother replied that she was unable to do so, as she kept changing shape and size, sometimes full, then crescent-shaped and others yet half her size.[106]In Lucian's Icaromenippus, Selene complains to the titular Menippus of all the outrageous claims philosophers are making about her, such as wondering why she is ever waxing or gibbous, whether she is populated or not, and stating that she is getting her stolen light from the Sun, causing strife and ill feelings between her and her brother. She asks Menippus to report her grievances to Zeus, with the request that Zeus wipes all these natural philosophers from the face of the earth.[107] Zeus agrees, urged by Selene's complaints and having long intended to deal with the philosophers himself.[108]Claudian wrote that in her infancy, when her horns had not yet grown, Selene (along with Helios – their sister Eos is not mentioned with them) was nursed by her aunt, the water goddess Tethys.[109]According to pseudo-Plutarch, Lilaeus was an Indian shepherd who only worshipped Selene among the gods and performed her rituals and mysteries at night. The other gods, angered, sent him two lions to tear him apart. Selene then turned Lilaeus into a mountain, Mt. Lilaeon.[110]Ovid mentions how in the myth of Phaethon, Helios' son who drove his father's chariot for a day, when Phaethon lost control of the chariot and burned the earth, Selene in the sky looked down to see in amazement her brother's horses running wild lower than normal.[111]","title":"Mythology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Selene_and_Endymion,_fresco_from_Pompeii,_Casa_dell%27Ara_Massima.jpg"},{"link_name":"Endymion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Pompeii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pompeii"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"red-figure pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-figure_pottery"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Nyx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyx"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Selene_and_Endymion.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert Aublet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Aublet"},{"link_name":"Parthenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"Metopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metope_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Aphrodite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite"},{"link_name":"Statue of Zeus at Olympia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_of_Zeus_at_Olympia"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"Pandora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandora"},{"link_name":"Athena Parthenos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_Parthenos"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"Elea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaea_(Epirus)"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Gigantomachy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigantomachy"},{"link_name":"Pergamon Altar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Altar"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"nimbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halo_(religious_iconography)"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"funerary art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funerary_art"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"}],"text":"Selene and Endymion, antique fresco in PompeiiIn antiquity, artistic representations of Selene/Luna included sculptural reliefs, vase paintings, coins, and gems.[112] In red-figure pottery before the early 5th century BC, she is depicted only as a bust, or in profile against a lunar disk.[113] In later art, like other celestial divinities such as Helios, Eos, and Nyx (Night), Selene rides across the heavens. She is usually portrayed either driving a chariot (see above) or riding sideways on horseback[114] (sometimes riding an ox, a mule or a ram).[115]Selene and Endymion, by Albert Aublet.Selene was often paired with her brother Helios. Selene (probably) and Helios adorned the east pediment of the Parthenon, where the two, each driving a four-horsed chariot, framed a scene depicting the birth of Athena, with Helios and his chariot rising from the ocean on the left, and Selene and her chariot descending into the sea on the right.[116] Selene and Helios also appear on the North Metopes of the Parthenon, with Selene this time entering the sea on horseback.[117] From Pausanias, we learn that Selene and Helios also framed the birth of Aphrodite on the base of the Statue of Zeus at Olympia.[118] There are indications of a similar framing by Selene and Helios of the birth of Pandora on the base of the Athena Parthenos.[119] Pausanias also reports seeing stone images of Helios, and Selene, in the market-place at Elea, with rays projecting from the head of Helios, and horns from the head of Selene.[120] Selene also appears on horseback as part of the Gigantomachy frieze of the Pergamon Altar.[121]Selene is commonly depicted with a crescent moon, often accompanied by stars; sometimes, instead of a crescent, a lunar disc is used.[122] Often a crescent moon rests on her brow, or the cusps of a crescent moon protrude, horn-like, from her head, or from behind her head or shoulders.[123] Selene's head is sometimes surrounded by a nimbus, and from the Hellenistic period onwards, she is sometimes pictured with a torch.[124]In later second and third century AD Roman funerary art, the love of Selene for Endymion and his eternal sleep was a popular subject for artists.[125] As frequently depicted on Roman sarcophagi, Selene, holding a billowing veil forming a crescent over her head, descends from her chariot to join her lover, who slumbers at her feet.[126]","title":"Iconography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altar_Selene_Louvre_Ma508.jpg"},{"link_name":"Dioscuri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux"},{"link_name":"Phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus_(morning_star)"},{"link_name":"Hesperus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesperus"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"Cretan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan"},{"link_name":"Minoan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"Laconia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laconia"},{"link_name":"Pausanias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"daughter of Helios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasipha%C3%AB"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"Elis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elis_(city)"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"Demeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demeter"},{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon"},{"link_name":"Orphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphism_(religion)"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Attic_red-figure_kylix_depicting_Selene_Antikensammlung_Berlin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kylix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylix"},{"link_name":"Brygos Painter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brygos_Painter"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"Pandia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandia_(festival)"},{"link_name":"Zeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"Aphrodite Ourania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite_Urania"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Attica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attica"},{"link_name":"Aphrodite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kanishka_I._Circa_AD_127-151._Monolingual_Greek_issue._Main_mint_in_Baktria_Early_phase._Obverse_BACI%CE%9B%D0%84YC_BACI%CE%9B%D0%84%CF%89N_KANH%C3%9EKOY,_Reverse_CA%CE%9BHNH_to_right,_Selene,_wearing_lunar_horns.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kushan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kushan_Empire"},{"link_name":"Kanishka I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanishka_I"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"childbirth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childbirth"},{"link_name":"full moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_moon"},{"link_name":"Artemis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artemis"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"Hera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hera"},{"link_name":"Juno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Lucina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucina_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Plutarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"Luna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"Nonnus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonnus"},{"link_name":"Eileithyia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eileithyia"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Distelbarth,_Friedrich,_Artemis-Selene-Relief,_Bildfeld_5.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rosenstein Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenstein_Palace"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"Theocritus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocritus"},{"link_name":"Pindar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pindar"},{"link_name":"Euripides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euripides"},{"link_name":"Phaedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedra_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Hippolytus Veiled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippolytus_Veiled"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"Isis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"Gytheum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gytheio"},{"link_name":"Laconia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laconia"},{"link_name":"Sparta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"Epidaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidaurus"},{"link_name":"Argolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argolis"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:cake-152"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:lsj-2"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:cake-152"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"Monday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monday"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"}],"text":"Selene from an altar piece, flanked by either the Dioscuri, or by Phosphorus and Hesperus.[127]Selene's presence in ancient Greek worship is very limited, even in comparison to her brother. Her presence in cult was linked to her connection to more major, important divinities such as Artemis and Hecate, and she is hardly divorced from her identifications when it comes to worship; in later times, she was adopted into pre-existing cults that had not originally included her, along with several other figures.[128]Moon figures are found on Cretan rings and gems (perhaps indicating a Minoan moon cult), but apart from the role played by the moon itself in magic, folklore, and poetry, and despite the later worship of the Phrygian moon-god Men, there was relatively little worship of Selene.[129] An oracular sanctuary existed near Thalamai in Laconia. Described by Pausanias, it contained statues of Pasiphaë and Helios. Here Pasiphaë is used as an epithet of Selene, instead of referring to the daughter of Helios and wife of Minos.[130] Pausanias also described seeing two stone images in the market-place of Elis, one of the sun and the other of the moon, from the heads of which projected the rays of the sun and the horns of the crescent moon.[131] Selene (along with Helios, Nyx and others) received an altar at the sanctuary of Demeter at Pergamon, possibly in connection with the Orphic mysteries.[132]Attic Kylix with Selene and her horse and crescent Moon, circa 4950 BC, by the Brygos Painter.Originally, Pandia may have been an epithet of Selene,[133] but by at least the time of the late Hymn to Selene, Pandia had become a daughter of Zeus and Selene. Pandia (or Pandia Selene) may have personified the full moon,[134] and an Athenian festival, called the Pandia, usually considered to be a festival for Zeus,[135] was perhaps celebrated on the full moon and may have been associated with Selene.[136] At Athens, wineless offerings (nephalia) were made to Selene, along with other celestial gods, Selene's siblings Helios and Eos, and Aphrodite Ourania;[137] in Attica, it seems that Selene was identified with Aphrodite.[138]Kushan coinage of Kanishka I with Selene (Greek legend \"CAΛHNH\") on the reverse, wearing lunar horns, c. AD 127 – 151.[139]Selene was sometimes associated with childbirth, for it was believed that during the full moon women had the easiest labours; this helped in her identification with the goddess Artemis,[140] as well as other goddesses connected to women's labours. The idea that Selene would also give easy labours to women paved way for identification with Hera and the Roman Juno and Lucina, three other childbirth goddesses; Plutarch calls Selene \"Hera in material form.\"[141] Roman philosopher Cicero connected Selene's Roman counterpart Luna's name to childbirth goddess Lucina's, both deriving from \"light\" (thus bringing the unborn child into the light).[142] Nonnus also identified Selene with Eileithyia.[143]Selene with her chariot in the relief of Rosenstein Palace, Germany.Selene played an important role in love magic.[144] In Theocritus' second Idyll, a young girl invokes Selene in a love-spell.[145] The idyll opens with the girl ordering her maid to bring potions and magical utensils, followed by an invocation to Selene and Hecate, and finally the rather lengthy spell itself; once she finishes her spell, the girl recounts to Selene of how she met and was betrayed by her lover, and calls upon the goddess to witness and help her, hence the love tail is woven into the love spell.[146] And, according to a scholium on Theocritus, Pindar wrote that lovesick women would pray to Selene for help, as Euripides apparently had Phaedra, Selene's great-niece, do in his lost play Hippolytus Veiled.[147] Plutarch wrote that Selene was called upon in love affairs because she, the Moon, constantly yearns for the Sun, and compared her in that regard to Isis.[148]Her and her brother's worship is also attested in Gytheum, a town in Laconia near Sparta, via an inscription (C.I.G. 1392).[149] In the city of Epidaurus, in Argolis, Selene had an altar dedicated to her.[150] Records show that a type of cake called βοῦς (boûs, \"ox\") decorated with horns to represent the full moon or an ox was offered to her and other divinities like Hecate, Artemis and Apollo.[151][152] In addition, a type of flat, round moon-shaped cake was called 'selene' (\"moon\") and was offered \"to the goddess.\"[2][152][153] The ancient Greeks also called Monday \"day of the Moon\" (ἡμέρα Σελήνης) after her.[154]","title":"Cult"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Moirai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moirai"},{"link_name":"Orphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orphism_(religion)"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"}],"text":"According to a certain Epigenes,[155] the three Moirai, or Fates, were regarded in the Orphic tradition as representing the three divisions of Selene, \"the thirtieth and the fifteenth and the first\" (i.e. the crescent moon, full moon, and dark moon, as delinted by the divisions of the calendar month).[156]","title":"Orphic literature"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"580 Selene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/580_Selene"},{"link_name":"minor planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_planet"},{"link_name":"asteroid belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid_belt"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"Selenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium"},{"link_name":"Jöns Jacob Berzelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius"},{"link_name":"tellurium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellurium"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"Tellus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellus_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"lunar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"spacecraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacecraft"},{"link_name":"Kaguya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Bamboo_Cutter"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"HMS Selene (P254)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Selene_(P254)"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Ghia Selene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghia_Selene"}],"text":"Selene is the Greek proper name for the Moon,[157] and 580 Selene, a minor planet in the asteroid belt, is also named after this goddess.[158] Scientific study of the Moon, particularly lunar geology, is sometimes referred to as selenology, and its practitioners selenologists, to distinguish from Earth-based study.The chemical element Selenium was named after Selene by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, because of the element's similarity to the element tellurium, named for the Earth (Tellus).[159][160]The second Japanese lunar orbiter spacecraft following was named SELENE (Selenological and Engineering Explorer) after Selene, and was also known as Kaguya in Japan.[161] HMS Selene (P254), a 1944 British submarine and Ghia Selene, a concept car from the Ghia design studio from 1959, also bore her name.","title":"Namesakes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:8560_-_Milano_-_San_Marco_-_Tomba_Alessandro_e_Lancellotto_Pusterla_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto_-_14-Apr-2007.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:-0175_Endymion_empf%C3%A4ngt_Selene_Altes_Museum_anagoria.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albert_Aublet_-_Selene.jpg"},{"link_name":"Albert 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Roscher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Roscher"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statue_of_a_female_deity_(Academy_of_Athens)_on_22_May_2022.jpg"},{"link_name":"Academy of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Athens_(modern)"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brygos_Painter_370_10_Selene_-_gigantomachy_(03).jpg"},{"link_name":"Brygos Painter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brygos_Painter"}],"text":"Selene in art\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene and Endymion relief, Alessandro and Lancellotto Pusterla's gravestone, 16th century.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene and Endymion standing next to each other, sarcophagus fragment, end of 2nd century AD.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene, 1880 painting by Albert Aublet.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene with sleeping Endymion, fresco in the fourth Pompeian style.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene detail from a sarcophagus, imperial period.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene, engraving by François Chauveau.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHead of one of Selene's horses.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStatue of Selene from the Silahtarağa group representing the Gigantomachy, Istanbul Archeology Museum.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOil lamp fragment with the head of Selene, early classical period, Musée de Die.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene and Endymion, in the mural above the stage of the Friedrich von Thiersch Saal in the Wiesbaden Kurhaus.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene leaving her chariot, Roman mosaic, Andalusia.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene and Endymion, fresco on ceiling by Giuseppe Antonio Orelli, circa 1730–1770, Palazzo Riva.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTorso of Selene from the east pediment of the Parthenon, Acropolis Museum.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene and the Horae, by Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelene or Nyx in the Academy of Athens, Greece.\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOne of the oldest recovered depictions of Selene, circa 490 BC, by the Brygos Painter.","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Genealogy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"The History and Practice of Ancient 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Bound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prometheus_Bound"},{"link_name":"444–445 n. 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-prometheus_bound/2009/pb_LCL145.445.xml"},{"link_name":"446–447 n. 24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-prometheus_bound/2009/pb_LCL145.467.xml"},{"link_name":"538–539 n. 113","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.loebclassics.com/view/aeschylus-prometheus_bound/2009/pb_LCL145.539.xml"},{"link_name":"Themis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themis"}],"text":"^ Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 2008-02-04.\n\n^ a b c A Greek–English Lexicon s.v. σελήνη.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Morford, pp. 64, 219–220; Smith, s.v. Selene.\n\n^ Smith, s.v. Selene; Kerényi, pp. 196–197; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Hard, p. 46; Morford, pp. 64, 219–221.\n\n^ Sorrenti, p. 370.\n\n^ Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 90, on lines 1–2; Kerényi, pp. 196–197; Keightley, p. 56.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Smith, s.v. Selene.\n\n^ Athanassakis and Wolkow, pp. 90, on lines 1–2, 91, on line 5; Kerényi, p. 197. Athanassakis and Wolkow speculate that Selene's name 'might have developed as a euphemism for the moon proper (Greek \"mēnē\")'.\n\n^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Kerényi, p. 197.\n\n^ Beekes, p. 945.\n\n^ Obbink 2002, p. 200.\n\n^ \"The Linear B word me-no\". www.palaeolexicon.com. Retrieved April 8, 2023.\n\n^ Morford, p. 64; Smith, s.v. Selene. Phoebe was also the name of Selene's aunt, the Titan mother of Leto and Asteria, and grandmother of Apollo, Artemis, and Hecate.\n\n^ Pannen, p. 96. For example see Ovid, Heroides 18.59–74. The English Romantic poet John Keats calls Selene Cynthia in his poem Endymion.\n\n^ Davidson 2010, p. 205.\n\n^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 385.\n\n^ a b West 2007, p. 351.\n\n^ Hansen 2004, p. 27\n\n^ Gamkrelidze & Ivanov 1995, p. 590-591.\n\n^ Matasović 2009, p. 155.\n\n^ West 2007, p. 231.\n\n^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 164.\n\n^ West 2007, p. 137.\n\n^ Stoll, p. 61.\n\n^ Hesiod, Theogony 371–374.\n\n^ A winged Selene seems to be unique to this Hymn, see Allen, [1] \"τανυσίπτερον\".\n\n^ Hymn to Selene (32) 1–17, translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White.\n\n^ Homeric Hymn to Helios (31) 6 (Evelyn-White: \"rich-tressed\"; West 2003: \"lovely-tressed\"), Homeric Hymn to Selene, (32) 18 (West 2003: \"lovely-tressed\"; Keightley, pp. 55–56: \"well-tressed\"). Keightley, describes εὐπλόκαμος, along with λευκώλενος also used in the Hymn to Selene, \"white-armed\", as being two of the \"usual epithets of the goddesses\".\n\n^ Aelian, On Animals, 12.7 [= Epimenides fr. 3B2 Diels = fr. 2 Freeman (Online version at Demonax | Hellenic Library; A Greek–English Lexicon s.v. εὔκομος.\n\n^ For a horned Selene see for example: Seneca, Medea 98, Phaedra 419; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 8.29; Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 1.147–149; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.221, 5.163, 11.186, 48.583. For a horned moon see, for example: Ovid, Metamorphoses 7.179–180; Aratus, Phaenomena 733; Virgil, Georgics 1.436; Statius, Thebaid 12.1–3; Tryphiodorus, The Taking of Ilios 514–519.\n\n^ Orphic Hymn to Selene (Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 11).\n\n^ Keightley, p. 56; Plutarch, Moralia 929 C–D (Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon 16) [= Empedocles fr. D132 Laks-Most = fr. B42 Diels-Kranz], 934 D (Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon 21); Euripides fr. 1009 [= Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica 1.1280–1281]; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5.70.\n\n^ Select Papyri 3.140 Page, pp. 566, 567.\n\n^ Mesomedes, Hymn to the Sun 15 (Psaroudakes, p. 122).\n\n^ Hard, p. 43; Hesiod, Theogony 371–374. See also Apollodorus 1.2.2, Hyginus, Fabulae Preface 12.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Homeric Hymn to Helios (31) 4–7. Assuming that their order of mention is meant to be their order of birth, Hesiod and Hyginus (Fabulae Preface 12) make Helios the oldest of the siblings, with Eos the youngest, while the Hymn swaps the order of Eos and Helios, and Apollodorus (1.2.2) has Selene as the youngest, with Eos as the oldest.\n\n^ Morford, p. 61; West 2003, p. 215 n. 61.\n\n^ Vergados, p. 313; Hard, p. 46; Gantz, p. 34; Homeric Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100.\n\n^ Vergados, p. 313; Hard, p. 46; Hesiod, Theogony 375–377. As Vergados points out, there is no indication of this genealogy elsewhere in Greek texts, however for Ovid, Aurora (Dawn), the Roman counterpart of Selene's sister Eos, was the daughter of Pallas, see Fasti 4.373–374, Metamorphoses 9.421, 15.191, 15.700.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Keightley, p. 54 with n. 9; Euripides, The Phoenician Women 175–176 (with scholia); so also Nonnus, Dionysiaca 5.162–166, 44.191; Scholia on Aratus 445. Keightley quotes the Euripides scholiast as saying that Aeschylus (and others) said that Selene is Helios' daughter \"because she partakes of the solar light, and changes her form according to the solar positions\".\n\n^ Hard, p. 46, Gantz, pp. 34–35; Aeschylus fr. 170 Sommerstein [= fr. 170 Radt, Nauck].\n\n^ Smith, s.v. Selene; Scholia on Euripides' The Phoenician Women 179.\n\n^ Virgil, Aeneid 9.404.\n\n^ Fairbanks, p. 162.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Gantz, p. 34; Homeric Hymn to Selene (32) 15–16; so also Hyginus, Fabulae Preface 28. Allen, [15] \"ΠανδείηΝ\", says that Pandia, \"elsewhere unknown as a daughter of Selene ... seems to be merely an abstraction of the moon herself\". Cook p. 732 says that it seems probable that, instead of being her daughter, \"Pandia was originally an epithet of Selene\". Either Selene or her daughter may have been connected to the Athenian festival Pandia.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; ní Mheallaigh, p. 26; Keightley, p. 55; Alcman fr. 57 Campbell [= Plutarch, Moralia, 659 B = fr. 48 Bergk = fr. 43 Diehl] (see also Plutarch, Moralia 918 A, 940 A). According to Hard, \"this is really no more than an allegorical fancy referring to the heavy dew-fall associated with clear moonlit nights\".\n\n^ Cook, p. 456; Smith, s.v. Selene; Pausanias, 2.15.3 has Asopus as the father of Nemea, with no mention of a mother.\n\n^ Pausanias, 5.1.4; Mayerson p. 167. For the assumption that the daughters represent the fifty lunar months of the Olympiad, see for example: Cashford 2003b, p. 137; Davidson, pp. 204–205; Jebb, pp. 296–297, note on VII, 1–3 πεντήκοντα (μῆνες); Seyffert, s.v. Endymion; Stoll, p. 61. There are other accounts of fifty daughters in Greek mythology: the Nereids, the fifty sea nymphs born to Nereus and Doris (Hesiod, Theogony 240–264), the Danaides, the fifty daughters of Danaus, who killed all but one of their fifty husbands (Apollodorus), 2.1.4, and the Thespiades, the fifty daughters of Thespius, each of whom bore a son to Heracles (Apollodorus, 2.4.10, 2.7.8). Astour, p. 78, connects the number of daughters with the approximate number of seven-day weeks in a lunar year.\n\n^ Verhelst, p. 253 with n. 59; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 48.581–583 (however compare with Dionysiaca 10.214–216, which suggests that Selene and Helios are the parents of Narcissus); Ovid, Metamorphoses 3.341–346.\n\n^ Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Keightley, pp. 54–55; Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 10.336–343. Compare with Nonnus, Dionysiaca 12.1–2, which has the Horae as the daughters of Helios, without mentioning a mother.\n\n^ Burkert 1972, p. 346 n. 48; Plato, Republic 2.364e; Philodemus, De Pietate (On Piety) Herculaneum Papyrus 243 fr. 6 (Obbink 2011, p. 353).\n\n^ Smith, s.v. Musaeus (literary 1); Philochorus FHG fr. 200 (Müller) [= Scholia on Aristophanes's Frogs 1033].\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Keightley; p. 54; Pindar, Olympian 3.19–20; Euripides, The Suppliants, 990–994; Theocritus, 2.163–166; Ovid, Fasti 3.109–110, 4.373–374, Metamorphoses 2.208–209; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 5.410–415; Statius, Thebaid 1.336–341.\n\n^ Keightley, p. 54.\n\n^ Homeric Hymn to Selene (32) 5–14.\n\n^ Cohen, pp. 156–157, 177–179; Savignoni, pp. 267–268; LIMC 11564 (Selene, Luna 47), image 11842X101.jpg; Beazley Archive 203909. For Selene (?) driving another pair of winged horses see Savignoni, Plate X (following p. 264); Zschietzschmann, pp. XII, 23; Beazley Archive, 15412; note however LIMC 31573, which identifies this figure as Nyx (Night).\n\n^ Keightley, p. 54; Pausanias, 5.11.8.\n\n^ Morford, p. 63; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Kerényi, p. 196. For an example of Selene driving the less usual four horses see Morford, p. 353.\n\n^ Ovid, Fasti 4.374.\n\n^ Keightley, p. 54; Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 3.403; Libanius, Progymnasmata Encomium 8; Nonnus, Dionysiaca , 1.222, 2.406, 7.247, 11.186; 12.5; 48.668. For an image of Selene driving bulls, see British Museum 1956,0517.1\n = LIMC 13303 (Selene, Luna 61).\n\n^ Grimal, s.v. Selene; Nonnus, Dionysiaca 44.192.\n\n^ Pindar, Olympian 3.19–20. For the use of \"golden\" in reference to the moon, see: Allen, [6] \"χρυσέου\".\n\n^ ní Mheallaigh, p. 38\n\n^ a b Hill, D. E. \"THE THESSALIAN TRICK.\" Rheinisches Museum Für Philologie, vol. 116, no. 3/4, 1973, pp. 221–38. JSTOR. Accessed 18 Jul. 2022.\n\n^ Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey (1986). Women in Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-15031-X.\n\n^ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), \"Aganice\", in Smith, William (ed.), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, vol. 1, Boston, p. 59, archived from the original on 2010-06-16, retrieved 2007-12-28{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\n\n^ Scholia ad Zenobius Epitome 401\n\n^ Gordon, Richard L. (2006). \"Selene\". In Cancik, Hubert; Schneider, Helmuth (eds.). Brill's New Pauly. Translated by Christine F. Salazar. Ilmmünster: Brill Reference Online. doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1107170. Retrieved September 15, 2023.\n\n^ \"νυκτιμέδουσα\". lsj.gr. Retrieved April 9, 2023.\n\n^ Roman and Roman, p. 434; Hard, pp. 46, 411; Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 89; Gantz, p. 35. The story was especially popular with Hellenistic and Roman poets, for which Fowler 2013, p. 134, describes the theme as \"irresistible\", e.g. Catullus, 66.5–6; Palatine Anthology, 5.123, 5.165, 6.58; Propertius, Elegies 2.15.15–16; Ovid, Amores 11.13.43–44, Ars Amatoria 3.83, Heroides 15.89–90, 18.59–74; Seneca, Medea 93–101, Phaedra 309–316, 406–422, 785–794; Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 8.28–30. Hyginus, Fabulae 271, includes \"Endymion, son of Aetolus, whom Luna loved\" under the heading \"Youths Who Were Most Handsome\".\n\n^ Fowler 2013, p. 133; Gantz, p. 35; Sappho fr. 199 Campbell [= Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica 4.57].\n\n^ Gantz, p. 35.\n\n^ Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica 4.54–65.\n\n^ Fowler 2013, pp. 133–134; Frazer's note to Apollodorus, 1.7.5; e.g. Plato, Phaedo, 72c; Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 10.8.7.\n\n^ Gantz, p. 35; Fowler 2013, p. 134; Hard, p. 411; Hesiod fr. 10.58–62 Most [= fr. 10a.58–62 Merkelbach-West].\n\n^ Fowler 2013, pp. 133– 134; Hard, p. 411; Gantz, p. 35; Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes’ Argonautica 4.57–58 [= Epimenides, fr. 14 = Epimenides fr. 12 Fowler = FGrHist 457 F10 = 3B14 Diels]. The same scholiast gives another story involving Endymion's love for Hera, this time attributed to the Great Ehoiai, saying that \"Endymion was carried up by Zeus to heaven, but that he was seized by desire for Hera and was deceived by the phantom of a cloud, and that because of this desire he was thrown out and went down to Hades\", see Hesiod fr. 198 Most [= fr. 260 Merkelbach-West = Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes’ Argonautica 4.58]; see also Acusilaus fr. 36 Fowler.\n\n^ Apollodorus, 1.7.5 [= Zenobius 3.76].\n\n^ Gantz, p. 35; Theocritus, 3.49–50. See also Theocritus, 20.37–39.\n\n^ Hard, p. 411; Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 1.38.92, p. 50. See also Ovid, Amores, 11.13.43–44: \"Look, how many hours of slumber has Luna bestowed upon the youth she loves! [Endymion]\"; Gantz, p. 35, discussing Selene's role, says that \"no source claims that the sleep was her idea, and likely enough (given its role in some quarters as a punishment, and his love for Hera), she was not always a part of the story.\" Gantz also notes that \"Vases and artifacts from the second half of the fifth century on may possibly show Selene leaving an awake Endymion.\"\n\n^ Seneca, Phaedra, 309–316.\n\n^ Gantz, p. 35; Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 19 (11).\n\n^ Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 20 (12).\n\n^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, The Fall of Troy 10.125–131.\n\n^ Lucian, The Fly 10.\n\n^ Powell, pp. 670–671.\n\n^ Museum of Classical Archaeology Databases 385a.\n\n^ Apollodorus, 1.6.1.\n\n^ Picón and Hemingway, p. 47\n\n^ a b Honan, p. 20\n\n^ Now housed in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston and can be seen here.\n\n^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 1.213–223.\n\n^ Ovid, Fasti 3.409–410.\n\n^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 11.167–223.\n\n^ Stuttard, p. 114; Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 14 (10).\n\n^ Hard, p. 63; Hesiod, Theogony 326–329 (Most).\n\n^ Cook, pp. 456–457; Hard, p. 256.\n\n^ Cook, p. 456; Gantz, p. 25; Burkert 1972, p. 346 n. 47; West 1983, pp. 47–48.\n\n^ Aelian, On Animals 12.7 [= Epimenides fr. 3B2 Diels = fr. 2 Freeman (Online version at Demonax | Hellenic Library. Gantz, p. 25, remarks that this refers to Selene \"probably in her role as the moon rather than the goddess\".\n\n^ Burkert 1972, p. 346 with n. 48; Anaxagoras, fr. A77 Curd [= Scholia on Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica 1.498]. See also Plutarch, Moralia 677 A [= Euphorion fr. 107 Lightfoot = fr. 84 Powell = fr. 47 Meineke] (Nemean Lion called \"Menê’s fierce-eyed son\"). For other accounts see Cook, p. 457 notes 2 and 3.\n\n^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 18.4; Cook, p. 457 n. 3.\n\n^ Hyginus, Fabulae 30; Cook, p. 456.\n\n^ Virgil, Georgics 3.391–393.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Gantz, p. 36; Kerényi, pp. 175, 196; Grimal, s.v. Selene; Keightley, p. 55; Servius, Commentary on the Georgics of Vergil 3.391; Macrobius, Saturnalia 5.22.9–10. Hard describes this \"tale\" as \"interesting but poorly attested\", and says that the \"rusticity of the tale suggests that it may have originated as a local legend in Arcadia.\"\n\n^ Caldwell, p. 40, on lines 207–210; Diodorus Siculus, 3.57.\n\n^ Diodorus Siculus, 3.57.5.\n\n^ Plutarch, Moralia 157 C.\n\n^ Lucian, Icaromenippus 20–21.\n\n^ Lucian, Icaromenippus 29-33\n\n^ Claudian, Rape of Persephone 2.44–54.\n\n^ Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers 25.4; Grimal s.v. Lilaeus. Pseudo-Plutarch attributes this story to Clitophon's Indica, perhaps recording an Indian tale using names of Greek gods.\n\n^ Ovid, Metamorphoses 2.208–209\n\n^ Roman and Roman, p. 434; Gury, pp. 706–715. For an example of a coin see British Museum, R.7248; for an example of a gem see the British Museum 1923,0401.199.\n\n^ Cohen, p. 157; Savignoni, p. 270 with nn. 4, 5.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Savignoni, p. 271; Walters, p. 79.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Murray 1903, p. 47. Hansen, p. 221 shows two illustrations one captioned \"Selene riding a mule\", the other \"Selene riding a ram\". Note however that both LIMC 13265 (Selene, Luna 35) (image 13603X001.jpg) and Beazley Archive 211530 describe the vase (Florence, Museo Archeologico Etrusco 3996) from which Hansen's first illustration is drawn, as depicting Selene riding on a horse. Cf. Pausanias, 5.11.8.\n\n^ Hurwit 2017, pp. 527–532; Shear, pp. 112–114; Palagia 2005, pp. 236–237; Palagia 1998, pp. 22–23; Murray 1892, pp. 271–272. The goddess paired with Helios here is most often identified as Selene (e.g. Shear, Palagia, and Murray, with no mention of any alternative), however Hurwit 2017, which concludes that the goddess is \"probably\" Selene, also notes that there is a \"strong argument\" for the goddess instead being Nyx (Night), while Robertson 1981, p. 96 also includes Eos as a possibility. \"Selene's\" torso, from the Parthenon pediment is in Athens at the Acropolis Museum, inventory number 881, while the head of one of her pediment horses is in London at the British Museum, museum number 1816,0610.98.\n\n^ Hurwit 1999, p. 170; LIMC 7734 (Selene, Luna 38), image 7919X001.jpg.\n\n^ Robertson 1981, p. 96, Pausanias, 5.11.8.\n\n^ Osborne, p. 87. For another example of Helios and Selene framing a scene, in this case the Judgement of Paris, see Robertson 1992, p. 255.\n\n^ Pausanias, 6.24.6.\n\n^ Thomas, p. 17; Mitchell, p. 92; Museum of Classical Archaeology Databases 385a.\n\n^ Savignoni, pp. 270–271; e.g. crescent moon and stars: Florence, Museo Archeologico Etrusco 3996 (LIMC 13265 (Selene, Luna 35), image 13603X001.jpg), lunar disk: Berlin, Antikensammlung F 2293 (LIMC 11564 (Selene, Luna 47), image 11842X101.jpg).\n\n^ British Museum 1923,0401.199; LIMC 13213 (Selene, Luna 21); LIMC 13181 (Selene, Luna 4); LIMC 18206 (Mithras 113); LIMC 13207 (Selene, Luna 15); LIMC 13264 (Selene, Luna 34); LIMC 6780 (Selene, Luna 2); LIMC 13186 (Selene, Luna 7); LIMC 13188 (Selene, Luna 9); LIMC 3076 (Selene, Luna 10); LIMC 13211 (Selene, Luna 19). For the close association between the crescent moon and horns see Cashford 2003b.\n\n^ Parisinou, p. 34.\n\n^ Fowler 2013, p. 134; Sorabella, p. 70; Morford, p. 65.\n\n^ Examples, among many others, include sarcophagi in the Capitoline Museum in Rome (c. 135 AD), two in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York (c. 160 AD and c. 220 AD), and one in Palazzo Doria Pamphilj Rome (c. 310 AD), for images see Sorabella, figs. 1–7, 12.\n\n^ de Clarac, p. 340; \"Site officiel du musée du Louvre\". cartelfr.louvre.fr. Retrieved 2020-04-22.; \"Image gallery: drawing / album\". British Museum. Retrieved 2020-04-22..\n\n^ Athanassakis & Wolkow 2013, p. 89\n\n^ Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 89; Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. Selene; Burkert 1991, p. 176.\n\n^ Plutarch, Agis 9; Pausanias, 3.26.1.\n\n^ Pausanias, 6.24.6.\n\n^ Ridgeway, p. 55.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Cashford 2003a, p. 174; Willetts, p. 178; Cook, p. 732; Roscher, p. 100.\n\n^ Cashford 2003a, p. 174; Kerényi, p. 197; Cox, pp. 138, 140.\n\n^ Parker, pp. 477–478.\n\n^ Robertson 1996, p. 75 n. 109; Willetts, pp. 178–179; Cook, 732; Harpers, s.v. Selene; Smith, s.v. Pandia.\n\n^ Meagher, p. 142 n. 137; Scholia on Sophocles Oedipus at Colonus 91 (Xenis, pp. 70–71).\n\n^ Müller, p. 531\n\n^ British Museum IOC.282; Errington, Elizabeth (2017). Charles Masson and the Buddhist Sites of Afghanistan. London: British Museum Research Publications. pp. 158–159, Fig. 242.14. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3355036.\n\n^ Chrysippus fr. 748.\n\n^ Plutarch, Quaestiones Romanae 77.\n\n^ Cicero, De Natura Deorum 2.68.\n\n^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca 38.150.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46.\n\n^ Hard, p. 46; Athanassakis and Wolkow, p. 90; Theocritus, 2.10–11, 69–166.\n\n^ ní Mheallaigh, pp. 33-34\n\n^ Faraone, p. 139; Collard and Cropp, p. 469; Scholia on Theocritus 2.10.\n\n^ Plutarch, On Isis and Osiris 52\n\n^ The Classical Review, volume VII, University of Illinois Library, 1893, p. 77, vol. VII\n\n^ Vermaseren, p. 149.\n\n^ Julius Pollux 6.76\n\n^ a b Allaire Brumfield, Cakes in the Liknon: Votives from the Sanctuary of Demeter and Kore on Acrocorinth, Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens Vol. 66, No. 1 (Jan. - Mar., 1997), pp. 157; 171, The American School of Classical Studies at Athens.\n\n^ \"Selenai.\" Suda On Line. Trans. Rocco Marseglia on 9 November 2012.\n\n^ Olderr, p. 98.\n\n^ This Epigenes has been tentatively identified with Epigenes, the follower of Socrates, see Blum, p. 180; Edmonds 2013, p. 14.\n\n^ Jones, pp. 50–51, citing Clement of Alexandria, Stromata: Abel, frg. 253.\n\n^ \"Planetary Names\". planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov. Retrieved Jan 7, 2023.\n\n^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). \"(580) Selene\". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – (580) Selene. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. p. 160. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_581. ISBN 978-3-540-29925-7.\n\n^ Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). \"The discovery of the elements. VI. Tellurium and selenium\". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (3): 474. Bibcode:1932JChEd...9..474W. doi:10.1021/ed009p474.\n\n^ Trofast, Jan (2011). \"Berzelius' Discovery of Selenium\". Chemistry International. 33 (5): 16–19. PDF\n\n^ \"Kaguya – Another Chapter for the Lunar Saga\". Red Orbit. September 14, 2007. Archived from the original on May 22, 2011. Retrieved September 14, 2007.\n\n^ Hesiod, Theogony 132–138, 337–411, 453–520, 901–906, 915–920; Caldwell, pp. 8–11, tables 11–14.\n\n^ Although usually the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, as in Hesiod, Theogony 371–374, in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes (4), 99–100, Selene is instead made the daughter of Pallas the son of Megamedes.\n\n^ According to Hesiod, Theogony 507–511, Clymene, one of the Oceanids, the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, at Hesiod, Theogony 351, was the mother by Iapetus of Atlas, Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, while according to Apollodorus, 1.2.3, another Oceanid, Asia was their mother by Iapetus.\n\n^ According to Plato, Critias, 113d–114a, Atlas was the son of Poseidon and the mortal Cleito.\n\n^ In Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 18, 211, 873 (Sommerstein, pp. 444–445 n. 2, 446–447 n. 24, 538–539 n. 113) Prometheus is made to be the son of Themis.","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"Detail of a sarcophagus depicting Endymion and Selene, shown with her characteristic attributes of lunate crown, billowing veil (velificatio) and heavenly chariot, from 3rd century AD, Roman Empire period.[5]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Sarcophagus_Selene_Endymion_Met_47.100.4ab_n03.jpg/260px-Sarcophagus_Selene_Endymion_Met_47.100.4ab_n03.jpg"},{"image_text":"Statue of Selene in white marble, second half of the 3rd century AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Statua_di_Selene.jpg/220px-Statua_di_Selene.jpg"},{"image_text":"Selene in a flying chariot drawn by two white horses from \"Flora, seu florum...\", Ferrari 1646.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Figure_of_Selene_from%2C_%22Flora%2C_seu_florum...%22%2C_Ferrari_1646_Wellcome_L0007609.jpg/290px-Figure_of_Selene_from%2C_%22Flora%2C_seu_florum...%22%2C_Ferrari_1646_Wellcome_L0007609.jpg"},{"image_text":"Statue of Selene, shown wearing the crescent on her forehead and holding a torch in her right hand, while her veil billows over her head.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Diana-selene%2C_da_originale_ellenistico%2C_da_porta_s._sebastiano_02.JPG/220px-Diana-selene%2C_da_originale_ellenistico%2C_da_porta_s._sebastiano_02.JPG"},{"image_text":"Endymion as hunter (with dog), sitting on rocks in a landscape, holding 2 spears, looking at Selene who descends to him. Antique fresco from Pompeii.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Wall_painting_-_Selene_and_Endymion_-_Pompeii_%28VI_9_6-7%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9240.jpg/220px-Wall_painting_-_Selene_and_Endymion_-_Pompeii_%28VI_9_6-7%29_-_Napoli_MAN_9240.jpg"},{"image_text":"Selene and Endymion, by Sebastiano Ricci (1713), Chiswick House, England.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Sebastiano_Ricci_015.jpg/200px-Sebastiano_Ricci_015.jpg"},{"image_text":"Selene riding horseback, detail of the Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon museum, Berlin, c. 180–159 BC.[86]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Altar_P%C3%A9rgamo_Selene_02.JPG/220px-Altar_P%C3%A9rgamo_Selene_02.JPG"},{"image_text":"Roman-era bronze statuette of Selene velificans or Nyx (Night) (Getty Villa).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Arte_romana%2C_statuetta_di_nyx_o_selene%2C_I_secolo_ac.JPG/220px-Arte_romana%2C_statuetta_di_nyx_o_selene%2C_I_secolo_ac.JPG"},{"image_text":"Bust of Selene, in the courtyard of Palazzo Gerini.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Palazzo_gerini%2C_cortile%2C_busti_11_selene.JPG/230px-Palazzo_gerini%2C_cortile%2C_busti_11_selene.JPG"},{"image_text":"Roman statue of Selene, marble 2nd century AD, Museum of Antalya.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Antalya_Museum_Selene_statue_9650.jpg/220px-Antalya_Museum_Selene_statue_9650.jpg"},{"image_text":"Selene and Endymion, antique fresco in Pompeii","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Selene_and_Endymion%2C_fresco_from_Pompeii%2C_Casa_dell%27Ara_Massima.jpg/220px-Selene_and_Endymion%2C_fresco_from_Pompeii%2C_Casa_dell%27Ara_Massima.jpg"},{"image_text":"Selene and Endymion, by Albert Aublet.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Selene_and_Endymion.jpg/220px-Selene_and_Endymion.jpg"},{"image_text":"Selene from an altar piece, flanked by either the Dioscuri, or by Phosphorus and Hesperus.[127]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Altar_Selene_Louvre_Ma508.jpg/220px-Altar_Selene_Louvre_Ma508.jpg"},{"image_text":"Attic Kylix with Selene and her horse and crescent Moon, circa 4950 BC, by the Brygos Painter.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Attic_red-figure_kylix_depicting_Selene_Antikensammlung_Berlin.jpg/260px-Attic_red-figure_kylix_depicting_Selene_Antikensammlung_Berlin.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kushan coinage of Kanishka I with Selene (Greek legend \"CAΛHNH\") on the reverse, wearing lunar horns, c. AD 127 – 151.[139]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Kanishka_I._Circa_AD_127-151._Monolingual_Greek_issue._Main_mint_in_Baktria_Early_phase._Obverse_BACI%CE%9B%D0%84YC_BACI%CE%9B%D0%84%CF%89N_KANH%C3%9EKOY%2C_Reverse_CA%CE%9BHNH_to_right%2C_Selene%2C_wearing_lunar_horns.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Selene with her chariot in the relief of Rosenstein Palace, Germany.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Distelbarth%2C_Friedrich%2C_Artemis-Selene-Relief%2C_Bildfeld_5.jpg/280px-Distelbarth%2C_Friedrich%2C_Artemis-Selene-Relief%2C_Bildfeld_5.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. pp. 296–7. ISBN 978-0-19-509539-5. Retrieved 2008-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nS51_7qbEWsC&pg=PA17","url_text":"The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509539-5","url_text":"978-0-19-509539-5"}]},{"reference":"\"The Linear B word me-no\". www.palaeolexicon.com. Retrieved April 8, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.palaeolexicon.com/Word/Show/16804/","url_text":"\"The Linear B word me-no\""}]},{"reference":"Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey (1986). Women in Science. The MIT Press. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_(magazine)
Fantastic (magazine)
["1 Publishing history","1.1 Early years","1.2 Mid-1950s to late 1960s","1.3 1970s to present","2 Contents and reception","2.1 Browne and Fairman","2.2 Goldsmith","2.3 Reprint era","2.4 White and Mavor","3 Publication details","3.1 Editors","3.2 Other bibliographic details","3.3 Derivative anthologies","4 Notes","5 References","6 Sources","7 External links"]
American fantasy and science fiction magazine, 1952–1980 Not to be confused with Fantastic Stories. FantasticCover of the October 1961 issue, by Alex SchomburgEditorHoward BrowneCategoriesFantasy fiction, science fictionFormatDigest sizePublisherZiff DavisFounded1952Final issue1980CountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglish Fantastic was an American digest-size fantasy and science fiction magazine, published from 1952 to 1980. It was founded by the publishing company Ziff Davis as a fantasy companion to Amazing Stories. Early sales were good, and the company quickly decided to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest, and to cease publication of their other science fiction pulp, Fantastic Adventures. Within a few years sales fell, and Howard Browne, the editor, was forced to switch the focus to science fiction rather than fantasy. Browne lost interest in the magazine as a result and the magazine generally ran poor-quality fiction in the mid-1950s, under Browne and his successor, Paul W. Fairman. At the end of the 1950s, Cele Goldsmith took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing Stories, and quickly invigorated the magazines, bringing in many new writers and making them, in the words of one science fiction historian, the "best-looking and brightest" magazines in the field. Goldsmith helped to nurture the early careers of writers such as Roger Zelazny and Ursula K. Le Guin, but was unable to increase circulation, and in 1965 the magazines were sold to Sol Cohen, who hired Joseph Wrzos as editor and switched to a reprint-only policy. This was financially successful, but brought Cohen into conflict with the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America. After a turbulent period at the end of the 1960s, Ted White became editor and the reprints were phased out. White worked hard to make the magazine successful, introducing artwork from artists who had made their names in comics, and working with new authors such as Gordon Eklund. His budget for fiction was low, but he was occasionally able to find good stories from well-known writers that had been rejected by other markets. Circulation continued to decline, however, and in 1978, Cohen sold out his half of the business to his partner, Arthur Bernhard. White resigned shortly afterwards, and was replaced by Elinor Mavor, but within two years Bernhard decided to close down Fantastic, merging it with Amazing Stories, which had always enjoyed a slightly higher circulation. Publishing history In 1938, Ziff Davis, a Chicago-based publisher looking to expand into the pulp magazine market, acquired Amazing Stories. The number of science fiction magazines grew quickly, and several new titles appeared over the next few years, among them Fantastic Adventures, which was launched by Ziff Davis in 1939 as a companion to Amazing. Under the editorship of Raymond Palmer, the magazines were reasonably successful but published poor-quality work; when Howard Browne took over as editor of Amazing in January 1950, he decided to try to move the magazine upmarket. Ziff Davis agreed to back the new magazine, and Browne put together a sample copy, but, when the Korean War broke out, Ziff Davis cut their budgets and the project was abandoned. Browne did not give up, and in 1952 received the go-ahead to try a new magazine instead, focused on high-quality fantasy, a genre which had recently become more popular. The first issue of Fantastic, dated Summer 1952, appeared on March 21 of that year. Early years Spring Summer Fall Winter Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1952 1/1 1/2 1/3 1953 2/1 2/2 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6 1954 3/1 3/2 3/3 3/4 3/5 3/6 1955 4/1 4/2 4/3 4/4 4/5 4/6 1956 5/1 5/2 5/3 5/4 5/5 5/6 1957 6/1 6/2 6/3 6/4 6/5 6/6 6/7 6/8 6/9 6/10 6/11 1958 7/1 7/2 7/3 7/4 7/5 7/6 7/7 7/8 7/9 7/10 7/11 7/12 1959 8/1 8/2 8/3 8/4 8/5 8/6 8/7 8/8 8/9 8/10 8/11 8/12 1960 9/1 9/2 9/3 9/4 9/5 9/6 9/7 9/8 9/9 9/10 9/11 9/12 Issues of Fantastic through 1960, identifying volume and issue numbers, andindicating editors: in sequence, Howard Browne, Paul Fairman, and CeleGoldsmith. Underlining indicates that an issue was titled as a quarterly (i.e.,"Fall 1952") rather than as a monthly. Sales were very good, and Ziff Davis was sufficiently impressed after only two issues to move the magazine from a quarterly to a bimonthly schedule, and to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest-size to match Fantastic. Shortly afterwards the decision was taken to eliminate Fantastic Adventures: the March 1953 issue was the last, and the May–June 1953 issue of Fantastic added a mention of Fantastic Adventures to the masthead, though this ceased with the following issue. Payment started at two cents per word for all rights, but could go up to ten cents at the editor's discretion; this put Fantastic in the second echelon of magazines, behind titles such as Astounding and Galaxy. The experiment with quality fiction did not last. Circulation dropped, which led to budget cuts, and in turn the quality of the fiction fell. Browne had wanted to separate Fantastic from Amazing's pulp roots, but now found he had to print more science fiction (sf) and less fantasy in order to attract Amazing's readers to its sister magazine. Fantastic's poor results were probably a consequence of an overloaded sf-magazine market: far more magazines appeared in the early 1950s than the market was able to support. Ziff Davis sales staff were able to help sell Fantastic and Amazing along with the technical magazines that it published, and the availability of a national sales network, even though it was not focused solely on Fantastic, undoubtedly helped the magazine to survive. In May 1956, Browne left Ziff Davis to become a screenwriter. Paul W. Fairman took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing. In 1957, Bernard Davis left Ziff Davis; it had been Davis who had suggested the acquisition of Amazing in 1939, and he had stayed involved with the sf magazines throughout the time he spent there. With his departure Amazing and Fantastic stagnated; they were still issued monthly, but drew no attention from the management of Ziff Davis. Mid-1950s to late 1960s In November 1955, Ziff Davis hired an assistant, Cele Goldsmith, who began by helping with two new magazines under development, Dream World and Pen Pals. She also read the slush piles for all the magazines, and was quickly given more responsibility. In 1957, she was made managing editor of both Amazing and Fantastic, doing administrative chores and reading unsolicited manuscripts. At the end of 1958, she became editor, replacing Fairman, who had left to become managing editor of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine. Goldsmith—who became Cele Lalli when she married in 1964—stayed as editor for six and a half years. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1961 10/1 10/2 10/3 10/4 10/5 10/6 10/7 10/8 10/9 10/10 10/11 10/12 1962 11/1 11/2 11/3 11/4 11/5 11/6 11/7 11/8 11/9 11/10 11/11 11/12 1963 12/1 12/2 12/3 12/4 12/5 12/6 12/7 12/8 12/9 12/10 12/11 12/12 1964 13/1 13/2 13/3 13/4 13/5 13/6 13/7 13/8 13/9 13/10 13/11 13/12 1965 14/1 14/2 14/3 14/4 14/5 14/6 15/1 15/2 1966 15/3 15/4 15/5 15/6 16/1 16/2 1967 16/3 16/4 16/5 16/6 17/1 17/2 1968 17/3 17/4 17/5 17/6 18/1 18/2 1969 18/3 18/4 18/5 18/6 19/1 19/2 1970 19/3 19/4 19/5 19/6 20/1 20/2 Issues of Fantastic from 1961 to 1970, identifying volume and issue numbers, andindicating editors: in sequence, Cele Goldsmith (Lalli), Joseph Ross, Harry Harrison,Barry Malzberg, and Ted White Circulation dropped for both Amazing and Fantastic: in 1964, Fantastic had a paid circulation of only 27,000. In 1965, Sol Cohen, who at that time was Galaxy's publisher, set up his own publishing company, Ultimate Publishing, and bought both Amazing and Fantastic from Ziff Davis. Cohen had decided to make the magazines as profitable as possible by filling them only with reprints. This was possible because Ziff Davis had acquired second serial rights for all stories they had published, and since Cohen had bought the backfile of stories he was able to reprint them using these rights. Using reprints in this way saved Cohen about $8,000 a year between the two magazines. Lalli decided that she did not want to work for Cohen, and stayed with Ziff Davis. Her last issue was June 1965. Cohen replaced Lalli with Joseph Wrzos, who used the name "Joseph Ross" on the magazines. Cohen had met Wrzos at the Galaxy offices not long before; Wrzos was teaching English full-time, but had worked for Gnome Press as an assistant editor in 1953–1954. Cohen also launched a series of reprint magazines, drawing from the backfile of both Amazing and Fantastic, again using the second serial rights he had acquired from Ziff Davis. The first reprint magazine was Great Science Fiction; the first issue, titled Great Science Fiction from Amazing, appeared in August 1965. By early 1967 this had been joined by The Most Thrilling Science Fiction Ever Told and Science Fiction Classics. These increased the workload on Wrzos, though Cohen made the selection of stories, and Wrzos found himself able to work on Fantastic and Amazing only part-time. Cohen hired Herb Lehrman to help with the other magazines. Although Cohen felt that his deal with Ziff Davis gave him the reprint rights he needed, the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America (SFWA) received complaints about Cohen's refusal to pay anything for the reprints. He was also reportedly not responding to requests for reassignment of copyright. SFWA organized a boycott of Cohen's magazines; after a year Cohen agreed to pay a flat fee for the reprints, and in August 1967 he agreed to a graduated scale of payments, and the boycott was withdrawn. Circulation and sellthrough (percentage of print run sold) for Fantastic Harry Harrison had been involved in the negotiations between SFWA and Cohen, and when the agreement was reached in 1967 Cohen asked Harrison if he would take over as editor of both magazines. Harrison was available because SF Impulse, which he had been editing, had ceased publication in early 1967. Cohen agreed to phase out the reprints by the end of the year, and Harrison took the job. Cohen added Harrison's name to the masthead of two issues of Great Science Fiction, although Harrison had had nothing to do with that magazine, but the reprints in Fantastic and Amazing continued and Harrison decided to quit in February 1968. He recommended Barry Malzberg as his replacement. Cohen had worked with Malzberg at the Scott Meredith Literary Agency, and felt Malzberg would be more cooperative than Harrison. Malzberg, however, turned out to be just as unwilling as Harrison to work with Cohen if the reprints continued, and soon regretted taking the job. In October 1968 Cohen refused to pay for a cover that Malzberg had commissioned; Malzberg insisted, threatening to resign if Cohen did not agree. Cohen contacted Robert Silverberg, then the president of SFWA, and told him (falsely) that Malzberg had actually resigned. Silverberg recommended Ted White as a replacement. Cohen secured White's agreement and then fired Malzberg; White took over in October 1968, but because there was a backlog of stories Malzberg had acquired, the first issue on which he was credited as editor was the June 1969 issue. 1970s to present Like his immediate predecessors, White took the job on condition that the reprints would be phased out. It was some time before this was achieved: there was at least one reprinted story in every issue until the end of 1971. The February 1972 issue contained some artwork reprinted from 1939, and after that the reprints ceased. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1971 20/3 20/4 20/5 20/6 21/1 21/2 1972 21/3 21/4 21/5 21/6 22/1 22/2 1973 22/3 22/4 22/5 22/6 23/1 1974 23/2 23/3 23/4 23/56 23/6 24/1 1975 24/2 24/3 24/4 24/5 24/6 25/1 1976 25/2 25/3 25/4 25/5 1977 26/1 26/2 26/3 6/4 1978 27/1 27/2 27/3 1979 27/4 27/5 27/6 27/7 1980 27/8 27/9 27/10 27/11 Issues of Fantastic from 1971 to 1980, identifying volume and issue numbers, andindicating editors: Ted White through most of the decade, and then Elinor Mavor.Note that the apparent error in volume numbering at the end of 1977 is in fact correct. Fantastic's circulation was about 37,000 when White took over; only about 4 percent of this was subscription sales. Cohen's wife filled the subscriptions from their garage, and according to White, Cohen regarded this as a burden, and never tried to increase the subscription base. Despite White's efforts, Fantastic's circulation fell, from almost 37,000 when he took over as editor to less than 24,000 in the summer of 1975. Cohen was rumored to be interested in selling both Fantastic and Amazing; among other possibilities, both Roger Elwood, at that time an active science fiction anthology editor, and Edward Ferman, the editor of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, approached Cohen with a view to acquiring the titles. Nothing came of it, however, and White was not aware of the possible sales. He was working at a low salary, with unpaid help from friends to read unsolicited submissions—at one point he introduced a 25-cent reading fee for manuscripts from unpublished writers; the fee would be refunded if White bought the story. White sometimes found himself at odds with Cohen's business partner, Arthur Bernhard, due to their different political views. White's unhappiness with his working conditions culminated in his resignation after Cohen refused his proposal to publish Fantastic as a slick magazine, with larger pages and higher quality paper. White commented in an article in Science Fiction Review that he had brought to the magazines "a lot of energy and enthusiasm and a great many ideas for their improvement ...Well, I have put into effect nearly every idea which I was allowed to follow through on ... and have spent most of my energy and enthusiasm." Cohen was able to persuade him to stay for another year; in the event White stayed for another three. White was unable to completely halt the slide in circulation, though it rose a little in 1977. That year Cohen lost $15,000 on the magazines, and decided to sell. He spent some time looking for a new publisher—editor Roy Torgeson was one of those interested—but on September 15, 1978, he sold his half of the business to Arthur Bernhard, his partner. White renewed his suggestions for improving the format of the magazine: he wanted to make Fantastic the same size as Time, and believed he could avoid the mistakes that had been made by other sf magazines that had tried that approach. White also proposed an increase in the budget and asked for a raise. Bernhard not only turned down White's ideas, but also stopped paying him: White responded by resigning. His last official day as editor was November 9; the last issue of Fantastic under his control was the January 1979 issue. He returned all submissions to their authors, saying that he had been told to do so by Bernhard; Bernhard denied this. Bernhard brought in Elinor Mavor to edit both Amazing and Fantastic. Mavor had previously edited Bill of Fare, a restaurant trade journal, and was a long-time science fiction reader, but she had little knowledge of the history of the magazines. She was unaware, for example, that she was not the first woman to edit them, and so adopted a male pseudonym—"Omar Gohagen"—for a while. She suggested a campaign to increase circulation, and went so far as to gather information about costs while on a trip to New York in 1979. Bernhard decided instead to merge the two magazines. Circulation was continuing to drop; the figures for the last two years are not available, but sf historian Mike Ashley estimates that Fantastic's paid circulation may have been as low as 13,000. Bernhard felt that since Fantastic had never been profitable, whereas Amazing had made money, it was best to keep Amazing. Until the March 1985 issue, Amazing included a mention of Fantastic on the spine and on the contents page. In 1999, the fiction magazine formerly known as Pirate Writings revived the Fantastic title and Cele Goldsmith-era logotype for several issues, ultimately unsuccessfully, though this was not intended as a continuation of the original magazine. In August 2014, Warren Lapine, former editor of Absolute Magnitude, Realms of Fantasy, and Weird Tales, revived the Fantastic logotype of Fantastic Stories of the Imagination as a free webzine. Contents and reception Browne and Fairman Cover of first issue; artwork by Barye Phillips and Leo Summers.The first issue of Fantastic was impressive, with a cover that sf historian Mike Ashley has described as "one of the most captivating of all first issues"; the painting, by Barye Phillips and Leo Summers, illustrated Kris Neville's "The Opal Necklace". The fiction included some stories by well known names; in particular, Raymond Chandler's "Professor Bingo's Snuff" would have caught readers' eyes—the story had appeared the year before in Park East magazine, but would have been new to most readers. It was a short mystery in which the fantasy element was invisibility, achieved by magical snuff. Isaac Asimov and Ray Bradbury also contributed stories, and the issue led with "Six and Ten Are Johnny", by Walter M. Miller. The rear cover reprinted Pierre Roy's painting "Danger on the Stairs", which depicted a snake on a staircase; it was an odd choice, but subsequent back covers were more natural fits for a fantasy magazine. The quality of the fiction continued to be high for the first year; sf historian Mike Ashley comments that almost every story in the first seven issues was of high quality, and historian David Kyle regards it as an "outstandingly successful experiment". Science fiction bibliographer Donald Tuck dissents, however, regarding the first few years as containing "little of note", and James Blish wrote a contemporary review of the second issue which found it lacking: Blish dismissed three of the seven stories in the Fall 1952 issue as being essentially crime stories written for the sf market, and commented that of the remaining four, only two were "reasonably competent and craftsmanlike". Other well-known writers appeared in the early issues, including Shirley Jackson, B. Traven, Truman Capote and Evelyn Waugh. Mickey Spillane had written a story called "The Woman With Green Skin", but had been unable to sell it; Browne offered to buy it on condition that he had permission to rewrite it as he wished. This was agreed and Browne scrapped Spillane's text completely, writing a new story called "The Veiled Woman" and publishing it as by Spillane in the November–December 1952 issue. The issue sold so well it was reprinted, with over 300,000 copies sold. The emphasis was on fantasy, and much of it was "slick" fantasy—the sort of genre fiction that the upmarket slick magazines, such as The Saturday Evening Post, were willing to buy. Some science fiction appeared as well in the first couple of years, including Isaac Asimov's "Sally", which portrays a world in which cars have been given robotic brains and are intelligent. In 1955 it was decided to move the focus from fantasy to sf: in Browne's words, "Stories of straight fantasy were largely eliminated and straight science-fiction substituted, cover subject matter became of a scientific nature, the words "science fiction" appeared under the title, interior artwork was tightened up to replace the loose, 'arty' kind of drawing we had been using." Sales rose 17% within two issues. Browne was uninterested in science fiction, however, and the quality of the fiction soon dropped, with a small stable of writers producing much of Fantastic's fiction under house names over the next couple of years. By the start of 1956 the fiction in Fantastic was, in the opinion of sf historian Mike Ashley, " a trough of hack predictability", but there was some inventiveness evident from newer writers such as Robert Silverberg, Harlan Ellison and Randall Garrett. The second wish fulfilment cover, for October 1956, by Ed ValigurskyAlthough Browne had been unable to make Fantastic successful by specializing in fantasy, he was still interested in the fantasy genre, and experimented in the December 1955 issue with the theme of wish fulfilment. He dropped the words "Science Fiction" from the cover, and published five stories, all of which dealt with male fantasies in one form or another. The cover showed a man walking through a wall to find a woman undressing; the art was by Ed Valigursky and illustrated Paul Fairman's "All Walls Were Mist". Reader reaction, according to Browne, was almost entirely favorable, and he continued to publish occasional stories on the wish-fulfilment theme. The experiment was repeated with the October 1956 issue, which again ran without "Science Fiction" on the cover, and contained stories on the theme of "Incredible Powers". Once again the cover illustrated a male fantasy: this time it showed a man materializing in a bath house where women were showering. Browne had left Ziff Davis by the time this issue appeared, but Browne's plans for a magazine around these themes were well advanced, and Fairman, who by this time was editing both Fantastic and Amazing, was given Dream World to edit as well. It ran for three quarterly issues, starting in February 1957, but proved too narrow a market to succeed. Fairman devoted the July 1958 issue of Fantastic to the Shaver Mystery—a lurid set of beliefs propounded by Richard Shaver in the late 1940s that told of "detrimental robots", or "deros", who were behind many of the disasters that befell humanity. Most of these stories had run in Amazing, though the editor at that time, Ray Palmer, had been forced to drop Shaver by Ziff Davis when the stories began to attract ridicule in the press. Fantastic's readers were no kinder, complaining vigorously. Goldsmith When Goldsmith took over as editor, there was some concern at Ziff Davis that she might not be able to handle the job. A consultant, Norman Lobsenz, was brought in to help her; Lobsenz's title was "editorial director", but in fact Goldsmith made the story selections. Lobsenz provided blurbs and editorials, read the stories Goldsmith bought, and met with Goldsmith every week or so. Goldsmith was not a long-time sf reader, and knew little about the field; she simply looked for good quality fiction and bought what she liked. In Mike Ashley's words, "the result, between 1961 and 1964, was the two most exciting and original magazines in the field". New writers whose first story appeared in Fantastic during this period included Phyllis Gotlieb, Larry Eisenberg, Ursula K. Le Guin, Thomas M. Disch, and Piers Anthony. The November 1959 issue was dedicated to Fritz Leiber; it included "Lean Times in Lankhmar", one of Leiber's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories. Goldsmith published another half-dozen stories in the series over the next six years, along with other similar (and sometimes imitative) fiction such as early work by Michael Moorcock, and John Jakes' early stories of Brak the Barbarian. This helped to invigorate the nascent sword and sorcery subgenre. Goldsmith obtained an early story by Cordwainer Smith, "The Fife of Bodidharma", which ran in the June 1959 issue, but shortly thereafter Pohl at Galaxy reached an agreement to get first refusal on all Smith's work. During the early 1960s Goldsmith managed to make Fantastic and Amazing, in the words of Mike Ashley, "the best-looking and brightest" magazines around. This applied both to the covers, where Goldsmith used artists such as Alex Schomburg and Leo Summers, and the content. Ashley also describes Fantastic as the "premier fantasy magazine" during Goldsmith's tenure—at that time the only other magazine focused specifically on fantasy fiction was the British Science Fantasy. Goldsmith's tastes were too diverse for Fantastic to be limited to genre fantasy, however, and her willingness to buy fiction she liked, regardless of genre expectations, allowed many new writers to flourish on the pages of both Amazing and Fantastic. Writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin, Roger Zelazny and Thomas M. Disch sold regularly to her at the start of their careers Le Guin later commented that Goldsmith was "as enterprising and perceptive an editor as the science fiction magazines ever had". Not all Goldsmith's choices were universally popular with the magazine's subscribers: she regularly published fiction by David R. Bunch, for example, to mixed reviews from the readership. Reprint era Wrzos persuaded Cohen that both Amazing and Fantastic should carry a new story in every issue, rather than running nothing but reprints; Goldsmith had left a backlog of unpublished stories, and Wrzos was able to stretch these out for some time. One such story was Fritz Leiber's "Stardock", another Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story, which appeared in the September 1965 issue; it was subsequently nominated for a Hugo Award. The reprints were well received by the fans, because Wrzos was able to find good quality stories that were unavailable except in the original magazines, meaning that to many of Fantastic's readers they were fresh material. Wrzos also reprinted "The People of the Black Circle", a Robert E. Howard story from Weird Tales, in 1967, when Howard's Conan stories were becoming popular. In addition to the backlog of new stories from the Ziff Davis era, Wrzos was able to acquire some new material. He was especially glad to acquire "For a Breath I Tarry", by Roger Zelazny; however, he had to wait for Cohen's approval for his acquisitions. Cohen, perhaps uncertain because of the story's originality, delayed until it appeared in the British magazine New Worlds before agreeing to publish it. Wrzos commented years later that he would "never forgive him his timidity at that time". Wrzos bought Doris Piserchia's first story, "Rocket to Gehenna", and was the first editor to acquire a story by Dean Koontz. He had to work with Koontz to improve it, and the delay this caused, in addition to the slow publishing schedule for new material, meant that Koontz appeared in print with "Soft Come the Dragons", in the August 1967 Fantasy & Science Fiction, before "A Darkness in My Soul" appeared in the January 1968 Fantastic. After Wrzos's departure, Harrison and Malzberg had little opportunity to reshape the magazine as between them they only took responsibility for a handful of issues before Ted White took over. However, Harrison did print James Tiptree's first sale, "Fault", in the August 1968 issue; again the slow schedule meant that this was not Tiptree's first appearance in print. Harrison added a science column by Leon Stover, but was unable to change Cohen's position on the reprints, and so could not print much new fiction. When Malzberg took over from Harrison he published John Sladek, Thomas M. Disch, and James Sallis, all of whom were associated with New Wave science fiction, but his tenure was too short for him to have a significant impact on the magazine. White and Mavor The main variations in title fonts. Issues shown are Summer 1952, September–October 1953, January 1961, January 1964, June 1971, October 1978, and April 1979: each is the first issue which used each style shown.White was only able to offer his writers one cent per word, which was substantially lower than the leading magazines in the field—Analog Science Fiction and Fact paid five cents, and Galaxy and Fantasy & Science Fiction paid three. Most stories would only be submitted to White once the higher-paying markets had rejected them, but among the rejects White was sometimes able to find experimental material that he liked. For example, Piers Anthony had been unable to sell an early fantasy novel, Hasan; White saw a review of the manuscript and promptly acquired it for Fantastic, where it was serialized starting in the December 1969 issue. White also took care to establish relationships with newer writers. White bought Gordon Eklund's first story, "Dear Aunt Annie", it appeared in the April 1970 issue and was nominated for a Nebula Award. Eklund was unwilling to become a full-time writer, despite this success, because of the financial risks, so White agreed to buy anything Eklund wrote, on condition that Eklund himself believed it was a good story. The result was that much of Eklund's fiction appeared in Amazing and Fantastic over the next few years. In addition to experimental work, White was able to obtain material by some of the leading sf writers of the day, including Brian Aldiss and John Brunner. White also acquired some early work by writers who became better known in other fields: Roger Ebert sold two stories in the early 1970s to Fantastic; the first, "After the Last Mass", appeared in the February 1972 issue; and in 1975 White bought Ian McEwan's second story, "Solid Geometry". It was included in First Love, Last Rites, McEwan's first short story collection, which won the Somerset Maugham Award in 1976. White had been an active science fiction fan before he became professionally involved in the field, and although he estimated that only 1 in 30 readers were active sf fans, he tried to use this fan base to help by urging the readership to give him feedback and to help with distribution by checking local newsstands for the magazines. White wanted to introduce established artists from outside the sf field, such as Jeff Jones, Vaughn Bodē, and Steve Hickman; however, the company was saddled with cheap artwork acquired from European magazines to be used for the cover and he was instructed to make use of them. He commissioned a comic strip from Vaughn Bodé, but was outbid by Judy-Lynn Benjamin at Galaxy; he subsequently told his readers that he'd signed up Bodé again for interior artwork, but this never materialized. Instead a four-page comic strip by Jay Kinney appeared in December 1970; a second strip, by Art Spiegelman, was planned, but never published. Eventually White was allowed to commission original cover art; he published early work by Mike Hinge, and Mike Kaluta made his first professional sale to Fantastic. He tried to hire Hinge as art director, but this fell through and White filled the role himself, sometimes using the pseudonym "J. Edwards". Because of poor distribution, Fantastic was never able to benefit from the increasing popularity of the fantasy genre, though White was able to publish several stories by well-known writers in the field, including a sword and sorcery novella by Dean R. Koontz, which appeared in the October 1970 issue, and an Elric story by Michael Moorcock in February 1972. A revival of Robert E. Howard's character Conan, in stories by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter, was successful at increasing sales; the first of these stories appeared in August 1972, and White reported that sales of that issue were higher than for any other issue of Amazing or Fantastic that year. Each Conan story, according to White, increased sales of that issue by 10,000 copies. White also published several of Fritz Leiber's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories, and added "Sword and Sorcery" to the cover in 1975. In the same year a companion magazine, Sword & Sorcery Annual, was launched, but the first issue was the only one to appear. The quality of the magazine remained high even as the financial stress was mounting in the late 1970s. White acquired cover artwork by Stephen Fabian and Douglas Beekman, and stories by some of the new generation of sf writers, such as George R. R. Martin and Charles Sheffield. White departed in November 1978, but the first issue of Fantastic under Elinor Mavor's editorial control was April 1979. Because White had returned unsold stories she had very little to work with and was forced to fill the magazine with reprints. This led to renewed conflict with the sf community, which she did her best to defuse. At a convention in 1979 she met Harlan Ellison, who complained about the reprint policy; she explained that it was temporary and was able to get him to agree to contribute stories, publishing two pieces by him in Amazing over the next three years. The January 1980 issue of Fantastic (Mavor's fourth issue) was the last to contain reprinted stories. Once the reprints had been phased out, Mavor was able to find new writers to work with, including Brad Linaweaver and John E. Stith, both of whom sold their first stories to Fantastic. The last year of Fantastic showed "a steady improvement in content", according to Mike Ashley, who cites in particular Daemon, a serialized graphic story, illustrated by Stephen Fabian. However, at the end of 1980 Fantastic's independent existence ceased, and it was merged with Amazing. Publication details Editors The list below gives the person who was acting as editor. In some cases, such as at the start of Cele Goldsmith's stint, the official editor was not the same person; details are given above. Howard Browne (Summer 1952 – August 1956). Paul Fairman (October 1956 – November 1958). Cele Goldsmith (December 1958 – June 1965). Goldsmith used her married name, Cele G. Lalli, from July 1964. Joseph Ross (September 1965 – November 1967). Harry Harrison (January 1968 – October 1968). Barry N. Malzberg (December 1968 – April 1969). Ted White (June 1969 – January 1979) Elinor Mavor (April 1979 – October 1980) Other bibliographic details The title changed multiple times, and was frequently inconsistently given between the cover, spine, indicia, and masthead. Start month End month Cover Spine Indicia Masthead Number of issues Summer–52 Feb–55 Fantastic Fantastic Fantastic Fantastic 16 Apr–55 Oct–55 Fantastic Science-Fiction 4 Dec–55 Dec–55 Fantastic 1 Feb–56 Aug–56 Fantastic Science-Fiction 4 Oct–56 Oct–56 Fantastic 1 Dec–56 Sep–57 Fantastic Science-Fiction 9 Oct–57 Feb–58 Fantastic Science Fiction 5 Mar–58 Aug–59 Fantastic 18 Sep–59 Dec–59 Fantastic Science Fiction Stories Fantastic Science Fiction Stories Fantastic Science Fiction Stories 4 Jan–60 Sep–60 Fantastic Science Fiction Stories 9 Oct–60 Jun–65 Fantastic Stories of Imagination Fantastic Stories of Imagination Fantastic Fantastic Stories of Imagination 57 Sep–65 Dec–69 Fantastic Science Fiction – Fantasy Fantastic Stories Fantastic Science Fiction – Fantasy 26 Feb–70 Apr–71 Fantastic Stories Science Fiction – Fantasy 8 Jun–71 Apr–72 Fantastic Stories Science Fiction & Fantasy Fantastic Stories Science Fiction & Fantasy 6 Jun–72 Jun–72 Fantastic Stories Science Fiction & Fantasy 1 Aug–72 Aug–72 Fantastic Stories 1 Oct–72 Feb–75 Fantastic Stories Science Fiction & Fantasy 14 Apr–75 Jun–77 Fantastic Stories Sword & Sorcery and Fantasy Fantastic Stories Swords & Sorcery and Fantasy 11 Sep–77 Oct–78 Fantastic Stories Fantastic Stories Fantastic Stories Sword & Sorcery and Fantasy 5 Jan–79 Jan–79 Fantastic Stories Science Fiction & Fantasy Fantastic Stories Science Fiction & Fantasy Fantastic Stories Science Fiction & Fantasy 1 Apr–79 Oct–80 Fantastic Science Fiction Fantastic Stories Fantastic Science Fiction 7 The following table shows which issues appeared from which publisher. Dates Publisher Summer 1952 – June 1965 Ziff Davis, New York September 1965 – January 1979 Ultimate Publishing, Flushing, New York April 1979 – October 1980 Ultimate Publishing, Purchase, New York A British edition published by Thorpe & Porter ran for eight bimonthly issues from December 1953 to February 1955; the issues were not dated on the cover. These correspond to the US issues from September/October 1953 to December 1954, and were numbered volume 1, numbers 1 through 8. Fantastic was digest-sized throughout its life. The page count began at 160 but dropped to 144 with the September/October 1953 issue, and then again to 128 pages with the very next issue, November/December 1953. The July 1960 issue had 144 pages, but apart from that one issue the page count stayed at 128 until September 1965, when it increased to 160. In January 1968 it went back down to 144 pages, and it dropped to 128 pages from February 1971 through the end of its run. The first issue was priced at 35 cents; thereafter the price went up as follows: 50 cents in May 1963, 60 cents in December 1969, 75 cents in July 1974, $1.00 in October 1975, $1.25 in April 1978, and finally $1.50 from April 1979 until the last issue. Derivative anthologies Three anthologies of stories from Fantastic have been published. Note that Time Untamed contains stories that were published in Fantastic during its reprint years, but which did not necessarily first appear there. Year Editor Title Publisher 1967 Ivan Howard Time Untamed Belmont: New York 1973 Ted White The Best From Fantastic Manor Books: New York 1987 Martin H. Greenberg & Patrick Lucien Price Fantastic Stories: Tales of the Weird and Wondrous TSR: Lake Geneva, Wisconsin Notes ^ Cohen was Galaxy's publisher, but not the owner; the owner was Robert Guinn, who is also often referred to as the publisher. ^ "Second serial rights" are rights to reprint in a magazine or newspaper. ^ The circulation figures were published from 1962 through 1979, but not for 1980 as Fantastic did not exist in 1981 to publish the data. In addition the 1979 data is almost certainly incorrect as it is an exact duplicate of the 1978 data, so there is no available circulation data for 1979 either. References ^ a b c d e f g h i j Ashley, Transformations, pp. 222–228. ^ Ashley, Time Machines, p. 115. ^ Mike Ashley, "Fantastic Adventures", in Tymn & Ashley, Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Weird Fiction Magazines, p. 232. ^ Mike Ashley, "Fantastic Adventures", in Tymn & Ashley, Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Weird Fiction Magazines, pp. 237–238. ^ Mike Ashley, "Amazing Stories", in Tymn & Ashley, Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Weird Fiction Magazines, p. 34. ^ Ashley, Transformations, p. 4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ashley, Transformations, pp. 48–51. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Mike Ashley, "Fantastic", in Clute & Grant, Encyclopedia of Fantasy (1997), pp. 335–336. ^ de Camp, Science-Fiction Handbook, pp. 102–103. ^ de Camp, Science-Fiction Handbook, pp. 120–121. ^ del Rey, The World of SF, pp. 194–195. ^ a b Ashley, Transformations, pp. 172–175. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Ashley, Transformations, pp. 263–268. ^ Pohl, The Way the Future Was, pp. 201–202. ^ "What Are First Serial Rights (or FNASR)?". Writers' Digest. Retrieved 14 February 2018. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Ashley, Gateways, pp. 69–86. ^ a b c d e See the individual issues. For convenience, an online index is available at "Magazine:Fantastic – ISFDB". Al von Ruff. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2010. ^ a b c d Ashley, Gateways to Forever, pp. 84–86. ^ Ted White, "Uffish Thots", Science Fiction Review #12 (February 1975), quoted in Ashley, Gateways to Forever, p. 85; ellipses in quote are as given by Ashley. ^ a b c d e f g h Ashley, Gateways to Forever, pp. 347–353. ^ "Pirate Writings". Gollancz/SFE Ltd. Retrieved 15 October 2011. ^ "Fantastic Stories of the Imagination Returns". Wilder Publications. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2014. ^ Kyle, Pictorial History, p. 116. ^ a b "Fantastic", in Tuck, Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy, Vol. 3, pp. 557–558. ^ Atheling, The Issue at Hand, pp. 23–25. ^ Howard Browne, "Low Man on the Asteroid", in Fantastic vol. 4, no 5 (October 1965), p. 4. ^ Ashley, Transformations, p. 162. ^ Ashley, Transformations, pp. 172–173. ^ Ashley, Transformations, pp. 183–184. ^ Ashley, Transformations, pp. 179–183. ^ Quoted in Malcolm Edwards, "Cele Goldsmith", in Clute & Nicholls, Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (1993), p. 508. ^ Ashley, Gateways, pp. 78–79. ^ Ashley, Gateways, p. 39. ^ "According to You". Fantastic. 20 (2): 135. December 1970. ^ "Editorial". Fantastic. 20 (2): 143. December 1970. ^ a b c d e Mike Ashley, "Fantastic", in Tymn & Ashley, Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Weird Fiction Magazines, pp. 230–231. ^ Mike Ashley, "Fantastic", in Tymn & Ashley, Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Weird Fiction Magazines, p. 231. Sources Ashley, Mike (2000). The Time Machines: The Story of the Science-Fiction Pulp Magazines from the beginning to 1950. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-865-0. Ashley, Mike (2005). Transformations: The Story of the Science Fiction Magazines from 1950 to 1970. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-779-4. Ashley, Mike (2007). Gateways to Forever: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines from 1970 to 1980. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-84631-003-4. Atheling Jr., William (1967). The Issue at Hand. Chicago: Advent, Inc. Clute, John; Grant, John (1997). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc. ISBN 0-312-15897-1. Clute, John; Peter Nicholls (1993). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-09618-6. de Camp, L. Sprague (1953). Science-Fiction Handbook: The Writing of Imaginative Fiction. New York: Hermitage House. del Rey, Lester (1979). The World of Science Fiction: 1926–1976: The History of a Subculture. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-25452-X. Kyle, David (1977). The Pictorial History of Science Fiction. London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-38193-5. Pohl, Frederik (1979). The Way the Future Was. London: Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-02672-3. Tuck, Donald H. (1982). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Volume 3. Chicago: Advent. ISBN 0-911682-26-0. Tymn, Marshall B.; Mike Ashley (1985). Science Fiction, Fantasy and Weird Fiction Magazines. West: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-21221-X. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fantastic Stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Stories"},{"link_name":"digest-size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digest_size"},{"link_name":"fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_fiction_magazine"},{"link_name":"science fiction magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_magazine"},{"link_name":"Ziff Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff_Davis"},{"link_name":"Amazing Stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazing_Stories"},{"link_name":"pulp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_magazine"},{"link_name":"Fantastic Adventures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Adventures"},{"link_name":"Howard Browne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Browne"},{"link_name":"Paul W. Fairman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_W._Fairman"},{"link_name":"Cele Goldsmith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cele_Goldsmith"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"Roger Zelazny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Zelazny"},{"link_name":"Ursula K. Le Guin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin"},{"link_name":"Sol Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_Cohen"},{"link_name":"reprint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reprint"},{"link_name":"Science Fiction Writers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fiction_Writers_of_America"},{"link_name":"Ted White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ted_White_(author)"},{"link_name":"Elinor Mavor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinor_Mavor"}],"text":"American fantasy and science fiction magazine, 1952–1980Not to be confused with Fantastic Stories.Fantastic was an American digest-size fantasy and science fiction magazine, published from 1952 to 1980. It was founded by the publishing company Ziff Davis as a fantasy companion to Amazing Stories. Early sales were good, and the company quickly decided to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest, and to cease publication of their other science fiction pulp, Fantastic Adventures. Within a few years sales fell, and Howard Browne, the editor, was forced to switch the focus to science fiction rather than fantasy. Browne lost interest in the magazine as a result and the magazine generally ran poor-quality fiction in the mid-1950s, under Browne and his successor, Paul W. Fairman.At the end of the 1950s, Cele Goldsmith took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing Stories, and quickly invigorated the magazines, bringing in many new writers and making them, in the words of one science fiction historian, the \"best-looking and brightest\" magazines in the field.[1] Goldsmith helped to nurture the early careers of writers such as Roger Zelazny and Ursula K. Le Guin, but was unable to increase circulation, and in 1965 the magazines were sold to Sol Cohen, who hired Joseph Wrzos as editor and switched to a reprint-only policy. This was financially successful, but brought Cohen into conflict with the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America. After a turbulent period at the end of the 1960s, Ted White became editor and the reprints were phased out.White worked hard to make the magazine successful, introducing artwork from artists who had made their names in comics, and working with new authors such as Gordon Eklund. His budget for fiction was low, but he was occasionally able to find good stories from well-known writers that had been rejected by other markets. Circulation continued to decline, however, and in 1978, Cohen sold out his half of the business to his partner, Arthur Bernhard. White resigned shortly afterwards, and was replaced by Elinor Mavor, but within two years Bernhard decided to close down Fantastic, merging it with Amazing Stories, which had always enjoyed a slightly higher circulation.","title":"Fantastic (magazine)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ziff Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ziff_Davis"},{"link_name":"pulp magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_magazine"},{"link_name":"Amazing Stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazing_Stories"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TTM_115-2"},{"link_name":"Fantastic Adventures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Adventures"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_232-3"},{"link_name":"Raymond Palmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Palmer"},{"link_name":"Howard Browne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Browne"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_237-8-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_34-5"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_4-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"}],"text":"In 1938, Ziff Davis, a Chicago-based publisher looking to expand into the pulp magazine market, acquired Amazing Stories.[2] The number of science fiction magazines grew quickly, and several new titles appeared over the next few years, among them Fantastic Adventures, which was launched by Ziff Davis in 1939 as a companion to Amazing.[3] Under the editorship of Raymond Palmer, the magazines were reasonably successful but published poor-quality work; when Howard Browne took over as editor of Amazing in January 1950, he decided to try to move the magazine upmarket.[4][5] Ziff Davis agreed to back the new magazine, and Browne put together a sample copy, but, when the Korean War broke out, Ziff Davis cut their budgets and the project was abandoned.[6] Browne did not give up, and in 1952 received the go-ahead to try a new magazine instead, focused on high-quality fantasy,[7] a genre which had recently become more popular.[8] The first issue of Fantastic, dated Summer 1952, appeared on March 21 of that year.[7]","title":"Publishing history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fantastic Adventures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastic_Adventures"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFH_102-3-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFH_120-1-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TWOSF_194-5-11"},{"link_name":"Paul W. Fairman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_W._Fairman"},{"link_name":"Bernard Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_George_Davis"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_172-5-12"}],"sub_title":"Early years","text":"Sales were very good, and Ziff Davis was sufficiently impressed after only two issues to move the magazine from a quarterly to a bimonthly schedule, and to switch Amazing from pulp format to digest-size to match Fantastic. Shortly afterwards the decision was taken to eliminate Fantastic Adventures: the March 1953 issue was the last, and the May–June 1953 issue of Fantastic added a mention of Fantastic Adventures to the masthead, though this ceased with the following issue.[7] Payment started at two cents per word for all rights, but could go up to ten cents at the editor's discretion; this put Fantastic in the second echelon of magazines, behind titles such as Astounding and Galaxy.[9][10] The experiment with quality fiction did not last. Circulation dropped, which led to budget cuts, and in turn the quality of the fiction fell. Browne had wanted to separate Fantastic from Amazing's pulp roots, but now found he had to print more science fiction (sf) and less fantasy in order to attract Amazing's readers to its sister magazine.[7] Fantastic's poor results were probably a consequence of an overloaded sf-magazine market: far more magazines appeared in the early 1950s than the market was able to support. Ziff Davis sales staff were able to help sell Fantastic and Amazing along with the technical magazines that it published, and the availability of a national sales network, even though it was not focused solely on Fantastic, undoubtedly helped the magazine to survive.[11]In May 1956, Browne left Ziff Davis to become a screenwriter. Paul W. Fairman took over as editor of both Fantastic and Amazing. In 1957, Bernard Davis left Ziff Davis; it had been Davis who had suggested the acquisition of Amazing in 1939, and he had stayed involved with the sf magazines throughout the time he spent there. With his departure Amazing and Fantastic stagnated; they were still issued monthly, but drew no attention from the management of Ziff Davis.[12]","title":"Publishing history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cele Goldsmith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cele_Goldsmith"},{"link_name":"slush piles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slush_pile"},{"link_name":"Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellery_Queen%27s_Mystery_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_172-5-12"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"Sol Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_Cohen"},{"link_name":"Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"[notes 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[notes 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"Gnome Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnome_Press"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"Great Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Great_Science_Fiction_(magazine)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"The Most Thrilling Science Fiction Ever Told","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Most_Thrilling_Science_Fiction_Ever_Told&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Science Fiction Classics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_Fiction_Classics&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"Science Fiction Writers of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy_Writers_of_America"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fantastic_circulation_graph.png"},{"link_name":"Harry Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Harrison_(writer)"},{"link_name":"SF Impulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fantasy_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Barry Malzberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_N._Malzberg"},{"link_name":"Scott Meredith Literary Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Meredith_Literary_Agency"},{"link_name":"Robert Silverberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Silverberg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"}],"sub_title":"Mid-1950s to late 1960s","text":"In November 1955, Ziff Davis hired an assistant, Cele Goldsmith, who began by helping with two new magazines under development, Dream World and Pen Pals. She also read the slush piles for all the magazines, and was quickly given more responsibility. In 1957, she was made managing editor of both Amazing and Fantastic, doing administrative chores and reading unsolicited manuscripts. At the end of 1958, she became editor, replacing Fairman, who had left to become managing editor of Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine.[1][12] Goldsmith—who became Cele Lalli when she married in 1964—stayed as editor for six and a half years.[1]Circulation dropped for both Amazing and Fantastic: in 1964, Fantastic had a paid circulation of only 27,000.[13] In 1965, Sol Cohen, who at that time was Galaxy's publisher, set up his own publishing company, Ultimate Publishing, and bought both Amazing and Fantastic from Ziff Davis.[1][notes 1] Cohen had decided to make the magazines as profitable as possible by filling them only with reprints. This was possible because Ziff Davis had acquired second serial rights[notes 2] for all stories they had published, and since Cohen had bought the backfile of stories he was able to reprint them using these rights.[1][16] Using reprints in this way saved Cohen about $8,000 a year between the two magazines.[16] Lalli decided that she did not want to work for Cohen, and stayed with Ziff Davis. Her last issue was June 1965. Cohen replaced Lalli with Joseph Wrzos, who used the name \"Joseph Ross\" on the magazines.[1][13] Cohen had met Wrzos at the Galaxy offices not long before; Wrzos was teaching English full-time, but had worked for Gnome Press as an assistant editor in 1953–1954.[13]Cohen also launched a series of reprint magazines, drawing from the backfile of both Amazing and Fantastic, again using the second serial rights he had acquired from Ziff Davis. The first reprint magazine was Great Science Fiction; the first issue, titled Great Science Fiction from Amazing, appeared in August 1965. By early 1967 this had been joined by The Most Thrilling Science Fiction Ever Told and Science Fiction Classics. These increased the workload on Wrzos, though Cohen made the selection of stories, and Wrzos found himself able to work on Fantastic and Amazing only part-time. Cohen hired Herb Lehrman to help with the other magazines.[13]Although Cohen felt that his deal with Ziff Davis gave him the reprint rights he needed, the newly formed Science Fiction Writers of America (SFWA) received complaints about Cohen's refusal to pay anything for the reprints. He was also reportedly not responding to requests for reassignment of copyright. SFWA organized a boycott of Cohen's magazines; after a year Cohen agreed to pay a flat fee for the reprints, and in August 1967 he agreed to a graduated scale of payments, and the boycott was withdrawn.[13]Circulation and sellthrough (percentage of print run sold) for FantasticHarry Harrison had been involved in the negotiations between SFWA and Cohen, and when the agreement was reached in 1967 Cohen asked Harrison if he would take over as editor of both magazines. Harrison was available because SF Impulse, which he had been editing, had ceased publication in early 1967. Cohen agreed to phase out the reprints by the end of the year, and Harrison took the job. Cohen added Harrison's name to the masthead of two issues of Great Science Fiction, although Harrison had had nothing to do with that magazine, but the reprints in Fantastic and Amazing continued and Harrison decided to quit in February 1968. He recommended Barry Malzberg as his replacement. Cohen had worked with Malzberg at the Scott Meredith Literary Agency, and felt Malzberg would be more cooperative than Harrison. Malzberg, however, turned out to be just as unwilling as Harrison to work with Cohen if the reprints continued, and soon regretted taking the job. In October 1968 Cohen refused to pay for a cover that Malzberg had commissioned; Malzberg insisted, threatening to resign if Cohen did not agree. Cohen contacted Robert Silverberg, then the president of SFWA, and told him (falsely) that Malzberg had actually resigned. Silverberg recommended Ted White as a replacement. Cohen secured White's agreement and then fired Malzberg; White took over in October 1968, but because there was a backlog of stories Malzberg had acquired, the first issue on which he was credited as editor was the June 1969 issue.[13][16]","title":"Publishing history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-issues-19"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"Roger Elwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Elwood"},{"link_name":"Edward Ferman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Ferman"},{"link_name":"The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Magazine_of_Fantasy_%26_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_84-6-20"},{"link_name":"slick magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slick_magazine&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_84-6-20"},{"link_name":"Science Fiction Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fiction_Review"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_85Q-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_84-6-20"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_84-6-20"},{"link_name":"Roy Torgeson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roy_Torgeson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"},{"link_name":"Elinor Mavor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elinor_Mavor"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"},{"link_name":"Mike Ashley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Ashley_(writer)"},{"link_name":"[notes 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-issues-19"},{"link_name":"Pirate Writings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pirate_Writings&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Warren Lapine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Lapine"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"1970s to present","text":"Like his immediate predecessors, White took the job on condition that the reprints would be phased out. It was some time before this was achieved: there was at least one reprinted story in every issue until the end of 1971. The February 1972 issue contained some artwork reprinted from 1939, and after that the reprints ceased.[16][17]Fantastic's circulation was about 37,000 when White took over; only about 4 percent of this was subscription sales. Cohen's wife filled the subscriptions from their garage, and according to White, Cohen regarded this as a burden, and never tried to increase the subscription base.[16] Despite White's efforts, Fantastic's circulation fell, from almost 37,000 when he took over as editor to less than 24,000 in the summer of 1975. Cohen was rumored to be interested in selling both Fantastic and Amazing; among other possibilities, both Roger Elwood, at that time an active science fiction anthology editor, and Edward Ferman, the editor of The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, approached Cohen with a view to acquiring the titles. Nothing came of it, however, and White was not aware of the possible sales. He was working at a low salary, with unpaid help from friends to read unsolicited submissions—at one point he introduced a 25-cent reading fee for manuscripts from unpublished writers; the fee would be refunded if White bought the story. White sometimes found himself at odds with Cohen's business partner, Arthur Bernhard, due to their different political views.[18] White's unhappiness with his working conditions culminated in his resignation after Cohen refused his proposal to publish Fantastic as a slick magazine, with larger pages and higher quality paper.[18] White commented in an article in Science Fiction Review that he had brought to the magazines \"a lot of energy and enthusiasm and a great many ideas for their improvement ...Well, I have put into effect nearly every idea which I was allowed to follow through on ... and have spent most of my energy and enthusiasm.\"[19] Cohen was able to persuade him to stay for another year; in the event White stayed for another three.[18]White was unable to completely halt the slide in circulation, though it rose a little in 1977. That year Cohen lost $15,000 on the magazines, and decided to sell.[18] He spent some time looking for a new publisher—editor Roy Torgeson was one of those interested—but on September 15, 1978, he sold his half of the business to Arthur Bernhard, his partner.[20] White renewed his suggestions for improving the format of the magazine: he wanted to make Fantastic the same size as Time, and believed he could avoid the mistakes that had been made by other sf magazines that had tried that approach. White also proposed an increase in the budget and asked for a raise. Bernhard not only turned down White's ideas, but also stopped paying him: White responded by resigning. His last official day as editor was November 9; the last issue of Fantastic under his control was the January 1979 issue. He returned all submissions to their authors, saying that he had been told to do so by Bernhard; Bernhard denied this.[20]Bernhard brought in Elinor Mavor to edit both Amazing and Fantastic. Mavor had previously edited Bill of Fare, a restaurant trade journal, and was a long-time science fiction reader, but she had little knowledge of the history of the magazines. She was unaware, for example, that she was not the first woman to edit them, and so adopted a male pseudonym—\"Omar Gohagen\"—for a while.[20] She suggested a campaign to increase circulation, and went so far as to gather information about costs while on a trip to New York in 1979. Bernhard decided instead to merge the two magazines. Circulation was continuing to drop; the figures for the last two years are not available, but sf historian Mike Ashley estimates that Fantastic's paid circulation may have been as low as 13,000.[notes 3] Bernhard felt that since Fantastic had never been profitable, whereas Amazing had made money, it was best to keep Amazing.[20] Until the March 1985 issue, Amazing included a mention of Fantastic on the spine and on the contents page.[17] In 1999, the fiction magazine formerly known as Pirate Writings revived the Fantastic title and Cele Goldsmith-era logotype for several issues, ultimately unsuccessfully, though this was not intended as a continuation of the original magazine.[21]In August 2014, Warren Lapine, former editor of Absolute Magnitude, Realms of Fantasy, and Weird Tales, revived the Fantastic logotype of Fantastic Stories of the Imagination as a free webzine.[22]","title":"Publishing history"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Contents and reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fantastic_1952_Summer_front.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leo Summers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leo_Summers&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kris Neville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kris_Neville"},{"link_name":"Raymond Chandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Chandler"},{"link_name":"Park East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Park_East_(magazine)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Isaac Asimov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Asimov"},{"link_name":"Ray Bradbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Bradbury"},{"link_name":"Walter M. Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_M._Miller"},{"link_name":"Pierre Roy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Roy_(painter)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kyle_116-26"},{"link_name":"Donald Tuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_H._Tuck"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tuck_533-27"},{"link_name":"James Blish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Blish"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TIAH_23-28"},{"link_name":"Shirley Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Jackson"},{"link_name":"B. Traven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B._Traven"},{"link_name":"Truman Capote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truman_Capote"},{"link_name":"Evelyn Waugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn_Waugh"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"Mickey Spillane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mickey_Spillane"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"The Saturday Evening Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Saturday_Evening_Post"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-F_1955_10-29"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_48-51-7"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_162-30"},{"link_name":"Robert Silverberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Silverberg"},{"link_name":"Harlan Ellison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlan_Ellison"},{"link_name":"Randall Garrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randall_Garrett"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fantastic_October_1956_front.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ed Valigursky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Valigursky"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T172-3-31"},{"link_name":"Richard Shaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Sharpe_Shaver"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T183-4-32"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TTM179-183-33"}],"sub_title":"Browne and Fairman","text":"Cover of first issue; artwork by Barye Phillips and Leo Summers.The first issue of Fantastic was impressive, with a cover that sf historian Mike Ashley has described as \"one of the most captivating of all first issues\"; the painting, by Barye Phillips and Leo Summers, illustrated Kris Neville's \"The Opal Necklace\". The fiction included some stories by well known names; in particular, Raymond Chandler's \"Professor Bingo's Snuff\" would have caught readers' eyes—the story had appeared the year before in Park East magazine, but would have been new to most readers. It was a short mystery in which the fantasy element was invisibility, achieved by magical snuff. Isaac Asimov and Ray Bradbury also contributed stories, and the issue led with \"Six and Ten Are Johnny\", by Walter M. Miller. The rear cover reprinted Pierre Roy's painting \"Danger on the Stairs\", which depicted a snake on a staircase; it was an odd choice, but subsequent back covers were more natural fits for a fantasy magazine. The quality of the fiction continued to be high for the first year; sf historian Mike Ashley comments that almost every story in the first seven issues was of high quality,[7] and historian David Kyle regards it as an \"outstandingly successful experiment\".[23] Science fiction bibliographer Donald Tuck dissents, however, regarding the first few years as containing \"little of note\",[24] and James Blish wrote a contemporary review of the second issue which found it lacking: Blish dismissed three of the seven stories in the Fall 1952 issue as being essentially crime stories written for the sf market, and commented that of the remaining four, only two were \"reasonably competent and craftsmanlike\".[25]Other well-known writers appeared in the early issues, including Shirley Jackson, B. Traven, Truman Capote and Evelyn Waugh.[8] Mickey Spillane had written a story called \"The Woman With Green Skin\", but had been unable to sell it; Browne offered to buy it on condition that he had permission to rewrite it as he wished. This was agreed and Browne scrapped Spillane's text completely, writing a new story called \"The Veiled Woman\" and publishing it as by Spillane in the November–December 1952 issue. The issue sold so well it was reprinted, with over 300,000 copies sold.[7]The emphasis was on fantasy, and much of it was \"slick\" fantasy—the sort of genre fiction that the upmarket slick magazines, such as The Saturday Evening Post, were willing to buy.[8] Some science fiction appeared as well in the first couple of years, including Isaac Asimov's \"Sally\", which portrays a world in which cars have been given robotic brains and are intelligent.[7] In 1955 it was decided to move the focus from fantasy to sf: in Browne's words, \"Stories of straight fantasy were largely eliminated and straight science-fiction substituted, cover subject matter became of a scientific nature, the words \"science fiction\" appeared under the title, interior artwork was tightened up to replace the loose, 'arty' kind of drawing we had been using.\" Sales rose 17% within two issues.[7][26] Browne was uninterested in science fiction, however, and the quality of the fiction soon dropped, with a small stable of writers producing much of Fantastic's fiction under house names over the next couple of years.[7] By the start of 1956 the fiction in Fantastic was, in the opinion of sf historian Mike Ashley, \"[in] a trough of hack predictability\",[27] but there was some inventiveness evident from newer writers such as Robert Silverberg, Harlan Ellison and Randall Garrett.[8]The second wish fulfilment cover, for October 1956, by Ed ValigurskyAlthough Browne had been unable to make Fantastic successful by specializing in fantasy, he was still interested in the fantasy genre, and experimented in the December 1955 issue with the theme of wish fulfilment. He dropped the words \"Science Fiction\" from the cover, and published five stories, all of which dealt with male fantasies in one form or another. The cover showed a man walking through a wall to find a woman undressing; the art was by Ed Valigursky and illustrated Paul Fairman's \"All Walls Were Mist\". Reader reaction, according to Browne, was almost entirely favorable, and he continued to publish occasional stories on the wish-fulfilment theme. The experiment was repeated with the October 1956 issue, which again ran without \"Science Fiction\" on the cover, and contained stories on the theme of \"Incredible Powers\". Once again the cover illustrated a male fantasy: this time it showed a man materializing in a bath house where women were showering. Browne had left Ziff Davis by the time this issue appeared, but Browne's plans for a magazine around these themes were well advanced, and Fairman, who by this time was editing both Fantastic and Amazing, was given Dream World to edit as well. It ran for three quarterly issues, starting in February 1957, but proved too narrow a market to succeed.[28]Fairman devoted the July 1958 issue of Fantastic to the Shaver Mystery—a lurid set of beliefs propounded by Richard Shaver in the late 1940s that told of \"detrimental robots\", or \"deros\", who were behind many of the disasters that befell humanity. Most of these stories had run in Amazing, though the editor at that time, Ray Palmer, had been forced to drop Shaver by Ziff Davis when the stories began to attract ridicule in the press. Fantastic's readers were no kinder, complaining vigorously.[29][30]","title":"Contents and reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phyllis Gotlieb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phyllis_Gotlieb"},{"link_name":"Larry Eisenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Eisenberg"},{"link_name":"Ursula K. Le Guin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursula_K._Le_Guin"},{"link_name":"Thomas M. Disch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch"},{"link_name":"Piers Anthony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piers_Anthony"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"Fritz Leiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Leiber"},{"link_name":"Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fafhrd_and_the_Gray_Mouser"},{"link_name":"sword and sorcery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword_and_sorcery"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-issues-19"},{"link_name":"Cordwainer Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordwainer_Smith"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"Alex Schomburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Schomburg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_222-8-1"},{"link_name":"Science Fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Fantasy_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"Roger Zelazny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Zelazny"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CG_SFE-34"},{"link_name":"David R. Bunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_R._Bunch"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"}],"sub_title":"Goldsmith","text":"When Goldsmith took over as editor, there was some concern at Ziff Davis that she might not be able to handle the job. A consultant, Norman Lobsenz, was brought in to help her; Lobsenz's title was \"editorial director\", but in fact Goldsmith made the story selections. Lobsenz provided blurbs and editorials, read the stories Goldsmith bought, and met with Goldsmith every week or so. Goldsmith was not a long-time sf reader, and knew little about the field; she simply looked for good quality fiction and bought what she liked. In Mike Ashley's words, \"the result, between 1961 and 1964, was the two most exciting and original magazines in the field\". New writers whose first story appeared in Fantastic during this period included Phyllis Gotlieb, Larry Eisenberg, Ursula K. Le Guin, Thomas M. Disch, and Piers Anthony.[1] The November 1959 issue was dedicated to Fritz Leiber; it included \"Lean Times in Lankhmar\", one of Leiber's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories. Goldsmith published another half-dozen stories in the series over the next six years, along with other similar (and sometimes imitative) fiction such as early work by Michael Moorcock, and John Jakes' early stories of Brak the Barbarian. This helped to invigorate the nascent sword and sorcery subgenre.[1][8][17] Goldsmith obtained an early story by Cordwainer Smith, \"The Fife of Bodidharma\", which ran in the June 1959 issue, but shortly thereafter Pohl at Galaxy reached an agreement to get first refusal on all Smith's work.[1]During the early 1960s Goldsmith managed to make Fantastic and Amazing, in the words of Mike Ashley, \"the best-looking and brightest\" magazines around. This applied both to the covers, where Goldsmith used artists such as Alex Schomburg and Leo Summers, and the content.[1] Ashley also describes Fantastic as the \"premier fantasy magazine\" during Goldsmith's tenure—at that time the only other magazine focused specifically on fantasy fiction was the British Science Fantasy.[8]Goldsmith's tastes were too diverse for Fantastic to be limited to genre fantasy, however, and her willingness to buy fiction she liked, regardless of genre expectations, allowed many new writers to flourish on the pages of both Amazing and Fantastic. Writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin, Roger Zelazny and Thomas M. Disch sold regularly to her at the start of their careers[8] Le Guin later commented that Goldsmith was \"as enterprising and perceptive an editor as the science fiction magazines ever had\".[31] Not all Goldsmith's choices were universally popular with the magazine's subscribers: she regularly published fiction by David R. Bunch, for example, to mixed reviews from the readership.[8]","title":"Contents and reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fritz Leiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_Leiber"},{"link_name":"Fafhrd and Gray Mouser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fafhrd_and_Gray_Mouser"},{"link_name":"Hugo Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award_for_Best_Short_Story"},{"link_name":"Robert E. Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_E._Howard"},{"link_name":"Weird Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weird_Tales"},{"link_name":"Conan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conan_the_Barbarian"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"For a Breath I Tarry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For_a_Breath_I_Tarry"},{"link_name":"Roger Zelazny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Zelazny"},{"link_name":"New Worlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Worlds_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"Doris Piserchia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_Piserchia"},{"link_name":"Dean Koontz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_Koontz"},{"link_name":"Fantasy & Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_%26_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"},{"link_name":"James Tiptree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Tiptree_Jr."},{"link_name":"Leon Stover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Stover"},{"link_name":"John Sladek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sladek"},{"link_name":"Thomas M. Disch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_M._Disch"},{"link_name":"James Sallis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Sallis"},{"link_name":"New Wave science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Wave_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-T_263-8-13"}],"sub_title":"Reprint era","text":"Wrzos persuaded Cohen that both Amazing and Fantastic should carry a new story in every issue, rather than running nothing but reprints; Goldsmith had left a backlog of unpublished stories, and Wrzos was able to stretch these out for some time. One such story was Fritz Leiber's \"Stardock\", another Fafhrd and Gray Mouser story, which appeared in the September 1965 issue; it was subsequently nominated for a Hugo Award. The reprints were well received by the fans, because Wrzos was able to find good quality stories that were unavailable except in the original magazines, meaning that to many of Fantastic's readers they were fresh material. Wrzos also reprinted \"The People of the Black Circle\", a Robert E. Howard story from Weird Tales, in 1967, when Howard's Conan stories were becoming popular.[13]In addition to the backlog of new stories from the Ziff Davis era, Wrzos was able to acquire some new material. He was especially glad to acquire \"For a Breath I Tarry\", by Roger Zelazny; however, he had to wait for Cohen's approval for his acquisitions. Cohen, perhaps uncertain because of the story's originality, delayed until it appeared in the British magazine New Worlds before agreeing to publish it. Wrzos commented years later that he would \"never forgive him [Cohen] his timidity at that time\".[13] Wrzos bought Doris Piserchia's first story, \"Rocket to Gehenna\", and was the first editor to acquire a story by Dean Koontz. He had to work with Koontz to improve it, and the delay this caused, in addition to the slow publishing schedule for new material, meant that Koontz appeared in print with \"Soft Come the Dragons\", in the August 1967 Fantasy & Science Fiction, before \"A Darkness in My Soul\" appeared in the January 1968 Fantastic.[13]After Wrzos's departure, Harrison and Malzberg had little opportunity to reshape the magazine as between them they only took responsibility for a handful of issues before Ted White took over. However, Harrison did print James Tiptree's first sale, \"Fault\", in the August 1968 issue; again the slow schedule meant that this was not Tiptree's first appearance in print. Harrison added a science column by Leon Stover, but was unable to change Cohen's position on the reprints, and so could not print much new fiction. When Malzberg took over from Harrison he published John Sladek, Thomas M. Disch, and James Sallis, all of whom were associated with New Wave science fiction, but his tenure was too short for him to have a significant impact on the magazine.[13]","title":"Contents and reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fantastic_fonts.jpg"},{"link_name":"Analog Science Fiction and Fact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Fact"},{"link_name":"Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"Piers Anthony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piers_Anthony"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"Gordon Eklund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Eklund"},{"link_name":"Nebula Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula_Award_for_Best_Novelette"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_78-79-35"},{"link_name":"Brian Aldiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Aldiss"},{"link_name":"John Brunner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brunner_(novelist)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"Roger Ebert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Ebert"},{"link_name":"Ian McEwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_McEwan"},{"link_name":"First Love, Last Rites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Love,_Last_Rites"},{"link_name":"Somerset Maugham Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerset_Maugham_Award"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"Jeff Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Jones_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Vaughn Bodē","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaughn_Bod%C4%93"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"Judy-Lynn Benjamin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy-Lynn_del_Rey"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_39-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Jay Kinney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Kinney"},{"link_name":"Art Spiegelman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Spiegelman"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"Mike Hinge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Hinge"},{"link_name":"Mike Kaluta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Kaluta"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"fantasy genre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantastique"},{"link_name":"sword and sorcery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword_and_sorcery"},{"link_name":"Dean R. Koontz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_R._Koontz"},{"link_name":"Elric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elric"},{"link_name":"Michael Moorcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Moorcock"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"L. Sprague de Camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Sprague_de_Camp"},{"link_name":"Lin Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lin_Carter"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"Stephen Fabian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Fabian"},{"link_name":"Douglas Beekman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Douglas_Beekman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"George R. R. Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_R._R._Martin"},{"link_name":"Charles Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sheffield"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_69-86-18"},{"link_name":"Harlan Ellison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlan_Ellison"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"},{"link_name":"Brad Linaweaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Linaweaver"},{"link_name":"John E. Stith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_E._Stith"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"}],"sub_title":"White and Mavor","text":"The main variations in title fonts. Issues shown are Summer 1952, September–October 1953, January 1961, January 1964, June 1971, October 1978, and April 1979: each is the first issue which used each style shown.White was only able to offer his writers one cent per word, which was substantially lower than the leading magazines in the field—Analog Science Fiction and Fact paid five cents, and Galaxy and Fantasy & Science Fiction paid three. Most stories would only be submitted to White once the higher-paying markets had rejected them, but among the rejects White was sometimes able to find experimental material that he liked. For example, Piers Anthony had been unable to sell an early fantasy novel, Hasan; White saw a review of the manuscript and promptly acquired it for Fantastic, where it was serialized starting in the December 1969 issue.[16] White also took care to establish relationships with newer writers. White bought Gordon Eklund's first story, \"Dear Aunt Annie\", it appeared in the April 1970 issue and was nominated for a Nebula Award. Eklund was unwilling to become a full-time writer, despite this success, because of the financial risks, so White agreed to buy anything Eklund wrote, on condition that Eklund himself believed it was a good story. The result was that much of Eklund's fiction appeared in Amazing and Fantastic over the next few years.[32] In addition to experimental work, White was able to obtain material by some of the leading sf writers of the day, including Brian Aldiss and John Brunner.[16] White also acquired some early work by writers who became better known in other fields: Roger Ebert sold two stories in the early 1970s to Fantastic; the first, \"After the Last Mass\", appeared in the February 1972 issue; and in 1975 White bought Ian McEwan's second story, \"Solid Geometry\". It was included in First Love, Last Rites, McEwan's first short story collection, which won the Somerset Maugham Award in 1976.[16]White had been an active science fiction fan before he became professionally involved in the field, and although he estimated that only 1 in 30 readers were active sf fans, he tried to use this fan base to help by urging the readership to give him feedback and to help with distribution by checking local newsstands for the magazines. White wanted to introduce established artists from outside the sf field, such as Jeff Jones, Vaughn Bodē, and Steve Hickman; however, the company was saddled with cheap artwork acquired from European magazines to be used for the cover and he was instructed to make use of them.[16] He commissioned a comic strip from Vaughn Bodé, but was outbid by Judy-Lynn Benjamin at Galaxy; he subsequently told his readers that he'd signed up Bodé again for interior artwork, but this never materialized.[33][34][35] Instead a four-page comic strip by Jay Kinney appeared in December 1970; a second strip, by Art Spiegelman, was planned, but never published.[16] Eventually White was allowed to commission original cover art; he published early work by Mike Hinge, and Mike Kaluta made his first professional sale to Fantastic. He tried to hire Hinge as art director, but this fell through and White filled the role himself, sometimes using the pseudonym \"J. Edwards\".[16]Because of poor distribution, Fantastic was never able to benefit from the increasing popularity of the fantasy genre, though White was able to publish several stories by well-known writers in the field, including a sword and sorcery novella by Dean R. Koontz, which appeared in the October 1970 issue, and an Elric story by Michael Moorcock in February 1972.[8][16] A revival of Robert E. Howard's character Conan, in stories by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter, was successful at increasing sales; the first of these stories appeared in August 1972, and White reported that sales of that issue were higher than for any other issue of Amazing or Fantastic that year. Each Conan story, according to White, increased sales of that issue by 10,000 copies. White also published several of Fritz Leiber's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser stories, and added \"Sword and Sorcery\" to the cover in 1975.[16] In the same year a companion magazine, Sword & Sorcery Annual, was launched, but the first issue was the only one to appear.[8]The quality of the magazine remained high even as the financial stress was mounting in the late 1970s. White acquired cover artwork by Stephen Fabian and Douglas Beekman, and stories by some of the new generation of sf writers, such as George R. R. Martin and Charles Sheffield.[16] White departed in November 1978, but the first issue of Fantastic under Elinor Mavor's editorial control was April 1979. Because White had returned unsold stories she had very little to work with and was forced to fill the magazine with reprints. This led to renewed conflict with the sf community, which she did her best to defuse. At a convention in 1979 she met Harlan Ellison, who complained about the reprint policy; she explained that it was temporary and was able to get him to agree to contribute stories, publishing two pieces by him in Amazing over the next three years. The January 1980 issue of Fantastic (Mavor's fourth issue) was the last to contain reprinted stories.[20] Once the reprints had been phased out, Mavor was able to find new writers to work with, including Brad Linaweaver and John E. Stith, both of whom sold their first stories to Fantastic.[20] The last year of Fantastic showed \"a steady improvement in content\", according to Mike Ashley, who cites in particular Daemon, a serialized graphic story, illustrated by Stephen Fabian. However, at the end of 1980 Fantastic's independent existence ceased, and it was merged with Amazing.[20]","title":"Contents and reception"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Publication details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_230-1-39"}],"sub_title":"Editors","text":"The list below gives the person who was acting as editor. In some cases, such as at the start of Cele Goldsmith's stint, the official editor was not the same person; details are given above.[36]Howard Browne (Summer 1952 – August 1956).\nPaul Fairman (October 1956 – November 1958).\nCele Goldsmith (December 1958 – June 1965). Goldsmith used her married name, Cele G. Lalli, from July 1964.\nJoseph Ross (September 1965 – November 1967).\nHarry Harrison (January 1968 – October 1968).\nBarry N. Malzberg (December 1968 – April 1969).\nTed White (June 1969 – January 1979)\nElinor Mavor (April 1979 – October 1980)","title":"Publication details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-issues-19"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_231-40"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-issues-19"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_230-1-39"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tuck_533-27"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_230-1-39"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_230-1-39"}],"sub_title":"Other bibliographic details","text":"The title changed multiple times, and was frequently inconsistently given between the cover, spine, indicia, and masthead.[17][37]The following table shows which issues appeared from which publisher.[17][36]A British edition published by Thorpe & Porter ran for eight bimonthly issues from December 1953 to February 1955; the issues were not dated on the cover. These correspond to the US issues from September/October 1953 to December 1954, and were numbered volume 1, numbers 1 through 8.[24][36]Fantastic was digest-sized throughout its life. The page count began at 160 but dropped to 144 with the September/October 1953 issue, and then again to 128 pages with the very next issue, November/December 1953. The July 1960 issue had 144 pages, but apart from that one issue the page count stayed at 128 until September 1965, when it increased to 160. In January 1968 it went back down to 144 pages, and it dropped to 128 pages from February 1971 through the end of its run. The first issue was priced at 35 cents; thereafter the price went up as follows: 50 cents in May 1963, 60 cents in December 1969, 75 cents in July 1974, $1.00 in October 1975, $1.25 in April 1978, and finally $1.50 from April 1979 until the last issue.[36]","title":"Publication details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EF_Fantastic-8"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFW_230-1-39"}],"sub_title":"Derivative anthologies","text":"Three anthologies of stories from Fantastic have been published. Note that Time Untamed contains stories that were published in Fantastic during its reprint years, but which did not necessarily first appear there.[8][36]","title":"Publication details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GTF_347-53-22"}],"text":"^ Cohen was Galaxy's publisher, but not the owner; the owner was Robert Guinn, who is also often referred to as the publisher.[14]\n\n^ \"Second serial rights\" are rights to reprint in a magazine or newspaper.[15]\n\n^ The circulation figures were published from 1962 through 1979, but not for 1980 as Fantastic did not exist in 1981 to publish the data. In addition the 1979 data is almost certainly incorrect as it is an exact duplicate of the 1978 data, so there is no available circulation data for 1979 either.[20]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-85323-865-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85323-865-0"},{"link_name":"Transformations: The Story of the Science Fiction Magazines from 1950 to 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/transformationsv0000ashl"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-85323-779-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85323-779-4"},{"link_name":"Gateways to Forever: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines from 1970 to 1980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/gatewaystoforeve0000ashl"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84631-003-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84631-003-4"},{"link_name":"The Encyclopedia of Fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffa0000unse_s7g7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-15897-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-15897-1"},{"link_name":"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsc00ies1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-312-09618-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-09618-6"},{"link_name":"The World of Science Fiction: 1926–1976: The History of a Subculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/worldofsciencefi00delr"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-345-25452-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-25452-X"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-600-38193-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-600-38193-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-575-02672-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-575-02672-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-911682-26-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-911682-26-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-313-21221-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-21221-X"}],"text":"Ashley, Mike (2000). The Time Machines: The Story of the Science-Fiction Pulp Magazines from the beginning to 1950. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-865-0.\nAshley, Mike (2005). Transformations: The Story of the Science Fiction Magazines from 1950 to 1970. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-779-4.\nAshley, Mike (2007). Gateways to Forever: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines from 1970 to 1980. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-84631-003-4.\nAtheling Jr., William (1967). The Issue at Hand. Chicago: Advent, Inc.\nClute, John; Grant, John (1997). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc. ISBN 0-312-15897-1.\nClute, John; Peter Nicholls (1993). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-09618-6.\nde Camp, L. Sprague (1953). Science-Fiction Handbook: The Writing of Imaginative Fiction. New York: Hermitage House.\ndel Rey, Lester (1979). The World of Science Fiction: 1926–1976: The History of a Subculture. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-25452-X.\nKyle, David (1977). The Pictorial History of Science Fiction. London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-38193-5.\nPohl, Frederik (1979). The Way the Future Was. London: Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-02672-3.\nTuck, Donald H. (1982). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Volume 3. Chicago: Advent. ISBN 0-911682-26-0.\nTymn, Marshall B.; Mike Ashley (1985). Science Fiction, Fantasy and Weird Fiction Magazines. West: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-21221-X.","title":"Sources"}]
[{"image_text":"Circulation and sellthrough (percentage of print run sold) for Fantastic","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Fantastic_circulation_graph.png/400px-Fantastic_circulation_graph.png"},{"image_text":"Cover of first issue; artwork by Barye Phillips and Leo Summers.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Fantastic_1952_Summer_front.jpg/220px-Fantastic_1952_Summer_front.jpg"},{"image_text":"The second wish fulfilment cover, for October 1956, by Ed Valigursky","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Fantastic_October_1956_front.jpg/220px-Fantastic_October_1956_front.jpg"},{"image_text":"The main variations in title fonts. Issues shown are Summer 1952, September–October 1953, January 1961, January 1964, June 1971, October 1978, and April 1979: each is the first issue which used each style shown.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Fantastic_fonts.jpg/200px-Fantastic_fonts.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"What Are First Serial Rights (or FNASR)?\". Writers' Digest. Retrieved 14 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.writersdigest.com/editor-blogs/questions-and-quandaries/dealing-with-editors/what-are-first-serial-rights-or-fnasr","url_text":"\"What Are First Serial Rights (or FNASR)?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Magazine:Fantastic – ISFDB\". Al von Ruff. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120119184116/http://www.isfdb.org/wiki/index.php/Magazine:Fantastic","url_text":"\"Magazine:Fantastic – ISFDB\""},{"url":"http://www.isfdb.org/wiki/index.php/Magazine:Fantastic","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Pirate Writings\". Gollancz/SFE Ltd. Retrieved 15 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/Entry/pirate_writings","url_text":"\"Pirate Writings\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fantastic Stories of the Imagination Returns\". Wilder Publications. Archived from the original on 29 November 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141129052631/http://www.fantasticstoriesoftheimagination.com/editorial-welcome-to-the-new-fantastic-stories-magazine/","url_text":"\"Fantastic Stories of the Imagination Returns\""},{"url":"http://www.fantasticstoriesoftheimagination.com/editorial-welcome-to-the-new-fantastic-stories-magazine/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"According to You\". Fantastic. 20 (2): 135. December 1970.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Editorial\". Fantastic. 20 (2): 143. December 1970.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ashley, Mike (2000). The Time Machines: The Story of the Science-Fiction Pulp Magazines from the beginning to 1950. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-865-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85323-865-0","url_text":"0-85323-865-0"}]},{"reference":"Ashley, Mike (2005). Transformations: The Story of the Science Fiction Magazines from 1950 to 1970. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 0-85323-779-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/transformationsv0000ashl","url_text":"Transformations: The Story of the Science Fiction Magazines from 1950 to 1970"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85323-779-4","url_text":"0-85323-779-4"}]},{"reference":"Ashley, Mike (2007). Gateways to Forever: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines from 1970 to 1980. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-84631-003-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gatewaystoforeve0000ashl","url_text":"Gateways to Forever: The Story of the Science-Fiction Magazines from 1970 to 1980"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84631-003-4","url_text":"978-1-84631-003-4"}]},{"reference":"Atheling Jr., William (1967). The Issue at Hand. Chicago: Advent, Inc.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Clute, John; Grant, John (1997). The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc. ISBN 0-312-15897-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaoffa0000unse_s7g7","url_text":"The Encyclopedia of Fantasy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-15897-1","url_text":"0-312-15897-1"}]},{"reference":"Clute, John; Peter Nicholls (1993). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-09618-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofsc00ies1","url_text":"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-09618-6","url_text":"0-312-09618-6"}]},{"reference":"de Camp, L. Sprague (1953). Science-Fiction Handbook: The Writing of Imaginative Fiction. New York: Hermitage House.","urls":[]},{"reference":"del Rey, Lester (1979). The World of Science Fiction: 1926–1976: The History of a Subculture. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-25452-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/worldofsciencefi00delr","url_text":"The World of Science Fiction: 1926–1976: The History of a Subculture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-25452-X","url_text":"0-345-25452-X"}]},{"reference":"Kyle, David (1977). The Pictorial History of Science Fiction. London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-38193-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-600-38193-5","url_text":"0-600-38193-5"}]},{"reference":"Pohl, Frederik (1979). The Way the Future Was. London: Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-02672-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-575-02672-3","url_text":"0-575-02672-3"}]},{"reference":"Tuck, Donald H. (1982). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Volume 3. Chicago: Advent. ISBN 0-911682-26-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-911682-26-0","url_text":"0-911682-26-0"}]},{"reference":"Tymn, Marshall B.; Mike Ashley (1985). Science Fiction, Fantasy and Weird Fiction Magazines. West: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-21221-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-21221-X","url_text":"0-313-21221-X"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtualisation
Virtualization
["1 Hardware virtualization","1.1 Snapshots","1.2 Migration","1.3 Failover","1.4 Video game console emulation","1.5 Nested virtualization","1.6 Licensing","2 Desktop virtualization","3 Containerization","4 Other types","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
Act of creating an emulation of something In computing, virtualization or virtualisation in British English (sometimes abbreviated v12n, a numeronym) is the act of creating a virtual (rather than actual) version of something at the same abstraction level, including virtual computer hardware platforms, storage devices, and computer network resources. Virtualization began in the 1960s, as a method of logically dividing the system resources provided by mainframe computers between different applications. An early and successful example is IBM CP/CMS. The control program CP provided each user with a simulated stand-alone System/360 computer. Since then, the meaning of the term has broadened. Popular examples of virtualization software includes VirtualBox and VMware Workstation Player. Hardware virtualization Main article: Hardware virtualization See also: Mobile virtualization Hardware virtualization or platform virtualization refers to the creation of a virtual machine that acts like a real computer with an operating system. Software executed on these virtual machines is separated from the underlying hardware resources. For example, a computer that is running Arch Linux may host a virtual machine that looks like a computer with the Microsoft Windows operating system; Windows-based software can be run on the virtual machine. In hardware virtualization, the host machine is the machine that is used by the virtualization and the guest machine is the virtual machine. The words host and guest are used to distinguish the software that runs on the physical machine from the software that runs on the virtual machine. The software or firmware that creates a virtual machine on the host hardware is called a hypervisor or virtual machine monitor. Different types of hardware virtualization include: Full virtualization – Almost complete simulation of the actual hardware to allow software environments, including a guest operating system and its apps, to run unmodified. Paravirtualization – The guest apps are executed in their own isolated domains, as if they are running on a separate system, but a hardware environment is not simulated. Guest programs need to be specifically modified to run in this environment. Hardware-assisted virtualization is a way of improving overall efficiency of virtualization. It involves CPUs that provide support for virtualization in hardware, and other hardware components that help improve the performance of a guest environment. Hardware virtualization can be viewed as part of an overall trend in enterprise IT that includes autonomic computing, a scenario in which the IT environment will be able to manage itself based on perceived activity, and utility computing, in which computer processing power is seen as a utility that clients can pay for only as needed. The usual goal of virtualization is to centralize administrative tasks while improving scalability and overall hardware-resource utilization. With virtualization, several operating systems can be run in parallel on a single central processing unit (CPU). This parallelism tends to reduce overhead costs and differs from multitasking, which involves running several programs on the same OS. Using virtualization, an enterprise can better manage updates and rapid changes to the operating system and applications without disrupting the user. "Ultimately, virtualization dramatically improves the efficiency and availability of resources and applications in an organization. Instead of relying on the old model of "one server, one application" that leads to underutilized resources, virtual resources are dynamically applied to meet business needs without any excess fat" (ConsonusTech). Hardware virtualization is not the same as hardware emulation. In hardware emulation, a piece of hardware imitates another, while in hardware virtualization, a hypervisor (a piece of software) imitates a particular piece of computer hardware or the entire computer. Furthermore, a hypervisor is not the same as an emulator; both are computer programs that imitate hardware, but their domain of use in language differs. Snapshots Main article: Snapshot (computer storage) A snapshot is a state of a virtual machine, and generally its storage devices, at an exact point in time. A snapshot enables the virtual machine's state at the time of the snapshot to be restored later, effectively undoing any changes that occurred afterwards. This capability is useful as a backup technique, for example, prior to performing a risky operation. Virtual machines frequently use virtual disks for their storage; in a very simple example, a 10-gigabyte hard disk drive is simulated with a 10-gigabyte flat file. Any requests by the VM for a location on its physical disk are transparently translated into an operation on the corresponding file. Once such a translation layer is present, however, it is possible to intercept the operations and send them to different files, depending on various criteria. Every time a snapshot is taken, a new file is created, and used as an overlay for its predecessors. New data is written to the topmost overlay; reading existing data, however, needs the overlay hierarchy to be scanned, resulting in accessing the most recent version. Thus, the entire stack of snapshots is virtually a single coherent disk; in that sense, creating snapshots works similarly to the incremental backup technique. Other components of a virtual machine can also be included in a snapshot, such as the contents of its random-access memory (RAM), BIOS settings, or its configuration settings. "Save state" feature in video game console emulators is an example of such snapshots. Restoring a snapshot consists of discarding or disregarding all overlay layers that are added after that snapshot, and directing all new changes to a new overlay. Migration Main article: Migration (virtualization) The snapshots described above can be moved to another host machine with its own hypervisor; when the VM is temporarily stopped, snapshotted, moved, and then resumed on the new host, this is known as migration. If the older snapshots are kept in sync regularly, this operation can be quite fast, and allow the VM to provide uninterrupted service while its prior physical host is, for example, taken down for physical maintenance. Failover Main article: Failover Similar to the migration mechanism described above, failover allows the VM to continue operations if the host fails. Generally it occurs if the migration has stopped working. However, in this case, the VM continues operation from the last-known coherent state, rather than the current state, based on whatever materials the backup server was last provided with. Video game console emulation Main article: Video game console emulator A video game console emulator is a program that allows a personal computer or video game console to emulate a different video game console's behavior. Video game console emulators and hypervisors both perform hardware virtualization; words like "virtualization", "virtual machine", "host" and "guest" are not used in conjunction with console emulators. Nested virtualization Nested virtualization refers to the ability of running a virtual machine within another, having this general concept extendable to an arbitrary depth. In other words, nested virtualization refers to running one or more hypervisors inside another hypervisor. The nature of a nested guest virtual machine does not need not be homogeneous with its host virtual machine; for example, application virtualization can be deployed within a virtual machine created by using hardware virtualization. Nested virtualization becomes more necessary as widespread operating systems gain built-in hypervisor functionality, which in a virtualized environment can be used only if the surrounding hypervisor supports nested virtualization; for example, Windows 7 is capable of running Windows XP applications inside a built-in virtual machine. Furthermore, moving already existing virtualized environments into a cloud, following the Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) approach, is much more complicated if the destination IaaS platform does not support nested virtualization. The way nested virtualization can be implemented on a particular computer architecture depends on supported hardware-assisted virtualization capabilities. If a particular architecture does not provide hardware support required for nested virtualization, various software techniques are employed to enable it. Over time, more architectures gain required hardware support; for example, since the Haswell microarchitecture (announced in 2013), Intel started to include VMCS shadowing as a technology that accelerates nested virtualization. Licensing Virtual machines running proprietary operating systems require licensing, regardless of the host machine's operating system. For example, installing Microsoft Windows into a VM guest requires its licensing requirements to be satisfied. Desktop virtualization Main article: Desktop virtualization Desktop virtualization is the concept of separating the logical desktop from the physical machine. One form of desktop virtualization, virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI), can be thought of as a more advanced form of hardware virtualization. Rather than interacting with a host computer directly via a keyboard, mouse, and monitor, the user interacts with the host computer using another desktop computer or a mobile device by means of a network connection, such as a LAN, Wireless LAN or even the Internet. In addition, the host computer in this scenario becomes a server computer capable of hosting multiple virtual machines at the same time for multiple users. As organizations continue to virtualize and converge their data center environment, client architectures also continue to evolve in order to take advantage of the predictability, continuity, and quality of service delivered by their converged infrastructure. For example, companies like HP and IBM provide a hybrid VDI model with a range of virtualization software and delivery models to improve upon the limitations of distributed client computing. Selected client environments move workloads from PCs and other devices to data center servers, creating well-managed virtual clients, with applications and client operating environments hosted on servers and storage in the data center. For users, this means they can access their desktop from any location, without being tied to a single client device. Since the resources are centralized, users moving between work locations can still access the same client environment with their applications and data. For IT administrators, this means a more centralized, efficient client environment that is easier to maintain and able to more quickly respond to the changing needs of the user and business. Another form, session virtualization, allows multiple users to connect and log into a shared but powerful computer over the network and use it simultaneously. Each is given a desktop and a personal folder in which they store their files. With multiseat configuration, session virtualization can be accomplished using a single PC with multiple monitors, keyboards, and mice connected. Thin clients, which are seen in desktop virtualization, are simple and/or cheap computers that are primarily designed to connect to the network. They may lack significant hard disk storage space, RAM or even processing power, but many organizations are beginning to look at the cost benefits of eliminating "thick client" desktops that are packed with software (and require software licensing fees) and making more strategic investments. Desktop virtualization simplifies software versioning and patch management, where the new image is simply updated on the server, and the desktop gets the updated version when it reboots. It also enables centralized control over what applications the user is allowed to have access to on the workstation. Moving virtualized desktops into the cloud creates hosted virtual desktops (HVDs), in which the desktop images are centrally managed and maintained by a specialist hosting firm. Benefits include scalability and the reduction of capital expenditure, which is replaced by a monthly operational cost. Containerization Main article: Operating-system-level virtualization Operating-system-level virtualization, also known as containerization, refers to an operating system feature in which the kernel allows the existence of multiple isolated user-space instances. Such instances, called containers, partitions, virtual environments (VEs) or jails (FreeBSD jail or chroot jail), may look like real computers from the point of view of programs running in them. A computer program running on an ordinary operating system can see all resources (connected devices, files and folders, network shares, CPU power, quantifiable hardware capabilities) of that computer. However, programs running inside a container can only see the container's contents and devices assigned to the container. This provides many of the benefits that virtual machines have such as standardization and scalability, while using less resources as the kernel is shared between containers. Containerization started gaining prominence in 2014, with the introduction of Docker. Other types Software Application virtualization and workspace virtualization: isolating individual apps from the underlying OS and other apps; closely associated with the concept of portable applications Service virtualization: emulating the behavior of specific components in heterogeneous component-based applications such as API-driven applications, cloud-based applications and service-oriented architectures Memory Memory virtualization: aggregating random-access memory (RAM) resources from networked systems into a single memory pool Virtual memory: giving an app the impression that it has contiguous working memory, isolating it from the underlying physical memory implementation Storage Storage virtualization: the process of completely abstracting logical storage from physical storage Distributed file system: any file system that allows access to files from multiple hosts sharing via a computer network Virtual file system: an abstraction layer on top of a more concrete file system, allowing client applications to access different types of concrete file systems in a uniform way Storage hypervisor: the software that manages storage virtualization and combines physical storage resources into one or more flexible pools of logical storage Virtual disk: a computer program that emulates a disk drive such as a hard disk drive or optical disk drive (see comparison of disc image software) Data Data virtualization: the presentation of data as an abstract layer, independent of underlying database systems, structures and storage Database virtualization: the decoupling of the database layer, which lies between the storage and application layers within the application stack over all Network Network virtualization: creation of a virtualized network addressing space within or across network subnets Virtual private network (VPN): a network protocol that replaces the actual wire or other physical media in a network with an abstract layer, allowing a network to be created over the Internet Network Protocol Virtualization: decoupling networking layers in order to accelerate the deployment and management of networks See also AI-assisted virtualization software Timeline of virtualization development Network function virtualization Digital twin Emulation (computing) Computer simulation Containerization Consolidation ratio I/O virtualization Application checkpointing Virtual art OS virtualization and emulation on Android Application virtualization User virtualization References ^ Graziano, Charles. "A performance analysis of Xen and KVM hypervisors for hosting the Xen Worlds Project". Retrieved 2013-01-29. ^ Turban, E; King, D; Lee, J; Viehland, D (2008). "Chapter 19: Building E-Commerce Applications and Infrastructure". Electronic Commerce A Managerial Perspective. Prentice-Hall. p. 27. ^ "Virtualization in education" (PDF). IBM. October 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2010. A virtual computer is a logical representation of a computer in software. By decoupling the physical hardware from the operating system, virtualization provides more operational flexibility and increases the utilization rate of the underlying physical hardware. ^ Turban, E; King, D.; Lee, J.; Viehland, D. (2008). "19". Electronic Commerce A Managerial Perspective (PDF) (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall. p. 27. ^ "Virtualization in education" (PDF). IBM. October 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2010. ^ "Virtualization in education" (PDF). IBM. October 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2010. ^ Creasy, R.J. (1981). "The Origin of the VM/370 Time-sharing System" (PDF). IBM. Retrieved 26 February 2013. ^ Orit Wasserman, Red Hat (2013). "Nested virtualization: Shadow turtles" (PDF). KVM forum. Retrieved 2021-05-07. ^ a b Muli Ben-Yehuda; Michael D. Day; Zvi Dubitzky; Michael Factor; Nadav Har’El; Abel Gordon; Anthony Liguori; Orit Wasserman; Ben-Ami Yassour (2010-09-23). "The Turtles Project: Design and Implementation of Nested Virtualization" (PDF). usenix.org. Retrieved 2014-12-16. ^ Alex Fishman; Mike Rapoport; Evgeny Budilovsky; Izik Eidus (2013-06-25). "HVX: Virtualizing the Cloud" (PDF). rackcdn.com. Retrieved 2014-12-16. ^ "4th-Gen Intel Core vPro Processors with Intel VMCS Shadowing" (PDF). Intel. 2013. Retrieved 2014-12-16. ^ Foley, Mary Jo (5 July 2012). "Microsoft goes public with Windows Server 2012 versions, licensing". ZDNet. CBS Interactive. Finn explained that Standard covers 2 CPUs in a host, and goes from one VOSE (virtual operating system environment - 1 free Std install in a VM on that host) to two, and 'now has all the features and scalability of Datacenter.' He noted there will be a small price increase, but said he thought that wouldn't matter, as it 'should be virtualized anyway and the VOSE rights doubling will compensate. Windows Server Datacenter was a minimum of two 1-CPU licenses with unlimited VOSEs. 'Now it is a simpler SKU that covers two CPUs in a host with unlimited VOSEs,' Finn said. ^ "Windows Server 2012 Licensing and Pricing FAQ" (PDF). Microsoft. Retrieved 5 July 2012. ^ "Licensing Windows desktop operating system for use with virtual machines" (PDF). microsoft.com. Microsoft. Retrieved 22 December 2018. ^ a b "Strategies for Embracing Consumerization" (PDF). Microsoft Corporation. April 2011. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 August 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011. ^ a b Chernicoff, David, "HP VDI Moves to Center Stage", ZDNet, August 19, 2011. ^ Baburajan, Rajani, "The Rising Cloud Storage Market Opportunity Strengthens Vendors", infoTECH, August 24, 2011. It.tmcnet.com. 2011-08-24. ^ "Desktop Virtualization Tries to Find Its Place in the Enterprise". Dell.com. Retrieved 2012-06-19. ^ "HVD: the cloud's silver lining" (PDF). Intrinsic Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2012. ^ Hogg, Scott (2014-05-26). "Software Containers: Used More Frequently than Most Realize". Network World. Network World, Inc. Retrieved 2015-07-09. ^ Gandhi, Rajeev (2019-02-06). "The Benefits of Containerization and What It Means for You". IBM Blog. Retrieved 2024-03-15. ^ Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. (21 March 2018). "What is Docker and why is it so darn popular?". ZDNet. CBS Interactive. ^ Butler, Brandon (10 June 2014). "Docker 101: What it is and why it's important". Network World. IDG. ^ "Enterprise Systems Group White paper, Page 5" (PDF). Enterprise Strategy Group White Paper written and published on August 20, 2011 by Mark Peters. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 30, 2012. Retrieved July 18, 2013. External links Look up virtualization in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Virtualization. An Introduction to Virtualization Archived 2020-10-22 at the Wayback Machine, January 2004, by Amit Singh vteVirtualization softwareComparison of platform virtualization softwareHardware(hypervisors)Native Adeos CP/CMS Hyper-V KVM oVirt KubeVirt LDoms / Oracle VM Server for SPARC Logical partition (LPAR) LynxSecure PikeOS Proxmox VE QNX SIMMON VMware ESXi VMware vSphere vCloud VMware Infrastructure Xen XenServer XCP-ng XtratuM z/VM HostedSpecialized Basilisk II Bochs Cooperative Linux DOSBox DOSEMU PCem 86Box PikeOS SheepShaver SIMH Windows on Windows Virtual DOS machine Win4Lin Independent bhyve Microsoft Virtual Server Parallels Workstation (Extreme) Parallels Desktop for Mac Parallels Server for Mac PearPC QEMU VirtualBox Virtual Iron Virtual PC VMware Fusion VMware Server VMware Workstation (Player) Tools Ganeti System Center Virtual Machine Manager Virt-manager OperatingsystemOS containers FreeBSD jail iCore Virtual Accounts Linux-VServer Linux Containers OpenVZ Solaris Containers Virtuozzo Workload Partitions Application containers Docker Podman lmctfy rkt Virtual kernel architectures Rump kernel User-mode Linux vkernel Related kernel features BrandZ cgroups chroot namespaces eBPF seccomp Orchestration Amazon ECS Kubernetes OpenShift Desktop Citrix Virtual Apps Citrix Virtual Desktops Remote Desktop Services VMware Horizon Application Ceedo Citrix Virtual Apps Dalvik InstallFree Microsoft App-V Remote Desktop Services Symantec Workspace Virtualization Turbo VMware ThinApp ZeroVM Network Distributed Overlay Virtual Ethernet (DOVE) Ethernet VPN (EVPN) NVGRE Open vSwitch Virtual security switch Virtual Extensible LAN (VXLAN) Generic Network Virtualization Encapsulation (GENEVE) See also BlueStacks See also: List of emulators, List of computer system emulators Authority control databases: National Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"numeronym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numeronym"},{"link_name":"computer hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"storage devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage_device"},{"link_name":"computer network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"mainframe computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer"},{"link_name":"CP/CMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP/CMS"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IowaState-1"},{"link_name":"VirtualBox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VirtualBox"},{"link_name":"VMware Workstation Player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMware_Workstation_Player"}],"text":"In computing, virtualization or virtualisation in British English (sometimes abbreviated v12n, a numeronym) is the act of creating a virtual (rather than actual) version of something at the same abstraction level, including virtual computer hardware platforms, storage devices, and computer network resources.Virtualization began in the 1960s, as a method of logically dividing the system resources provided by mainframe computers between different applications. An early and successful example is IBM CP/CMS. The control program CP provided each user with a simulated stand-alone System/360 computer. Since then, the meaning of the term has broadened.[1]Popular examples of virtualization software includes VirtualBox and VMware Workstation Player.","title":"Virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mobile virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_virtualization"},{"link_name":"virtual machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine"},{"link_name":"Arch Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arch_Linux"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"host machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_machine"},{"link_name":"firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware"},{"link_name":"hypervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Full virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_virtualization"},{"link_name":"Paravirtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paravirtualization"},{"link_name":"Hardware-assisted virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware-assisted_virtualization"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"autonomic computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_computing"},{"link_name":"utility computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_computing"},{"link_name":"scalability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalability"},{"link_name":"central processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"hardware emulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_emulation"},{"link_name":"hypervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"emulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-7"}],"text":"See also: Mobile virtualizationHardware virtualization or platform virtualization refers to the creation of a virtual machine that acts like a real computer with an operating system. Software executed on these virtual machines is separated from the underlying hardware resources. For example, a computer that is running Arch Linux may host a virtual machine that looks like a computer with the Microsoft Windows operating system; Windows-based software can be run on the virtual machine.[2][3]In hardware virtualization, the host machine is the machine that is used by the virtualization and the guest machine is the virtual machine. The words host and guest are used to distinguish the software that runs on the physical machine from the software that runs on the virtual machine. The software or firmware that creates a virtual machine on the host hardware is called a hypervisor or virtual machine monitor.[4]Different types of hardware virtualization include:Full virtualization – Almost complete simulation of the actual hardware to allow software environments, including a guest operating system and its apps, to run unmodified.\nParavirtualization – The guest apps are executed in their own isolated domains, as if they are running on a separate system, but a hardware environment is not simulated. Guest programs need to be specifically modified to run in this environment.Hardware-assisted virtualization is a way of improving overall efficiency of virtualization. It involves CPUs that provide support for virtualization in hardware, and other hardware components that help improve the performance of a guest environment.[5]Hardware virtualization can be viewed as part of an overall trend in enterprise IT that includes autonomic computing, a scenario in which the IT environment will be able to manage itself based on perceived activity, and utility computing, in which computer processing power is seen as a utility that clients can pay for only as needed. The usual goal of virtualization is to centralize administrative tasks while improving scalability and overall hardware-resource utilization. With virtualization, several operating systems can be run in parallel on a single central processing unit (CPU). This parallelism tends to reduce overhead costs and differs from multitasking, which involves running several programs on the same OS. Using virtualization, an enterprise can better manage updates and rapid changes to the operating system and applications without disrupting the user. \"Ultimately, virtualization dramatically improves the efficiency and availability of resources and applications in an organization. Instead of relying on the old model of \"one server, one application\" that leads to underutilized resources, virtual resources are dynamically applied to meet business needs without any excess fat\" (ConsonusTech).[6]Hardware virtualization is not the same as hardware emulation. In hardware emulation, a piece of hardware imitates another, while in hardware virtualization, a hypervisor (a piece of software) imitates a particular piece of computer hardware or the entire computer. Furthermore, a hypervisor is not the same as an emulator; both are computer programs that imitate hardware, but their domain of use in language differs.[7]","title":"Hardware virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"backup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"virtual disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_image#Virtualization"},{"link_name":"gigabyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabyte"},{"link_name":"hard disk drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive"},{"link_name":"flat file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_file"},{"link_name":"incremental backup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incremental_backup"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"random-access memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"Save state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_state"},{"link_name":"video game console emulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console_emulator"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Snapshots","text":"A snapshot is a state of a virtual machine, and generally its storage devices, at an exact point in time. A snapshot enables the virtual machine's state at the time of the snapshot to be restored later, effectively undoing any changes that occurred afterwards. This capability is useful as a backup technique, for example, prior to performing a risky operation.[citation needed]Virtual machines frequently use virtual disks for their storage; in a very simple example, a 10-gigabyte hard disk drive is simulated with a 10-gigabyte flat file. Any requests by the VM for a location on its physical disk are transparently translated into an operation on the corresponding file. Once such a translation layer is present, however, it is possible to intercept the operations and send them to different files, depending on various criteria. Every time a snapshot is taken, a new file is created, and used as an overlay for its predecessors. New data is written to the topmost overlay; reading existing data, however, needs the overlay hierarchy to be scanned, resulting in accessing the most recent version. Thus, the entire stack of snapshots is virtually a single coherent disk; in that sense, creating snapshots works similarly to the incremental backup technique.[citation needed]Other components of a virtual machine can also be included in a snapshot, such as the contents of its random-access memory (RAM), BIOS settings, or its configuration settings. \"Save state\" feature in video game console emulators is an example of such snapshots.[citation needed]Restoring a snapshot consists of discarding or disregarding all overlay layers that are added after that snapshot, and directing all new changes to a new overlay.[citation needed]","title":"Hardware virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Migration","text":"The snapshots described above can be moved to another host machine with its own hypervisor; when the VM is temporarily stopped, snapshotted, moved, and then resumed on the new host, this is known as migration. If the older snapshots are kept in sync regularly, this operation can be quite fast, and allow the VM to provide uninterrupted service while its prior physical host is, for example, taken down for physical maintenance.[citation needed]","title":"Hardware virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Failover","text":"Similar to the migration mechanism described above, failover allows the VM to continue operations if the host fails. Generally it occurs if the migration has stopped working. However, in this case, the VM continues operation from the last-known coherent state, rather than the current state, based on whatever materials the backup server was last provided with.[citation needed]","title":"Hardware virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"personal computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer"},{"link_name":"video game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console"},{"link_name":"hypervisors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Video game console emulation","text":"A video game console emulator is a program that allows a personal computer or video game console to emulate a different video game console's behavior. Video game console emulators and hypervisors both perform hardware virtualization; words like \"virtualization\", \"virtual machine\", \"host\" and \"guest\" are not used in conjunction with console emulators.[citation needed]","title":"Hardware virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"virtual machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_machine"},{"link_name":"hypervisors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"application virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_virtualization"},{"link_name":"hardware virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_virtualization"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Windows 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7"},{"link_name":"Windows XP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP"},{"link_name":"Infrastructure as a Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_as_a_Service"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usenix-turtles-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"computer architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture"},{"link_name":"hardware-assisted virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware-assisted_virtualization"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usenix-turtles-9"},{"link_name":"Haswell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haswell_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"VMCS shadowing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMCS_shadowing"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Nested virtualization","text":"Nested virtualization refers to the ability of running a virtual machine within another, having this general concept extendable to an arbitrary depth. In other words, nested virtualization refers to running one or more hypervisors inside another hypervisor. The nature of a nested guest virtual machine does not need not be homogeneous with its host virtual machine; for example, application virtualization can be deployed within a virtual machine created by using hardware virtualization.[8]Nested virtualization becomes more necessary as widespread operating systems gain built-in hypervisor functionality, which in a virtualized environment can be used only if the surrounding hypervisor supports nested virtualization; for example, Windows 7 is capable of running Windows XP applications inside a built-in virtual machine. Furthermore, moving already existing virtualized environments into a cloud, following the Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) approach, is much more complicated if the destination IaaS platform does not support nested virtualization.[9][10]The way nested virtualization can be implemented on a particular computer architecture depends on supported hardware-assisted virtualization capabilities. If a particular architecture does not provide hardware support required for nested virtualization, various software techniques are employed to enable it.[9] Over time, more architectures gain required hardware support; for example, since the Haswell microarchitecture (announced in 2013), Intel started to include VMCS shadowing as a technology that accelerates nested virtualization.[11]","title":"Hardware virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Licensing","text":"Virtual machines running proprietary operating systems require licensing, regardless of the host machine's operating system. For example, installing Microsoft Windows into a VM guest requires its licensing requirements to be satisfied.[12][13][14]","title":"Hardware virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"logical desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_environment"},{"link_name":"LAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAN"},{"link_name":"Wireless LAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_LAN"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"server computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_computer"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-consumerization-15"},{"link_name":"client","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client_(computing)"},{"link_name":"converged infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Converged_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"HP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"distributed client computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zdnet.com-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zdnet.com-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"log into","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Login"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-consumerization-15"},{"link_name":"multiseat configuration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiseat_configuration"},{"link_name":"Thin clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_client"},{"link_name":"hard disk storage space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memory"},{"link_name":"processing power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Desktop virtualization is the concept of separating the logical desktop from the physical machine.One form of desktop virtualization, virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI), can be thought of as a more advanced form of hardware virtualization. Rather than interacting with a host computer directly via a keyboard, mouse, and monitor, the user interacts with the host computer using another desktop computer or a mobile device by means of a network connection, such as a LAN, Wireless LAN or even the Internet. In addition, the host computer in this scenario becomes a server computer capable of hosting multiple virtual machines at the same time for multiple users.[15]As organizations continue to virtualize and converge their data center environment, client architectures also continue to evolve in order to take advantage of the predictability, continuity, and quality of service delivered by their converged infrastructure. For example, companies like HP and IBM provide a hybrid VDI model with a range of virtualization software and delivery models to improve upon the limitations of distributed client computing.[16] Selected client environments move workloads from PCs and other devices to data center servers, creating well-managed virtual clients, with applications and client operating environments hosted on servers and storage in the data center. For users, this means they can access their desktop from any location, without being tied to a single client device. Since the resources are centralized, users moving between work locations can still access the same client environment with their applications and data.[16] For IT administrators, this means a more centralized, efficient client environment that is easier to maintain and able to more quickly respond to the changing needs of the user and business.[17]\nAnother form, session virtualization, allows multiple users to connect and log into a shared but powerful computer over the network and use it simultaneously. Each is given a desktop and a personal folder in which they store their files.[15] With multiseat configuration, session virtualization can be accomplished using a single PC with multiple monitors, keyboards, and mice connected.Thin clients, which are seen in desktop virtualization, are simple and/or cheap computers that are primarily designed to connect to the network. They may lack significant hard disk storage space, RAM or even processing power, but many organizations are beginning to look at the cost benefits of eliminating \"thick client\" desktops that are packed with software (and require software licensing fees) and making more strategic investments.[18]\nDesktop virtualization simplifies software versioning and patch management, where the new image is simply updated on the server, and the desktop gets the updated version when it reboots. It also enables centralized control over what applications the user is allowed to have access to on the workstation.Moving virtualized desktops into the cloud creates hosted virtual desktops (HVDs), in which the desktop images are centrally managed and maintained by a specialist hosting firm. Benefits include scalability and the reduction of capital expenditure, which is replaced by a monthly operational cost.[19]","title":"Desktop virtualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"containerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization_(computing)"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"user-space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User-space"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD jail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD_jail"},{"link_name":"chroot jail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chroot_jail"},{"link_name":"network shares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_resource"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Docker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Docker_(software)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Operating-system-level virtualization, also known as containerization, refers to an operating system feature in which the kernel allows the existence of multiple isolated user-space instances. Such instances, called containers,[20] partitions, virtual environments (VEs) or jails (FreeBSD jail or chroot jail), may look like real computers from the point of view of programs running in them. A computer program running on an ordinary operating system can see all resources (connected devices, files and folders, network shares, CPU power, quantifiable hardware capabilities) of that computer. However, programs running inside a container can only see the container's contents and devices assigned to the container.This provides many of the benefits that virtual machines have such as standardization and scalability, while using less resources as the kernel is shared between containers.[21]Containerization started gaining prominence in 2014, with the introduction of Docker.[22][23]","title":"Containerization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Application virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_virtualization"},{"link_name":"workspace virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workspace_virtualization"},{"link_name":"portable applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_application"},{"link_name":"Service virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_virtualization"},{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/API"},{"link_name":"cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"},{"link_name":"service-oriented architectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service-oriented_architecture"},{"link_name":"Memory virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_virtualization"},{"link_name":"random-access memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"memory pool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_pool"},{"link_name":"Virtual memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_memory"},{"link_name":"Storage virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_virtualization"},{"link_name":"Distributed file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_file_system"},{"link_name":"file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"Virtual file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_file_system"},{"link_name":"Storage hypervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storage_hypervisor"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Virtual disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_disk"},{"link_name":"hard disk drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive"},{"link_name":"optical disk drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disk_drive"},{"link_name":"comparison of disc image software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_disc_image_software"},{"link_name":"Data virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_virtualization"},{"link_name":"Database virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_virtualization"},{"link_name":"Network virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_virtualization"},{"link_name":"addressing space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space"},{"link_name":"Virtual private network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_network"},{"link_name":"network protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_protocol"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"Network Protocol Virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Protocol_Virtualization"}],"text":"SoftwareApplication virtualization and workspace virtualization: isolating individual apps from the underlying OS and other apps; closely associated with the concept of portable applications\nService virtualization: emulating the behavior of specific components in heterogeneous component-based applications such as API-driven applications, cloud-based applications and service-oriented architecturesMemoryMemory virtualization: aggregating random-access memory (RAM) resources from networked systems into a single memory pool\nVirtual memory: giving an app the impression that it has contiguous working memory, isolating it from the underlying physical memory implementationStorageStorage virtualization: the process of completely abstracting logical storage from physical storage\nDistributed file system: any file system that allows access to files from multiple hosts sharing via a computer network\nVirtual file system: an abstraction layer on top of a more concrete file system, allowing client applications to access different types of concrete file systems in a uniform way\nStorage hypervisor: the software that manages storage virtualization and combines physical storage resources into one or more flexible pools of logical storage[24]\nVirtual disk: a computer program that emulates a disk drive such as a hard disk drive or optical disk drive (see comparison of disc image software)DataData virtualization: the presentation of data as an abstract layer, independent of underlying database systems, structures and storage\nDatabase virtualization: the decoupling of the database layer, which lies between the storage and application layers within the application stack over allNetworkNetwork virtualization: creation of a virtualized network addressing space within or across network subnets\nVirtual private network (VPN): a network protocol that replaces the actual wire or other physical media in a network with an abstract layer, allowing a network to be created over the Internet\nNetwork Protocol Virtualization: decoupling networking layers in order to accelerate the deployment and management of networks","title":"Other types"}]
[]
[{"title":"AI-assisted virtualization software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-assisted_virtualization_software"},{"title":"Timeline of virtualization development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_virtualization_development"},{"title":"Network function virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_function_virtualization"},{"title":"Digital twin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_twin"},{"title":"Emulation (computing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulation_(computing)"},{"title":"Computer simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation"},{"title":"Containerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization_(computing)"},{"title":"Consolidation ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consolidation_ratio"},{"title":"I/O virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I/O_virtualization"},{"title":"Application checkpointing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_checkpointing"},{"title":"Virtual art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_art"},{"title":"OS virtualization and emulation on Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OS_virtualization_and_emulation_on_Android"},{"title":"Application virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_virtualization"},{"title":"User virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_virtualization"}]
[{"reference":"Graziano, Charles. \"A performance analysis of Xen and KVM hypervisors for hosting the Xen Worlds Project\". Retrieved 2013-01-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3243&context=etd","url_text":"\"A performance analysis of Xen and KVM hypervisors for hosting the Xen Worlds Project\""}]},{"reference":"Turban, E; King, D; Lee, J; Viehland, D (2008). \"Chapter 19: Building E-Commerce Applications and Infrastructure\". Electronic Commerce A Managerial Perspective. Prentice-Hall. p. 27.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Virtualization in education\" (PDF). IBM. October 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2010. A virtual computer is a logical representation of a computer in software. By decoupling the physical hardware from the operating system, virtualization provides more operational flexibility and increases the utilization rate of the underlying physical hardware.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-07.ibm.com/solutions/in/education/download/Virtualization%20in%20Education.pdf","url_text":"\"Virtualization in education\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"}]},{"reference":"Turban, E; King, D.; Lee, J.; Viehland, D. (2008). \"19\". Electronic Commerce A Managerial Perspective (PDF) (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall. p. 27.","urls":[{"url":"http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/5073/5195381/pdf/Online_Chapter_19.pdf","url_text":"Electronic Commerce A Managerial Perspective"}]},{"reference":"\"Virtualization in education\" (PDF). IBM. October 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-07.ibm.com/solutions/in/education/download/Virtualization%20in%20Education.pdf","url_text":"\"Virtualization in education\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"}]},{"reference":"\"Virtualization in education\" (PDF). IBM. October 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www-07.ibm.com/solutions/in/education/download/Virtualization%20in%20Education.pdf","url_text":"\"Virtualization in education\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"}]},{"reference":"Creasy, R.J. (1981). \"The Origin of the VM/370 Time-sharing System\" (PDF). IBM. Retrieved 26 February 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~stjones/proj/vm_reading/ibmrd2505M.pdf","url_text":"\"The Origin of the VM/370 Time-sharing System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM","url_text":"IBM"}]},{"reference":"Orit Wasserman, Red Hat (2013). \"Nested virtualization: Shadow turtles\" (PDF). KVM forum. Retrieved 2021-05-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat","url_text":"Red Hat"},{"url":"https://www.linux-kvm.org/images/e/e9/Kvm-forum-2013-nested-virtualization-shadow-turtles.pdf","url_text":"\"Nested virtualization: Shadow turtles\""}]},{"reference":"Muli Ben-Yehuda; Michael D. Day; Zvi Dubitzky; Michael Factor; Nadav Har’El; Abel Gordon; Anthony Liguori; Orit Wasserman; Ben-Ami Yassour (2010-09-23). \"The Turtles Project: Design and Implementation of Nested Virtualization\" (PDF). usenix.org. Retrieved 2014-12-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usenix.org/legacy/event/osdi10/tech/full_papers/Ben-Yehuda.pdf","url_text":"\"The Turtles Project: Design and Implementation of Nested Virtualization\""}]},{"reference":"Alex Fishman; Mike Rapoport; Evgeny Budilovsky; Izik Eidus (2013-06-25). \"HVX: Virtualizing the Cloud\" (PDF). rackcdn.com. Retrieved 2014-12-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://0b4af6cdc2f0c5998459-c0245c5c937c5dedcca3f1764ecc9b2f.r43.cf2.rackcdn.com/11552-hotcloud13-fishman.pdf","url_text":"\"HVX: Virtualizing the Cloud\""}]},{"reference":"\"4th-Gen Intel Core vPro Processors with Intel VMCS Shadowing\" (PDF). Intel. 2013. Retrieved 2014-12-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www-ssl.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/white-papers/intel-vmcs-shadowing-paper.pdf","url_text":"\"4th-Gen Intel Core vPro Processors with Intel VMCS Shadowing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel","url_text":"Intel"}]},{"reference":"Foley, Mary Jo (5 July 2012). \"Microsoft goes public with Windows Server 2012 versions, licensing\". ZDNet. CBS Interactive. Finn explained that Standard covers 2 CPUs in a host, and goes from one VOSE (virtual operating system environment - 1 free Std install in a VM on that host) to two, and 'now has all the features and scalability of Datacenter.' He noted there will be a small price increase, but said he thought that wouldn't matter, as it 'should be virtualized anyway and the VOSE rights doubling will compensate. Windows Server Datacenter was a minimum of two 1-CPU licenses with unlimited VOSEs. 'Now it is a simpler SKU that covers two CPUs in a host with unlimited VOSEs,' Finn said.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/microsoft-goes-public-with-windows-server-2012-versions-licensing-7000000341/","url_text":"\"Microsoft goes public with Windows Server 2012 versions, licensing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZDNet","url_text":"ZDNet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Interactive","url_text":"CBS Interactive"}]},{"reference":"\"Windows Server 2012 Licensing and Pricing FAQ\" (PDF). Microsoft. Retrieved 5 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://download.microsoft.com/download/4/D/B/4DB352D1-C610-466A-9AAF-EEF4F4CFFF27/WS2012_Licensing-Pricing_FAQ.pdf","url_text":"\"Windows Server 2012 Licensing and Pricing FAQ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Licensing Windows desktop operating system for use with virtual machines\" (PDF). microsoft.com. Microsoft. Retrieved 22 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://download.microsoft.com/download/9/8/d/98d6a56c-4d79-40f4-8462-da3ecba2dc2c/licensing_windows_desktop_os_for_virtual_machines.pdf","url_text":"\"Licensing Windows desktop operating system for use with virtual machines\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft","url_text":"Microsoft"}]},{"reference":"\"Strategies for Embracing Consumerization\" (PDF). Microsoft Corporation. April 2011. p. 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 August 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110815201911/http://download.microsoft.com/download/E/F/5/EF5F8B95-5E27-4CDB-860F-F982E5B714B0/Strategies%20for%20Embracing%20Consumerization.pdf","url_text":"\"Strategies for Embracing Consumerization\""},{"url":"http://download.microsoft.com/download/E/F/5/EF5F8B95-5E27-4CDB-860F-F982E5B714B0/Strategies%20for%20Embracing%20Consumerization.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Desktop Virtualization Tries to Find Its Place in the Enterprise\". Dell.com. Retrieved 2012-06-19.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.dell.com/us/en/enterprise/d/large-business/desktop-virtualization-place.aspx","url_text":"\"Desktop Virtualization Tries to Find Its Place in the Enterprise\""}]},{"reference":"\"HVD: the cloud's silver lining\" (PDF). Intrinsic Technology. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2012. Retrieved 30 August 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121002231021/http://www.intrinsictechnology.co.uk/FileUploads/HVD_Whitepaper.pdf","url_text":"\"HVD: the cloud's silver lining\""},{"url":"http://www.intrinsictechnology.co.uk/FileUploads/HVD_Whitepaper.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hogg, Scott (2014-05-26). \"Software Containers: Used More Frequently than Most Realize\". Network World. Network World, Inc. Retrieved 2015-07-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.networkworld.com/article/749098/cisco-subnet-software-containers-used-more-frequently-than-most-realize.html","url_text":"\"Software Containers: Used More Frequently than Most Realize\""}]},{"reference":"Gandhi, Rajeev (2019-02-06). \"The Benefits of Containerization and What It Means for You\". IBM Blog. Retrieved 2024-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ibm.com/blog/the-benefits-of-containerization-and-what-it-means-for-you/","url_text":"\"The Benefits of Containerization and What It Means for You\""}]},{"reference":"Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. (21 March 2018). \"What is Docker and why is it so darn popular?\". ZDNet. CBS Interactive.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-docker-and-why-is-it-so-darn-popular/","url_text":"\"What is Docker and why is it so darn popular?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZDNet","url_text":"ZDNet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Interactive","url_text":"CBS Interactive"}]},{"reference":"Butler, Brandon (10 June 2014). \"Docker 101: What it is and why it's important\". Network World. IDG.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.networkworld.com/article/925600/cloud-computing-docker-101-what-it-is-and-why-it-s-important.html","url_text":"\"Docker 101: What it is and why it's important\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_World","url_text":"Network World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDG","url_text":"IDG"}]},{"reference":"\"Enterprise Systems Group White paper, Page 5\" (PDF). Enterprise Strategy Group White Paper written and published on August 20, 2011 by Mark Peters. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 30, 2012. Retrieved July 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120330235752/http://www.raido.be/frontend/files/whitepapers/20_j3ykqsmm.pdf","url_text":"\"Enterprise Systems Group White paper, Page 5\""},{"url":"http://www.raido.be/frontend/files/whitepapers/20_j3ykqsmm.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonorant
Sonorant
["1 Types","1.1 Voiceless","2 Examples","3 Sound changes","4 See also","5 References","6 Bibliography"]
Phonemes produced with continuous non-turbulent airflow In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant or resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels are sonorants, as are semivowels like and , nasal consonants like and , and liquid consonants like and . This set of sounds contrasts with the obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives). For some authors, only the term resonant is used with this broader meaning, while sonorant is restricted to the consonantal subset—that is, nasals and liquids only, not vocoids (vowels and semivowels). Types Whereas obstruents are frequently voiceless, sonorants are almost always voiced. In the sonority hierarchy, all sounds higher than fricatives are sonorants. They can therefore form the nucleus of a syllable in languages that place that distinction at that level of sonority; see Syllable for details. Sonorants contrast with obstruents, which do stop or cause turbulence in the airflow. The latter group includes fricatives and stops (for example, /s/ and /t/). Among consonants pronounced in the back of the mouth or in the throat, the distinction between an approximant and a voiced fricative is so blurred that no language is known to contrast them. Thus, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal fricatives never contrast with approximants. Voiceless Voiceless sonorants are rare; they occur as phonemes in only about 5% of the world's languages. They tend to be extremely quiet and difficult to recognise, even for those people whose language has them. In every case of a voiceless sonorant occurring, there is a contrasting voiced sonorant. In other words, whenever a language contains a phoneme such as /ʍ/, it also contains a corresponding voiced phoneme such as /w/. Voiceless sonorants are most common around the Pacific Ocean (in Oceania, East Asia, and North and South America) and in certain language families (such as Austronesian, Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dene and Eskimo–Aleut). One European language with voiceless sonorants is Welsh. Its phonology contains a phonemic voiceless alveolar trill /r̥/, along with three voiceless nasals: velar, alveolar and labial. Another European language with voiceless sonorants is Icelandic, with for the corresponding voiced sonorants . Voiceless and possibly are hypothesized to have occurred in various dialects of Ancient Greek. The Attic dialect of the Classical period likely had as the regular allophone of /r/ at the beginning of words and possibly when it was doubled inside words. Hence, many English words from Ancient Greek roots have rh initially and rrh medially: rhetoric, diarrhea. Examples English has the following sonorant consonantal phonemes: /l/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /ɹ/, /w/, /j/. Old Irish had one of the most complex sonorant systems recorded in linguistics, with 12 coronal sonorants alone. Coronal laterals, nasals, and rhotics had a fortis–lenis and a palatalization contrast: /N, n, Nʲ, nʲ, R, r, Rʲ, rʲ, L, l, Lʲ, lʲ/. There were also /ŋ, ŋʲ, m/ and /mʲ/, making 16 sonorant phonemes in total. Sound changes Voiceless sonorants have a strong tendency to either revoice or undergo fortition, for example to form a fricative like /ç/ or /ɬ/. In connected, continuous speech in North American English, /t/ and /d/ are usually flapped to following sonorants, including vowels, when followed by a vowel or syllabic /l/. See also List of phonetics topics Obstruent Continuant Liquid consonant References ^ Keith Brown & Jim Miller (2013) The Cambridge Dictionary of Linguistics ^ Ken Pike, Phonetics (1943:144). "The sonorants are nonvocoid resonants and comprise the lateral resonant orals and resonant nasals (e.g. , , and )." ^ Ian Maddieson (with a chapter contributed by Sandra Ferrari Disner); Patterns of sounds; Cambridge University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-521-26536-3 ^ "Consonants". UCL DEPT OF PHONETICS & LINGUISTICS. September 19, 1995. Retrieved July 30, 2012. ^ Greene, David (1973). "The Growth of Palatalization in Irish". Transactions of the Philological Society. 72: 127–136. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1973.tb01017.x. ^ "North American English: General Accents" (PDF). Universität Stuttgart - Institut für Linguistik. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2014. Retrieved 26 April 2019. Bibliography Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6. vteArticulationArticulatory phonetics – Coarticulation – International Phonetic AlphabetPlaceLabial Bilabial Labiodental Coronal Linguolabial Interdental Dental Denti-alveolar Alveolar Postalveolar Palato-alveolar Retroflex Active place Apical Laminal Subapical Dorsal Alveolo-palatal Palatal Velar Uvular Laryngeal Pharyngeal/epiglottal Glottal Double articulation Labial–coronal Labial–palatal Labial–velar Labial–uvular Coronal–velar Uvular–epiglottal Pathological Velopharyngeal Other Bidental MannerObstruent Plosive Affricate Fricative Sibilant Sonorant Nasal Vowel Approximant Semivowel Vibrant Tap/flap Trill Liquid Rhotic Lateral Occlusive Continuant Airstream Egressive Ingressive Ejective Implosive Click Pulmonic Ejective Percussive Secondary articulation Labialization Rounding Palatalization Labio-palatalization Velarization Uvularization Pharyngealization Glottalization Nasalization Tongue shape Sulcal Domed Voice Voiceless Aspirated Tenuis Voice onset time Phonation Modal Breathy Slack Creaky Stiff Authority control databases: National Israel United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phonetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetics"},{"link_name":"phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology"},{"link_name":"speech sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_sound"},{"link_name":"produced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_articulation"},{"link_name":"vocal tract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocal_tract"},{"link_name":"voiced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"Vowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel"},{"link_name":"semivowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semivowel"},{"link_name":"nasal consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"liquid consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_consonant"},{"link_name":"obstruents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruent_consonant"},{"link_name":"stops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant"},{"link_name":"affricates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate"},{"link_name":"fricatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"vocoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocoid"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"In phonetics and phonology, a sonorant or resonant is a speech sound that is produced with continuous, non-turbulent airflow in the vocal tract; these are the manners of articulation that are most often voiced in the world's languages. Vowels are sonorants, as are semivowels like [j] and [w], nasal consonants like [m] and [n], and liquid consonants like [l] and [r]. This set of sounds contrasts with the obstruents (stops, affricates and fricatives).[1]For some authors, only the term resonant is used with this broader meaning, while sonorant is restricted to the consonantal subset—that is, nasals and liquids only, not vocoids (vowels and semivowels).[2]","title":"Sonorant"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"obstruents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruent"},{"link_name":"voiceless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless"},{"link_name":"sonority hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonority_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"fricatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_nucleus"},{"link_name":"syllable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable"},{"link_name":"Syllable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable"},{"link_name":"obstruents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruents"},{"link_name":"fricatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative"},{"link_name":"stops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant"},{"link_name":"approximant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"uvular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvular_consonant"},{"link_name":"pharyngeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant"},{"link_name":"glottal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant"}],"text":"Whereas obstruents are frequently voiceless, sonorants are almost always voiced. In the sonority hierarchy, all sounds higher than fricatives are sonorants. They can therefore form the nucleus of a syllable in languages that place that distinction at that level of sonority; see Syllable for details.Sonorants contrast with obstruents, which do stop or cause turbulence in the airflow. The latter group includes fricatives and stops (for example, /s/ and /t/).Among consonants pronounced in the back of the mouth or in the throat, the distinction between an approximant and a voiced fricative is so blurred that no language is known to contrast them.[citation needed] Thus, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal fricatives never contrast with approximants.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phonemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneme"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania"},{"link_name":"East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia"},{"link_name":"North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"Austronesian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_languages"},{"link_name":"Sino-Tibetan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages"},{"link_name":"Na-Dene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na-Dene_languages"},{"link_name":"Eskimo–Aleut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Aleut_languages"},{"link_name":"Welsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language"},{"link_name":"phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_phonology"},{"link_name":"voiceless alveolar trill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_trill"},{"link_name":"Icelandic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_language"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"Attic dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_Greek"},{"link_name":"Classical period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece"},{"link_name":"English words from Ancient Greek roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Greek_and_Latin_roots_in_English"},{"link_name":"rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric"},{"link_name":"diarrhea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea"}],"sub_title":"Voiceless","text":"Voiceless sonorants are rare; they occur as phonemes in only about 5% of the world's languages.[3] They tend to be extremely quiet and difficult to recognise, even for those people whose language has them.In every case of a voiceless sonorant occurring, there is a contrasting voiced sonorant. In other words, whenever a language contains a phoneme such as /ʍ/, it also contains a corresponding voiced phoneme such as /w/.[citation needed]Voiceless sonorants are most common around the Pacific Ocean (in Oceania, East Asia, and North and South America) and in certain language families (such as Austronesian, Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dene and Eskimo–Aleut).One European language with voiceless sonorants is Welsh. Its phonology contains a phonemic voiceless alveolar trill /r̥/, along with three voiceless nasals: velar, alveolar and labial.Another European language with voiceless sonorants is Icelandic, with [l̥ r̥ n̥ m̥ ɲ̊ ŋ̊] for the corresponding voiced sonorants [l r n m ɲ ŋ].Voiceless [r̥ l̥ ʍ] and possibly [m̥ n̥] are hypothesized to have occurred in various dialects of Ancient Greek. The Attic dialect of the Classical period likely had [r̥] as the regular allophone of /r/ at the beginning of words and possibly when it was doubled inside words. Hence, many English words from Ancient Greek roots have rh initially and rrh medially: rhetoric, diarrhea.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Old Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irish_phonology"},{"link_name":"Coronal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_consonant"},{"link_name":"laterals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_consonant"},{"link_name":"nasals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"rhotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhotic_consonant"},{"link_name":"fortis–lenis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis"},{"link_name":"palatalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"English has the following sonorant consonantal phonemes: /l/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /ɹ/, /w/, /j/.[4]Old Irish had one of the most complex sonorant systems recorded in linguistics, with 12 coronal sonorants alone. Coronal laterals, nasals, and rhotics had a fortis–lenis and a palatalization contrast: /N, n, Nʲ, nʲ, R, r, Rʲ, rʲ, L, l, Lʲ, lʲ/. There were also /ŋ, ŋʲ, m/ and /mʲ/, making 16 sonorant phonemes in total.[5]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fortition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortition"},{"link_name":"fricative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative"},{"link_name":"example needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"},{"link_name":"North American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_English"},{"link_name":"flapped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flapping"},{"link_name":"ɾ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Voiceless sonorants have a strong tendency to either revoice or undergo fortition, for example to form a fricative like /ç/ or /ɬ/.[example needed]In connected, continuous speech in North American English, /t/ and /d/ are usually flapped to [ɾ] following sonorants, including vowels, when followed by a vowel or syllabic /l/.[6]","title":"Sound changes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ladefoged, Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged"},{"link_name":"Maddieson, Ian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Maddieson"},{"link_name":"The Sounds of the World's Languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sounds_of_the_World%27s_Languages"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-631-19815-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-19815-6"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Articulation_navbox"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Articulation_navbox"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Articulation_navbox"},{"link_name":"Articulatory phonetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articulatory_phonetics"},{"link_name":"Coarticulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-articulated_consonant"},{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Place_of_articulation"},{"link_name":"Labial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial_consonant"},{"link_name":"Bilabial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilabial_consonant"},{"link_name":"Labiodental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labiodental_consonant"},{"link_name":"Coronal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Linguolabial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguolabial_consonant"},{"link_name":"Interdental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdental_consonant"},{"link_name":"Dental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant"},{"link_name":"Denti-alveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denti-alveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Alveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Postalveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Palato-alveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palato-alveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Retroflex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroflex_consonant"},{"link_name":"Apical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apical_consonant"},{"link_name":"Laminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Subapical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subapical_consonant"},{"link_name":"Dorsal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Alveolo-palatal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Palatal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Velar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Uvular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvular_consonant"},{"link_name":"Laryngeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Pharyngeal/epiglottal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngeal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Glottal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Double articulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubly_articulated_consonant"},{"link_name":"Labial–coronal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93coronal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Labial–palatal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93palatal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Labial–velar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Labial–uvular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93uvular_consonant"},{"link_name":"Coronal–velar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronal%E2%80%93velar_consonant"},{"link_name":"Uvular–epiglottal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvular%E2%80%93epiglottal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Pathological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_pathology"},{"link_name":"Velopharyngeal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velopharyngeal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Bidental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidental_consonant"},{"link_name":"Manner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_articulation"},{"link_name":"Obstruent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruent"},{"link_name":"Plosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosive"},{"link_name":"Affricate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate"},{"link_name":"Fricative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative"},{"link_name":"Sibilant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibilant"},{"link_name":"Sonorant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"Vowel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel"},{"link_name":"Approximant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant"},{"link_name":"Semivowel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semivowel"},{"link_name":"Vibrant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrant_consonant"},{"link_name":"Tap/flap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants"},{"link_name":"Trill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trill_consonant"},{"link_name":"Liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_consonant"},{"link_name":"Rhotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhotic_consonant"},{"link_name":"Lateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_consonant"},{"link_name":"Occlusive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occlusive"},{"link_name":"Continuant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuant"},{"link_name":"Airstream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airstream_mechanism"},{"link_name":"Egressive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egressive_sound"},{"link_name":"Ingressive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingressive_sound"},{"link_name":"Ejective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejective_consonant"},{"link_name":"Implosive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implosive_consonant"},{"link_name":"Click","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Click_consonant"},{"link_name":"Pulmonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonic-contour_clicks"},{"link_name":"Ejective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejective-contour_clicks"},{"link_name":"Percussive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percussive_consonant"},{"link_name":"Secondary articulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_articulation"},{"link_name":"Labialization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labialization"},{"link_name":"Rounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundedness"},{"link_name":"Palatalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"Labio-palatalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labio-palatalization"},{"link_name":"Velarization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velarization"},{"link_name":"Uvularization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uvularization"},{"link_name":"Pharyngealization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngealization"},{"link_name":"Glottalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottalization"},{"link_name":"Nasalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasalization"},{"link_name":"Tongue shape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue_shape"},{"link_name":"Sulcal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulcalization"},{"link_name":"Domed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domed_consonant"},{"link_name":"Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"Voiceless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voicelessness"},{"link_name":"Aspirated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirated_consonant"},{"link_name":"Tenuis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenuis_consonant"},{"link_name":"Voice onset time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_onset_time"},{"link_name":"Phonation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonation"},{"link_name":"Modal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modal_voice"},{"link_name":"Breathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breathy_voice"},{"link_name":"Slack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slack_voice"},{"link_name":"Creaky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creaky_voice"},{"link_name":"Stiff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiff_voice"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31627#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007558330505171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85125268"}],"text":"Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.vteArticulationArticulatory phonetics – Coarticulation – International Phonetic AlphabetPlaceLabial\nBilabial\nLabiodental\nCoronal\nLinguolabial\nInterdental\nDental\nDenti-alveolar\nAlveolar\nPostalveolar\nPalato-alveolar\nRetroflex\n Active place\nApical\nLaminal\nSubapical\n\nDorsal\nAlveolo-palatal\nPalatal\nVelar\nUvular\nLaryngeal\nPharyngeal/epiglottal\nGlottal\nDouble articulation\nLabial–coronal\nLabial–palatal\nLabial–velar\nLabial–uvular\nCoronal–velar\nUvular–epiglottal\nPathological\nVelopharyngeal\nOther\nBidental\nMannerObstruent\nPlosive\nAffricate\nFricative\nSibilant\nSonorant\nNasal\nVowel\nApproximant\nSemivowel\nVibrant\nTap/flap\nTrill\n\nLiquid\nRhotic\nLateral\nOcclusive\nContinuant\nAirstream\nEgressive\nIngressive\nEjective\nImplosive\nClick\nPulmonic\nEjective\nPercussive\nSecondary articulation\nLabialization\nRounding\nPalatalization\nLabio-palatalization\nVelarization\nUvularization\nPharyngealization\nGlottalization\nNasalization\nTongue shape\nSulcal\nDomed\nVoice\nVoiceless\nAspirated\nTenuis\nVoice onset time\nPhonation\nModal\nBreathy\nSlack\nCreaky\nStiffAuthority control databases: National \nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Bibliography"}]
[]
[{"title":"List of phonetics topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phonetics_topics"},{"title":"Obstruent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruent"},{"title":"Continuant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuant"},{"title":"Liquid consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_consonant"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_utilization
Network throughput
["1 Maximum throughput","1.1 Maximum theoretical throughput","1.2 Asymptotic throughput","1.3 Peak measured throughput","1.4 Maximum sustained throughput","2 Channel utilization and efficiency","3 Factors affecting throughput","3.1 Analog limitations","3.2 IC hardware considerations","3.3 Multi-user considerations","4 Goodput and overhead","5 Other uses of throughput for data","5.1 Integrated circuits","5.2 Wireless and cellular networks","5.3 Over analog channels","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading"]
Rate at which data is processed in communication networks "Throughput" redirects here. Not to be confused with Throughput (disk drive) or Throughput (business). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (October 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Network throughput" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Network throughput (or just throughput, when in context) refers to the rate of message delivery over a communication channel, such as Ethernet or packet radio, in a communication network. The data that these messages contain may be delivered over physical or logical links, or through network nodes. Throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s, sometimes abbreviated bps), and sometimes in data packets per second (p/s or pps) or data packets per time slot. The system throughput or aggregate throughput is the sum of the data rates that are delivered to all terminals in a network. Throughput is essentially synonymous to digital bandwidth consumption; it can be determined numerically by applying the queueing theory, where the load in packets per time unit is denoted as the arrival rate (λ), and the drop in packets per unit time is denoted as the departure rate (μ). The throughput of a communication system may be affected by various factors, including the limitations of the underlying analog physical medium, available processing power of the system components, end-user behavior, etc. When taking various protocol overheads into account, the useful rate of the data transfer can be significantly lower than the maximum achievable throughput; the useful part is usually referred to as goodput. Maximum throughput See also: Peak information rate Users of telecommunications devices, systems designers, and researchers into communication theory are often interested in knowing the expected performance of a system. From a user perspective, this is often phrased as either "which device will get my data there most effectively for my needs?", or "which device will deliver the most data per unit cost?". Systems designers often select the most effective architecture or design constraints for a system, which drive its final performance. In most cases, the benchmark of what a system is capable of, or its "maximum performance" is what the user or designer is interested in. The term maximum throughput is frequently used when discussing end-user maximum throughput tests.   Maximum throughput is essentially synonymous to digital bandwidth capacity. Four different values are relevant in the context of "maximum throughput", used in comparing the 'upper limit' conceptual performance of multiple systems. They are 'maximum theoretical throughput', 'maximum achievable throughput', 'peak measured throughput', and 'maximum sustained throughput'. These values represent different quantities, and care must be taken that the same definitions are used when comparing different 'maximum throughput' values. Each bit must carry the same amount of information if throughput values are to be compared. Data compression can significantly alter throughput calculations, including generating values exceeding 100% in some cases. If the communication is mediated by several links in series with different bit rates, the maximum throughput of the overall link is lower than or equal to the lowest bit rate. The lowest value link in the series is referred to as the bottleneck. Maximum theoretical throughput This number is closely related to the channel capacity of the system, and is the maximum possible quantity of data that can be transmitted under ideal circumstances. In some cases this number is reported as equal to the channel capacity, though this can be deceptive, as only non-packetized systems (asynchronous) technologies can achieve this without data compression. Maximum theoretical throughput is more accurately reported taking into account format and specification overhead with best case assumptions. This number, like the closely related term 'maximum achievable throughput' below, is primarily used as a rough calculated value, such as for determining bounds on possible performance early in a system design phase. Asymptotic throughput The asymptotic throughput (less formal asymptotic bandwidth) for a packet-mode communication network is the value of the maximum throughput function, when the incoming network load approaches infinity, either due to a message size, or the number of data sources. As other bit rates and data bandwidths, the asymptotic throughput is measured in bits per second (bit/s) or (rarely) bytes per second (B/s), where 1 B/s is 8 bit/s. Decimal prefixes are used, meaning that 1 Mbit/s is 1000000 bit/s. Asymptotic throughput is usually estimated by sending or simulating a very large message (sequence of data packets) through the network, using a greedy source and no flow control mechanism (i.e., UDP rather than TCP), and measuring the network path throughput in the destination node. Traffic load between other sources may reduce this maximum network path throughput. Alternatively, a large number of sources and sinks may be modeled, with or without flow control, and the aggregate maximum network throughput measured (the sum of traffic reaching its destinations). In a network simulation model with infinite packet queues, the asymptotic throughput occurs when the latency (the packet queuing time) goes to infinity, while if the packet queues are limited, or the network is a multi-drop network with many sources, and collisions may occur, the packet-dropping rate approaches 100%. A well-known application of asymptotic throughput is in modeling point-to-point communication where (following Hockney) message latency T(N) is modeled as a function of message length N as T(N) = (M + N)/A where A is the asymptotic bandwidth and M is the half-peak length. As well as its use in general network modeling, asymptotic throughput is used in modeling performance on massively parallel computer systems, where system operation is highly dependent on communication overhead, as well as processor performance. In these applications, asymptotic throughput is used in Xu and Hwang model (more general than Hockney's approach) which includes the number of processors, so that both the latency and the asymptotic throughput are functions of the number of processors. Peak measured throughput The above values are theoretical or calculated. Peak measured throughput is throughput measured by a real, implemented system, or a simulated system. The value is the throughput measured over a short period of time; mathematically, this is the limit taken with respect to throughput as time approaches zero. This term is synonymous with instantaneous throughput. This number is useful for systems that rely on burst data transmission; however, for systems with a high duty cycle, this is less likely to be a useful measure of system performance. Maximum sustained throughput This value is the throughput averaged or integrated over a long time (sometimes considered infinity). For high duty cycle networks, this is likely to be the most accurate indicator of system performance. The maximum throughput is defined as the asymptotic throughput when the load (the amount of incoming data) is large. In packet switched systems where the load and the throughput always are equal (where packet loss does not occur), the maximum throughput may be defined as the minimum load in bit/s that causes the delivery time (the latency) to become unstable and increase towards infinity. This value can also be used deceptively in relation to peak measured throughput to conceal packet shaping. Channel utilization and efficiency Throughput is sometimes normalized and measured in percentage, but normalization may cause confusion regarding what the percentage is related to. Channel utilization, channel efficiency and packet drop rate in percentage are less ambiguous terms. The channel efficiency, also known as bandwidth utilization efficiency, is the percentage of the net bit rate (in bit/s) of a digital communication channel that goes to the actually achieved throughput. For example, if the throughput is 70 Mbit/s in a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet connection, the channel efficiency is 70%. In this example, effectively 70 Mbit of data are transmitted every second. Channel utilization is instead a term related to the use of the channel, disregarding the throughput. It counts not only with the data bits, but also with the overhead that makes use of the channel. The transmission overhead consists of preamble sequences, frame headers and acknowledge packets. The definitions assume a noiseless channel. Otherwise, the throughput would not be only associated with the nature (efficiency) of the protocol, but also to retransmissions resultant from the quality of the channel. In a simplistic approach, channel efficiency can be equal to channel utilization assuming that acknowledge packets are zero-length and that the communications provider will not see any bandwidth relative to retransmissions or headers. Therefore, certain texts mark a difference between channel utilization and protocol efficiency. In a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication link, where only one terminal is transmitting, the maximum throughput is often equivalent to or very near the physical data rate (the channel capacity), since the channel utilization can be almost 100% in such a network, except for a small inter-frame gap. For example, the maximum frame size in Ethernet is 1526 bytes: up to 1500 bytes for the payload, eight bytes for the preamble, 14 bytes for the header, and 4 bytes for the trailer. An additional minimum interframe gap corresponding to 12 bytes is inserted after each frame. This corresponds to a maximum channel utilization of 1526 / (1526 + 12) × 100% = 99.22%, or a maximum channel use of 99.22 Mbit/s inclusive of Ethernet datalink layer protocol overhead in a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet connection. The maximum throughput or channel efficiency is then 1500 / (1526 + 12) = 97.5%, exclusive of the Ethernet protocol overhead. Factors affecting throughput The throughput of a communication system will be limited by a huge number of factors. Some of these are described below: Analog limitations The maximum achievable throughput (the channel capacity) is affected by the bandwidth in hertz and signal-to-noise ratio of the analog physical medium. Despite the conceptual simplicity of digital information, all electrical signals traveling over wires are analog. The analog limitations of wires or wireless systems inevitably provide an upper bound on the amount of information that can be sent. The dominant equation here is the Shannon–Hartley theorem, and analog limitations of this type can be understood as factors that affect either the analog bandwidth of a signal or as factors that affect the signal-to-noise ratio. The bandwidth of wired systems can be in fact surprisingly narrow, with the bandwidth of Ethernet wire limited to approximately 1 GHz, and PCB traces limited by a similar amount. Digital systems refer to the 'knee frequency', the amount of time for the digital voltage to rise from 10% of a nominal digital '0' to a nominal digital '1' or vice versa. The knee frequency is related to the required bandwidth of a channel, and can be related to the 3 db bandwidth of a system by the equation:   F 3 d B ≈ K / T r {\displaystyle \ F_{3dB}\approx K/T_{r}} Where Tr is the 10% to 90% rise time, and K is a constant of proportionality related to the pulse shape, equal to 0.35 for an exponential rise, and 0.338 for a Gaussian rise. RC losses: Wires have an inherent resistance, and an inherent capacitance when measured with respect to ground. This leads to effects called parasitic capacitance, causing all wires and cables to act as RC lowpass filters. Skin effect: As frequency increases, electric charges migrate to the edges of wires or cable. This reduces the effective cross-sectional area available for carrying current, increasing resistance and reducing the signal-to-noise ratio. For AWG 24 wire (of the type commonly found in Cat 5e cable), the skin effect frequency becomes dominant over the inherent resistivity of the wire at 100 kHz. At 1 GHz the resistivity has increased to 0.1 ohm per inch. Termination and ringing: Wires longer than about 1/6 wavelengths must be modeled as transmission lines with termination taken into account. Unless this is done, reflected signals will travel back and forth across the wire, positively or negatively interfering with the information-carrying signal. Wireless Channel Effects: For wireless systems, all of the effects associated with wireless transmission limit the SNR and bandwidth of the received signal, and therefore the maximum bit transmission rate. IC hardware considerations Computational systems have finite processing power and can drive finite current. Limited current drive capability can limit the effective signal to noise ratio for high capacitance links. Large data loads that require processing impose data processing requirements on hardware (such as routers). For example, a gateway router supporting a populated class B subnet, handling 10 × 100 Mbit/s Ethernet channels, must examine 16 bits of address to determine the destination port for each packet. This translates into 81913 packets per second (assuming maximum data payload per packet) with a table of 2^16 addresses this requires the router to be able to perform 5.368 billion lookup operations per second. In a worst-case scenario, where the payloads of each Ethernet packet are reduced to 100 bytes, this number of operations per second jumps to 520 billion. This router would require a multi-teraflop processing core to be able to handle such a load. CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA "backoff" waiting time and frame retransmissions after detected collisions. This may occur in Ethernet bus networks and hub networks, as well as in wireless networks. Flow control, for example in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) protocol, affects the throughput if the bandwidth-delay product is larger than the TCP window, i.e., the buffer size. In that case, the sending computer must wait for acknowledgement of the data packets before it can send more packets. TCP congestion avoidance controls the data rate. A so-called "slow start" occurs in the beginning of a file transfer, and after packet drops caused by router congestion or bit errors in for example wireless links. Multi-user considerations Ensuring that multiple users can harmoniously share a single communications link requires some kind of equitable sharing of the link. If a bottleneck communication link offering data rate R is shared by "N" active users (with at least one data packet in queue), every user typically achieves a throughput of approximately R/N, if fair queuing best-effort communication is assumed. Packet loss due to network congestion. Packets may be dropped in switches and routers when the packet queues are full due to congestion. Packet loss due to bit errors. Scheduling algorithms in routers and switches. If fair queuing is not provided, users that send large packets will get higher bandwidth. Some users may be prioritized in a weighted fair queuing (WFQ) algorithm if differentiated or guaranteed quality of service (QoS) is provided. In some communications systems, such as satellite networks, only a finite number of channels may be available to a given user at a given time. Channels are assigned either through preassignment or through Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA). In these cases, throughput is quantized per channel, and unused capacity on partially utilized channels is lost. Goodput and overhead Main article: Goodput The maximum throughput is often an unreliable measurement of perceived bandwidth, for example the file transmission data rate in bits per seconds. As pointed out above, the achieved throughput is often lower than the maximum throughput. Also, the protocol overhead affects the perceived bandwidth. The throughput is not a well-defined metric when it comes to how to deal with protocol overhead. It is typically measured at a reference point below the network layer and above the physical layer. The simplest definition is the number of bits per second that are physically delivered. A typical example where this definition is practiced is an Ethernet network. In this case, the maximum throughput is the gross bit rate or raw bit rate. However, in schemes that include forward error correction codes (channel coding), the redundant error code is normally excluded from the throughput. An example in modem communication, where the throughput typically is measured in the interface between the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and the circuit-switched modem connection. In this case, the maximum throughput is often called net bit rate or useful bit rate. To determine the actual data rate of a network or connection, the "goodput" measurement definition may be used. For example, in file transmission, the "goodput" corresponds to the file size (in bits) divided by the file transmission time. The "goodput" is the amount of useful information that is delivered per second to the application layer protocol. Dropped packets or packet retransmissions, as well as protocol overhead, are excluded. Because of that, the "goodput" is lower than the throughput. Technical factors that affect the difference are presented in the "goodput" article. Other uses of throughput for data Integrated circuits Often, a block in a data flow diagram has a single input and a single output, and operate on discrete packets of information. Examples of such blocks are Fast Fourier Transform modules or binary multipliers. Because the units of throughput are the reciprocal of the unit for propagation delay, which is 'seconds per message' or 'seconds per output', throughput can be used to relate a computational device performing a dedicated function such as an ASIC or embedded processor to a communications channel, simplifying system analysis. Wireless and cellular networks In wireless networks or cellular systems, the system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/area unit, bit/s/Hz/site or bit/s/Hz/cell, is the maximum system throughput (aggregate throughput) divided by the analog bandwidth and some measure of the system coverage area. Over analog channels Throughput over analog channels is defined entirely by the modulation scheme, the signal-to-noise ratio, and the available bandwidth. Since throughput is normally defined in terms of quantified digital data, the term 'throughput' is not normally used; the term 'bandwidth' is more often used instead. See also Look up network throughput in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. BWPing Greedy source High-throughput computing (HTC) Iperf Measuring network throughput Network traffic measurement Performance engineering Traffic generation model ttcp References ^ Guowang Miao, Jens Zander, K-W Sung, and Ben Slimane, Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 1107143217, 2016. ^ Blahut, 2004, p.4 ^ Modeling Message Passing Overhead by C.Y Chou et al. in Advances in Grid and Pervasive Computing: First International Conference, GPC 2006 edited by Yeh-Ching Chung and José E. Moreira ISBN 3540338098 pages 299-307 ^ Recent Advances in Parallel Virtual Machine and Message Passing Interface by Jack Dongarra, Emilio Luque and Tomas Margalef 1999 ISBN 3540665498 page 134 ^ M. Resch et al. A comparison of MPI performance on different MPPsin Recent Advances in Parallel Virtual Machine and Message Passing Interface, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 1997, Volume 1332/1997, 25-32 ^ High-Performance Computing and Networking edited by Angelo Mañas, Bernardo Tafalla and Rou Rey Jay Pallones 1998 ISBN 3540644431 page 935 ^ Johnson, 1993, 2-5 ^ Johnson, 1993, 9 ^ Johnson, 1993, 154 ^ Johnson, 1993, 160-170 ^ Roddy, 2001, 370 - 371 Further reading Rappaport, Theodore S. Wireless Communications, Principles and Practice second edition, Prentice Hall, 2002, ISBN 0-13-042232-0 Blahut, Richard E. Algebraic Codes for Data Transmission Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-55374-1 Li, Harnes, Holte, "Impact of Lossy Links on Performance of Multihop Wireless Networks", IEEE, Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks, Oct 2005, 303 - 308 Johnson, Graham, High Speed Digital Design, a Handbook of Black Magic, Prentice Hall, 1973, ISBN 0-13-395724-1 Roddy, Dennis, Satellite Communications third edition, McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN 0-07-137176-1 vteOptimal job scheduling problemsOne-stage jobs Single machine Identical machines Uniform machines Unrelated machines Multi-stage jobs Parallel tasks Open shop Flow shop Job shop Optimization objectives Makespan Earliness Lateness Tardiness Throughput Other requirements Interval scheduling Truthful job scheduling
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Not to be confused with Throughput (disk drive) or Throughput (business).Network throughput (or just throughput, when in context) refers to the rate of message delivery over a communication channel, such as Ethernet or packet radio, in a communication network. The data that these messages contain may be delivered over physical or logical links, or through network nodes. Throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s, sometimes abbreviated bps), and sometimes in data packets per second (p/s or pps) or data packets per time slot.The system throughput or aggregate throughput is the sum of the data rates that are delivered to all terminals in a network.[1] Throughput is essentially synonymous to digital bandwidth consumption; it can be determined numerically by applying the queueing theory, where the load in packets per time unit is denoted as the arrival rate (λ), and the drop in packets per unit time is denoted as the departure rate (μ).The throughput of a communication system may be affected by various factors, including the limitations of the underlying analog physical medium, available processing power of the system components, end-user behavior, etc. When taking various protocol overheads into account, the useful rate of the data transfer can be significantly lower than the maximum achievable throughput; the useful part is usually referred to as goodput.","title":"Network throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peak information rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_information_rate"},{"link_name":"digital bandwidth capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_bandwidth_capacity"},{"link_name":"Data compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_compression"},{"link_name":"bottleneck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottleneck_(traffic)"}],"text":"See also: Peak information rateUsers of telecommunications devices, systems designers, and researchers into communication theory are often interested in knowing the expected performance of a system. From a user perspective, this is often phrased as either \"which device will get my data there most effectively for my needs?\", or \"which device will deliver the most data per unit cost?\". Systems designers often select the most effective architecture or design constraints for a system, which drive its final performance. In most cases, the benchmark of what a system is capable of, or its \"maximum performance\" is what the user or designer is interested in. The term maximum throughput is frequently used when discussing end-user maximum throughput tests.Maximum throughput is essentially synonymous to digital bandwidth capacity.Four different values are relevant in the context of \"maximum throughput\", used in comparing the 'upper limit' conceptual performance of multiple systems. They are 'maximum theoretical throughput', 'maximum achievable throughput', 'peak measured throughput', and 'maximum sustained throughput'. These values represent different quantities, and care must be taken that the same definitions are used when comparing different 'maximum throughput' values. Each bit must carry the same amount of information if throughput values are to be compared. Data compression can significantly alter throughput calculations, including generating values exceeding 100% in some cases. If the communication is mediated by several links in series with different bit rates, the maximum throughput of the overall link is lower than or equal to the lowest bit rate. The lowest value link in the series is referred to as the bottleneck.","title":"Maximum throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"channel capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"overhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_overhead"}],"sub_title":"Maximum theoretical throughput","text":"This number is closely related to the channel capacity of the system,[2] and is the maximum possible quantity of data that can be transmitted under ideal circumstances. In some cases this number is reported as equal to the channel capacity, though this can be deceptive, as only non-packetized systems (asynchronous) technologies can achieve this without data compression. Maximum theoretical throughput is more accurately reported taking into account format and specification overhead with best case assumptions. This number, like the closely related term 'maximum achievable throughput' below, is primarily used as a rough calculated value, such as for determining bounds on possible performance early in a system design phase.","title":"Maximum throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"communication network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_network"},{"link_name":"maximum throughput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_throughput"},{"link_name":"infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinity"},{"link_name":"message size","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_passing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"bit rates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate"},{"link_name":"data bandwidths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_bandwidth"},{"link_name":"bits per second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bits_per_second"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"Decimal prefixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal_prefix"},{"link_name":"simulating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_simulation"},{"link_name":"greedy source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greedy_source"},{"link_name":"flow control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_control_(data)"},{"link_name":"UDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol"},{"link_name":"TCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol"},{"link_name":"latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_latency"},{"link_name":"point-to-point communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_communication"},{"link_name":"message latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_latency"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"massively parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_parallel"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Asymptotic throughput","text":"The asymptotic throughput (less formal asymptotic bandwidth) for a packet-mode communication network is the value of the maximum throughput function, when the incoming network load approaches infinity, either due to a message size,[3] or the number of data sources. As other bit rates and data bandwidths, the asymptotic throughput is measured in bits per second (bit/s) or (rarely) bytes per second (B/s), where 1 B/s is 8 bit/s. Decimal prefixes are used, meaning that 1 Mbit/s is 1000000 bit/s.Asymptotic throughput is usually estimated by sending or simulating a very large message (sequence of data packets) through the network, using a greedy source and no flow control mechanism (i.e., UDP rather than TCP), and measuring the network path throughput in the destination node. Traffic load between other sources may reduce this maximum network path throughput. Alternatively, a large number of sources and sinks may be modeled, with or without flow control, and the aggregate maximum network throughput measured (the sum of traffic reaching its destinations). In a network simulation model with infinite packet queues, the asymptotic throughput occurs when the latency (the packet queuing time) goes to infinity, while if the packet queues are limited, or the network is a multi-drop network with many sources, and collisions may occur, the packet-dropping rate approaches 100%.A well-known application of asymptotic throughput is in modeling point-to-point communication where (following Hockney) message latency T(N) is modeled as a function of message length N as T(N) = (M + N)/A where A is the asymptotic bandwidth and M is the half-peak length.[4]As well as its use in general network modeling, asymptotic throughput is used in modeling performance on massively parallel computer systems, where system operation is highly dependent on communication overhead, as well as processor performance.[5] In these applications, asymptotic throughput is used in Xu and Hwang model (more general than Hockney's approach) which includes the number of processors, so that both the latency and the asymptotic throughput are functions of the number of processors.[6]","title":"Maximum throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"duty cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty_cycle"}],"sub_title":"Peak measured throughput","text":"The above values are theoretical or calculated. Peak measured throughput is throughput measured by a real, implemented system, or a simulated system. The value is the throughput measured over a short period of time; mathematically, this is the limit taken with respect to throughput as time approaches zero. This term is synonymous with instantaneous throughput. This number is useful for systems that rely on burst data transmission; however, for systems with a high duty cycle, this is less likely to be a useful measure of system performance.","title":"Maximum throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asymptotic throughput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_throughput"},{"link_name":"packet switched","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_switched"},{"link_name":"packet loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_loss"},{"link_name":"latency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_latency"},{"link_name":"packet shaping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_shaping"}],"sub_title":"Maximum sustained throughput","text":"This value is the throughput averaged or integrated over a long time (sometimes considered infinity). For high duty cycle networks, this is likely to be the most accurate indicator of system performance. The maximum throughput is defined as the asymptotic throughput when the load (the amount of incoming data) is large. In packet switched systems where the load and the throughput always are equal (where packet loss does not occur), the maximum throughput may be defined as the minimum load in bit/s that causes the delivery time (the latency) to become unstable and increase towards infinity. This value can also be used deceptively in relation to peak measured throughput to conceal packet shaping.","title":"Maximum throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Channel utilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_utilization"},{"link_name":"channel efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_efficiency"},{"link_name":"packet drop rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Packet_drop_rate&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"bandwidth utilization efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_utilization_efficiency"},{"link_name":"net bit rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_bit_rate"},{"link_name":"communication channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_channel"},{"link_name":"point-to-multipoint communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-multipoint_communication"},{"link_name":"channel capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_capacity"}],"text":"Throughput is sometimes normalized and measured in percentage, but normalization may cause confusion regarding what the percentage is related to. Channel utilization, channel efficiency and packet drop rate in percentage are less ambiguous terms.The channel efficiency, also known as bandwidth utilization efficiency, is the percentage of the net bit rate (in bit/s) of a digital communication channel that goes to the actually achieved throughput. For example, if the throughput is 70 Mbit/s in a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet connection, the channel efficiency is 70%. In this example, effectively 70 Mbit of data are transmitted every second.Channel utilization is instead a term related to the use of the channel, disregarding the throughput. It counts not only with the data bits, but also with the overhead that makes use of the channel. The transmission overhead consists of preamble sequences, frame headers and acknowledge packets. The definitions assume a noiseless channel. Otherwise, the throughput would not be only associated with the nature (efficiency) of the protocol, but also to retransmissions resultant from the quality of the channel. In a simplistic approach, channel efficiency can be equal to channel utilization assuming that acknowledge packets are zero-length and that the communications provider will not see any bandwidth relative to retransmissions or headers. Therefore, certain texts mark a difference between channel utilization and protocol efficiency.In a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint communication link, where only one terminal is transmitting, the maximum throughput is often equivalent to or very near the physical data rate (the channel capacity), since the channel utilization can be almost 100% in such a network, except for a small inter-frame gap.For example, the maximum frame size in Ethernet is 1526 bytes: up to 1500 bytes for the payload, eight bytes for the preamble, 14 bytes for the header, and 4 bytes for the trailer. An additional minimum interframe gap corresponding to 12 bytes is inserted after each frame. This corresponds to a maximum channel utilization of 1526 / (1526 + 12) × 100% = 99.22%, or a maximum channel use of 99.22 Mbit/s inclusive of Ethernet datalink layer protocol overhead in a 100 Mbit/s Ethernet connection. The maximum throughput or channel efficiency is then 1500 / (1526 + 12) = 97.5%, exclusive of the Ethernet protocol overhead.","title":"Channel utilization and efficiency"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The throughput of a communication system will be limited by a huge number of factors. Some of these are described below:","title":"Factors affecting throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signal-to-noise ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio"},{"link_name":"Shannon–Hartley theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley_theorem"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"3 db bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3_db_bandwidth&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"capacitance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance"},{"link_name":"parasitic capacitance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_capacitance"},{"link_name":"Skin effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skin_effect"},{"link_name":"AWG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_wire_gauge"},{"link_name":"Cat 5e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat_5e"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"transmission lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_line"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Wireless Channel Effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Propagation"},{"link_name":"transmission rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_rate"}],"sub_title":"Analog limitations","text":"The maximum achievable throughput (the channel capacity) is affected by the bandwidth in hertz and signal-to-noise ratio of the analog physical medium.Despite the conceptual simplicity of digital information, all electrical signals traveling over wires are analog. The analog limitations of wires or wireless systems inevitably provide an upper bound on the amount of information that can be sent. The dominant equation here is the Shannon–Hartley theorem, and analog limitations of this type can be understood as factors that affect either the analog bandwidth of a signal or as factors that affect the signal-to-noise ratio. The bandwidth of wired systems can be in fact surprisingly narrow, with the bandwidth of Ethernet wire limited to approximately 1 GHz, and PCB traces limited by a similar amount.Digital systems refer to the 'knee frequency',[7] the amount of time for the digital voltage to rise from 10% of a nominal digital '0' to a nominal digital '1' or vice versa. The knee frequency is related to the required bandwidth of a channel, and can be related to the 3 db bandwidth of a system by the equation:[8] \n \n \n \n  \n \n F\n \n 3\n d\n B\n \n \n ≈\n K\n \n /\n \n \n T\n \n r\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ F_{3dB}\\approx K/T_{r}}\n \n\nWhere Tr is the 10% to 90% rise time, and K is a constant of proportionality related to the pulse shape, equal to 0.35 for an exponential rise, and 0.338 for a Gaussian rise.RC losses: Wires have an inherent resistance, and an inherent capacitance when measured with respect to ground. This leads to effects called parasitic capacitance, causing all wires and cables to act as RC lowpass filters.\nSkin effect: As frequency increases, electric charges migrate to the edges of wires or cable. This reduces the effective cross-sectional area available for carrying current, increasing resistance and reducing the signal-to-noise ratio. For AWG 24 wire (of the type commonly found in Cat 5e cable), the skin effect frequency becomes dominant over the inherent resistivity of the wire at 100 kHz. At 1 GHz the resistivity has increased to 0.1 ohm per inch.[9]\nTermination and ringing: Wires longer than about 1/6 wavelengths must be modeled as transmission lines with termination taken into account. Unless this is done, reflected signals will travel back and forth across the wire, positively or negatively interfering with the information-carrying signal.[10]\nWireless Channel Effects: For wireless systems, all of the effects associated with wireless transmission limit the SNR and bandwidth of the received signal, and therefore the maximum bit transmission rate.","title":"Factors affecting throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"capacitance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance"},{"link_name":"class B subnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Class_B_subnet&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"CSMA/CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSMA/CD"},{"link_name":"CSMA/CA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSMA/CA"},{"link_name":"Flow control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_control_(data)"},{"link_name":"Transmission Control Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol"},{"link_name":"bandwidth-delay product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth-delay_product"},{"link_name":"congestion avoidance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestion_avoidance"}],"sub_title":"IC hardware considerations","text":"Computational systems have finite processing power and can drive finite current. Limited current drive capability can limit the effective signal to noise ratio for high capacitance links.Large data loads that require processing impose data processing requirements on hardware (such as routers). For example, a gateway router supporting a populated class B subnet, handling 10 × 100 Mbit/s Ethernet channels, must examine 16 bits of address to determine the destination port for each packet. This translates into 81913 packets per second (assuming maximum data payload per packet) with a table of 2^16 addresses this requires the router to be able to perform 5.368 billion lookup operations per second. In a worst-case scenario, where the payloads of each Ethernet packet are reduced to 100 bytes, this number of operations per second jumps to 520 billion. This router would require a multi-teraflop processing core to be able to handle such a load.CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA \"backoff\" waiting time and frame retransmissions after detected collisions. This may occur in Ethernet bus networks and hub networks, as well as in wireless networks.\nFlow control, for example in the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) protocol, affects the throughput if the bandwidth-delay product is larger than the TCP window, i.e., the buffer size. In that case, the sending computer must wait for acknowledgement of the data packets before it can send more packets.\nTCP congestion avoidance controls the data rate. A so-called \"slow start\" occurs in the beginning of a file transfer, and after packet drops caused by router congestion or bit errors in for example wireless links.","title":"Factors affecting throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fair queuing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_queuing"},{"link_name":"best-effort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best-effort"},{"link_name":"Packet loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packet_loss"},{"link_name":"network congestion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_congestion"},{"link_name":"bit errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_error"},{"link_name":"weighted fair queuing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighted_fair_queuing"},{"link_name":"quality of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_of_service"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Multi-user considerations","text":"Ensuring that multiple users can harmoniously share a single communications link requires some kind of equitable sharing of the link. If a bottleneck communication link offering data rate R is shared by \"N\" active users (with at least one data packet in queue), every user typically achieves a throughput of approximately R/N, if fair queuing best-effort communication is assumed.Packet loss due to network congestion. Packets may be dropped in switches and routers when the packet queues are full due to congestion.\nPacket loss due to bit errors.\nScheduling algorithms in routers and switches. If fair queuing is not provided, users that send large packets will get higher bandwidth. Some users may be prioritized in a weighted fair queuing (WFQ) algorithm if differentiated or guaranteed quality of service (QoS) is provided.\nIn some communications systems, such as satellite networks, only a finite number of channels may be available to a given user at a given time. Channels are assigned either through preassignment or through Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA).[11] In these cases, throughput is quantized per channel, and unused capacity on partially utilized channels is lost.","title":"Factors affecting throughput"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gross bit rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_bit_rate"},{"link_name":"forward error correction codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_error_correction_codes"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"Point-to-Point Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol"},{"link_name":"net bit rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_bit_rate"},{"link_name":"goodput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodput"},{"link_name":"goodput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodput"},{"link_name":"application layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_layer"},{"link_name":"goodput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodput"}],"text":"The maximum throughput is often an unreliable measurement of perceived bandwidth, for example the file transmission data rate in bits per seconds. As pointed out above, the achieved throughput is often lower than the maximum throughput. Also, the protocol overhead affects the perceived bandwidth. The throughput is not a well-defined metric when it comes to how to deal with protocol overhead. It is typically measured at a reference point below the network layer and above the physical layer. The simplest definition is the number of bits per second that are physically delivered. A typical example where this definition is practiced is an Ethernet network. In this case, the maximum throughput is the gross bit rate or raw bit rate.However, in schemes that include forward error correction codes (channel coding), the redundant error code is normally excluded from the throughput. An example in modem communication, where the throughput typically is measured in the interface between the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and the circuit-switched modem connection. In this case, the maximum throughput is often called net bit rate or useful bit rate.To determine the actual data rate of a network or connection, the \"goodput\" measurement definition may be used. For example, in file transmission, the \"goodput\" corresponds to the file size (in bits) divided by the file transmission time. The \"goodput\" is the amount of useful information that is delivered per second to the application layer protocol. Dropped packets or packet retransmissions, as well as protocol overhead, are excluded. Because of that, the \"goodput\" is lower than the throughput. Technical factors that affect the difference are presented in the \"goodput\" article.","title":"Goodput and overhead"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other uses of throughput for data"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data flow diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_flow_diagram"},{"link_name":"Fast Fourier Transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"binary multipliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_multiplier"},{"link_name":"propagation delay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propagation_delay"},{"link_name":"ASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"embedded processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_processor"}],"sub_title":"Integrated circuits","text":"Often, a block in a data flow diagram has a single input and a single output, and operate on discrete packets of information. Examples of such blocks are Fast Fourier Transform modules or binary multipliers. Because the units of throughput are the reciprocal of the unit for propagation delay, which is 'seconds per message' or 'seconds per output', throughput can be used to relate a computational device performing a dedicated function such as an ASIC or embedded processor to a communications channel, simplifying system analysis.","title":"Other uses of throughput for data"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wireless networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network"},{"link_name":"cellular systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_network"},{"link_name":"system spectral efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_spectral_efficiency"}],"sub_title":"Wireless and cellular networks","text":"In wireless networks or cellular systems, the system spectral efficiency in bit/s/Hz/area unit, bit/s/Hz/site or bit/s/Hz/cell, is the maximum system throughput (aggregate throughput) divided by the analog bandwidth and some measure of the system coverage area.","title":"Other uses of throughput for data"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Over analog channels","text":"Throughput over analog channels is defined entirely by the modulation scheme, the signal-to-noise ratio, and the available bandwidth. Since throughput is normally defined in terms of quantified digital data, the term 'throughput' is not normally used; the term 'bandwidth' is more often used instead.","title":"Other uses of throughput for data"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Prentice Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Hall"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-042232-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-042232-0"},{"link_name":"Blahut, Richard E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blahut,_Richard_E."},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-55374-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-55374-1"},{"link_name":"Prentice Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prentice_Hall"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-395724-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-395724-1"},{"link_name":"McGraw-Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw-Hill"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-137176-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-137176-1"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Scheduling_problems"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Scheduling_problems"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scheduling_problems"},{"link_name":"Optimal job scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimal_job_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Single machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-machine_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Identical machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identical-machines_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Uniform machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform-machines_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Unrelated machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unrelated-machines_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Parallel tasks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_task_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Open shop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-shop_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Flow shop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow-shop_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Job shop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job-shop_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Makespan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makespan"},{"link_name":"Earliness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earliness_(scheduling)"},{"link_name":"Lateness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateness_(scheduling)"},{"link_name":"Tardiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tardiness_(scheduling)"},{"link_name":"Throughput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Interval scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interval_scheduling"},{"link_name":"Truthful job scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truthful_job_scheduling"}],"text":"Rappaport, Theodore S. Wireless Communications, Principles and Practice second edition, Prentice Hall, 2002, ISBN 0-13-042232-0\nBlahut, Richard E. Algebraic Codes for Data Transmission Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-55374-1\nLi, Harnes, Holte, \"Impact of Lossy Links on Performance of Multihop Wireless Networks\", IEEE, Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks, Oct 2005, 303 - 308\nJohnson, Graham, High Speed Digital Design, a Handbook of Black Magic, Prentice Hall, 1973, ISBN 0-13-395724-1\nRoddy, Dennis, Satellite Communications third edition, McGraw-Hill, 2001, ISBN 0-07-137176-1vteOptimal job scheduling problemsOne-stage jobs\nSingle machine\nIdentical machines\nUniform machines\nUnrelated machines\nMulti-stage jobs\nParallel tasks\nOpen shop\nFlow shop\nJob shop\nOptimization objectives\nMakespan\nEarliness\nLateness\nTardiness\nThroughput\nOther requirements\nInterval scheduling\nTruthful job scheduling","title":"Further reading"}]
[]
[{"title":"network throughput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/network_throughput"},{"title":"BWPing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BWPing"},{"title":"Greedy source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greedy_source"},{"title":"High-throughput computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-throughput_computing"},{"title":"Iperf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iperf"},{"title":"Measuring network throughput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measuring_network_throughput"},{"title":"Network traffic measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_traffic_measurement"},{"title":"Performance engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_engineering"},{"title":"Traffic generation model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_generation_model"},{"title":"ttcp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ttcp"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon_Branding
Lexicon Branding
["1 History","2 Clients","3 References","4 External links"]
Lexicon Branding, Inc.Company typePrivateIndustryMarketingFounded1982FounderDavid Placek HeadquartersSausalito, California, United StatesKey peopleDavid Placek, CEO ServicesCorporate and brand name developmentWebsitewww.lexiconbranding.com Lexicon Branding, Inc., is an American marketing firm founded in 1982 by David Placek. It focuses on selecting brand names for companies and products. The company devised the brand names Pentium, BlackBerry, PowerBook, Zune, Swiffer, Febreze, Subaru Outback and Forester, Toyota Scion, DeskJet, Dasani, OnStar, Embassy Suites Hotels and Metreon, among others. History David Placek founded Lexicon in 1982. Placek grew up in Santa Rosa, California, and graduated from UCLA with a degree in political science. He cites his work as press secretary in Warren Hearnes's unsuccessful 1976 campaign for U.S. Senate from Missouri as the experience that inspired him to go into marketing. Before starting Lexicon, he worked at the advertising agencies, Foote, Cone & Belding (where he became a devotee of Synectics) and an agency called S&O. As of October 1992, Lexicon had eight employees. As of February 1998, it had 15 employees and did about 60% of its business in the technology sector. An April 2004 article described the company as having 17 employees but said the "core creative team" was Placek and three others. As of November 2008, Lexicon had 26 employees. As of June 2010 the company was headquartered in Sausalito, California, and had offices in London and New York City. Clients Apple Inc. introduced its PowerBook in 1991. Lexicon crafted the name to combine the notions of performance ("Power") and portability ("Book"). That same year, Lexicon came up with the name of Apple's Macintosh Quadra desktop computer, hoping to appeal to engineers with a name evoking technical terms like quadrant and quadriceps. In 1992, Intel was preparing to launch its fifth-generation x86-compatible microchip and needed a name it could trademark. Lexicon suggested it should end with the suffix -ium to connote a fundamental ingredient of a computer, like a chemical element. On a list of such names was "Pentium", which stood out to Placek because the prefix pent- could refer to the fifth generation of x86. Lexicon conducted market research and found that consumers would expect a hypothetical "Porsche Pentium" to be Porsche's highest-end car. In 1998, Placek said Pentium was the best name his company had come up with. The name was so successful that Intel named the chip's x86 successors after it: Pentium II, Pentium III, and so on. Intel CEO Andy Grove said that Pentium became a more recognized brand than Intel itself and told The New Yorker in 2011 that the name "was one of our great success stories." In 1997, Sony's retail division hired Lexicon to name the first location, to be in downtown San Francisco, of a newly planned chain of "urban entertainment centers" designed to promote the Sony brand. Lexicon chose the name Metreon because they believed the metr- suffix evoked words like "metropolitan" and "meteor", the latter "suggesting something sophisticated, exciting and fast-moving". Intel hired Lexicon again in 1998 to name the Celeron and Xeon chips. The San Jose Mercury News described Lexicon's reasoning behind the former name: "Celer is Latin for swift. As in 'accelerate.' And 'on.' As in 'turned on.' Celeron is seven letters and three syllables, like Pentium. The 'Cel' of Celeron rhymes with 'tel' of Intel." Placek told the San Francisco Chronicle said that the "X" of "Xeon" evokes "the next generation", "eon" refers to the long period of time, and the novelty of the name as a whole reflects the product's novelty. It also was supposed to recall "Pentium's Greek roots". In 1998, Lexicon came up with a new name for the company then known as Borland International: Inprise. Borland CEO Del Yocam explained at the time that the new name was meant to evoke "integrating the enterprise". Analysts said Borland proved to be a stronger brand, and by 2000 the company had switched the name back. Research In Motion hired Lexicon in 1998 to name their new two-way pager. RIM came with several ideas, including EasyMail, MegaMail, and ProMail. Based on interviews with San Francisco Bay Area commuters, Lexicon determined that referring to e-mail in the name would induce stress in users. Encouraging RIM to choose a name that larger competitors would never think of, Lexicon proposed BlackBerry. The second B was capitalized because a linguistic study funded by Lexicon suggested that the letter "B" is, in The New Yorker's words, "one of the most 'reliable' in any language". Lexicon research also suggested that repetition of the B would promote relaxation in users. In 2006, Microsoft approached Lexicon to find a name for its new portable media player to compete with Apple's iPod. Placek assigned three teams to come up with three names: one for the Microsoft player, one for a hypothetical Sony player, one for "a broadband experience for MTV." He refused to tell the San Francisco Chronicle which team came up with "Zune", the name Microsoft chose. Placek said the name was chosen because the "Z" was perceived as fun and irreverent, it has one syllable compared with iPod's two, and it has a musical sound that rhymes with iTunes, Apple's media distribution platform. Controversies arose due to similarities between the name and vulgar words in Hebrew and Canadian French. In 2008, Lexicon came up with the name of Microsoft's Azure Services Platform. Lexicon also christened Subaru's Outback and Forester vehicles, Procter & Gamble's Swiffer cleaner, Levi Strauss & Co.'s Slates dress pants, the Oldsmobile Alero, Embassy Suites Hotels, Hewlett-Packard's DeskJet printer line, Nestlé's Dibs confection, Colgate's Wisp miniature toothbrush, the Coca-Cola Company's Dasani bottled water, the Toyota Scion, P&G's Febreze odor eliminator, and OnStar. References ^ a b c d e f g h i Colapinto, John (October 3, 2011). "Famous names". The New Yorker. pp. 38–43. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ Secretary of State of California. "Business entity detail: Lexicon Branding, Inc". Archived from the original on April 2, 2010. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ a b c Beckett, Jamie (October 23, 1992). "Finding names in unusual places". San Francisco Chronicle. ^ a b Alexander, Steve (February 9, 1998). "In name only". Computerworld. ^ Frankel, Alex (April 24, 2004). "The making of a brand name". National Post. ^ a b c d Wailgum, Thomas (November 11, 2008). "Tech's product name guru: meet the man who coined BlackBerry, Azure and more". CIO.com. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ Lexicon Branding, Inc. (June 15, 2010). "Lexicon Branding opens New York City office". Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ Burgess, John (October 20, 1992). "Intel's fifth-generation chip no longer goes by the numbers". The Washington Post. ^ Morris, Evan (2004). From Altoids to Zima: the surprising stories behind 125 brand names. Simon & Schuster. p. 150. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ Lexicon Branding, Inc. (Jun 18, 1997). "Sony entertainment center to rise in San Francisco". PR Newswire. ^ Cassidy, Mike (April 15, 1998). "Lexicon puts names on new technology". San Jose Mercury News. ^ Fost, Dan (June 29, 1998). "Intel betting on 'Warrior Princess' chip". San Francisco Chronicle. ^ Beckett, Jamie (April 30, 1998). "Borland sheds past with new name, game". San Francisco Chronicle. ^ Wong, Wylie (November 8, 2000). "It's back to 'Borland' for troubled software maker". CNET. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ a b "Catchy product names that stick in memory". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved January 26, 2024. ^ Begley, Sharon (August 26, 2002). "What goes into a brand name? A letter at a time". The Wall Street Journal. ^ a b Fost, Dan (November 14, 2006). "Name That Zune". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ Canwest (September 15, 2006). "Microsoft dismisses music player's linguistic lapse". Canada.com. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ "Ahead of the curve". CNN. February 22, 2001. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ Blair, Elizabeth (May 13, 2011). "With billions at stake, firms play name that mop". NPR. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ Underwood, Elaine (August 19, 1996). "Levi's new dress code". Brandweek. ^ Herz, JC (November 26, 1998). "A name so smooth, the product glides in". The New York Times. Retrieved October 15, 2011. ^ a b Heath, Dan; Heath, Chip (January 3, 2011). "How to pick the perfect brand name". Fast Company. Archived from the original on October 9, 2011. Retrieved October 12, 2011. ^ "Lexicon's Latest Brand Naming Study Results: Spelling Matters". www.businesswire.com. March 22, 2011. Retrieved January 26, 2024. External links Company website
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing"},{"link_name":"brand names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand_names"},{"link_name":"Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium"},{"link_name":"BlackBerry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackBerry"},{"link_name":"PowerBook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBook"},{"link_name":"Zune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zune"},{"link_name":"Swiffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiffer"},{"link_name":"Febreze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Febreze"},{"link_name":"Subaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru"},{"link_name":"Outback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Outback"},{"link_name":"Forester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Forester"},{"link_name":"Toyota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota"},{"link_name":"Scion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scion_(automobile)"},{"link_name":"DeskJet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeskJet"},{"link_name":"Dasani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasani"},{"link_name":"OnStar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OnStar"},{"link_name":"Embassy Suites Hotels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_Suites_Hotels"},{"link_name":"Metreon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metreon"}],"text":"Lexicon Branding, Inc., is an American marketing firm founded in 1982 by David Placek. It focuses on selecting brand names for companies and products. The company devised the brand names Pentium, BlackBerry, PowerBook, Zune, Swiffer, Febreze, Subaru Outback and Forester, Toyota Scion, DeskJet, Dasani, OnStar, Embassy Suites Hotels and Metreon, among others.","title":"Lexicon Branding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santa Rosa, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Rosa,_California"},{"link_name":"UCLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA"},{"link_name":"press secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_secretary"},{"link_name":"Warren Hearnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Hearnes"},{"link_name":"U.S. Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Senate"},{"link_name":"Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri"},{"link_name":"advertising agencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_agencies"},{"link_name":"Foote, Cone & Belding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foote,_Cone_%26_Belding"},{"link_name":"Synectics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synectics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sfc_1992_profile-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerworld-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cio2008-6"},{"link_name":"Sausalito, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sausalito,_California"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"David Placek founded Lexicon in 1982. Placek grew up in Santa Rosa, California, and graduated from UCLA with a degree in political science. He cites his work as press secretary in Warren Hearnes's unsuccessful 1976 campaign for U.S. Senate from Missouri as the experience that inspired him to go into marketing. Before starting Lexicon, he worked at the advertising agencies, Foote, Cone & Belding (where he became a devotee of Synectics) and an agency called S&O.[1]As of October 1992, Lexicon had eight employees.[3] As of February 1998, it had 15 employees and did about 60% of its business in the technology sector.[4] An April 2004 article described the company as having 17 employees but said the \"core creative team\" was Placek and three others.[5] As of November 2008, Lexicon had 26 employees.[6]As of June 2010 the company was headquartered in Sausalito, California, and had offices in London and New York City.[7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apple Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"PowerBook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerBook"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Macintosh Quadra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh_Quadra"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sfc_1992_profile-3"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"fifth-generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P5_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_architecture"},{"link_name":"microchip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microchip"},{"link_name":"chemical element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_element"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"pent-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pent-"},{"link_name":"market research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_research"},{"link_name":"Porsche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-computerworld-4"},{"link_name":"Pentium II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_II"},{"link_name":"Pentium III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_III"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Andy Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Grove"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"urban entertainment centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_entertainment_center"},{"link_name":"Metreon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metreon"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Celeron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celeron"},{"link_name":"Xeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeon"},{"link_name":"San Jose Mercury News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"the long period of time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeon"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Borland International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borland_International"},{"link_name":"Del Yocam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del_Yocam"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Research In Motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_In_Motion"},{"link_name":"two-way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-way_communication"},{"link_name":"pager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pager"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cio2008-6"},{"link_name":"The New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"portable media player","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_media_player"},{"link_name":"iPod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPod"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zune_sfc-17"},{"link_name":"Zune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zune"},{"link_name":"iTunes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-zune_sfc-17"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cio2008-6"},{"link_name":"Canadian French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_French"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Azure Services Platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azure_Services_Platform"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cio2008-6"},{"link_name":"Subaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru"},{"link_name":"Outback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Outback"},{"link_name":"Forester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Forester"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Procter & Gamble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procter_%26_Gamble"},{"link_name":"Swiffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiffer"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"},{"link_name":"Levi Strauss & Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levi_Strauss_%26_Co."},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Oldsmobile Alero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile_Alero"},{"link_name":"Embassy Suites Hotels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_Suites_Hotels"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Hewlett-Packard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"DeskJet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeskJet"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sfc_1992_profile-3"},{"link_name":"Nestlé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nestl%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Colgate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colgate-Palmolive"},{"link_name":"Wisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colgate_Wisp"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-23"},{"link_name":"the Coca-Cola Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Coca-Cola_Company"},{"link_name":"Dasani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasani"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newyorker-1"},{"link_name":"Toyota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota"},{"link_name":"Scion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scion_(automobile)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Febreze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Febreze"},{"link_name":"OnStar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OnStar"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-23"}],"text":"Apple Inc. introduced its PowerBook in 1991. Lexicon crafted the name to combine the notions of performance (\"Power\") and portability (\"Book\").[1] That same year, Lexicon came up with the name of Apple's Macintosh Quadra desktop computer, hoping to appeal to engineers with a name evoking technical terms like quadrant and quadriceps.[3]In 1992, Intel was preparing to launch its fifth-generation x86-compatible microchip and needed a name it could trademark. Lexicon suggested it should end with the suffix -ium to connote a fundamental ingredient of a computer, like a chemical element.[8] On a list of such names was \"Pentium\", which stood out to Placek because the prefix pent- could refer to the fifth generation of x86. Lexicon conducted market research and found that consumers would expect a hypothetical \"Porsche Pentium\" to be Porsche's highest-end car.[1] In 1998, Placek said Pentium was the best name his company had come up with.[4] The name was so successful that Intel named the chip's x86 successors after it: Pentium II, Pentium III, and so on.[9] Intel CEO Andy Grove said that Pentium became a more recognized brand than Intel itself and told The New Yorker in 2011 that the name \"was one of our great success stories.\"[1]In 1997, Sony's retail division hired Lexicon to name the first location, to be in downtown San Francisco, of a newly planned chain of \"urban entertainment centers\" designed to promote the Sony brand. Lexicon chose the name Metreon because they believed the metr- suffix evoked words like \"metropolitan\" and \"meteor\", the latter \"suggesting something sophisticated, exciting and fast-moving\".[10]Intel hired Lexicon again in 1998 to name the Celeron and Xeon chips. The San Jose Mercury News described Lexicon's reasoning behind the former name: \"Celer is Latin for swift. As in 'accelerate.' And 'on.' As in 'turned on.' Celeron is seven letters and three syllables, like Pentium. The 'Cel' of Celeron rhymes with 'tel' of Intel.\"[11] Placek told the San Francisco Chronicle said that the \"X\" of \"Xeon\" evokes \"the next generation\", \"eon\" refers to the long period of time, and the novelty of the name as a whole reflects the product's novelty. It also was supposed to recall \"Pentium's Greek roots\".[12]In 1998, Lexicon came up with a new name for the company then known as Borland International: Inprise. Borland CEO Del Yocam explained at the time that the new name was meant to evoke \"integrating the enterprise\".[13] Analysts said Borland proved to be a stronger brand, and by 2000 the company had switched the name back.[14]Research In Motion hired Lexicon in 1998 to name their new two-way pager. RIM came with several ideas, including EasyMail, MegaMail, and ProMail. Based on interviews with San Francisco Bay Area commuters, Lexicon determined that referring to e-mail in the name would induce stress in users.[1] Encouraging RIM to choose a name that larger competitors would never think of, Lexicon proposed BlackBerry.[6] The second B was capitalized because a linguistic study funded by Lexicon suggested that the letter \"B\" is, in The New Yorker's words, \"one of the most 'reliable' in any language\".[1][15] Lexicon research also suggested that repetition of the B would promote relaxation in users.[16]In 2006, Microsoft approached Lexicon to find a name for its new portable media player to compete with Apple's iPod. Placek assigned three teams to come up with three names: one for the Microsoft player, one for a hypothetical Sony player, one for \"a broadband experience for MTV.\"[17] He refused to tell the San Francisco Chronicle which team came up with \"Zune\", the name Microsoft chose. Placek said the name was chosen because the \"Z\" was perceived as fun and irreverent, it has one syllable compared with iPod's two, and it has a musical sound that rhymes with iTunes, Apple's media distribution platform.[17] Controversies arose due to similarities between the name and vulgar words in Hebrew[6] and Canadian French.[18] In 2008, Lexicon came up with the name of Microsoft's Azure Services Platform.[6]Lexicon also christened Subaru's Outback and Forester vehicles,[19] Procter & Gamble's Swiffer cleaner,[20][15] Levi Strauss & Co.'s Slates dress pants,[21] the Oldsmobile Alero, Embassy Suites Hotels,[22] Hewlett-Packard's DeskJet printer line,[3] Nestlé's Dibs confection, Colgate's Wisp miniature toothbrush,[23] the Coca-Cola Company's Dasani bottled water,[1] the Toyota Scion,[24] P&G's Febreze odor eliminator, and OnStar.[23]","title":"Clients"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Colapinto, John (October 3, 2011). \"Famous names\". The New Yorker. pp. 38–43. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Colapinto","url_text":"Colapinto, John"},{"url":"http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2011/10/03/111003fa_fact_colapinto","url_text":"\"Famous names\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker","url_text":"The New Yorker"}]},{"reference":"Secretary of State of California. \"Business entity detail: Lexicon Branding, Inc\". Archived from the original on April 2, 2010. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_of_California","url_text":"Secretary of State of California"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100402014221/http://kepler.sos.ca.gov/cbs.aspx","url_text":"\"Business entity detail: Lexicon Branding, Inc\""},{"url":"http://kepler.sos.ca.gov/cbs.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Beckett, Jamie (October 23, 1992). \"Finding names in unusual places\". San Francisco Chronicle.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle","url_text":"San Francisco Chronicle"}]},{"reference":"Alexander, Steve (February 9, 1998). \"In name only\". Computerworld.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerworld","url_text":"Computerworld"}]},{"reference":"Frankel, Alex (April 24, 2004). \"The making of a brand name\". National Post.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Post","url_text":"National Post"}]},{"reference":"Wailgum, Thomas (November 11, 2008). \"Tech's product name guru: meet the man who coined BlackBerry, Azure and more\". CIO.com. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cio.com/article/461879/Tech_s_Product_Name_Guru_Meet_the_Man_Who_Coined_BlackBerry_Azure_and_More","url_text":"\"Tech's product name guru: meet the man who coined BlackBerry, Azure and more\""}]},{"reference":"Lexicon Branding, Inc. (June 15, 2010). \"Lexicon Branding opens New York City office\". Archived from the original on April 25, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120425062628/http://www.lexiconbranding.com/AboutLexicon/LexiconNews/news_lex_2010_0615.html","url_text":"\"Lexicon Branding opens New York City office\""},{"url":"http://www.lexiconbranding.com/AboutLexicon/LexiconNews/news_lex_2010_0615.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Burgess, John (October 20, 1992). \"Intel's fifth-generation chip no longer goes by the numbers\". The Washington Post.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Washington_Post","url_text":"The Washington Post"}]},{"reference":"Morris, Evan (2004). From Altoids to Zima: the surprising stories behind 125 brand names. Simon & Schuster. p. 150. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fromaltoidstozim00morr","url_text":"From Altoids to Zima: the surprising stories behind 125 brand names"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster","url_text":"Simon & Schuster"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/fromaltoidstozim00morr/page/150","url_text":"150"}]},{"reference":"Cassidy, Mike (April 15, 1998). \"Lexicon puts names on new technology\". San Jose Mercury News.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News","url_text":"San Jose Mercury News"}]},{"reference":"Fost, Dan (June 29, 1998). \"Intel betting on 'Warrior Princess' chip\". San Francisco Chronicle.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle","url_text":"San Francisco Chronicle"}]},{"reference":"Beckett, Jamie (April 30, 1998). \"Borland sheds past with new name, game\". San Francisco Chronicle.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle","url_text":"San Francisco Chronicle"}]},{"reference":"Wong, Wylie (November 8, 2000). \"It's back to 'Borland' for troubled software maker\". CNET. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.cnet.com/2100-1001-248319.html","url_text":"\"It's back to 'Borland' for troubled software maker\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET","url_text":"CNET"}]},{"reference":"\"Catchy product names that stick in memory\". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved January 26, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.csmonitor.com/The-Culture/In-a-Word/2019/0124/Catchy-product-names-that-stick-in-memory","url_text":"\"Catchy product names that stick in memory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0882-7729","url_text":"0882-7729"}]},{"reference":"Begley, Sharon (August 26, 2002). \"What goes into a brand name? A letter at a time\". The Wall Street Journal.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"}]},{"reference":"Fost, Dan (November 14, 2006). \"Name That Zune\". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.sfgate.com/techchron/2006/11/14/name-that-zune/","url_text":"\"Name That Zune\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle","url_text":"San Francisco Chronicle"}]},{"reference":"Canwest (September 15, 2006). \"Microsoft dismisses music player's linguistic lapse\". Canada.com. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canwest","url_text":"Canwest"},{"url":"https://archive.today/20120729132915/http://www.canada.com/topics/finance/story.html?id=0013a614-239a-4210-89f5-7993f86d64fd","url_text":"\"Microsoft dismisses music player's linguistic lapse\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada.com","url_text":"Canada.com"},{"url":"http://www.canada.com/topics/finance/story.html?id=0013a614-239a-4210-89f5-7993f86d64fd","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Ahead of the curve\". CNN. February 22, 2001. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0102/22/aotc.03.html","url_text":"\"Ahead of the curve\""}]},{"reference":"Blair, Elizabeth (May 13, 2011). \"With billions at stake, firms play name that mop\". NPR. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/2011/05/13/136024080/with-billions-at-stake-firms-play-name-that-mop","url_text":"\"With billions at stake, firms play name that mop\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NPR","url_text":"NPR"}]},{"reference":"Underwood, Elaine (August 19, 1996). \"Levi's new dress code\". Brandweek.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandweek","url_text":"Brandweek"}]},{"reference":"Herz, JC (November 26, 1998). \"A name so smooth, the product glides in\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 15, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://movies.nytimes.com/library/tech/98/11/circuits/articles/26game.html","url_text":"\"A name so smooth, the product glides in\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Heath, Dan; Heath, Chip (January 3, 2011). \"How to pick the perfect brand name\". Fast Company. Archived from the original on October 9, 2011. Retrieved October 12, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111009004249/http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/151/made-to-stick-the-quest-forthe-perfect-name.html","url_text":"\"How to pick the perfect brand name\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Company_(magazine)","url_text":"Fast Company"},{"url":"http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/151/made-to-stick-the-quest-forthe-perfect-name.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Lexicon's Latest Brand Naming Study Results: Spelling Matters\". www.businesswire.com. March 22, 2011. Retrieved January 26, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20110322005181/en/Lexicon%E2%80%99s-Latest-Brand-Naming-Study-Results-Spelling-Matters","url_text":"\"Lexicon's Latest Brand Naming Study Results: Spelling Matters\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrocell_array
Macrocell array
["1 Macrocell arrays in PLDs","2 Macrocell arrays in ASICs","3 References"]
Not to be confused with Macrocell. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Macrocell array" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) GAL22V10 Output Logic Macrocell (OLMC) Macrocell arrays in PLDs Programmable logic devices, such as programmable array logic and complex programmable logic devices, typically have a macrocell on every output pin. Macrocell arrays in ASICs A macrocell array is an approach to the design and manufacture of ASICs. Essentially, it is a small step up from the otherwise similar gate array, but rather than being a prefabricated array of simple logic gates, the macrocell array is a prefabricated array of higher-level logic functions such as flip-flops, ALU functions, registers, and the like. These logic functions are simply placed at regular predefined positions and manufactured on a wafer, usually called master slice. Creation of a circuit with a specified function is accomplished by adding metal interconnects to the chips on the master slice late in the manufacturing process, allowing the function of the chip to be customised as desired. Macrocell array master slices are usually prefabricated and stockpiled in large quantities regardless of customer orders. The fabrication according to the individual customer specifications may be finished in a shorter time compared with standard cell or full custom design. The macrocell array approach reduces the mask costs since fewer custom masks need to be produced. In addition manufacturing test tooling lead time and costs are reduced since the same test fixtures may be used for all macrocell array products manufactured on the same die size. Drawbacks are somewhat low density and performance than other approaches to ASIC design. However this style is often a viable approach for low production volumes. A standard cell library is sometimes called a "macrocell library". References ^ Norman Einspruch. "Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) Technology". Academic Press. 1991. p. 10. ^ "ASIC Macro Cells" vteDigital electronicsComponents Transistor Resistor Inductor Capacitor Printed electronics Printed circuit board Electronic circuit Flip-flop Memory cell Combinational logic Sequential logic Logic gate Boolean circuit Integrated circuit (IC) Hybrid integrated circuit (HIC) Mixed-signal integrated circuit Three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) Erasable programmable logic device (EPLD) Macrocell array Programmable logic array (PLA) Programmable logic device (PLD) Programmable Array Logic (PAL) Generic Array Logic (GAL) Complex programmable logic device (CPLD) Field-programmable gate array (FPGA) Field-programmable object array (FPOA) Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) Theory Digital signal Boolean algebra Logic synthesis Logic in computer science Computer architecture Digital signal Digital signal processing Circuit minimization Switching circuit theory Gate equivalent Design Logic synthesis Place and route Placement Routing Transaction-level modeling Register-transfer level Hardware description language High-level synthesis Formal equivalence checking Synchronous logic Asynchronous logic Finite-state machine Hierarchical state machine Applications Computer hardware Hardware acceleration Digital audio radio Digital photography Digital telephone Digital video cinematography television Electronic literature Design issues Metastability Runt pulse
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Macrocell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrocell"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MacroCell.png"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Macrocell.GAL22V10 Output Logic Macrocell (OLMC)","title":"Macrocell array"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Programmable logic devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_device"},{"link_name":"programmable array logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_array_logic"},{"link_name":"complex programmable logic devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_programmable_logic_device"}],"text":"Programmable logic devices, such as programmable array logic and complex programmable logic devices, typically have a macrocell on every output pin.","title":"Macrocell arrays in PLDs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ASICs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"gate array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gate_array"},{"link_name":"flip-flops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"ALU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit"},{"link_name":"registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_register"},{"link_name":"wafer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"full custom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_custom"},{"link_name":"mask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photomask"},{"link_name":"die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(manufacturing)"},{"link_name":"standard cell library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_cell#Library"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"A macrocell array is an approach to the design and manufacture of ASICs. Essentially, it is a small step up from the otherwise similar gate array, but rather than being a prefabricated array of simple logic gates, the macrocell array is a prefabricated array of higher-level logic functions such as flip-flops, ALU functions, registers, and the like. These logic functions are simply placed at regular predefined positions and manufactured on a wafer, usually called master slice. Creation of a circuit with a specified function is accomplished by adding metal interconnects to the chips on the master slice late in the manufacturing process, allowing the function of the chip to be customised as desired.Macrocell array master slices are usually prefabricated and stockpiled in large quantities regardless of customer orders. The fabrication according to the individual customer specifications may be finished in a shorter time compared with standard cell or full custom design. The macrocell array approach reduces the mask costs since fewer custom masks need to be produced. In addition manufacturing test tooling lead time and costs are reduced since the same test fixtures may be used for all macrocell array products manufactured on the same die size.Drawbacks are somewhat low density and performance than other approaches to ASIC design. However this style is often a viable approach for low production volumes.A standard cell library is sometimes called a \"macrocell library\".[1][2]","title":"Macrocell arrays in ASICs"}]
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null
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hora_Sfakion
Hora Sfakion
["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
Coordinates: 35°12′03″N 24°08′14″E / 35.20083°N 24.13722°E / 35.20083; 24.13722Community in GreeceChora Sfakion Χώρα ΣφακίωνCommunityChora SfakionCoordinates: 35°12′03″N 24°08′14″E / 35.20083°N 24.13722°E / 35.20083; 24.13722CountryGreeceAdministrative regionCreteRegional unitChaniaMunicipalitySfakiaPopulation (2021) • Community322Time zoneUTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST)UTC+3 (EEST) Monument commemorating the evacuation during WW2 of British and ANZAC forces from Hora Sfakion in May 1941. Click on the left plaque for a closer view Hóra Sfakíon (Greek: Χώρα Σφακίων) or Sfakia (Σφακιά ) is a town on the south coast of Crete, Greece. It is the capital of the remote and mountainous region of Sfakiá, and is a small town of just 322 inhabitants (2021 census). It lies on the south coast near the end of the Imbros Gorge, 74 km south of Chania. It has two small harbours, where the ferry boats from Agia Roumeli dock, which in the summer bring the hikers from the Samaria Gorge to take buses back to the northern coast. From Hóra Sfakíon ferries also go to the nearby coastal town of Loutro and the island Gavdos. Hóra Sfakíon is a small village with a main harbourfront of tavernas, two minimarkets, a butcher, and a bakery. There is a quiet local beach immediately west of the village, and several pebbly beaches nearby. Hóra Sfakíon has a variety of tourist accommodations: rooms, studios, and apartments. The local economy is based on tourism, fishing, olive-oil production, and sheep and goat herding. Hóra Sfakíon prospered during the Venetian and Turkish occupations and up to the 18th century carried on a flourishing trade with its own small fleet. It was said to have had a hundred churches, but it suffered badly from wartime bombardment during the Battle of Crete and the Allied evacuation that followed. Hóra Sfakíon is famous as one of the centers of resistance against the occupying forces of both the Venetians and the Turks. The impenetrable White Mountains to the north combined with the rocky beaches on the south helped the locals fight off all invaders. Anopolis, a village near Hóra Sfakíon, is the birthplace of one of the most celebrated Cretan revolutionaries, Daskalogiannis. See also Battle of Crete Sfakians References ^ a b "Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού - Κατοικιών 2021, Μόνιμος Πληθυσμός κατά οικισμό" (in Greek). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 29 March 2024. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chora Sfakion. Portal site about the region of Sfakiá Live webcam from the village of Hóra Sfakíon, Sfakiá Live beach webcam from the village of Hóra Sfakíon, Sfakiá Local guide to Sfakiá More than 1,000 pictures of Sfakia - from the 1960s until nowadays (in French) University of Lausanne history of Sfakiá vteSubdivisions of the municipality of SfakiaMunicipal unit of Sfakia Agia Roumeli Agios Ioannis Anopoli Asfendos Askyfou Chora Sfakion Impros Patsianos Skaloti Authority control databases VIAF
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit-preserving_function_(order_theory)
Limit-preserving function (order theory)
["1 Background and motivation","2 Formal definition","3 Special cases","3.1 Preservation of all limits","3.2 Distributivity","3.3 Scott-continuity","4 Important properties and results","5 References"]
This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Limit-preserving function" order theory – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In the mathematical area of order theory, one often speaks about functions that preserve certain limits, i.e. certain suprema or infima. Roughly speaking, these functions map the supremum/infimum of a set to the supremum/infimum of the image of the set. Depending on the type of sets for which a function satisfies this property, it may preserve finite, directed, non-empty, or just arbitrary suprema or infima. Each of these requirements appears naturally and frequently in many areas of order theory and there are various important relationships among these concepts and other notions such as monotonicity. If the implication of limit preservation is inverted, such that the existence of limits in the range of a function implies the existence of limits in the domain, then one obtains functions that are limit-reflecting. The purpose of this article is to clarify the definition of these basic concepts, which is necessary since the literature is not always consistent at this point, and to give general results and explanations on these issues. Background and motivation In many specialized areas of order theory, one restricts to classes of partially ordered sets that are complete with respect to certain limit constructions. For example, in lattice theory, one is interested in orders where all finite non-empty sets have both a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound. In domain theory, on the other hand, one focuses on partially ordered sets in which every directed subset has a supremum. Complete lattices and orders with a least element (the "empty supremum") provide further examples. In all these cases, limits play a central role for the theories, supported by their interpretations in practical applications of each discipline. One also is interested in specifying appropriate mappings between such orders. From an algebraic viewpoint, this means that one wants to find adequate notions of homomorphisms for the structures under consideration. This is achieved by considering those functions that are compatible with the constructions that are characteristic for the respective orders. For example, lattice homomorphisms are those functions that preserve non-empty finite suprema and infima, i.e. the image of a supremum/infimum of two elements is just the supremum/infimum of their images. In domain theory, one often deals with so-called Scott-continuous functions that preserve all directed suprema. The background for the definitions and terminology given below is to be found in category theory, where limits (and co-limits) in a more general sense are considered. The categorical concept of limit-preserving and limit-reflecting functors is in complete harmony with order theory, since orders can be considered as small categories defined as poset categories with defined additional structure. Formal definition Consider two partially ordered sets P and Q, and a function f from P to Q. Furthermore, let S be a subset of P that has a least upper bound s. Then f preserves the supremum of S if the set f(S) = {f(x) | x in S} has a least upper bound in Q which is equal to f(s), i.e. f(sup S) = sup f(S) This definition consists of two requirements: the supremum of the set f(S) exists and it is equal to f(s). This corresponds to the abovementioned parallel to category theory, but is not always required in the literature. In fact, in some cases one weakens the definition to require only existing suprema to be equal to f(s). However, Wikipedia works with the common notion given above and states the other condition explicitly if required. From the fundamental definition given above, one can derive a broad range of useful properties. A function f between posets P and Q is said to preserve finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary suprema if it preserves the suprema of all finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary sets, respectively. The preservation of non-empty finite suprema can also be defined by the identity f(x v y) = f(x) v f(y), holding for all elements x and y, where we assume v to be a total function on both orders. In a dual way, one defines properties for the preservation of infima. The "opposite" condition to preservation of limits is called reflection. Consider a function f as above and a subset S of P, such that sup f(S) exists in Q and is equal to f(s) for some element s of P. Then f reflects the supremum of S if sup S exists and is equal to s. As already demonstrated for preservation, one obtains many additional properties by considering certain classes of sets S and by dualizing the definition to infima. Special cases Some special cases or properties derived from the above scheme are known under other names or are of particular importance to some areas of order theory. For example, functions that preserve the empty supremum are those that preserve the least element. Furthermore, due to the motivation explained earlier, many limit-preserving functions appear as special homomorphisms for certain order structures. Some other prominent cases are given below. Preservation of all limits An interesting situation occurs if a function preserves all suprema (or infima). More accurately, this is expressed by saying that a function preserves all existing suprema (or infima), and it may well be that the posets under consideration are not complete lattices. For example, (monotone) Galois connections have this property. Conversely, by the order theoretical Adjoint Functor Theorem, mappings that preserve all suprema/infima can be guaranteed to be part of a unique Galois connection as long as some additional requirements are met. Distributivity A lattice L is distributive if, for all x, y, and z in L, we find x ∧ ( y ∨ z ) = ( x ∧ y ) ∨ ( x ∧ z ) {\displaystyle x\wedge \left(y\vee z\right)=\left(x\wedge y\right)\vee \left(x\wedge z\right)} But this just says that the meet function ^: L -> L preserves binary suprema. It is known in lattice theory, that this condition is equivalent to its dual, i.e. the function v: L -> L preserving binary infima. In a similar way, one sees that the infinite distributivity law x ∧ ⋁ S = ⋁ { x ∧ s ∣ s ∈ S } {\displaystyle x\wedge \bigvee S=\bigvee \left\{x\wedge s\mid s\in S\right\}} of complete Heyting algebras (see also pointless topology) is equivalent to the meet function ^ preserving arbitrary suprema. This condition, however, does not imply its dual. Scott-continuity Functions that preserve directed suprema are called Scott-continuous or sometimes just continuous, if this does not cause confusions with the according concept of analysis and topology. A similar use of the term continuous for preservation of limits can also be found in category theory. Important properties and results The above definition of limit preservation is quite strong. Indeed, every function that preserves at least the suprema or infima of two-element chains, i.e. of sets of two comparable elements, is necessarily monotone. Hence, all the special preservation properties stated above induce monotonicity. Based on the fact that some limits can be expressed in terms of others, one can derive connections between the preservation properties. For example, a function f preserves directed suprema if and only if it preserves the suprema of all ideals. Furthermore, a mapping f from a poset in which every non-empty finite supremum exists (a so-called sup-semilattice) preserves arbitrary suprema if and only if it preserves both directed and finite (possibly empty) suprema. However, it is not true that a function that preserves all suprema would also preserve all infima or vice versa. References
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"order theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_theory"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"suprema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supremum"},{"link_name":"infima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infimum"},{"link_name":"monotonicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotonic_function"}],"text":"In the mathematical area of order theory, one often speaks about functions that preserve certain limits, i.e. certain suprema or infima. Roughly speaking, these functions map the supremum/infimum of a set to the supremum/infimum of the image of the set. Depending on the type of sets for which a function satisfies this property, it may preserve finite, directed, non-empty, or just arbitrary suprema or infima. Each of these requirements appears naturally and frequently in many areas of order theory and there are various important relationships among these concepts and other notions such as monotonicity. If the implication of limit preservation is inverted, such that the existence of limits in the range of a function implies the existence of limits in the domain, then one obtains functions that are limit-reflecting.The purpose of this article is to clarify the definition of these basic concepts, which is necessary since the literature is not always consistent at this point, and to give general results and explanations on these issues.","title":"Limit-preserving function (order theory)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"partially ordered sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completeness_(order_theory)"},{"link_name":"lattice theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"domain theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_theory"},{"link_name":"directed subset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directed_set"},{"link_name":"algebraic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_algebra"},{"link_name":"homomorphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homomorphism"},{"link_name":"Scott-continuous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott-continuous"},{"link_name":"category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"limits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"functors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functor"}],"text":"In many specialized areas of order theory, one restricts to classes of partially ordered sets that are complete with respect to certain limit constructions. For example, in lattice theory, one is interested in orders where all finite non-empty sets have both a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound. In domain theory, on the other hand, one focuses on partially ordered sets in which every directed subset has a supremum. Complete lattices and orders with a least element (the \"empty supremum\") provide further examples.In all these cases, limits play a central role for the theories, supported by their interpretations in practical applications of each discipline. One also is interested in specifying appropriate mappings between such orders. From an algebraic viewpoint, this means that one wants to find adequate notions of homomorphisms for the structures under consideration. This is achieved by considering those functions that are compatible with the constructions that are characteristic for the respective orders. For example, lattice homomorphisms are those functions that preserve non-empty finite suprema and infima, i.e. the image of a supremum/infimum of two elements is just the supremum/infimum of their images. In domain theory, one often deals with so-called Scott-continuous functions that preserve all directed suprema.The background for the definitions and terminology given below is to be found in category theory, where limits (and co-limits) in a more general sense are considered. The categorical concept of limit-preserving and limit-reflecting functors is in complete harmony with order theory, since orders can be considered as small categories defined as poset categories with defined additional structure.","title":"Background and motivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"posets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"dual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duality_(order_theory)"}],"text":"Consider two partially ordered sets P and Q, and a function f from P to Q. Furthermore, let S be a subset of P that has a least upper bound s. Then f preserves the supremum of S if the set f(S) = {f(x) | x in S} has a least upper bound in Q which is equal to f(s), i.e.f(sup S) = sup f(S)This definition consists of two requirements: the supremum of the set f(S) exists and it is equal to f(s). This corresponds to the abovementioned parallel to category theory, but is not always required in the literature. In fact, in some cases one weakens the definition to require only existing suprema to be equal to f(s). However, Wikipedia works with the common notion given above and states the other condition explicitly if required.From the fundamental definition given above, one can derive a broad range of useful properties. A function f between posets P and Q is said to preserve finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary suprema if it preserves the suprema of all finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary sets, respectively. The preservation of non-empty finite suprema can also be defined by the identity f(x v y) = f(x) v f(y), holding for all elements x and y, where we assume v to be a total function on both orders.In a dual way, one defines properties for the preservation of infima.The \"opposite\" condition to preservation of limits is called reflection. Consider a function f as above and a subset S of P, such that sup f(S) exists in Q and is equal to f(s) for some element s of P. Then f reflects the supremum of S if sup S exists and is equal to s. As already demonstrated for preservation, one obtains many additional properties by considering certain classes of sets S and by dualizing the definition to infima.","title":"Formal definition"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Some special cases or properties derived from the above scheme are known under other names or are of particular importance to some areas of order theory. For example, functions that preserve the empty supremum are those that preserve the least element. Furthermore, due to the motivation explained earlier, many limit-preserving functions appear as special homomorphisms for certain order structures. Some other prominent cases are given below.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Galois connections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galois_connection"},{"link_name":"Adjoint Functor Theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adjoint_functor_theorem_(order_theory)&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Preservation of all limits","text":"An interesting situation occurs if a function preserves all suprema (or infima). More accurately, this is expressed by saying that a function preserves all existing suprema (or infima), and it may well be that the posets under consideration are not complete lattices. For example, (monotone) Galois connections have this property. Conversely, by the order theoretical Adjoint Functor Theorem, mappings that preserve all suprema/infima can be guaranteed to be part of a unique Galois connection as long as some additional requirements are met.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"distributive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_lattice"},{"link_name":"complete Heyting algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"pointless topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointless_topology"}],"sub_title":"Distributivity","text":"A lattice L is distributive if, for all x, y, and z in L, we findx\n ∧\n \n (\n \n y\n ∨\n z\n \n )\n \n =\n \n (\n \n x\n ∧\n y\n \n )\n \n ∨\n \n (\n \n x\n ∧\n z\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\wedge \\left(y\\vee z\\right)=\\left(x\\wedge y\\right)\\vee \\left(x\\wedge z\\right)}But this just says that the meet function ^: L -> L preserves binary suprema. It is known in lattice theory, that this condition is equivalent to its dual, i.e. the function v: L -> L preserving binary infima. In a similar way, one sees that the infinite distributivity lawx\n ∧\n ⋁\n S\n =\n ⋁\n \n {\n \n x\n ∧\n s\n ∣\n s\n ∈\n S\n \n }\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\wedge \\bigvee S=\\bigvee \\left\\{x\\wedge s\\mid s\\in S\\right\\}}of complete Heyting algebras (see also pointless topology) is equivalent to the meet function ^ preserving arbitrary suprema. This condition, however, does not imply its dual.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scott-continuous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott-continuous"},{"link_name":"analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_analysis"},{"link_name":"topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topology"}],"sub_title":"Scott-continuity","text":"Functions that preserve directed suprema are called Scott-continuous or sometimes just continuous, if this does not cause confusions with the according concept of analysis and topology. A similar use of the term continuous for preservation of limits can also be found in category theory.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"if and only if","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_if"}],"text":"The above definition of limit preservation is quite strong. Indeed, every function that preserves at least the suprema or infima of two-element chains, i.e. of sets of two comparable elements, is necessarily monotone. Hence, all the special preservation properties stated above induce monotonicity.Based on the fact that some limits can be expressed in terms of others, one can derive connections between the preservation properties.\nFor example, a function f preserves directed suprema if and only if it preserves the suprema of all ideals.\nFurthermore, a mapping f from a poset in which every non-empty finite supremum exists (a so-called sup-semilattice) preserves arbitrary suprema if and only if it preserves both directed and finite (possibly empty) suprema.However, it is not true that a function that preserves all suprema would also preserve all infima or vice versa.","title":"Important properties and results"}]
[]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR_(programming_language)
SR (programming language)
["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
SR (short for Synchronizing Resources) is a programming language designed for concurrent programming. Resources encapsulate processes and the variables they share, and can be separately compiled. Operations provide the primary mechanism for process interaction. SR provides a novel integration of the mechanisms for invoking and servicing operations. Consequently, it supports local and remote procedure call, rendezvous, message passing, dynamic process creation, multicast, semaphores and shared memory. Version 2.2 has been ported to the Apollo, DECstation, Data General AViiON, HP 9000 Series 300, Multimax, NeXT, PA-RISC, RS/6000, Sequent Symmetry, SGI IRIS, Sun-3, Sun-4 and others. See also Occam MPD References Gregory R. Andrews, Ronald A. Olsson: The SR Programming Language: Concurrency in Practice, ISBN 0-8053-0088-0 Stephen J. Hartley: Operating Systems Programming: The SR Programming Language, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-509579-0 External links The SR Programming Language Authority control databases: National Israel United States This programming-language-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"remote procedure call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_procedure_call"},{"link_name":"rendezvous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous"},{"link_name":"message passing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_passing"},{"link_name":"multicast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast"},{"link_name":"semaphores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore_(programming)"},{"link_name":"shared memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_memory_(interprocess_communication)"},{"link_name":"Apollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Computer"},{"link_name":"DECstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DECstation"},{"link_name":"Data General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_General"},{"link_name":"AViiON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AViiON"},{"link_name":"HP 9000 Series 300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_9000#Series_300/400"},{"link_name":"Multimax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encore_Computer"},{"link_name":"NeXT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NeXT"},{"link_name":"PA-RISC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PA-RISC"},{"link_name":"RS/6000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS/6000"},{"link_name":"Sequent Symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequent_Computer_Systems"},{"link_name":"SGI IRIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGI_IRIS"},{"link_name":"Sun-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun-3"},{"link_name":"Sun-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun-4"}],"text":"Resources encapsulate processes and the variables they share, and can be separately compiled. Operations provide the primary mechanism for process interaction.SR provides a novel integration of the mechanisms for invoking and servicing operations. Consequently, it supports local and remote procedure call, rendezvous, message passing, dynamic process creation, multicast, semaphores and shared memory.Version 2.2 has been ported to the Apollo, DECstation, Data General AViiON, HP 9000 Series 300, Multimax, NeXT, PA-RISC, RS/6000, Sequent Symmetry, SGI IRIS, Sun-3, Sun-4 and others.","title":"SR (programming language)"}]
[]
[{"title":"Occam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam_(programming_language)"},{"title":"MPD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPD_(programming_language)"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Sentencing_Guidelines
United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines
["1 History","1.1 Enabling legislation","1.2 Promulgation and modification","1.3 United States v. Booker","2 Guidelines basics","2.1 Offense level","2.2 Criminal history","2.3 Zones","3 Adjustments","3.1 Reductions in time to be served","3.2 Increase in time to be served","4 Departures","5 Controversies","6 Sentencing table","7 Fines","8 Probation and supervised release","9 See also","10 References","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
Rules for sentencing convicts in the U.S. federal courts system Example of a matrix and explanation showing how the total months recommended is calculated from the Base Level Offense taking into account all factors The United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines are rules published by the U.S. Sentencing Commission that set out a uniform policy for sentencing individuals and organizations convicted of felonies and serious (Class A) misdemeanors in the United States federal courts system. The Guidelines do not apply to less serious misdemeanors or infractions. Although the Guidelines were initially styled as mandatory, the US Supreme Court's 2005 decision in United States v. Booker held that the Guidelines, as originally constituted, violated the Sixth Amendment right to trial by jury, and the remedy chosen was to excise those provisions of the law establishing the Guidelines as mandatory. After Booker and other Supreme Court cases, such as Blakely v. Washington (2004), the Guidelines are now considered advisory only. Federal judges (state judges are not affected by the Guidelines) must calculate the guidelines and consider them when determining a sentence, but are not required to issue sentences within the guidelines. History Enabling legislation The Guidelines are the product of the United States Sentencing Commission, which was created by the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984. The Guidelines' primary goal was to alleviate sentencing disparities that research had indicated were prevalent in the existing sentencing system, and the guidelines reform was specifically intended to provide for determinate sentencing. This refers to sentencing whose actual limits are determined at the time the sentence is imposed, as opposed to indeterminate sentencing, in which a sentence with a maximum (and, perhaps, a minimum) is pronounced but the actual amount of time served in prison is determined by a parole commission or similar administrative body after the person has started serving his or her sentence. As part of the guidelines reform in 1984, parole on federal level was abolished. The federal effort followed guidelines projects in several states, initially funded by the United States Department of Justice, and led by Jack Kress and his research team during the late 1970s. The first sentencing guidelines jurisdictions were county-wide, in Denver, Newark, Chicago and Philadelphia. Statewide guidelines systems were next established in Utah, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Michigan, Washington, and Delaware, before the federal sentencing guidelines were formally adopted in 1987. Given that the vast majority of criminal sentencing is done at the state level, the American Law Institute and the American Bar Association have each recommended such systems for all the states, and nearly half the states presently have such systems, although significant variations exist among them. For example, Minnesota's Sentencing Guidelines Commission initially sought consciously not to increase prison capacity through guidelines. That is, Minnesota assumed that the legislature should determine how much would be spent on prisons and that the sentencing commission's job was to allocate those prison beds in as rational a way as possible. The federal effort took the opposite approach. It determined how many prisons would be needed and Congress was then essentially required to fund those beds. Promulgation and modification In drafting the first set of guidelines, the Commission used data drawn from 10,000 presentence investigations, the differing elements of various crimes as distinguished in substantive criminal statutes, the United States Parole Commission's guidelines and statistics, and data from other sources in order to determine which distinctions were important in pre-guidelines practice. Sentencing criteria already in use by judges was thus codified as guidelines. The Commission essentially codified existing practice. Future modifications often reflected Congressional mandates, as in the case of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 that imposed increased and mandatory minimum sentences. In 2003, Congress considered the Feeney Amendment to the PROTECT Act. This amendment would have totally rewritten the guidelines. Among other changes, the original amendment would have eliminated all unenumerated downward departures and all downward departures for family ties, diminished capacity, aberrant behavior, educational or vocational skills, mental or emotional conditions, employment record, good works, or overstated criminal history. Defense lawyers, law professors, current and former Sentencing Commissioners, the President of the American Bar Association, Chief Justice William Rehnquist, and others wrote to Congress opposing the amendment. The enacted bill limited the changes described above to crimes involving pornography, sexual abuse, child sex, and child kidnapping and trafficking. It also raised penalties for child pornography and child sex abuse. It also greatly increased prosecutorial discretion and influence by limiting judges' power to depart from the guidelines and granting prosecutors greater power over departures. For instance, it made a prosecutorial motion a prerequisite for a three-level reduction for acceptance of responsibility. It also instructed the Sentencing Commission to authorize four-level "fast-track" downward departures in illegal-reentry immigration cases upon motion of the prosecutor. United States v. Booker Though the Federal Sentencing Guidelines were styled as mandatory, the Supreme Court's 2005 decision in United States v. Booker found that the Guidelines, as originally constituted, violated the Sixth Amendment right to trial by jury, and the chosen remedy was excision of those provisions of the law establishing the Guidelines as mandatory. In the aftermath of Booker and other Supreme Court cases, such as Blakely v. Washington (2004), Guidelines are now considered advisory only. Federal judges (state judges are not affected by the Guidelines) must calculate the guidelines and consider them when determining a sentence but are not required to issue sentences within the guidelines. Those sentences are still, however, subject to appellate review. The frequency in which sentences are imposed that exceed the range stated in the Guidelines has doubled in the years since the Booker decision. Guidelines basics The Guidelines determine sentences based primarily on two factors: the conduct associated with the offense (the offense conduct, which produces the offense level) the defendant's criminal history (the criminal history category) The Sentencing Table in the Guidelines Manual shows the relationship between these two factors; for each pairing of offense level and criminal history category, the Table specifies a sentencing range, in months, within which the court may sentence a defendant. For example, for a defendant convicted on an offense with a total offense level of 22 and a criminal history category of I, the Guidelines recommend a sentence of 41–51 months. If, however, a person with an extensive criminal history (Category VI) committed the same offense in the same manner in the same modern timeline and not during the older guideline periods, the Guidelines would recommend a sentence of 84–105 months. Offense level There are 43 offense levels. The offense level of a defendant is determined by looking up the offense in Chapter 2 and applying any applicable adjustments. The originally proposed sentencing guidelines had 360 levels, and there are proposals to substantially reduce the current number of offense levels. Criminal history There are six criminal history categories. Each category is associated with a range of criminal history points. Thus, for example, a defendant with 0 or 1 criminal history points would be in Criminal History Category I, while a defendant with 13 or more criminal history points would be in Criminal History Category VI. The criminal history points are calculated by adding 3 points for each prior sentence of imprisonment exceeding one year and one month; adding 2 points for each prior sentence of imprisonment of at least sixty days but not more than 13 months; adding 1 point for each prior sentence of less than sixty days; adding 2 points if the defendant committed the instant offense while under any criminal justice sentence, including probation, parole, supervised release, imprisonment, work release, or escape status; adding 2 points if the defendant committed the instant offense less than two years after release from imprisonment on a sentence of sixty days or more or while in imprisonment or escape status on such a sentence, except that if 2 points are added committing the offense while under a criminal justice sentence, adding only 1 point for this item; and adding 1 point for each prior sentence resulting from a conviction of a crime of violence that did not receive any points because such sentence was counted as a single sentence, up to a total of 3 points for this item. The guidelines require "counting prior adult diversionary dispositions if they involved a judicial determination of guilt or an admission of guilt in open court." This reflects a policy that defendants who previously received the benefit of a rehabilitative sentence and then commit further crimes should not be treated with further leniency. Zones There are four sentencing zones: A, B, C, and D. Zone A consists of sentencing ranges of 0–6 months. Zone B consists of sentencing ranges above Zone A but with a maximum penalty of no more than 15 months. Zone C consists of sentencing ranges above Zone B but whose maximum penalty is 18 months or less. Zone D consists of sentencing ranges above Zone C. A defendant in Zone A is eligible for Federal Probation, and no term of imprisonment is required. Probation is also authorized if the applicable guideline range is in Zone B of the Sentencing Table and the court imposes a condition or combination of conditions requiring intermittent confinement, community confinement, or home detention as provided in U.S.S.G. § 5C1.1(c)(3) (2012), but at least one month of the sentence must be satisfied by imprisonment. A split sentence is authorized for defendants in Zone C. That is, Zone C defendants must serve at least half of their sentence in prison. In 2010, the U.S. Sentencing Commission proposed expanding Zones B and C, in recognition of the fact that many offenders are sentenced to 12 months and 1 day in order to receive the benefit of good time under U.S. federal law. Adjustments Reductions in time to be served A 2- or 3-level offense level decrease is typically granted for acceptance of responsibility if the defendant accepts a plea bargain. However, the decrease will not apply if the defendant demonstrates behavior, such as continued criminal activity, that is inconsistent with acceptance of responsibility. Increase in time to be served There are victim-related adjustments for hate crime motivation or vulnerable victims; official victims; restraint of victims; and terrorism. Adjustments can apply depending on the offender's role in the offense, which can include an aggravating role, a mitigating role. Enhancements apply for abuse of a position of trust or use of a special skill, using a minor to commit a crime, and use of body armor or a firearm in drug trafficking crimes and crimes of violence. In addition, there are enhancements related to obstruction of justice, including obstructing or impeding the administration of justice, reckless endangerment during flight, commission of an offense while on release, and false registration of a domain name. Adjustments also apply in cases involving multiple counts. Departures Departures upward or downward from the guideline range are appropriate for cases that deviate from the heartland of cases. Departures are allowed in cases involving substantial assistance to authorities in the investigation or prosecution of another person who has committed an offense. The Sentencing Reform Act allows a departure below the applicable statutory mandatory minimum in such cases. There is no penalty for refusal to assist authorities. The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure and U.S. Sentencing Guidelines require that the prosecution file a motion allowing the reduction. The court is not required to grant the reduction, and may decline to do so if it deems the information provided by the defendant to be untruthful, incomplete, unreliable, insignificant, not useful, or untimely. The Guidelines provide, "Substantial weight should be given to the government's evaluation of the extent of the defendant's assistance, particularly where the extent and value of the assistance are difficult to ascertain." Some defendants attempt to provide substantial assistance, but their assistance is ultimately deemed not to be substantial, which prevents them from getting the departure even if they made incriminating statements. Other grounds for departure: Death (§5K2.1) If death resulted, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. Loss of life does not automatically suggest a sentence at or near the statutory maximum. The sentencing judge must give consideration to matters that would normally distinguish among levels of homicide, such as the defendant's state of mind and the degree of planning or preparation. Other appropriate factors are whether multiple deaths resulted, and the means by which life was taken. The extent of the increase should depend on the dangerousness of the defendant's conduct, the extent to which death or serious injury was intended or knowingly risked, and the extent to which the offense level for the offense of conviction, as determined by the other Chapter Two guidelines, already reflects the risk of personal injury. For example, a substantial increase may be appropriate if the death was intended or knowingly risked or if the underlying offense was one for which base offense levels do not reflect an allowance for the risk of personal injury, such as fraud. Physical injury (§5K2.2) If significant physical injury resulted, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the extent of the injury, the degree to which it may prove permanent, and the extent to which the injury was intended or knowingly risked. When the victim suffers a major, permanent disability and when such injury was intentionally inflicted, a substantial departure may be appropriate. If the injury is less serious or if the defendant (though criminally negligent) did not knowingly create the risk of harm, a less substantial departure would be indicated. In general, the same considerations apply as in §5K2.1. Extreme psychological injury (§5K2.3) If a victim or victims suffered psychological injury much more serious than that normally resulting from commission of the offense, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the severity of the psychological injury and the extent to which the injury was intended or knowingly risked. Normally, psychological injury would be sufficiently severe to warrant application of this adjustment only when there is a substantial impairment of the intellectual, psychological, emotional, or behavioral functioning of a victim, when the impairment is likely to be of an extended or continuous duration, and when the impairment manifests itself by physical or psychological symptoms or by changes in behavior patterns. The court should consider the extent to which such harm was likely, given the nature of the defendant's conduct. Abduction or unlawful restraint (§5K2.4) If a person was abducted, taken hostage, or unlawfully restrained to facilitate commission of the offense or to facilitate the escape from the scene of the crime, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. Property damage or loss (§5K2.5) If the offense caused property damage or loss not taken into account within the guidelines, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the extent to which the harm was intended or knowingly risked and on the extent to which the harm to property is more serious than other harm caused or risked by the conduct relevant to the offense of conviction. Weapons and dangerous instrumentalities (§5K2.6) If a weapon or dangerous instrumentality was used or possessed in the commission of the offense the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the dangerousness of the weapon, the manner in which it was used, and the extent to which its use endangered others. The discharge of a firearm might warrant a substantial sentence increase. Disruption of governmental function (§5K2.7) If the defendant's conduct resulted in a significant disruption of a governmental function, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range to reflect the nature and extent of the disruption and the importance of the governmental function affected. Departure from the guidelines ordinarily would not be justified when the offense of conviction is an offense such as bribery or obstruction of justice; in such cases interference with a governmental function is inherent in the offense, and unless the circumstances are unusual the guidelines will reflect the appropriate punishment for such interference. Extreme conduct (§5K2.8) If the defendant's conduct was unusually heinous, cruel, brutal, or degrading to the victim, the court may increase the sentence above the guideline range to reflect the nature of the conduct. Examples of extreme conduct include torture of a victim, gratuitous infliction of injury, or prolonging of pain or humiliation. Criminal purpose (§5K2.9) If the defendant committed the offense in order to facilitate or conceal the commission of another offense, the court may increase the sentence above the guideline range to reflect the actual seriousness of the defendant's conduct. Victim's conduct (§5K2.10) If the victim's wrongful conduct contributed significantly to provoking the offense behavior, the court may reduce the sentence below the guideline range to reflect the nature and circumstances of the offense. In deciding whether a sentence reduction is warranted, and the extent of such reduction, the court should consider the following: The size and strength of the victim, or other relevant physical characteristics, in comparison with those of the defendant. The persistence of the victim's conduct and any efforts by the defendant to prevent confrontation. The danger reasonably perceived by the defendant, including the victim's reputation for violence. The danger actually presented to the defendant by the victim. Any other relevant conduct by the victim that substantially contributed to the danger presented. The proportionality and reasonableness of the defendant's response to the victim's provocation. Victim misconduct ordinarily would not be sufficient to warrant application of this provision in the context of offenses under Chapter Two, Part A, Subpart 3 (Criminal Sexual Abuse). In addition, this provision usually would not be relevant in the context of non-violent offenses. There may, however, be unusual circumstances in which substantial victim misconduct would warrant a reduced penalty in the case of a non-violent offense. For example, an extended course of provocation and harassment might lead a defendant to steal or destroy property in retaliation. Lesser harms (§5K2.11) Sometimes, a defendant may commit a crime in order to avoid a perceived greater harm. In such instances, a reduced sentence may be appropriate, provided that the circumstances significantly diminish society's interest in punishing the conduct, for example, in the case of a mercy killing. Where the interest in punishment or deterrence is not reduced, a reduction in sentence is not warranted. For example, providing defense secrets to a hostile power should receive no lesser punishment simply because the defendant believed that the government's policies were misdirected. In other instances, conduct may not cause or threaten the harm or evil sought to be prevented by the law proscribing the offense at issue. For example, where a war veteran possessed a machine gun or grenade as a trophy, or a school teacher possessed controlled substances for display in a drug education program, a reduced sentence might be warranted. Coercion and duress (§5K2.12) If the defendant committed the offense because of serious coercion, blackmail or duress, under circumstances not amounting to a complete defense, the court may depart downward. The extent of the decrease ordinarily should depend on the reasonableness of the defendant's actions, on the proportionality of the defendant's actions to the seriousness of coercion, blackmail, or duress involved, and on the extent to which the conduct would have been less harmful under the circumstances as the defendant believed them to be. Ordinarily coercion will be sufficiently serious to warrant departure only when it involves a threat of physical injury, substantial damage to property or similar injury resulting from the unlawful action of a third party or from a natural emergency. Notwithstanding this policy statement, personal financial difficulties and economic pressures upon a trade or business do not warrant a downward departure. Diminished capacity (§5K2.13) A downward departure may be warranted if (1) the defendant committed the offense while suffering from a significantly reduced mental capacity; and (2) the significantly reduced mental capacity contributed substantially to the commission of the offense. Similarly, if a departure is warranted under this policy statement, the extent of the departure should reflect the extent to which the reduced mental capacity contributed to the commission of the offense. However, the court may not depart below the applicable guideline range if (1) the significantly reduced mental capacity was caused by the voluntary use of drugs or other intoxicants; (2) the facts and circumstances of the defendant's offense indicate a need to protect the public because the offense involved actual violence or a serious threat of violence; (3) the defendant's criminal history indicates a need to incarcerate the defendant to protect the public; or (4) the defendant has been convicted of an offense under chapter 71, 109A, 110, or 117, of title 18, United States Code. Public welfare (§5K2.14) If national security, public health, or safety was significantly endangered, the court may depart upward to reflect the nature and circumstances of the offense. Voluntary disclosure of offense (§5K2.16) If the defendant voluntarily discloses to authorities the existence of, and accepts responsibility for, the offense prior to the discovery of such offense, and if such offense was unlikely to have been discovered otherwise, a downward departure may be warranted. For example, a downward departure under this section might be considered where a defendant, motivated by remorse, discloses an offense that otherwise would have remained undiscovered. This provision does not apply where the motivating factor is the defendant's knowledge that discovery of the offense is likely or imminent, or where the defendant's disclosure occurs in connection with the investigation or prosecution of the defendant for related conduct. Semiautomatic firearms capable of accepting large capacity magazines (§5K2.17) If the defendant possessed a semiautomatic firearm capable of accepting a large capacity magazine in connection with a crime of violence or controlled substance offense, an upward departure may be warranted. A semiautomatic firearm capable of accepting a large capacity magazine' means a semiautomatic firearm that has the ability to fire many rounds without reloading because at the time of the offense (A) the firearm had attached to it a magazine or similar device that could accept more than 15 rounds of ammunition; or (B) a magazine or similar device that could accept more than 15 rounds of ammunition was in close proximity to the firearm. The extent of any increase should depend upon the degree to which the nature of the weapon increased the likelihood of death or injury in the circumstances of the particular case. Violent street gangs (§5K2.18) If the defendant is subject to an enhanced sentence under 18 U.S.C. § 521 (pertaining to criminal street gangs), an upward departure may be warranted. The purpose of this departure provision is to enhance the sentences of defendants who participate in groups, clubs, organizations, or associations that use violence to further their ends. It is to be noted that there may be cases in which 18 U.S.C. § 521 applies, but no violence is established. In such cases, it is expected that the guidelines will account adequately for the conduct and, consequently, this departure provision would not apply. Post-sentencing rehabilitative efforts (§5K2.19) Prior to October 2010: ost-sentencing rehabilitative efforts, even if exceptional, undertaken by a defendant after imposition of a term of imprisonment for the instant offense not an appropriate basis for a downward departure when resentencing the defendant for that offense. After Pepper v. United States (2011) but before November 1, 2012: When a defendant's sentence has been set aside on appeal, a district court at resentencing may consider evidence of the defendant's postsentencing rehabilitation, and such evidence may, in appropriate cases, support a downward variance from the now-advisory Guidelines range. After November 1, 2012: Deleted. Aberrant behavior (§5K2.20) (a) IN GENERAL.—Except where a defendant is convicted of an offense involving a minor victim under section 1201, an offense under section 1591, or an offense under chapter 71, 109A, 110, or 117, of title 18, United States Code, a downward departure may be warranted in an exceptional case if: the defendant's criminal conduct meets the requirements of subsection (b); and the departure is not prohibited under subsection (c) (b) REQUIREMENTS.—The court may depart downward under this policy statement only if the defendant committed a single criminal occurrence or single criminal transaction that was committed without significant planning; was of limited duration; and represents a marked deviation by the defendant from an otherwise law-abiding life. (c) PROHIBITIONS BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES.—The court may not depart downward pursuant to this policy statement if any of the following circumstances are present: The offense involved serious bodily injury or death. The defendant discharged a firearm or otherwise used a firearm or a dangerous weapon. The instant offense of conviction is a serious drug trafficking offense. The defendant has either of the following: (A) more than one criminal history point, as determined under Chapter Four (Criminal History and Criminal Livelihood) before application of subsection (b) of §4A1.3 (Departures Based on Inadequacy of Criminal History Category); or (B) a prior federal or state felony conviction, or any other significant prior criminal behavior, regardless of whether the conviction or significant prior criminal behavior is countable under Chapter Four. Dismissed and uncharged conduct (§5K2.21) The court may depart upward to reflect the actual seriousness of the offense based on conduct (1) underlying a charge dismissed as part of a plea agreement in the case, or underlying a potential charge not pursued in the case as part of a plea agreement or for any other reason; and (2) that did not enter into the determination of the applicable guideline range. Specific offender characteristics as grounds for downward departure in child crimes and sexual offenses (§5K2.22) In sentencing a defendant convicted of an offense involving a minor victim under section 1201, an offense under section 1591, or an offense under chapter 71, 109A, 110, or 117, of title 18, United States Code: Age may be a reason to depart downward only if and to the extent permitted by §5H1.1. An extraordinary physical impairment may be a reason to depart downward only if and to the extent permitted by §5H1.4. Drug, alcohol, or gambling dependence or abuse is not a reason to depart downward. Discharged terms of imprisonment (§5K2.23) A downward departure may be appropriate if the defendant (1) has completed serving a term of imprisonment; and (2) subsection (b) of §5G1.3 (Imposition of a Sentence on a Defendant Subject to Undischarged Term of Imprisonment) would have provided an adjustment had that completed term of imprisonment been undischarged at the time of sentencing for the instant offense. Any such departure should be fashioned to achieve a reasonable punishment for the instant offense. Commission of offense while wearing or displaying unauthorized or counterfeit insignia or uniform (§5K2.24) If, during the commission of the offense, the defendant wore or displayed an official, or counterfeit official, insignia or uniform received in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 716, an upward departure may be warranted. Controversies Among the controversial aspects of the Sentencing Guidelines have been the 100:1 disparity between treatment of crack and cocaine (which has been amended to 18:1 by the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010) and the immigration guidelines which call for hefty enhancements for illegal re-entrants with prior felony records, despite the prior offenses already being taken into account via the Criminal History Category. Heavy penalties for child pornography offenders have also come under fire. Many judges are refusing to apply the Guidelines in these cases. It has been argued that the Sentencing Guidelines actually increase unwarranted sentencing disparities. Joseph S. Hall writes, "Factors such as whether or not the defendant can afford a skilled attorney capable of making innovative legal arguments or performing detailed factual investigations have a profound influence on a defendant's sentence. The prosecutor's power to extract guilty pleas, previously held in check by judges, is now counterbalanced only by the diligence of the defense attorney." William J. Stuntz claims that "when necessary, the litigants simply bargain about what facts will (and won't) form the basis for sentencing. It seems to be an iron rule: guidelines sentencing empowers prosecutors, even where the guidelines' authors try to fight that tendency ... In short, plea bargains outside the law's shadow depend on prosecutors' ability to make credible threats of severe post-trial sentences. Sentencing guidelines make it easy to issue those threats." The federal guilty plea rate has risen from 83% in 1983 to 96% in 2009, a rise attributed largely to the Sentencing Guidelines. Sentencing table The sentencing table is an integral part of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines. The Offense Level (1–43) forms the vertical axis of the Sentencing Table. The Criminal History Category (I–VI) forms the horizontal axis of the Table. The intersection of the Offense Level and Criminal History Category displays the Guideline Range in months of imprisonment. "Life" means life imprisonment. For example, the guideline range applicable to a defendant with an Offense Level of 15 and a Criminal History Category of III is 24–30 months of imprisonment. If all counts that carry the maximum sentence of 5–40 years total the level to 43 and above, then a life sentence is restricted. For a defendant under the Juvenile Delinquency Act, the sentence is 50 years for Levels 43 and up. Sentencing TableEffective Nov. 2012 (showing months of imprisonment) Offense  Level ↓  Criminal History Category(Criminal History Points) I(0 or 1) II(2 or 3) III(4, 5, 6) IV(7, 8, 9) V(10, 11, 12) VI(13+) Zone A 1 0–6 0–6 0–6 0–6 0–6 0–6 2 0–6 0–6 0–6 0–6 0–6 1–7 3 0–6 0–6 0–6 0–6 2–8 3–9 4 0–6 0–6 0–6 2–8 4–10 6–12 5 0–6 0–6 1–7 4–10 6–12 9–15 6 0–6 1–7 2–8 6–12 9–15 12–18 7 0–6 2–8 4–10 8–14 12–18 15–21 8 0–6 4–10 6–12 10–16 15–21 18–24 Zone B 9 4–10 6–12 8–14 12–18 18–24 21–27 10 6–12 8–14 10–16 15–21 21–27 24–30 11 8–14 10–16 12–18 18–24 24–30 27–33 Zone C 12 10–16 12–18 15–21 21–27 27–33 30–37 13 12–18 15–21 18–24 24–30 30–37 33–41 Zone D 14 15–21 18–24 21–27 27–33 33–41 37–46 15 18–24 21–27 24–30 30–37 37–46 41–51 16 21–27 24–30 27–33 33–41 41–51 46–57 17 24–30 27–33 30–37 37–46 46–57 51–63 18 27–33 30–37 33–41 41–51 51–63 57–71 19 30–37 33–41 37–46 46–57 57–71 63–78 20 33–41 37–46 41–51 51–63 63–78 70–87 21 37–46 41–51 46–57 57–71 70–87 77–96 22 41–51 46–57 51–63 63–78 77–96 84–105 23 46–57 51–63 57–71 70–87 84–105 92–115 24 51–63 57–71 63–78 77–96 92–115 100–125 25 57–71 63–78 70–87 84–105 100–125 110–137 26 63–78 70–87 78–97 92–115 110–137 120–150 27 70–87 78–97 87–108 100–125 120–150 130–162 28 78–97 87–108 97–121 110–137 130–162 140–175 29 87–108 97–121 108–135 121–151 140–175 151–188 30 97–121 108–135 121–151 135–168 151–188 168–210 31 108–135 121–151 135–168 151–188 168–210 188–235 32 121–151 135–168 151–188 168–210 188–235 210–262 33 135–168 151–188 168–210 188–235 210–262 235–293 34 151–188 168–210 188–235 210–262 235–293 262–327 35 168–210 188–235 210–262 235–293 262–327 292–365 36 188–235 210–262 235–293 262–327 292–365 324–405 37 210–262 235–293 262–327 292–365 324–405 360–life 38 235–293 262–327 292–365 324–405 360–life 360–life 39 262–327 292–365 324–405 360–life 360–life 360–life 40 292–365 324–405 360–life 360–life 360–life 360–life 41 324–405 360–life 360–life 360–life 360–life 360–life 42 360–life 360–life 360–life 360–life 360–life 360–life 43 life life life life life life Fines For individuals, the fine table is as follows: Offense level Minimum Maximum 3 and below $200 $9,500 4–5 $500 $9,500 6–7 $1,000 $9,500 8–9 $2,000 $20,000 10–11 $4,000 $40,000 12–13 $5,500 $55,000 14–15 $7,500 $75,000 16–17 $10,000 $95,000 18–19 $10,000 $100,000 20–22 $15,000 $150,000 23–25 $20,000 $200,000 26–28 $25,000 $250,000 29–31 $30,000 $300,000 32–34 $35,000 $350,000 35–37 $40,000 $400,000 38 and above $50,000 $500,000 The Guidelines state that the court can impose a fine above the maximum set out in the table if the defendant is convicted under a statute authorizing a maximum fine greater than $250,000, or a fine for each day of violation. The court can waive the fine if the defendant is unlikely to be able to pay or if the fine would unduly burden the defendant's dependents; however, the Guidelines state that the court must still impose a total combined sanction that is punitive. Probation and supervised release The Guidelines state that the term of probation shall be at least one year but not more than five years if the offense level is 6 or greater, and no more than three years in any other case. The Guidelines provide that the term of supervised release under U.S. federal law shall be at least three years but not more than five years for a defendant convicted of a Class A or B felony; at least two years but not more than three years for a defendant convicted of a Class C or D felony; and one year for a defendant convicted of a Class E felony or a Class A misdemeanor. However, a life term of supervised release may be imposed for any offense listed in 18 U.S.C. § 2332b(g)(5)(B), the commission of which resulted in, or created a foreseeable risk of, death or serious bodily injury to another person; or a sex offense. Supervised release is recommended by the Guidelines for most offenders who are serving a prison sentence of more than a year. See also Apprendi v. New Jersey Fair Sentencing Act History of United States Prison Systems Safety valve (law) United States v. Binion References ^ U.S.S.G. § 2X5.2 (2012) ^ U.S.S.G. § 1B1.9 (2012) ^ "Introduction to the Sentencing Reform Act" (PDF). U.S. Sentencing Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 6, 2012. ^ Excerpt from Introduction to Federal Sentencing Guidelines ^ Stephanos Bibas (2004), The Feeney Amendment and the Continuing Rise of Prosecutorial Power to Plea Bargain, vol. 94, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology ^ Doerr, Mark T. (Fall 2009), Note: Not Guilty? Go to Jail. The unconstitutionality of acquitted-conduct sentencing, vol. 41, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, p. 235, archived from the original on July 16, 2011 ^ a b 2012 Federal Sentencing Guidelines Manual - Sentencing Table ^ 2012 Federal Sentencing Guidelines Manual ^ The guidelines in effect at the time the crime was committed are used to determine the recommended sentence, even if the guidelines subsequently changed before the trial. ^ Hoffman, Peter B. (2000), Simplifying the U.S. Sentencing Commission's Offense Scale, vol. 44, St. Louis U. L.J., p. 365 ^ U.S.S.G. § 4A1.1 (2012) ^ U.S.S.G. § 5C1.1(c)(3) (2012) ^ Amendments to the 2010 Sentencing Guidelines ^ U.S.S.G. § 3E1.1 (2012) ^ 18 U.S.C. § 3553(e) ^ "Rule 35. Correcting or Reducing a Sentence | Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure | LII/Legal Information Institute". Law.cornell.edu. Archived from the original on May 5, 2003. Retrieved 2012-04-01. ^ U.S.S.G. § 5K1.1 (2012) ^ Knizhnik, Shana. "Failed Snitches and Sentencing Stitches". N.Y.U. L. Rev. 90 (1722). ^ U.S.S.G. § 5K2.19 (2012) ^ U.S.S.G. § 2L1.2 (2012) ^ Survey of Article III Judges (PDF), p. 4, archived from the original (PDF) on July 27, 2003 ^ Federal judges argue for reduced sentences for child-porn convicts, The Denver Post, November 29, 2009 ^ JS Hall (1999), Guided to Injustice? the Effect of the Sentencing Guidelines on Indigent Defendants and Public Defense., American Criminal Law Review, archived from the original on February 1, 2013, retrieved September 17, 2017 ^ William J. Stuntz (Jun 2004), Plea Bargaining and Criminal Law's Disappearing Shadow, vol. 117, Harvard Law Review, pp. 2548–2569 ^ Federal guilty pleas and trial rates (PDF), U.S. Sentencing Commission, archived from the original (PDF) on March 12, 2012 ^ "U.S.S.G. §5A", 2012 Federal Sentencing Guidelines ^ "The Federal Juvenile Delinquency Act and Related Matters" (PDF). June 18, 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2022. ^ U.S.S.G. § 5A.SenTab (2012) ^ Note: Federal Law is constantly changing; this table (and this article) may or may not reflect current law. Readers are advised to review the relevant sources at http://www.ussc.gov/. ^ http://www.ussc.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/guidelines-manual/2015/GLMFull.pdf ^ U.S.S.G. § 5E1.2 (2012) ^ U.S.S.G. § 5B1.2 (2012) ^ U.S.S.G. § 5D1.2 (2012) ^ U.S.S.G. § 5D1.1 (2012) Further reading Federal Sentencing Guidelines Manual: 2018–2019 Edition. Michigan Legal Publishing Ltd. 2019. ISBN 9781942842187. OCLC 1066197790. External links United States Sentencing Commission website 2012 Federal Sentencing Guidelines Manual Federal Sentencing Guidelines Manual Archives (1994-2009) Sentencing Guidelines Calculator
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Federal_Sentencing_Guidelines_Analysis_Example_(James_Gordon_Meek).png"},{"link_name":"U.S. Sentencing Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Sentencing_Commission"},{"link_name":"sentencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(law)"},{"link_name":"felonies and serious (Class A) misdemeanors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classes_of_offenses_under_United_States_federal_law"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"United States federal courts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_courts"},{"link_name":"misdemeanors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misdemeanor"},{"link_name":"infractions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infraction"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"US Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Supreme_Court"},{"link_name":"United States v. Booker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Booker"},{"link_name":"Sixth Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"trial by jury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_by_jury"},{"link_name":"Blakely v. Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blakely_v._Washington"},{"link_name":"state judges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_law_(United_States)"}],"text":"Example of a matrix and explanation showing how the total months recommended is calculated from the Base Level Offense taking into account all factorsThe United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines are rules published by the U.S. Sentencing Commission that set out a uniform policy for sentencing individuals and organizations convicted of felonies and serious (Class A) misdemeanors[1] in the United States federal courts system. The Guidelines do not apply to less serious misdemeanors or infractions.[2]Although the Guidelines were initially styled as mandatory, the US Supreme Court's 2005 decision in United States v. Booker held that the Guidelines, as originally constituted, violated the Sixth Amendment right to trial by jury, and the remedy chosen was to excise those provisions of the law establishing the Guidelines as mandatory. After Booker and other Supreme Court cases, such as Blakely v. Washington (2004), the Guidelines are now considered advisory only. Federal judges (state judges are not affected by the Guidelines) must calculate the guidelines and consider them when determining a sentence, but are not required to issue sentences within the guidelines.","title":"United States Federal Sentencing Guidelines"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Sentencing Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Sentencing_Commission"},{"link_name":"Sentencing Reform Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentencing_Reform_Act"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"indeterminate sentencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_imprisonment"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"Denver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver"},{"link_name":"Newark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newark,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah"},{"link_name":"Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(state)"},{"link_name":"Delaware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware"},{"link_name":"American Law Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Law_Institute"},{"link_name":"American Bar Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Bar_Association"}],"sub_title":"Enabling legislation","text":"The Guidelines are the product of the United States Sentencing Commission, which was created by the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984.[3] The Guidelines' primary goal was to alleviate sentencing disparities that research had indicated were prevalent in the existing sentencing system, and the guidelines reform was specifically intended to provide for determinate sentencing. This refers to sentencing whose actual limits are determined at the time the sentence is imposed, as opposed to indeterminate sentencing, in which a sentence with a maximum (and, perhaps, a minimum) is pronounced but the actual amount of time served in prison is determined by a parole commission or similar administrative body after the person has started serving his or her sentence. As part of the guidelines reform in 1984, parole on federal level was abolished.The federal effort followed guidelines projects in several states, initially funded by the United States Department of Justice, and led by Jack Kress and his research team during the late 1970s. The first sentencing guidelines jurisdictions were county-wide, in Denver, Newark, Chicago and Philadelphia. Statewide guidelines systems were next established in Utah, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Michigan, Washington, and Delaware, before the federal sentencing guidelines were formally adopted in 1987. Given that the vast majority of criminal sentencing is done at the state level, the American Law Institute and the American Bar Association have each recommended such systems for all the states, and nearly half the states presently have such systems, although significant variations exist among them. For example, Minnesota's Sentencing Guidelines Commission initially sought consciously not to increase prison capacity through guidelines. That is, Minnesota assumed that the legislature should determine how much would be spent on prisons and that the sentencing commission's job was to allocate those prison beds in as rational a way as possible. The federal effort took the opposite approach. It determined how many prisons would be needed and Congress was then essentially required to fund those beds.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"presentence investigations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentence_investigation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_Information_Act_(United_States)#The_1986_Omnibus_Anti-Drug_Abuse_Act_amendments_to_the_FOIA"},{"link_name":"mandatory minimum sentences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_minimum_sentences"},{"link_name":"PROTECT Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PROTECT_Act"},{"link_name":"William Rehnquist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rehnquist"},{"link_name":"illegal-reentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal-reentry"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Promulgation and modification","text":"In drafting the first set of guidelines, the Commission used data drawn from 10,000 presentence investigations, the differing elements of various crimes as distinguished in substantive criminal statutes, the United States Parole Commission's guidelines and statistics, and data from other sources in order to determine which distinctions were important in pre-guidelines practice.[4] Sentencing criteria already in use by judges was thus codified as guidelines. The Commission essentially codified existing practice. Future modifications often reflected Congressional mandates, as in the case of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 that imposed increased and mandatory minimum sentences.In 2003, Congress considered the Feeney Amendment to the PROTECT Act. This amendment would have totally rewritten the guidelines. Among other changes, the original amendment would have eliminated all unenumerated downward departures and all downward departures for family ties, diminished capacity, aberrant behavior, educational or vocational skills, mental or emotional conditions, employment record, good works, or overstated criminal history. Defense lawyers, law professors, current and former Sentencing Commissioners, the President of the American Bar Association, Chief Justice William Rehnquist, and others wrote to Congress opposing the amendment. The enacted bill limited the changes described above to crimes involving pornography, sexual abuse, child sex, and child kidnapping and trafficking. It also raised penalties for child pornography and child sex abuse. It also greatly increased prosecutorial discretion and influence by limiting judges' power to depart from the guidelines and granting prosecutors greater power over departures. For instance, it made a prosecutorial motion a prerequisite for a three-level reduction for acceptance of responsibility. It also instructed the Sentencing Commission to authorize four-level \"fast-track\" downward departures in illegal-reentry immigration cases upon motion of the prosecutor.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States v. Booker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Booker"},{"link_name":"Sixth Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"Blakely v. Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blakely_v._Washington"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"United States v. Booker","text":"Though the Federal Sentencing Guidelines were styled as mandatory, the Supreme Court's 2005 decision in United States v. Booker found that the Guidelines, as originally constituted, violated the Sixth Amendment right to trial by jury, and the chosen remedy was excision of those provisions of the law establishing the Guidelines as mandatory. In the aftermath of Booker and other Supreme Court cases, such as Blakely v. Washington (2004), Guidelines are now considered advisory only. Federal judges (state judges are not affected by the Guidelines) must calculate the guidelines and consider them when determining a sentence but are not required to issue sentences within the guidelines. Those sentences are still, however, subject to appellate review. The frequency in which sentences are imposed that exceed the range stated in the Guidelines has doubled in the years since the Booker decision.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sentab-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sentab-7"}],"text":"The Guidelines determine sentences based primarily on two factors:the conduct associated with the offense (the offense conduct, which produces the offense level)\nthe defendant's criminal history (the criminal history category)The Sentencing Table[7] in the Guidelines Manual[8] shows the relationship between these two factors; for each pairing of offense level and criminal history category, the Table specifies a sentencing range, in months, within which the court may sentence a defendant. For example, for a defendant convicted on an offense with a total offense level of 22 and a criminal history category of I, the Guidelines recommend a sentence of 41–51 months.[9] If, however, a person with an extensive criminal history (Category VI) committed the same offense in the same manner in the same modern timeline and not during the older guideline periods, the Guidelines would recommend a sentence of 84–105 months.[7]","title":"Guidelines basics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Offense level","text":"There are 43 offense levels. The offense level of a defendant is determined by looking up the offense in Chapter 2 and applying any applicable adjustments. The originally proposed sentencing guidelines had 360 levels, and there are proposals to substantially reduce the current number of offense levels.[10]","title":"Guidelines basics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"diversionary dispositions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diversionary_disposition"},{"link_name":"admission of guilt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admission_(law)"},{"link_name":"open court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_court"}],"sub_title":"Criminal history","text":"There are six criminal history categories. Each category is associated with a range of criminal history points. Thus, for example, a defendant with 0 or 1 criminal history points would be in Criminal History Category I, while a defendant with 13 or more criminal history points would be in Criminal History Category VI. The criminal history points are calculated by adding 3 points for each prior sentence of imprisonment exceeding one year and one month; adding 2 points for each prior sentence of imprisonment of at least sixty days but not more than 13 months; adding 1 point for each prior sentence of less than sixty days; adding 2 points if the defendant committed the instant offense while under any criminal justice sentence, including probation, parole, supervised release, imprisonment, work release, or escape status; adding 2 points if the defendant committed the instant offense less than two years after release from imprisonment on a sentence of sixty days or more or while in imprisonment or escape status on such a sentence, except that if 2 points are added committing the offense while under a criminal justice sentence, adding only 1 point for this item; and adding 1 point for each prior sentence resulting from a conviction of a crime of violence that did not receive any points because such sentence was counted as a single sentence, up to a total of 3 points for this item.[11]The guidelines require \"counting prior adult diversionary dispositions if they involved a judicial determination of guilt or an admission of guilt in open court.\" This reflects a policy that defendants who previously received the benefit of a rehabilitative sentence and then commit further crimes should not be treated with further leniency.","title":"Guidelines basics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Federal Probation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Probation"},{"link_name":"U.S.S.G.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.S.G."},{"link_name":"§ 5C1.1(c)(3)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ussc.gov/Guidelines/2012_Guidelines/Manual_HTML/5c1_1.htm"},{"link_name":"split sentence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split_sentence"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"good time under U.S. federal law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_time_under_U.S._federal_law"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Zones","text":"There are four sentencing zones: A, B, C, and D. Zone A consists of sentencing ranges of 0–6 months. Zone B consists of sentencing ranges above Zone A but with a maximum penalty of no more than 15 months. Zone C consists of sentencing ranges above Zone B but whose maximum penalty is 18 months or less. Zone D consists of sentencing ranges above Zone C.A defendant in Zone A is eligible for Federal Probation, and no term of imprisonment is required. Probation is also authorized if the applicable guideline range is in Zone B of the Sentencing Table and the court imposes a condition or combination of conditions requiring intermittent confinement, community confinement, or home detention as provided in U.S.S.G. § 5C1.1(c)(3) (2012), but at least one month of the sentence must be satisfied by imprisonment. A split sentence is authorized for defendants in Zone C. That is, Zone C defendants must serve at least half of their sentence in prison.[12]In 2010, the U.S. Sentencing Commission proposed expanding Zones B and C, in recognition of the fact that many offenders are sentenced to 12 months and 1 day in order to receive the benefit of good time under U.S. federal law.[13]","title":"Guidelines basics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Adjustments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"acceptance of responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceptance_of_responsibility"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Reductions in time to be served","text":"A 2- or 3-level offense level decrease is typically granted for acceptance of responsibility if the defendant accepts a plea bargain. However, the decrease will not apply if the defendant demonstrates behavior, such as continued criminal activity, that is inconsistent with acceptance of responsibility.[14]","title":"Adjustments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hate crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hate_crime"},{"link_name":"official victims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_victim"},{"link_name":"obstruction of justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction_of_justice"},{"link_name":"reckless endangerment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangerment"},{"link_name":"domain name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name"}],"sub_title":"Increase in time to be served","text":"There are victim-related adjustments for hate crime motivation or vulnerable victims; official victims; restraint of victims; and terrorism. Adjustments can apply depending on the offender's role in the offense, which can include an aggravating role, a mitigating role. Enhancements apply for abuse of a position of trust or use of a special skill, using a minor to commit a crime, and use of body armor or a firearm in drug trafficking crimes and crimes of violence.In addition, there are enhancements related to obstruction of justice, including obstructing or impeding the administration of justice, reckless endangerment during flight, commission of an offense while on release, and false registration of a domain name.Adjustments also apply in cases involving multiple counts.","title":"Adjustments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Criminal_Procedure"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"permanent disability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Permanent_disability&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"criminally negligent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_negligence"},{"link_name":"abducted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping"},{"link_name":"hostage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostage"},{"link_name":"property damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property_damage"},{"link_name":"weapon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weapon"},{"link_name":"bribery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribery"},{"link_name":"torture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torture"},{"link_name":"mercy killing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthanasia"},{"link_name":"machine gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_gun"},{"link_name":"grenade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenade"},{"link_name":"controlled substances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controlled_substance"},{"link_name":"drug education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_education"},{"link_name":"coercion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coercion"},{"link_name":"blackmail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackmail"},{"link_name":"duress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duress"},{"link_name":"Diminished capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diminished_capacity_in_United_States_law"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security"},{"link_name":"public health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health"},{"link_name":"safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_safety"},{"link_name":"remorse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remorse"},{"link_name":"semiautomatic firearm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-automatic_firearm"},{"link_name":"magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"rounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)"},{"link_name":"reloading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handloading"},{"link_name":"ammunition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammunition"},{"link_name":"gangs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang"},{"link_name":"Pepper v. United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pepper_v._United_States"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"plea agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plea_agreement"},{"link_name":"counterfeit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterfeit"}],"text":"Departures upward or downward from the guideline range are appropriate for cases that deviate from the heartland of cases.Departures are allowed in cases involving substantial assistance to authorities in the investigation or prosecution of another person who has committed an offense. The Sentencing Reform Act allows a departure below the applicable statutory mandatory minimum in such cases.[15] There is no penalty for refusal to assist authorities.The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure and U.S. Sentencing Guidelines require that the prosecution file a motion allowing the reduction. The court is not required to grant the reduction, and may decline to do so if it deems the information provided by the defendant to be untruthful, incomplete, unreliable, insignificant, not useful, or untimely. The Guidelines provide, \"Substantial weight should be given to the government's evaluation of the extent of the defendant's assistance, particularly where the extent and value of the assistance are difficult to ascertain.\"[16][17]Some defendants attempt to provide substantial assistance, but their assistance is ultimately deemed not to be substantial, which prevents them from getting the departure even if they made incriminating statements.[18]Other grounds for departure:Death (§5K2.1)If death resulted, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range.\nLoss of life does not automatically suggest a sentence at or near the statutory maximum. The sentencing judge must give consideration to matters that would normally distinguish among levels of homicide, such as the defendant's state of mind and the degree of planning or preparation. Other appropriate factors are whether multiple deaths resulted, and the means by which life was taken. The extent of the increase should depend on the dangerousness of the defendant's conduct, the extent to which death or serious injury was intended or knowingly risked, and the extent to which the offense level for the offense of conviction, as determined by the other Chapter Two guidelines, already reflects the risk of personal injury. For example, a substantial increase may be appropriate if the death was intended or knowingly risked or if the underlying offense was one for which base offense levels do not reflect an allowance for the risk of personal injury, such as fraud.Physical injury (§5K2.2)If significant physical injury resulted, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the extent of the injury, the degree to which it may prove permanent, and the extent to which the injury was intended or knowingly risked. When the victim suffers a major, permanent disability and when such injury was intentionally inflicted, a substantial departure may be appropriate. If the injury is less serious or if the defendant (though criminally negligent) did not knowingly create the risk of harm, a less substantial departure would be indicated. In general, the same considerations apply as in §5K2.1.Extreme psychological injury (§5K2.3)If a victim or victims suffered psychological injury much more serious than that normally resulting from commission of the offense, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the severity of the psychological injury and the extent to which the injury was intended or knowingly risked.\nNormally, psychological injury would be sufficiently severe to warrant application of this adjustment only when there is a substantial impairment of the intellectual, psychological, emotional, or behavioral functioning of a victim, when the impairment is likely to be of an extended or continuous duration, and when the impairment manifests itself by physical or psychological symptoms or by changes in behavior patterns. The court should consider the extent to which such harm was likely, given the nature of the defendant's conduct.Abduction or unlawful restraint (§5K2.4)If a person was abducted, taken hostage, or unlawfully restrained to facilitate commission of the offense or to facilitate the escape from the scene of the crime, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range.Property damage or loss (§5K2.5)If the offense caused property damage or loss not taken into account within the guidelines, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the extent to which the harm was intended or knowingly risked and on the extent to which the harm to property is more serious than other harm caused or risked by the conduct relevant to the offense of conviction.Weapons and dangerous instrumentalities (§5K2.6)If a weapon or dangerous instrumentality was used or possessed in the commission of the offense the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range. The extent of the increase ordinarily should depend on the dangerousness of the weapon, the manner in which it was used, and the extent to which its use endangered others. The discharge of a firearm might warrant a substantial sentence increase.Disruption of governmental function (§5K2.7)If the defendant's conduct resulted in a significant disruption of a governmental function, the court may increase the sentence above the authorized guideline range to reflect the nature and extent of the disruption and the importance of the governmental function affected. Departure from the guidelines ordinarily would not be justified when the offense of conviction is an offense such as bribery or obstruction of justice; in such cases interference with a governmental function is inherent in the offense, and unless the circumstances are unusual the guidelines will reflect the appropriate punishment for such interference.Extreme conduct (§5K2.8)If the defendant's conduct was unusually heinous, cruel, brutal, or degrading to the victim, the court may increase the sentence above the guideline range to reflect the nature of the conduct. Examples of extreme conduct include torture of a victim, gratuitous infliction of injury, or prolonging of pain or humiliation.Criminal purpose (§5K2.9)If the defendant committed the offense in order to facilitate or conceal the commission of another offense, the court may increase the sentence above the guideline range to reflect the actual seriousness of the defendant's conduct.Victim's conduct (§5K2.10)If the victim's wrongful conduct contributed significantly to provoking the offense behavior, the court may reduce the sentence below the guideline range to reflect the nature and circumstances of the offense. In deciding whether a sentence reduction is warranted, and the extent of such reduction, the court should consider the following:\nThe size and strength of the victim, or other relevant physical characteristics, in comparison with those of the defendant.\nThe persistence of the victim's conduct and any efforts by the defendant to prevent confrontation.\nThe danger reasonably perceived by the defendant, including the victim's reputation for violence.\nThe danger actually presented to the defendant by the victim.\nAny other relevant conduct by the victim that substantially contributed to the danger presented.\nThe proportionality and reasonableness of the defendant's response to the victim's provocation.\nVictim misconduct ordinarily would not be sufficient to warrant application of this provision in the context of offenses under Chapter Two, Part A, Subpart 3 (Criminal Sexual Abuse). In addition, this provision usually would not be relevant in the context of non-violent offenses. There may, however, be unusual circumstances in which substantial victim misconduct would warrant a reduced penalty in the case of a non-violent offense. For example, an extended course of provocation and harassment might lead a defendant to steal or destroy property in retaliation.Lesser harms (§5K2.11)Sometimes, a defendant may commit a crime in order to avoid a perceived greater harm. In such instances, a reduced sentence may be appropriate, provided that the circumstances significantly diminish society's interest in punishing the conduct, for example, in the case of a mercy killing. Where the interest in punishment or deterrence is not reduced, a reduction in sentence is not warranted. For example, providing defense secrets to a hostile power should receive no lesser punishment simply because the defendant believed that the government's policies were misdirected.\nIn other instances, conduct may not cause or threaten the harm or evil sought to be prevented by the law proscribing the offense at issue. For example, where a war veteran possessed a machine gun or grenade as a trophy, or a school teacher possessed controlled substances for display in a drug education program, a reduced sentence might be warranted.Coercion and duress (§5K2.12)If the defendant committed the offense because of serious coercion, blackmail or duress, under circumstances not amounting to a complete defense, the court may depart downward. The extent of the decrease ordinarily should depend on the reasonableness of the defendant's actions, on the proportionality of the defendant's actions to the seriousness of coercion, blackmail, or duress involved, and on the extent to which the conduct would have been less harmful under the circumstances as the defendant believed them to be. Ordinarily coercion will be sufficiently serious to warrant departure only when it involves a threat of physical injury, substantial damage to property or similar injury resulting from the unlawful action of a third party or from a natural emergency. Notwithstanding this policy statement, personal financial difficulties and economic pressures upon a trade or business do not warrant a downward departure.Diminished capacity (§5K2.13)A downward departure may be warranted if (1) the defendant committed the offense while suffering from a significantly reduced mental capacity; and (2) the significantly reduced mental capacity contributed substantially to the commission of the offense. Similarly, if a departure is warranted under this policy statement, the extent of the departure should reflect the extent to which the reduced mental capacity contributed to the commission of the offense.\nHowever, the court may not depart below the applicable guideline range if (1) the significantly reduced mental capacity was caused by the voluntary use of drugs or other intoxicants; (2) the facts and circumstances of the defendant's offense indicate a need to protect the public because the offense involved actual violence or a serious threat of violence; (3) the defendant's criminal history indicates a need to incarcerate the defendant to protect the public; or (4) the defendant has been convicted of an offense under chapter 71, 109A, 110, or 117, of title 18, United States Code.Public welfare (§5K2.14)If national security, public health, or safety was significantly endangered, the court may depart upward to reflect the nature and circumstances of the offense.Voluntary disclosure of offense (§5K2.16)If the defendant voluntarily discloses to authorities the existence of, and accepts responsibility for, the offense prior to the discovery of such offense, and if such offense was unlikely to have been discovered otherwise, a downward departure may be warranted. For example, a downward departure under this section might be considered where a defendant, motivated by remorse, discloses an offense that otherwise would have remained undiscovered. This provision does not apply where the motivating factor is the defendant's knowledge that discovery of the offense is likely or imminent, or where the defendant's disclosure occurs in connection with the investigation or prosecution of the defendant for related conduct.Semiautomatic firearms capable of accepting large capacity magazines (§5K2.17)If the defendant possessed a semiautomatic firearm capable of accepting a large capacity magazine in connection with a crime of violence or controlled substance offense, an upward departure may be warranted. A semiautomatic firearm capable of accepting a large capacity magazine' means a semiautomatic firearm that has the ability to fire many rounds without reloading because at the time of the offense (A) the firearm had attached to it a magazine or similar device that could accept more than 15 rounds of ammunition; or (B) a magazine or similar device that could accept more than 15 rounds of ammunition was in close proximity to the firearm. The extent of any increase should depend upon the degree to which the nature of the weapon increased the likelihood of death or injury in the circumstances of the particular case.Violent street gangs (§5K2.18)If the defendant is subject to an enhanced sentence under 18 U.S.C. § 521 (pertaining to criminal street gangs), an upward departure may be warranted. The purpose of this departure provision is to enhance the sentences of defendants who participate in groups, clubs, organizations, or associations that use violence to further their ends. It is to be noted that there may be cases in which 18 U.S.C. § 521 applies, but no violence is established. In such cases, it is expected that the guidelines will account adequately for the conduct and, consequently, this departure provision would not apply.Post-sentencing rehabilitative efforts (§5K2.19)Prior to October 2010:[p]ost-sentencing rehabilitative efforts, even if exceptional, undertaken by a defendant after imposition of a term of imprisonment for the instant offense [were] not an appropriate basis for a downward departure when resentencing the defendant for that offense.After Pepper v. United States (2011) but before November 1, 2012:When a defendant's sentence has been set aside on appeal, a district court at resentencing may consider evidence of the defendant's postsentencing rehabilitation, and such evidence may, in appropriate cases, support a downward variance from the now-advisory Guidelines range.After November 1, 2012:[19]Deleted.Aberrant behavior (§5K2.20)(a) IN GENERAL.—Except where a defendant is convicted of an offense involving a minor victim under section 1201, an offense under section 1591, or an offense under chapter 71, 109A, 110, or 117, of title 18, United States Code, a downward departure may be warranted in an exceptional case if:\nthe defendant's criminal conduct meets the requirements of subsection (b); and\nthe departure is not prohibited under subsection (c)\n(b) REQUIREMENTS.—The court may depart downward under this policy statement only if the defendant committed a single criminal occurrence or single criminal transaction that\n\nwas committed without significant planning;\nwas of limited duration; and\nrepresents a marked deviation by the defendant from an otherwise law-abiding life.\n(c) PROHIBITIONS BASED ON THE PRESENCE OF CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES.—The court may not depart downward pursuant to this policy statement if any of the following circumstances are present:\n\nThe offense involved serious bodily injury or death.\nThe defendant discharged a firearm or otherwise used a firearm or a dangerous weapon.\nThe instant offense of conviction is a serious drug trafficking offense.\nThe defendant has either of the following: (A) more than one criminal history point, as determined under Chapter Four (Criminal History and Criminal Livelihood) before application of subsection (b) of §4A1.3 (Departures Based on Inadequacy of Criminal History Category); or (B) a prior federal or state felony conviction, or any other significant prior criminal behavior, regardless of whether the conviction or significant prior criminal behavior is countable under Chapter Four.Dismissed and uncharged conduct (§5K2.21)The court may depart upward to reflect the actual seriousness of the offense based on conduct (1) underlying a charge dismissed as part of a plea agreement in the case, or underlying a potential charge not pursued in the case as part of a plea agreement or for any other reason; and (2) that did not enter into the determination of the applicable guideline range.Specific offender characteristics as grounds for downward departure in child crimes and sexual offenses (§5K2.22)In sentencing a defendant convicted of an offense involving a minor victim under section 1201, an offense under section 1591, or an offense under chapter 71, 109A, 110, or 117, of title 18, United States Code:\nAge may be a reason to depart downward only if and to the extent permitted by §5H1.1.\nAn extraordinary physical impairment may be a reason to depart downward only if and to the extent permitted by §5H1.4.\nDrug, alcohol, or gambling dependence or abuse is not a reason to depart downward.Discharged terms of imprisonment (§5K2.23)A downward departure may be appropriate if the defendant (1) has completed serving a term of imprisonment; and (2) subsection (b) of §5G1.3 (Imposition of a Sentence on a Defendant Subject to Undischarged Term of Imprisonment) would have provided an adjustment had that completed term of imprisonment been undischarged at the time of sentencing for the instant offense. Any such departure should be fashioned to achieve a reasonable punishment for the instant offense.Commission of offense while wearing or displaying unauthorized or counterfeit insignia or uniform (§5K2.24)If, during the commission of the offense, the defendant wore or displayed an official, or counterfeit official, insignia or uniform received in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 716, an upward departure may be warranted.","title":"Departures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fair Sentencing Act of 2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Sentencing_Act_of_2010"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"child pornography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_pornography"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"William J. Stuntz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Stuntz"},{"link_name":"bargain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fact_bargaining"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Among the controversial aspects of the Sentencing Guidelines have been the 100:1 disparity between treatment of crack and cocaine (which has been amended to 18:1 by the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010) and the immigration guidelines which call for hefty enhancements for illegal re-entrants with prior felony records, despite the prior offenses already being taken into account via the Criminal History Category.[20][21] Heavy penalties for child pornography offenders have also come under fire. Many judges are refusing to apply the Guidelines in these cases.[22]It has been argued that the Sentencing Guidelines actually increase unwarranted sentencing disparities. Joseph S. Hall writes, \"Factors such as whether or not the defendant can afford a skilled attorney capable of making innovative legal arguments or performing detailed factual investigations have a profound influence on a defendant's sentence. The prosecutor's power to extract guilty pleas, previously held in check by judges, is now counterbalanced only by the diligence of the defense attorney.\"[23] William J. Stuntz claims that \"when necessary, the litigants simply bargain about what facts will (and won't) form the basis for sentencing. It seems to be an iron rule: guidelines sentencing empowers prosecutors, even where the guidelines' authors try to fight that tendency ... In short, plea bargains outside the law's shadow depend on prosecutors' ability to make credible threats of severe post-trial sentences. Sentencing guidelines make it easy to issue those threats.\"[24]The federal guilty plea rate has risen from 83% in 1983 to 96% in 2009,[25] a rise attributed largely to the Sentencing Guidelines.","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Juvenile Delinquency Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenile_Justice_and_Delinquency_Prevention_Act"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"The sentencing table is an integral part of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines.[26]The Offense Level (1–43) forms the vertical axis of the Sentencing Table. The Criminal History Category (I–VI) forms the horizontal axis of the Table. The intersection of the Offense Level and Criminal History Category displays the Guideline Range in months of imprisonment. \"Life\" means life imprisonment. For example, the guideline range applicable to a defendant with an Offense Level of 15 and a Criminal History Category of III is 24–30 months of imprisonment. If all counts that carry the maximum sentence of 5–40 years total the level to 43 and above, then a life sentence is restricted. For a defendant under the Juvenile Delinquency Act, the sentence is 50 years for Levels 43 and up.[27]","title":"Sentencing table"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"For individuals, the fine table is as follows:[30]The Guidelines state that the court can impose a fine above the maximum set out in the table if the defendant is convicted under a statute authorizing a maximum fine greater than $250,000, or a fine for each day of violation. The court can waive the fine if the defendant is unlikely to be able to pay or if the fine would unduly burden the defendant's dependents; however, the Guidelines state that the court must still impose a total combined sanction that is punitive.[31]","title":"Fines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"supervised release under U.S. federal law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervised_release_under_U.S._federal_law"},{"link_name":"18 U.S.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code"},{"link_name":"§ 2332b(g)(5)(B)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/2332b#g_5_B"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"The Guidelines state that the term of probation shall be at least one year but not more than five years if the offense level is 6 or greater, and no more than three years in any other case.[32] The Guidelines provide that the term of supervised release under U.S. federal law shall be at least three years but not more than five years for a defendant convicted of a Class A or B felony; at least two years but not more than three years for a defendant convicted of a Class C or D felony; and one year for a defendant convicted of a Class E felony or a Class A misdemeanor. However, a life term of supervised release may be imposed for any offense listed in 18 U.S.C. § 2332b(g)(5)(B), the commission of which resulted in, or created a foreseeable risk of, death or serious bodily injury to another person; or a sex offense.[33] Supervised release is recommended by the Guidelines for most offenders who are serving a prison sentence of more than a year.[34]","title":"Probation and supervised release"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781942842187","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781942842187"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1066197790","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1066197790"}],"text":"Federal Sentencing Guidelines Manual: 2018–2019 Edition. Michigan Legal Publishing Ltd. 2019. ISBN 9781942842187. OCLC 1066197790.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Example of a matrix and explanation showing how the total months recommended is calculated from the Base Level Offense taking into account all factors","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/US_Federal_Sentencing_Guidelines_Analysis_Example_%28James_Gordon_Meek%29.png/220px-US_Federal_Sentencing_Guidelines_Analysis_Example_%28James_Gordon_Meek%29.png"}]
[{"title":"Apprendi v. New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprendi_v._New_Jersey"},{"title":"Fair Sentencing Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Sentencing_Act"},{"title":"History of United States Prison Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_United_States_Prison_Systems"},{"title":"Safety valve (law)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_valve_(law)"},{"title":"United States v. Binion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Binion"}]
[{"reference":"\"Introduction to the Sentencing Reform Act\" (PDF). U.S. Sentencing Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 6, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120906064229/http://www.ussc.gov/Research/Research_Projects/Miscellaneous/15_Year_Study/chap1.pdf","url_text":"\"Introduction to the Sentencing Reform Act\""},{"url":"http://www.ussc.gov/Research/Research_Projects/Miscellaneous/15_Year_Study/chap1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Excerpt from Introduction to Federal Sentencing Guidelines","urls":[{"url":"http://www1.law.umkc.edu/suni/CrimLaw/fed_sent_guide.htm","url_text":"Excerpt from Introduction to Federal Sentencing Guidelines"}]},{"reference":"Stephanos Bibas (2004), The Feeney Amendment and the Continuing Rise of Prosecutorial Power to Plea Bargain, vol. 94, Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology","urls":[{"url":"https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5008140708","url_text":"The Feeney Amendment and the Continuing Rise of Prosecutorial Power to Plea Bargain"}]},{"reference":"Doerr, Mark T. (Fall 2009), Note: Not Guilty? Go to Jail. The unconstitutionality of acquitted-conduct sentencing, vol. 41, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, p. 235, archived from the original on July 16, 2011","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716215121/https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&doctype=cite&docid=41+Colum.+Human+Rights+L.+Rev.+235&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&key=1314100b4986e1e326f33aa88614226f","url_text":"Note: Not Guilty? Go to Jail. The unconstitutionality of acquitted-conduct sentencing"},{"url":"https://litigation-essentials.lexisnexis.com/webcd/app?action=DocumentDisplay&crawlid=1&doctype=cite&docid=41+Colum.+Human+Rights+L.+Rev.+235&srctype=smi&srcid=3B15&key=1314100b4986e1e326f33aa88614226f","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hoffman, Peter B. (2000), Simplifying the U.S. Sentencing Commission's Offense Scale, vol. 44, St. Louis U. L.J., p. 365","urls":[{"url":"http://heinonlinebackup.com/hol-cgi-bin/get_pdf.cgi?handle=hein.journals/arklr50&section=37","url_text":"Simplifying the U.S. Sentencing Commission's Offense Scale"}]},{"reference":"\"Rule 35. Correcting or Reducing a Sentence | Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure | LII/Legal Information Institute\". Law.cornell.edu. Archived from the original on May 5, 2003. Retrieved 2012-04-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20030505060704/https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcrmp/Rule35.htm","url_text":"\"Rule 35. Correcting or Reducing a Sentence | Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure | LII/Legal Information Institute\""},{"url":"https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcrmp/Rule35.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Knizhnik, Shana. \"Failed Snitches and Sentencing Stitches\". N.Y.U. L. Rev. 90 (1722).","urls":[]},{"reference":"Survey of Article III Judges (PDF), p. 4, archived from the original (PDF) on July 27, 2003","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20030727155833/http://www.ussc.gov/judsurv/execsum.pdf","url_text":"Survey of Article III Judges"},{"url":"http://www.ussc.gov/judsurv/execsum.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Federal judges argue for reduced sentences for child-porn convicts, The Denver Post, November 29, 2009","urls":[{"url":"http://www.denverpost.com/ci_13887009","url_text":"Federal judges argue for reduced sentences for child-porn convicts"}]},{"reference":"JS Hall (1999), Guided to Injustice? the Effect of the Sentencing Guidelines on Indigent Defendants and Public Defense., American Criminal Law Review, archived from the original on February 1, 2013, retrieved September 17, 2017","urls":[{"url":"https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5001888889","url_text":"Guided to Injustice? the Effect of the Sentencing Guidelines on Indigent Defendants and Public Defense."},{"url":"https://archive.today/20130201063628/http://www.questia.com/read/1G1-61838451/guided-to-injustice-the-effect-of-the-sentencing","url_text":"archived"}]},{"reference":"William J. Stuntz (Jun 2004), Plea Bargaining and Criminal Law's Disappearing Shadow, vol. 117, Harvard Law Review, pp. 2548–2569","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Stuntz","url_text":"William J. Stuntz"}]},{"reference":"Federal guilty pleas and trial rates (PDF), U.S. Sentencing Commission, archived from the original (PDF) on March 12, 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120312043250/http://www.ussc.gov/Data_and_Statistics/Annual_Reports_and_Sourcebooks/2009/FigC.pdf","url_text":"Federal guilty pleas and trial rates"},{"url":"http://www.ussc.gov/Data_and_Statistics/Annual_Reports_and_Sourcebooks/2009/FigC.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"U.S.S.G. §5A\", 2012 Federal Sentencing Guidelines","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ussc.gov/Guidelines/2012_Guidelines/Manual_HTML/Chapter_5.htm","url_text":"\"U.S.S.G. §5A\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Federal Juvenile Delinquency Act and Related Matters\" (PDF). June 18, 2022. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Jackson_(physicist)
Shirley Ann Jackson
["1 Biography","1.1 AT&T Bell Laboratories","1.2 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission","1.3 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute","1.4 The Nature Conservancy","2 Honors and distinctions","3 Personal life","4 Philanthropy","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
American physicist (born 1946) This article is about the scientist and university administrator. For the writer, see Shirley Jackson. Shirley Ann JacksonChair of the President's Intelligence Advisory BoardIn officeAugust 29, 2014 – January 20, 2017Serving with Jami MiscikPresidentBarack ObamaPreceded byDavid BorenChuck HagelSucceeded bySteve FeinbergPresident of Rensselaer Polytechnic InstituteIn officeJuly 1, 1999 – July 1, 2022Preceded byCornelius BartonSucceeded byMartin A. Schmidt Personal detailsBorn (1946-08-05) August 5, 1946 (age 77)Washington, D.C.SpouseMorris WashingtonEducationMassachusetts Institute of Technology (BS, MS, PhD)WebsiteOfficial website Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson, FREng (born August 5, 1946) is an American physicist, and was the 18th president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. She is the first African American woman to have earned a doctorate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Theoretical Elementary Particle Physics, and the first African American woman to have earned a doctorate at MIT in any field. She is also the second African American woman in the United States to earn a doctorate in physics. Biography Jackson was born in Washington, D.C., and attended Roosevelt Senior High School. After graduation in 1964, she enrolled at MIT to study theoretical physics, earning her B.S. degree in 1968. Jackson elected to stay at MIT for her doctoral work, and received her Ph.D. degree in nuclear physics in 1973, the first African American woman to earn a doctorate degree from MIT. Her research was directed by James Young, a professor in the MIT Center for Theoretical Physics. Jackson is also the second African American woman in the United States to earn a doctorate in physics. She was featured on the PBS show "Finding Your Roots" Season 6 Episode 7, where she is noted as one of the leading global pioneers in science all while knowing little about her ancestry. In 2002, Discover magazine recognized her as one of the 50 most important women in science. Jackson has described her interests thus: I am interested in the electronic, optical, magnetic, and transport properties of novel semiconductor systems. Of special interest are the behavior of magnetic polarons in semimagnetic and dilute magnetic semiconductors, and the optical response properties of semiconductor quantum-wells and superlattices. My interests also include quantum dots, mesoscopic systems, and the role of antiferromagnetic fluctuations in correlated 2D electron systems. AT&T Bell Laboratories Jackson joined the Theoretical Physics Research Department at AT&T Bell Laboratories in 1976, examining the fundamental properties of various materials. She began her time at Bell Labs by studying materials to be used in the semiconductor industry. She worked in the Scattering and Low Energy Physics Research Department from 1978, and moved to the Solid State and Quantum Physics Research Department in 1988. At Bell Labs, Jackson researched the optical and electronic properties of two-dimensional and quasi-two-dimensional systems. Jackson served on the faculty at Rutgers University in Piscataway and New Brunswick, New Jersey from 1991 to 1995, in addition to continuing to consult with Bell Labs on semiconductor theory. Her research during this time focused on the electronic and optical properties of two-dimensional systems. Although some sources claim that Jackson conducted scientific research while working at Bell Laboratories that enabled others to invent the portable fax, touch-tone telephone, solar cells, fiber optic cables, and the technology behind caller ID and call waiting, Jackson herself makes no such claim. Moreover, these telecommunications advancements significantly predated her arrival at Bell Labs in 1976, with these six specifically enumerated inventions actually occurring by others in the time frame between 1954 and 1970. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission In 1995 she was appointed by President Bill Clinton to serve as chairman of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), becoming the first woman and first African American to hold that position. At the NRC, she had "ultimate authority for all NRC functions pertaining to an emergency involving an NRC licensee". In addition, while Jackson served on the commission she assisted in the establishment of the International Nuclear Regulators Association. Dr. Jackson served as the chairperson for the International Regulators Association from 1997 to 1999. The association consisted of senior nuclear regulatory officials from countries like Canada, France, Germany and Spain. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute On July 1, 1999, Jackson became the 18th president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI). She was the first woman and first African American to hold this position. Since her appointment to president of RPI, Jackson has helped raise over $1 billion in donations for philanthropic causes. She led the development of a strategic initiative called The Rensselaer Plan and much progress has been made towards achieving the Plan's goals. She oversaw a large capital improvement campaign, including the construction of an Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center costing $200 million, and the East Campus Athletic Village. On April 26, 2006, the faculty of RPI (including a number of ‘’emeritus’’ faculty) voted 155 to 149 against a vote of no-confidence in Jackson. After arriving at RPI, Jackson's salary and benefits expanded from $423,150 in 1999–2000 to over $1.3 million in 2006–2007. In 2011 Jackson's salary was $1.75 million. In 2006–07, and it is estimated she received another $1.3 million from board seats at several major corporations. The announcement of layoffs at RPI in December 2008 led some in the RPI community to question whether the institute should continue to compensate Jackson at that level, maintain a residence in the Adirondacks for her, and continue to support a personal staff. Her presidency created much controversy in the student body; in 2011, the RPI Student Senate passed a motion to request that the administration to review her performance and consider her removal due to a “broad sense of dissatisfaction and low morale among students, faculty, staff and alumni, particularly in opposition to the Institute and President Jackson’s leadership" and her "top down leadership, abrasive style." On December 4–5, 2009 Jackson celebrated her tenth year at RPI with a "Celebration Weekend," which featured tribute concerts by Aretha Franklin and Joshua Bell among other events. Following the weekend, the board of trustees announced they would support construction of a new guest house on Jackson's property, for the purpose of " the presidents to receive and entertain, appropriately, Rensselaer constituents, donors, and other high-level visitors." The trustees said that "the funds for this new project would not have been available for any other purpose." William Walker, the school's Vice President of Strategic Communications and External Relations noted "The Board sees this very much as a long-term investment... for President Jackson and her successors." On February 2, 2010, the Troy Zoning Board of Appeals denied RPI's request for a zoning variance allowing them to construct the new house at a height of 44 feet (13 m), which would exceed the 25-foot (7.6 m) height restriction on buildings in residential areas. The zoning board stated that it is "too big," and two firefighters believed the property would be difficult to access with emergency vehicles. A new plan was announced on February 25, describing how the president's house will be replaced with a new two-story house. The new house will have "9,600 square feet of livable space, divided approximately equally between living space for the president's family and rooms for the president to conduct meetings and events." In June 2010, it was announced that the Rensselaer Board of Trustees unanimously voted to extend Jackson a ten-year contract renewal, which she accepted. Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson's compensation ranked first among US private university presidents in 2014. A 2015 Money.com article cited Jackson as the highest-paid college President and "took home a base salary of $945,000 plus another $276,474 in bonuses, $31,874 in nontaxable benefits". In the fall of 2018, another contract extension was approved by the board of trustees through the end of June 2022. On June 25, 2021, Jackson publicly announced she would be stepping down from her post as president as of July 1, 2022, after 23 years. The Nature Conservancy In February 2020, Jackson joined the Nature Conservancy Global Board. She is expected to be serving on this board until October 2029. Board Chair Tom Tierney says, "To successfully take on the most pressing environmental challenges facing us, TNC needs people with ambition and big ideas." Honors and distinctions Jackson has received many fellowships, including the Martin Marietta Aircraft Company Scholarship and Fellowship, the Prince Hall Masons Scholarship, the National Science Foundation Traineeship, and a Ford Foundation Advanced Study Fellowship. She has been elected to numerous special societies, including the American Philosophical Society. In 2014, she was named a recipient of the National Medal of Science. In the early 1990s, then-New Jersey Governor James Florio awarded Jackson the Thomas Alva Edison Science Award for her contributions to physics and for the promotion of science. Jackson received awards for the years 1976 and 1981 as one of the Outstanding Young Women of America. She was inducted into National Women's Hall of Fame in 1998 for "her significant contributions as a distinguished scientist and advocate for education, science, and public policy." She received a Candace Award for Technology from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women in 1982. In 2001, she received the Richtmyer Memorial Award given annually by the American Association of Physics Teachers. She has also received 53 honorary doctorate degrees. In spring 2007, she was awarded the Vannevar Bush Award for "a lifetime of achievements in scientific research, education and senior statesman-like contributions to public policy". In 2007, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Dr. Ben Carson. In 2008 she became the University Vice Chairman of the US Council on Competitiveness, a non-for profit group based in Washington, DC. In 2009, President Barack Obama appointed Jackson to serve on the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, a 20-member advisory group dedicated to public policy. She was appointed an International Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng) in 2012. In 2018, she was awarded by the Hutchins Center for African American Research with the W.E.B DuBois medal. In 2019, the American Physical Society Forum on Physics and Society awarded her the Joseph A. Burton Forum Award. In 2021, she was the recipient of the Hans Christian Oersted Medal from the American Association of Physics Teachers. Also in 2021, she received, from the UC Berkeley Academic Senate, the Clark Kerr Award for distinguished leadership in higher education. Personal life Dr. Shirley Jackson is married to Dr. Morris A. Washington, a physics professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and they have one adult son. She is a member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority. Philanthropy Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson and her husband were named to the inaugural class of the Capital Region Philanthropy Hall of Fame in 2019. See also Timeline of women in science References ^ "Shirley Jackson at MIT, 1973". MIT Black History. Retrieved February 3, 2023. ^ Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (March 16, 2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 333. ISBN 9780195170559. Archived from the original on June 8, 2019. Retrieved March 1, 2017. ^ a b Svitil, Kathy A. "The 50 Most Important Women in Science". Discover Magazine. Kalmbach Publishing Co. Archived from the original on December 21, 2018. Retrieved December 15, 2014. ^ a b c d Williams, Scott. "Physicists of the African Diaspora". Archived from the original on October 6, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2009. ^ "Shirley Ann Jackson superconductors" (PDF). USFSP. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2019. Retrieved May 2, 2018. ^ "James E. Young, 1983". MIT Black History. Retrieved December 30, 2019. ^ "Science Pioneers". Finding Your Roots. Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved June 21, 2021. ^ a b c "Biography of Shirley Ann Jackson, Ph.D." The New York Times. July 21, 2003. Archived from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved March 1, 2017. ^ a b Borrell, Brendan (December 1, 2011). "Speaking Out on the "Quiet Crisis"" (PDF). Scientific American. pp. 94–99. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved March 1, 2017. ^ "International Black Inventions Museum - Featured Inventors - Dr. Shirley A. Jackson". Archived from the original on December 7, 2002. Retrieved August 29, 2018. ^ "Famous Black Inventors - Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson". Archived from the original on February 5, 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2018. ^ "BBC 100 Women: Nine things you didn't know were invented by women". BBC News. September 4, 2017. Archived from the original on June 11, 2020. Retrieved February 8, 2020. ^ "Jackson biography at RPI". Archived from the original on July 9, 2018. ^ Inventions by others during 1954-1970:Portable Fax Machine (1961), "Still Changing the World". www.inventorsdigest.com. August 4, 2016. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2018.Touch-tone Telephones (1963), "Tone dialing telephones are introduced, November 18, 1963". www.edn.com. Archived from the original on September 1, 2019. Retrieved August 10, 2018.Solar Cells (1954), US patent 2780765, Chapin, D. M.; Fuller, C. S.; Pearson, G. L., "Solar energy converting apparatus"  Fiber Optic Cable (1970), US patent 3711262, Keck, D.;Schultz, P., "Method of producing optical waveguide fibers"  Archived April 4, 2022, at the Wayback MachineCaller ID (1970), US patent 3812296, Paraskevakos, T., "Apparatus for generating and transmitting digital information"  Call Waiting (1961), US patent 3133995, Zarouni, A., "Call awaiting signal telephone circuits"  Archived April 4, 2022, at the Wayback Machine ^ a b "The Nature Conservancy Appoints New Members to its Global Board of Directors". Archived from the original on August 8, 2020. Retrieved August 20, 2020. ^ a b Ann., Camp, Carole (2004). American women inventors. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 0766015386. OCLC 48398924.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "Honorable Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson, Commissioner". NRC Web. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved February 27, 2021. ^ "Claims of EMPAC rush job". Times Union. August 4, 2010. Archived from the original on April 22, 2018. Retrieved May 2, 2018. ^ No-Confidence Motion Fails at Rensselaer Polytechnic Archived April 16, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. ^ a b c "For RPI, priorities an issue". Times Union. Archived from the original on December 25, 2008. Retrieved December 27, 2008. ^ "Private college presidents pay was up slightly". Boston Globe. September 12, 2012. Archived from the original on December 14, 2012. Retrieved January 5, 2013. ^ Adams, Susan (December 15, 2013). "The Highest-Paid College Presidents". Forbes. Archived from the original on February 19, 2014. Retrieved February 16, 2014. ^ Franco, James (November 29, 2011). "RPI Student Senate recommends removal of Shirley Ann Jackson". The Record. Retrieved January 9, 2024. ^ "Celebration Weekend: A Tribute to the Renaissance at Rensselaer". Archived from the original on January 23, 2010. Retrieved December 31, 2009. ^ "Rensselaer Announces Celebration Weekend Event Lineup". Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved December 31, 2009. ^ a b "Breaking News: New Presidential Home to Be Constructed". December 7, 2009. Archived from the original on December 24, 2009. Retrieved December 31, 2009. ^ Churchill, Chris (December 8, 2009). "RPI president to get new campus home residence". The Times Union. Archived from the original on December 15, 2009. Retrieved December 31, 2009. ^ "Zoning Board of Appeals denies RPI mansion". Archived from the original on February 20, 2012. Retrieved February 19, 2010. ^ Sherman, Erica (March 3, 2010). "Jackson house to be razed". The Rensselaer Polytechnic. Archived from the original on July 20, 2011. Retrieved April 4, 2010. ^ Rounds, Claude (February 25, 2010). "RE President's House Project (Email to RPI Community)". RPIisRPI.com. Retrieved February 25, 2010. ^ "Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Board of Trustees Votes Unanimously To Appoint President Shirley Ann Jackson for 10 More Years". rpi.edu. Archived from the original on June 24, 2010. Retrieved June 16, 2010. ^ "Rensselaer President Leads List of Highest-Paid Private College Leaders". The New York Times. December 8, 2014. Archived from the original on February 28, 2018. Retrieved March 3, 2017. ^ "How Much the 10 Highest Paid Private College Presidents Made". Money. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2018. ^ "Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Board Extends President Jackson's Contract". news.rpi.edu. Archived from the original on August 15, 2021. Retrieved April 4, 2022. ^ "Retirement as President of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute". June 25, 2021. Archived from the original on May 19, 2022. Retrieved May 19, 2022. ^ "Biography: Shirley Ann Jackson". The Nature Conservancy. Archived from the original on August 10, 2020. Retrieved June 21, 2021. ^ "President Jackson Elected Member of American Philosophical Society" Archived September 28, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. May 7, 2007. ^ "NSTMF". Archived from the original on August 6, 2016. Retrieved June 7, 2016. ^ "President Shirley Ann Jackson Named Recipient of National Medal of Science". RPI.edu. Archived from the original on February 7, 2016. Retrieved February 1, 2016. ^ Clays, Jessica (October 19, 2021). "Black History Month - Celebrating Black Tech Heroes". Integrate. Retrieved February 22, 2024. ^ "President's Profile – Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI)". rpi.edu. Archived from the original on April 7, 2015. Retrieved November 2, 2016. ^ "Jackson, Shirley Ann – National Women's Hall of Fame". National Women's Hall of Fame. Archived from the original on December 21, 2018. Retrieved November 2, 2016. ^ "Candace Award Recipients 1982-1990, Page 2". National Coalition of 100 Black Women. Archived from the original on March 14, 2003. ^ "President's Honorary Degrees – Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI)". rpi.edu. Archived from the original on February 24, 2007. Retrieved March 26, 2007. ^ "Shirley Ann Jackson, Leader in Higher Education and Government, to Receive the Vannevar Bush Award". www.nsf.gov. Archived from the original on May 23, 2017. Retrieved April 4, 2022. ^ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement. Archived from the original on December 15, 2016. Retrieved January 8, 2021. ^ "2007 Summit Highlights Photo". Archived from the original on November 3, 2021. Retrieved January 8, 2021. University presidents Shirley Ann Jackson and John Sexton with U.S. Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings. ^ "Shirley Ann Jackson Appointed to the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology" (Press release). RPI. April 27, 2009. Archived from the original on May 18, 2009. Retrieved April 27, 2009. ^ "List of Fellows". Archived from the original on June 8, 2016. Retrieved October 28, 2014. ^ a b c "Shirley Ann Jackson '68 PhD '73 to receive AAPT 2021 Oersted Medal". MIT Physics. January 26, 2021. Archived from the original on May 6, 2021. Retrieved May 6, 2021. ^ "2019 Joseph A. Burton Forum Award Recipient". American Physical Society. Retrieved October 3, 2022. ^ "2021 Clark Kerr Award | Academic Senate". academic-senate.berkeley.edu. Retrieved October 2, 2022. ^ "Biography | Shirley Ann Jackson, Ph.D." president.rpi.edu. Archived from the original on July 9, 2018. Retrieved April 4, 2022. ^ "Jackson speech to Delta Sigma Theta, March 2004". president.rpi.edu. Archived from the original on August 7, 2020. Retrieved August 10, 2018. ^ Rulison, Larry (March 28, 2019). "United Way creates new Philanthropy Hall of Fame". Times Union. Archived from the original on October 29, 2020. Retrieved June 21, 2021. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shirley Ann Jackson. Wikiquote has quotations related to Shirley Ann Jackson. Official Profile from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Shirley Ann Jackson at IWasWondering.com June, Audrey (June 5, 2007). "Shirley Ann Jackson Sticks to the Plan" (PDF). The Chronicle of Higher Education. Article and profile from the Chronicle of Higher Education Biography of Jackson from IEEE Discussion with Charlie Rose Appearances on C-SPAN C-SPAN Q&A interview with Jackson, January 2, 2005 Academic offices Preceded byCornelius Barton President of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 1999–2022 Succeeded byMartin A. Schmidt Government offices VacantTitle last held byDavid BorenChuck Hagel Chair of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board 2014–2017 Served alongside: Jami Miscik Succeeded bySteve Feinberg vtePresidents of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Blatchford (1824–28) Chester (1828–29) Nott (1829–45) Beman (1845–65) Winslow (1865–68) Brinsmade (1868) Forsyth (1868–86) Gurley (acting, 1886–87) Powers (acting, 1887–88) Peck (1888–1901) Ricketts (1901–34) Hotchkiss (1935–43) Houston (1943–58) Folsom (1958–71) Grosh (1971–76) Low (1976–84) Berg (1984–87) Landgraf (acting, 1987–88) Schmitt (1988–93) Pipes (1993–98) Barton (1998–99) Jackson (1999–2022) Schmidt (2022– ) vteIBMHistory History Mergers and acquisitions PC business acquisition by Lenovo ProductsHardwareCurrent Mainframe IBM Z Power microprocessors Power Systems Storage FlashSystem DS8000 Quantum Q System One Q System Two Eagle Osprey Heron Condor Former Blue Gene Cell microprocessors PowerPC Midrange computer Personal Computer Selectric ThinkPad Other alphaWorks Carbon Design System Cloud Cloudant Cognos Analytics Connections Criminal Reduction Utilising Statistical History Fortran ILOG Information Management Software Lotus Software Mainframe operating systems Mashup Center Planning Analytics PureQuery Quantum Platform Qiskit OpenQASM Rational Software SPSS Tivoli Software Service Automation Manager Watson Watsonx Granite WebSphere BusinessentitiesCurrent Apptio Center for The Business of Government Consulting Promontory Kenexa International subsidiaries India Press Red Hat Research Former AdStar AIM alliance Kaleida Labs Taligent Ambra Computer Cognos EduQuest Kyndryl Lexmark Merative Microelectronics Product Center Science Research Associates Service Bureau The Weather Company (Weather Underground) Facilities Towers 1250 René-Lévesque, Montreal, QC One Atlantic Center, Atlanta, GA Software Labs Rome Software Lab Toronto Software Lab IBM Buildings 330 North Wabash, Chicago, IL Honolulu Seattle Facilities Thomas J. Watson Research Center Hakozaki Facility Yamato Facility Cambridge Scientific Center IBM Hursley Canada Head Office Building IBM Rochester Initiatives Academy of Technology Deep Thunder Developer Develothon Fellow The Great Mind Challenge Linux Technology Center SkillsBuild Smarter Planet Virtual Universe Community World Community Grid Think conference Inventions Automated teller machine Cynefin framework DRAM Electronic keypunch Floppy disk Hard disk drive Magnetic stripe card Relational model Sabre airline reservation system Scanning tunneling microscope Financial swaps Universal Product Code Terminology Big Blue Commercial Processing Workload Customer engineer Globally integrated enterprise e-business Think slogan CEOs Thomas J. Watson (1914–1956) Thomas Watson Jr. (1956–1971) T. Vincent Learson (1971–1973) Frank T. Cary (1973–1981) John R. Opel (1981–1985) John Fellows Akers (1985–1993) Louis V. Gerstner Jr. (1993–2002) Samuel J. Palmisano (2002–2011) Ginni Rometty (2012–2020) Arvind Krishna (since 2020) Board ofdirectors Thomas Buberl David Farr Alex Gorsky Michelle J. Howard Arvind Krishna Andrew Liveris Martha E. Pollack Joseph R. Swedish Peter R. Voser Other A Boy and His Atom Big Blue sports teams American football Rugby union Common Public License/IBM Public License Deep Blue Deep Thought Dynamic infrastructure GlobalFoundries GUIDE International IBM and the Holocaust International chess tournament Lucifer cipher Mathematica IBM Plex SHARE computing ScicomP Unions Category Commons Navigational boxes FOSS Midrange computers Operating systems Personal computers System/360 System/370 Typewriters Vacuum tube computers vteInductees to the National Women's Hall of Fame1970–19791973 Jane Addams Marian Anderson Susan B. Anthony Clara Barton Mary McLeod Bethune Elizabeth Blackwell Pearl S. Buck Rachel Carson Mary Cassatt Emily Dickinson Amelia Earhart Alice Hamilton Helen Hayes Helen Keller Eleanor Roosevelt Florence Sabin Margaret Chase Smith Elizabeth Cady Stanton Helen Brooke Taussig Harriet Tubman 1976 Abigail Adams Margaret Mead Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias 1979 Dorothea Dix Juliette Gordon Low Alice Paul Elizabeth Bayley Seton 1980–19891981 Margaret Sanger Sojourner Truth 1982 Carrie Chapman Catt Frances Perkins 1983 Belva Lockwood Lucretia Mott 1984 Mary "Mother" Harris Jones Bessie Smith 1986 Barbara McClintock Lucy Stone Harriet Beecher Stowe 1988 Gwendolyn Brooks Willa Cather Sally Ride Mary Risteau Ida B. Wells-Barnett 1990–19991990 Margaret Bourke-White Barbara Jordan Billie Jean King Florence B. Seibert 1991 Gertrude Belle Elion 1993 Ethel Percy Andrus Antoinette Blackwell Emily Blackwell Shirley Chisholm Jacqueline Cochran Ruth Colvin Marian Wright Edelman Alice Evans Betty Friedan Ella Grasso Martha Wright Griffiths Fannie Lou Hamer Dorothy Height Dolores Huerta Mary Putnam Jacobi Mae Jemison Mary Lyon Mary Mahoney Wilma Mankiller Constance Baker Motley Georgia O'Keeffe Annie Oakley Rosa Parks Esther Peterson Jeannette Rankin Ellen Swallow Richards Elaine Roulet Katherine Siva Saubel Gloria Steinem Helen Stephens Lillian Wald Madam C. J. Walker Faye Wattleton Rosalyn S. Yalow Gloria Yerkovich 1994 Bella Abzug Ella Baker Myra Bradwell Annie Jump Cannon Jane Cunningham Croly Catherine East Geraldine Ferraro Charlotte Perkins Gilman Grace Hopper Helen LaKelly Hunt Zora Neale Hurston Anne Hutchinson Frances Wisebart Jacobs Susette La Flesche Louise McManus Maria Mitchell Antonia Novello Linda Richards Wilma Rudolph Betty Bone Schiess Muriel Siebert Nettie Stevens Oprah Winfrey Sarah Winnemucca Fanny Wright 1995 Virginia Apgar Ann Bancroft Amelia Bloomer Mary Breckinridge Eileen Collins Elizabeth Hanford Dole Anne Dallas Dudley Mary Baker Eddy Ella Fitzgerald Margaret Fuller Matilda Joslyn Gage Lillian Moller Gilbreth Nannerl O. Keohane Maggie Kuhn Sandra Day O'Connor Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin Pat Schroeder Hannah Greenebaum Solomon 1996 Louisa May Alcott Charlotte Anne Bunch Frances Xavier Cabrini Mary A. Hallaren Oveta Culp Hobby Wilhelmina Cole Holladay Anne Morrow Lindbergh Maria Goeppert Mayer Ernestine Louise Potowski Rose Maria Tallchief Edith Wharton 1998 Madeleine Albright Maya Angelou Nellie Bly Lydia Moss Bradley Mary Steichen Calderone Mary Ann Shadd Cary Joan Ganz Cooney Gerty Cori Sarah Grimké Julia Ward Howe Shirley Ann Jackson Shannon Lucid Katharine Dexter McCormick Rozanne L. Ridgway Edith Nourse Rogers Felice Schwartz Eunice Kennedy Shriver Beverly Sills Florence Wald Angelina Grimké Weld Chien-Shiung Wu 2000–20092000 Faye Glenn Abdellah Emma Smith DeVoe Marjory Stoneman Douglas Mary Dyer Sylvia A. Earle Crystal Eastman Jeanne Holm Leontine T. Kelly Frances Oldham Kelsey Kate Mullany Janet Reno Anna Howard Shaw Sophia Smith Ida Tarbell Wilma L. Vaught Mary Edwards Walker Annie Dodge Wauneka Eudora Welty Frances E. Willard 2001 Dorothy H. Andersen Lucille Ball Rosalynn Carter Lydia Maria Child Bessie Coleman Dorothy Day Marian de Forest Althea Gibson Beatrice A. Hicks Barbara Holdridge Harriet Williams Russell Strong Emily Howell Warner Victoria Woodhull 2002 Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis Ruth Bader Ginsburg Katharine Graham Bertha Holt Mary Engle Pennington Mercy Otis Warren 2003 Linda G. Alvarado Donna de Varona Gertrude Ederle Martha Matilda Harper Patricia Roberts Harris Stephanie L. Kwolek Dorothea Lange Mildred Robbins Leet Patsy Takemoto Mink Sacagawea Anne Sullivan Sheila E. Widnall 2005 Florence E. Allen Ruth Fulton Benedict Betty Bumpers Hillary Clinton Rita Rossi Colwell Mother Marianne Cope Maya Y. Lin Patricia A. Locke Blanche Stuart Scott Mary Burnett Talbert 2007 Eleanor K. Baum Julia Child Martha Coffin Pelham Wright Swanee Hunt Winona LaDuke Elisabeth Kübler-Ross Judith L. Pipher Catherine Filene Shouse Henrietta Szold 2009 Louise Bourgeois Mildred Cohn Karen DeCrow Susan Kelly-Dreiss Allie B. Latimer Emma Lazarus Ruth Patrick Rebecca Talbot Perkins Susan Solomon Kate Stoneman 2010–20192011 St. Katharine Drexel Dorothy Harrison Eustis Loretta C. Ford Abby Kelley Foster Helen Murray Free Billie Holiday Coretta Scott King Lilly Ledbetter Barbara A. Mikulski Donna E. Shalala Kathrine Switzer 2013 Betty Ford Ina May Gaskin Julie Krone Kate Millett Nancy Pelosi Mary Joseph Rogers Bernice Sandler Anna Schwartz Emma Willard 2015 Tenley Albright Nancy Brinker Martha Graham Marcia Greenberger Barbara Iglewski Jean Kilbourne Carlotta Walls LaNier Philippa Marrack Mary Harriman Rumsey Eleanor Smeal 2017 Matilda Cuomo Temple Grandin Lorraine Hansberry Victoria Jackson Sherry Lansing Clare Boothe Luce Aimee Mullins Carol Mutter Janet Rowley Alice Waters 2019 Gloria Allred Angela Davis Sarah Deer Jane Fonda Nicole Malachowski Rose O'Neill Louise Slaughter Sonia Sotomayor Laurie Spiegel Flossie Wong-Staal 2020–20292020 Aretha Franklin Barbara Hillary Barbara Rose Johns Henrietta Lacks Toni Morrison Mary Church Terrell 2022 Octavia E. Butler Judy Chicago Rebecca S. Halstead Mia Hamm Joy Harjo Emily Howland Katherine Johnson Indra Nooyi Michelle Obama 2024 Patricia Bath Ruby Bridges Elouise P. Cobell Kimberlé Crenshaw Peggy McIntosh Judith Plaskow Loretta Ross Sandy Stone Anna Wessels Williams Serena Williams Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Korea Poland Academics Mathematics Genealogy Project
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shirley Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirley_Jackson"},{"link_name":"FREng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"physicist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicist"},{"link_name":"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute"},{"link_name":"African American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African-American"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sQ2pz-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DiscoverMag-3"}],"text":"This article is about the scientist and university administrator. For the writer, see Shirley Jackson.Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson, FREng (born August 5, 1946) is an American physicist, and was the 18th president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. She is the first African American woman to have earned a doctorate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Theoretical Elementary Particle Physics,[1] and the first African American woman to have earned a doctorate at MIT in any field.[2] She is also the second African American woman in the United States to earn a doctorate in physics.[3]","title":"Shirley Ann Jackson"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Roosevelt Senior High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Senior_High_School_(Washington,_DC)"},{"link_name":"MIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"theoretical physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics"},{"link_name":"B.S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diaspora-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-olWU4-5"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy"},{"link_name":"nuclear physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics"},{"link_name":"James Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edward_Young"},{"link_name":"MIT Center for Theoretical Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Center_for_Theoretical_Physics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diaspora-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G3JiA-6"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBS"},{"link_name":"Finding Your Roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finding_Your_Roots"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Discover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DiscoverMag-3"},{"link_name":"magnetic polarons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaron"},{"link_name":"quantum dots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dot"},{"link_name":"mesoscopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoscopic"},{"link_name":"antiferromagnetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiferromagnetic"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diaspora-4"}],"text":"Jackson was born in Washington, D.C., and attended Roosevelt Senior High School. After graduation in 1964, she enrolled at MIT to study theoretical physics, earning her B.S. degree in 1968.[4][5]Jackson elected to stay at MIT for her doctoral work, and received her Ph.D. degree in nuclear physics in 1973, the first African American woman to earn a doctorate degree from MIT. Her research was directed by James Young, a professor in the MIT Center for Theoretical Physics.[4][6] Jackson is also the second African American woman in the United States to earn a doctorate in physics. She was featured on the PBS show \"Finding Your Roots\" Season 6 Episode 7, where she is noted as one of the leading global pioneers in science all while knowing little about her ancestry.[7] In 2002, Discover magazine recognized her as one of the 50 most important women in science.[3]Jackson has described her interests thus:I am interested in the electronic, optical, magnetic, and transport properties of novel semiconductor systems. Of special interest are the behavior of magnetic polarons in semimagnetic and dilute magnetic semiconductors, and the optical response properties of semiconductor quantum-wells and superlattices. My interests also include quantum dots, mesoscopic systems, and the role of antiferromagnetic fluctuations in correlated 2D electron systems.[4]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AT&T Bell Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimesBio-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BorrellSpeaking-9"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diaspora-4"},{"link_name":"Rutgers University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutgers_University"},{"link_name":"Piscataway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piscataway_Township,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"New Brunswick, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brunswick,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimesBio-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HUnKe-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sKf1k-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-q9u1f-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DnndB-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nw6l4-14"}],"sub_title":"AT&T Bell Laboratories","text":"Jackson joined the Theoretical Physics Research Department at AT&T Bell Laboratories in 1976, examining the fundamental properties of various materials.[8] She began her time at Bell Labs by studying materials to be used in the semiconductor industry.[9] She worked in the Scattering and Low Energy Physics Research Department from 1978, and moved to the Solid State and Quantum Physics Research Department in 1988. At Bell Labs, Jackson researched the optical and electronic properties of two-dimensional and quasi-two-dimensional systems.[4]Jackson served on the faculty at Rutgers University in Piscataway and New Brunswick, New Jersey from 1991 to 1995, in addition to continuing to consult with Bell Labs on semiconductor theory.[8] Her research during this time focused on the electronic and optical properties of two-dimensional systems.Although some sources claim that Jackson conducted scientific research while working at Bell Laboratories that enabled others to invent the portable fax, touch-tone telephone, solar cells, fiber optic cables, and the technology behind caller ID and call waiting,[10][11][12] Jackson herself makes no such claim.[13] Moreover, these telecommunications advancements significantly predated her arrival at Bell Labs in 1976, with these six specifically enumerated inventions actually occurring by others in the time frame between 1954 and 1970.[14]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bill Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Clinton"},{"link_name":"Nuclear Regulatory Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYTimesBio-8"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission","text":"In 1995 she was appointed by President Bill Clinton to serve as chairman of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), becoming the first woman and first African American to hold that position.[15] At the NRC, she had \"ultimate authority for all NRC functions pertaining to an emergency involving an NRC licensee\".[8] In addition, while Jackson served on the commission she assisted in the establishment of the International Nuclear Regulators Association.[16] Dr. Jackson served as the chairperson for the International Regulators Association from 1997 to 1999. The association consisted of senior nuclear regulatory officials from countries like Canada, France, Germany and Spain.[17]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BorrellSpeaking-9"},{"link_name":"The Rensselaer Plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rensselaer_Polytechnic_Institute#Rensselaer_Plan"},{"link_name":"Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_Media_and_Performing_Arts_Center"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Xp03y-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sGWnX-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times_union-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kfuPe-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JwKeX-22"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times_union-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times_union-20"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Aretha Franklin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aretha_Franklin"},{"link_name":"Joshua Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Bell"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-J7FuF-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nv5Np-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-house-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-house-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-timesunion_house-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FCPUu-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-house_razed-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-email2-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UckGc-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rrreC-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aZA6p-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218rA-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute","text":"On July 1, 1999, Jackson became the 18th president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI). She was the first woman and first African American to hold this position. Since her appointment to president of RPI, Jackson has helped raise over $1 billion in donations for philanthropic causes.[9]She led the development of a strategic initiative called The Rensselaer Plan and much progress has been made towards achieving the Plan's goals. She oversaw a large capital improvement campaign, including the construction of an Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center costing $200 million,[18] and the East Campus Athletic Village.On April 26, 2006, the faculty of RPI (including a number of ‘’emeritus’’ faculty) voted 155 to 149 against a vote of no-confidence in Jackson.[19]After arriving at RPI, Jackson's salary and benefits expanded from $423,150 in 1999–2000 to over $1.3 million in 2006–2007.[20][21] In 2011 Jackson's salary was $1.75 million.[22] In 2006–07, and it is estimated she received another $1.3 million from board seats at several major corporations.[20] The announcement of layoffs at RPI in December 2008 led some in the RPI community to question whether the institute should continue to compensate Jackson at that level, maintain a residence in the Adirondacks for her, and continue to support a personal staff.[20] Her presidency created much controversy in the student body; in 2011, the RPI Student Senate passed a motion to request that the administration to review her performance and consider her removal due to a “broad sense of dissatisfaction and low morale among students, faculty, staff and alumni, particularly in opposition to the Institute and President Jackson’s leadership\" and her \"top down leadership, [and] abrasive style.\"[23]On December 4–5, 2009 Jackson celebrated her tenth year at RPI with a \"Celebration Weekend,\" which featured tribute concerts by Aretha Franklin and Joshua Bell among other events.[24][25] Following the weekend, the board of trustees announced they would support construction of a new guest house on Jackson's property, for the purpose of \"[enabling] the presidents to receive and entertain, appropriately, Rensselaer constituents, donors, and other high-level visitors.\"[26] The trustees said that \"the funds for this new project would not have been available for any other purpose.\"[26] William Walker, the school's Vice President of Strategic Communications and External Relations noted \"The Board sees this very much as a long-term investment... for President Jackson and her successors.\"[27]On February 2, 2010, the Troy Zoning Board of Appeals denied RPI's request for a zoning variance allowing them to construct the new house at a height of 44 feet (13 m), which would exceed the 25-foot (7.6 m) height restriction on buildings in residential areas. The zoning board stated that it is \"too big,\" and two firefighters believed the property would be difficult to access with emergency vehicles.[28] A new plan was announced on February 25, describing how the president's house will be replaced with a new two-story house.[29] The new house will have \"9,600 square feet of livable space, divided approximately equally between living space for the president's family and rooms for the president to conduct meetings and events.\"[30]In June 2010, it was announced that the Rensselaer Board of Trustees unanimously voted to extend Jackson a ten-year contract renewal, which she accepted.[31] Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson's compensation ranked first among US private university presidents in 2014.[32]A 2015 Money.com article cited Jackson as the highest-paid college President and \"took home a base salary of $945,000 plus another $276,474 in bonuses, $31,874 in nontaxable benefits\".[33]In the fall of 2018, another contract extension was approved by the board of trustees through the end of June 2022.[34]On June 25, 2021, Jackson publicly announced she would be stepping down from her post as president as of July 1, 2022, after 23 years.[35]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"}],"sub_title":"The Nature Conservancy","text":"In February 2020, Jackson joined the Nature Conservancy Global Board. She is expected to be serving on this board until October 2029. Board Chair Tom Tierney says, \"To successfully take on the most pressing environmental challenges facing us, TNC needs people with ambition and big ideas.\"[36][15]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Martin Marietta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Marietta"},{"link_name":"Prince Hall Masons Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Hall_Freemasonry"},{"link_name":"National Science Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Ford Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Foundation"},{"link_name":"American Philosophical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1JmLa-37"},{"link_name":"National Medal of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MInpo-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arWms-39"},{"link_name":"James Florio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Florio"},{"link_name":"Thomas Alva Edison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Alva_Edison"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-16"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-R58Wh-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kuqP6-42"},{"link_name":"Candace Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candace_Award"},{"link_name":"National Coalition of 100 Black Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Coalition_of_100_Black_Women"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-page2-43"},{"link_name":"Richtmyer Memorial Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richtmyer_Memorial_Award"},{"link_name":"American Association of Physics Teachers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_Physics_Teachers"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rQowA-44"},{"link_name":"Vannevar Bush Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vannevar_Bush_Award"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KlOCC-45"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Achievement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement"},{"link_name":"Dr. Ben Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Carson"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Council on Competitiveness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Competitiveness"},{"link_name":"Washington, DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC"},{"link_name":"Barack Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Council_of_Advisors_on_Science_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iCRXk-48"},{"link_name":"Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Academy_of_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-List_of_Fellows-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-50"},{"link_name":"American Physical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Physical_Society"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Hans Christian Oersted Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oersted_Medal"},{"link_name":"American Association of Physics Teachers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_Physics_Teachers"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-50"},{"link_name":"UC Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UC_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"Clark Kerr Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Kerr_Award"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"text":"Jackson has received many fellowships, including the Martin Marietta Aircraft Company Scholarship and Fellowship, the Prince Hall Masons Scholarship, the National Science Foundation Traineeship, and a Ford Foundation Advanced Study Fellowship. She has been elected to numerous special societies, including the American Philosophical Society.[37] In 2014, she was named a recipient of the National Medal of Science.[38][39]In the early 1990s, then-New Jersey Governor James Florio awarded Jackson the Thomas Alva Edison Science Award for her contributions to physics and for the promotion of science.[40]Jackson received awards for the years 1976 and 1981 as one of the Outstanding Young Women of America.[16] She was inducted into National Women's Hall of Fame in 1998 for \"her significant contributions as a distinguished scientist and advocate for education, science, and public policy.\"[41][42] She received a Candace Award for Technology from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women in 1982.[43]In 2001, she received the Richtmyer Memorial Award given annually by the American Association of Physics Teachers. She has also received 53 honorary doctorate degrees.[44]In spring 2007, she was awarded the Vannevar Bush Award for \"a lifetime of achievements in scientific research, education and senior statesman-like contributions to public policy\".[45]In 2007, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member Dr. Ben Carson.[46][47]In 2008 she became the University Vice Chairman of the US Council on Competitiveness, a non-for profit group based in Washington, DC. In 2009, President Barack Obama appointed Jackson to serve on the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, a 20-member advisory group dedicated to public policy.[48]She was appointed an International Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng) in 2012.[49]In 2018, she was awarded by the Hutchins Center for African American Research with the W.E.B DuBois medal.[50] In 2019, the American Physical Society Forum on Physics and Society awarded her the Joseph A. Burton Forum Award.[50][51]In 2021, she was the recipient of the Hans Christian Oersted Medal from the American Association of Physics Teachers.[50] Also in 2021, she received, from the UC Berkeley Academic Senate, the Clark Kerr Award for distinguished leadership in higher education.[52]","title":"Honors and distinctions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-profile-53"},{"link_name":"Delta Sigma Theta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Sigma_Theta"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MoHpP-54"}],"text":"Dr. Shirley Jackson is married to Dr. Morris A. Washington, a physics professor at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and they have one adult son.[53] She is a member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority.[54]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"text":"Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson and her husband were named to the inaugural class of the Capital Region Philanthropy Hall of Fame in 2019.[55]","title":"Philanthropy"}]
[]
[{"title":"Timeline of women in science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_women_in_science"}]
[{"reference":"\"Shirley Jackson at MIT, 1973\". MIT Black History. Retrieved February 3, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.blackhistory.mit.edu/archive/shirley-jackson-mit-1973","url_text":"\"Shirley Jackson at MIT, 1973\""}]},{"reference":"Appiah, Kwame Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (March 16, 2005). Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press. p. 333. ISBN 9780195170559. Archived from the original on June 8, 2019. Retrieved March 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA333","url_text":"Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195170559","url_text":"9780195170559"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190608092637/https://books.google.com/books?id=TMZMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PA333","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Svitil, Kathy A. \"The 50 Most Important Women in Science\". Discover Magazine. Kalmbach Publishing Co. Archived from the original on December 21, 2018. Retrieved December 15, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://discovermagazine.com/2002/nov/feat50/","url_text":"\"The 50 Most Important Women in Science\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181221130712/http://discovermagazine.com/2002/nov/feat50/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Williams, Scott. \"Physicists of the African Diaspora\". Archived from the original on October 6, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/physics/jackson_shirleya.html","url_text":"\"Physicists of the African Diaspora\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181006132036/http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/physics/jackson_shirleya.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Shirley Ann Jackson superconductors\" (PDF). USFSP. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 3, 2019. 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Retrieved March 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://academic.evergreen.edu/z/zita/articles/SciAm/GW_CC/ScienceEducation2011.pdf","url_text":"\"Speaking Out on the \"Quiet Crisis\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170301104308/http://academic.evergreen.edu/z/zita/articles/SciAm/GW_CC/ScienceEducation2011.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"International Black Inventions Museum - Featured Inventors - Dr. Shirley A. Jackson\". Archived from the original on December 7, 2002. Retrieved August 29, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.blackinventionsmuseum.org/features4.html","url_text":"\"International Black Inventions Museum - Featured Inventors - Dr. Shirley A. Jackson\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20021207145018/http://www.blackinventionsmuseum.org/features4.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Famous Black Inventors - Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson\". Archived from the original on February 5, 2006. 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Archived from the original on July 9, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://president.rpi.edu/president-biography","url_text":"\"Jackson biography at RPI\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180709144214/https://president.rpi.edu/president-biography","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Still Changing the World\". www.inventorsdigest.com. August 4, 2016. Archived from the original on March 8, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.inventorsdigest.com/articles/still-changing-world/","url_text":"\"Still Changing the World\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210308004715/https://www.inventorsdigest.com/articles/still-changing-world/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Tone dialing telephones are introduced, November 18, 1963\". www.edn.com. Archived from the original on September 1, 2019. 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American women inventors. Berkeley Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 0766015386. OCLC 48398924.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0766015386","url_text":"0766015386"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48398924","url_text":"48398924"}]},{"reference":"\"Honorable Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson, Commissioner\". NRC Web. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved February 27, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commission/former-commissioners/jackson.html","url_text":"\"Honorable Dr. Shirley Ann Jackson, Commissioner\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210126001418/https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/organization/commission/former-commissioners/jackson.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Claims of EMPAC rush job\". Times Union. August 4, 2010. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Radakin
Tony Radakin
["1 Early life and education","2 Naval career","2.1 Chief of the Defence Staff","3 Personal life","4 References"]
Senior British Naval officer AdmiralSir Tony RadakinKCB ADCAdmiral Radakin in 2024Born (1965-11-10) 10 November 1965 (age 58)Oldham, Lancashire, EnglandAllegianceUnited KingdomService/branchRoyal NavyYears of service1990–presentRankAdmiralService numberC032545MCommands heldChief of the Defence StaffFirst Sea LordCommander United Kingdom Maritime ForcesHMNB PortsmouthCombined Task Force Iraqi MaritimeUS/UK Naval Transition Team, IraqHMS NorfolkSouthampton URNUHMS BlazerBattles/warsIraq WarAwardsKnight Commander of the Order of the BathCommander of the Legion of Merit (United States)Bronze Star Medal (United States)Alma materUniversity of Southampton (LLB)King's College London (MA)Spouse(s) Louise Radakin ​(m. 1995)​Children4Other workLord High Constable of England (2023) Admiral Sir Antony David Radakin, KCB, ADC (born 10 November 1965) is a senior Royal Navy officer. He was appointed Chief of the Defence Staff, the professional head of the British Armed Forces, in November 2021. Radakin was previously the First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Naval Service from June 2019 to November 2021. He was Chief of Staff, Joint Forces Command, from 2016 to 2018, and the Second Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff from 2018 to 2019. He was appointed Lord High Constable of England in 2023, and in that role took part in the Coronation of Charles III and Camilla. Early life and education Radakin was born on 10 November 1965 in Oldham, Greater Manchester, England. He moved to Portishead, Somerset, when he was five years old. He was educated at St Brendan's College, then an all-boys state Catholic grammar school in Bristol. Radakin studied law at the University of Southampton, graduating with a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree in 1989. He was sponsored through university by the Royal Navy. He continued his legal career alongside his naval service, and qualified as a barrister and was called to the Bar from the Middle Temple in 1996. He later studied international relations and defence studies at King's College London, completing a Master of Arts (MA) degree in 2000. Naval career Vice Admiral Radakin as Second Sea Lord Radakin gained his commission in the Royal Navy on 20 October 1990. After a period watchkeeping on HMS Leeds Castle, he was navigating officer aboard HMS Charybdis and HMS Andromeda (1991–1992). He was commanding officer of HMS Blazer from 1993 to 1995. He was promoted to lieutenant commander on 1 November 1996, and went on to become commanding officer of the frigate HMS Norfolk in 2003, commanding officer of the US/UK Iraqi Naval Transition Team in 2006, and commanding officer of the US/UK Combined Task Force Iraqi Maritime in 2010. For this tour he was awarded the Bronze Star Medal by the President of the United States. Promoted to commodore on 30 August 2011, Radakin became commander of HMNB Portsmouth in October 2011. He was appointed Director of Force Development at the Ministry of Defence in November 2012. Promoted to rear admiral on 3 December 2014, he became Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces and Rear Admiral Surface Ships in December 2014, and Chief of Staff, Joint Forces Command, in March 2016. Promoted to the rank of vice admiral on 27 March 2018 on appointment as Second Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, Radakin was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 2018 Birthday Honours three months later. He was promoted to admiral and succeeded Admiral Sir Philip Jones as First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff in June 2019. In 2019, Radakin initiated a programme of reform across the Royal Navy under the banner of Royal Navy Transformation. The initiative encompassed increasing the UK's operational advantage in the North Atlantic, developing carrier strike operations using the newly constructed aircraft carriers HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales, increasing the Royal Navy's forward presence around the world, reforming the Royal Marines into the Future Commando Force and improving the Navy's use of technology and innovation. Controversially, this also included a forty percent reduction in admirals across the Royal Navy and a forty percent cut in headquarters staff. Radakin was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 2021 Birthday Honours. Chief of the Defence Staff Radakin and UK Defence Secretary Ben Wallace with Russian Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu in Moscow on 11 February 2022 Radakin was appointed Chief of the Defence Staff on 30 November 2021. Prime Minister Boris Johnson appointed Radakin instead of the Ministry of Defence's preferred candidate, General Sir Patrick Sanders, due to Radakin's reputation as a reformer and Johnson's anticipation of future naval conflicts in the Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific regions. Radakin relinquished the position of First Sea Lord to Admiral Sir Ben Key on 8 November 2021. Radakin made his first Chief of Defence Staff speech to the Royal United Services Institute in December 2021. He stated that the security outlook for the UK was "far more complex and dangerous than at any time over the past 30 years" and that the geopolitical situation was in "a real sense of back to the future, with the return of the State as the central, indispensable feature of the international system." Radakin also said that the UK military was at risk of looking "ridiculous" until it improved diversity and leadership in the armed forces. Radakin said on 7 January 2022 that the UK faced a number of security challenges from Russia, and that an attempt to damage underwater communication cables could be considered by the UK as an "act of war". However, he also said that the UK and Russia continue to test daily the telephone connection between the UK Ministry of Defence and the Russian Situation centre, which could be used "if urgent talks were needed to de-escalate an incident." Radakin with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and UK Prime Minister Rishi Sunak in Kyiv, Ukraine on 19 November 2022 On 11 February 2022, Radakin met with Valery Gerasimov, the Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces. Gerasimov denied that Russia was planning to invade Ukraine. Asked on the BBC's Sunday Morning programme shortly after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine whether Russia taking over Ukraine was inevitable, Radakin said: "No. I think we’ve seen a Russian invasion that is not going well". Later, on 31 March 2022, he said Russian President Vladimir Putin had "already lost" the war in Ukraine due to "catastrophic misjudgments." In June 2022, Radakin answered questions from the House of Lords International Relations and Defence Committee. He said that, following support for Ukraine, replacing the weapons stockpiles of the UK could take "years" to achieve and that it may also be "five to ten years" before the UK was ready to deploy a division with sufficient capabilities to fight with US forces. In July 2022, he said "As military professionals, we see a relatively stable regime in Russia. President Putin has been able to quash any opposition. We see a hierarchy that is invested in President Putin and so nobody at the top has got the motivation to challenge President Putin. And that is bleak." Radakin at the Coronation of Charles III in 2023 In September 2022, Radakin paid tribute to Queen Elizabeth II following her death. He described the relationship between the Queen and the armed forces as "deeply personal" and that the armed forces would perform their final duty to the Queen by participating in her state funeral. On 19 October 2022, Radakin delivered the annual Lord Mayor of London Defence and Security Lecture in Mansion House, London. He discussed the wider security situation in Europe, focusing on Ukraine and Russia. In light of the 2022 strikes, Radakin, said it would be "slightly perilous" to expect the UK Armed Forces to be used routinely in the event of strikes by public sector workers. "We're not spare capacity," he said. "We're busy and we're doing lots of things on behalf of the nation. We've got to focus on our primary role." Radakin served as Lord High Constable of England at the coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla in 2023. In September 2023, Radakin was appointed a Commander of the Legion of Merit by the United States. The honour was presented by General Mark Milley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It was announced in February 2024 that Radakin would stay in post as Chief of the Defence Staff until autumn 2025 after proving to be a key player in helping Ukraine in its fight against Russia. Personal life In 1995, Radakin married. He lives in Hampshire with his wife, Louise, and their four sons, born between 1998 and 2005. Radakin is president of the Royal Navy Squash Association and the Armed Forces Tennis Association, and the vice admiral of the Royal Naval Sailing Association. References ^ "No. 62310". The London Gazette (Supplement). 9 June 2018. p. B3. ^ "Coronation order of service in full". BBC News. 5 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Radakin, Adm. Sir Antony David, (Sir Tony)". Who's Who. A & C Black. 2023. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U282403. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b "Admiral Tony Radakin CB ADC". gov.uk. Ministry of Defence. 19 June 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019. First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff ^ a b c d e f "Admiral Sir Tony Radakin: 'We check every day that the line to Russia works — but there isn't a chat'". The Times. 7 January 2022. ^ a b "Most Famous Old Boys: Admiral Sir Antony David Radakin, KCB, ADC". Sancti Brendani. Retrieved 24 October 2022. ^ a b Sheridan, Danielle (7 October 2021). "Tony Radakin: The state school-educated boy from Oldham who 'changed how the Navy works'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 12 October 2021. ^ a b "New military chiefs appointed". GOV.UK. Ministry of Defence. 3 December 2018. Retrieved 20 May 2019. ^ a b c "Rear Admiral Tony Radakin" (PDF). Ministry of Defence. Retrieved 8 March 2015. ^ "No. 52353". The London Gazette (Supplement). 3 December 1990. p. 18701. ^ "No. 54637". The London Gazette (Supplement). 31 December 1996. p. 1. ^ "No. 59554". The London Gazette (Supplement). 24 September 2010. p. 18540. ^ "No. 59898". The London Gazette (Supplement). 6 September 2011. p. 16983. ^ "Naval base commander seen off in style". Navy News. 6 October 2011. Archived from the original on 11 October 2018. Retrieved 8 March 2015. ^ a b "Ministry of Defence and tri-service senior appointments" (PDF). July 2022. p. 19. ^ "No. 61071". The London Gazette (Supplement). 9 December 2014. p. 23726. ^ "Fleet awards". Royal Navy. Retrieved 21 June 2019. ^ "Chief of Staff Joint Forces Command Visits The Rock". Your Gibraltar TV. 17 May 2016. Retrieved 25 May 2016. ^ "No. 62252". The London Gazette (Supplement). 10 April 2018. p. 6366. ^ "Admirals (list)" (PDF). July 2023. p. 1. ^ "No. 62310". The London Gazette (Supplement). 9 June 2018. p. B3. ^ "New First Sea Lord appointment announced". www.royalnavy.mod.uk. 3 December 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2018. ^ "A 'generation of innovators' has been appointed to run the military in a shake-up of the top ranks of the Army, Navy and RAF". The Daily Telegraph. 3 December 2018. Retrieved 3 December 2018. ^ Radakin, Tony (11 September 2019). "First Sea Lord speech to Defence and Security Equipment International". Royal Navy. ^ Johnson, Jamie (30 January 2020). "Royal Navy to halve number of staff at headquarters, as sailors are redeployed to front line roles". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 9 December 2020. ^ "No. 63377". The London Gazette (Supplement). 12 June 2021. p. B2. ^ "Admiral Sir Tony Radakin KCB ADC appointed new Chief of the Defence Staff". UK Ministry of Defence. 7 October 2021. ^ Parker, George (2 October 2021). "UK military chiefs battle to become next head of armed forces". Financial Times. Retrieved 2 December 2021. ^ Sheridan, Danielle (8 October 2021). "PM went against MOD to appoint Radakin". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2 December 2021. ^ "Royal Navy welcomes new First Sea Lord". www.royalnavy.mod.uk. 8 November 2021. ^ "UK security outlook more dangerous now than at any time in past 30 years, warns new head of armed forces Admiral Sir Tony Radakin". Sky News. Retrieved 1 January 2022. ^ "Chief of the Defence Staff Speech to the Royal United Services Institute". Ministry of Defence. 7 December 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2022. ^ Brown, Larisa. "Admiral Sir Tony Radakin: Improve diversity or we'll look ridiculous, urges new defence chief". The Times. ^ "Russian submarines threatening undersea network of internet cables, says UK defence chief Sir Tony Radakin". Sky News. Retrieved 9 January 2022. ^ "Britain's most recent defence attaché in Moscow on the failings of Valery Gerasimov". The Economist. 5 March 2023. ^ "Putin victory in Ukraine 'no longer inevitable,' says head of Britain's Armed Forces". The Independent. 7 March 2022. ^ "Putin Made 'Catastrophic Misjudgments' in Ukraine: U.K. Military Official". Newsweek. 31 March 2022. ^ a b "Replacing UK's weapons stockpiles could take 'years', says head of armed forces". Independent. 22 June 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2022. ^ "Russia Has Lost 50,000 Soldiers In Ukraine, U.K. Military Chief Says". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 17 July 2022. ^ a b "Royal Navy to play special role in Queen's funeral". Plymouth Herald. 8 September 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2022. ^ a b "The Queen's military titles: What happens to the honours held by Elizabeth II after her death aged 96". iNews. 9 September 2022. Retrieved 16 September 2022. ^ a b "Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Mayor of London Defence & Security Lecture". UK GOV. 19 October 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2022. ^ "British defence chief: Putin's nuclear rhetoric "deeply irresponsible"". Reuters. 19 October 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2022. ^ "Army should not be used as 'ultimate backstop' in strikes, defence chief says". the Guardian. 18 December 2022. ^ "Roles to be performed at the Coronation Service at Westminster Abbey". The Royal Family. Retrieved 27 April 2023. ^ "Head of UK Armed Forces honoured with United States' highest distinction for foreigners". Forces Net. 10 September 2023. Retrieved 24 April 2024. ^ Brown, Larisa (29 February 2024). "British military chief helped Zelensky destroy Russian war ships". ISSN 0140-0460. ^ "Admiral Tony Radakin CB ADC". GOV.UK. Retrieved 5 February 2020. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tony Radakin. Military offices Preceded byRobert Tarrant Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces 2014–2016 Succeeded byAlex Burton Preceded byJonathan Woodcock Second Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff 2018–2019 Succeeded byNick Hine Preceded bySir Philip Jones First Sea Lord 2019–2021 Succeeded bySir Ben Key Preceded bySir Nick Carter Chief of the Defence Staff 2021–present Incumbent Court offices VacantTitle last held byThe Viscount Alanbrooke Lord High Constable of England 2023 Incumbent vteChiefs of the Defence Staff Sir William Dickson Earl Mountbatten of Burma Sir Richard Hull Sir Charles Elworthy Sir Peter Hill-Norton Sir Michael Carver Sir Andrew Humphrey Sir Edward Ashmore Sir Neil Cameron Sir Terence Lewin Sir Edwin Bramall Sir John Fieldhouse Sir David Craig Sir Richard Vincent Sir Peter Harding Sir Peter Inge Sir Charles Guthrie Sir Michael Boyce Sir Michael Walker Sir Jock Stirrup Sir David Richards Sir Nick Houghton Sir Stuart Peach Sir Nicholas Carter Sir Tony Radakin vteFirst Sea Lords of the Royal NavySenior Naval Lords (1689–1771) Arthur Herbert Sir John Chicheley Edward Russell Henry Priestman Earl of Orford Sir George Rooke Sir John Leake Sir George Byng Sir John Leake Sir George Byng Matthew Aylmer Sir George Byng Sir John Jennings Sir John Norris Sir Charles Wager Lord Archibald Hamilton Lord Harry Powlett Lord Archibald Hamilton Lord Vere Beauclerk Lord Anson Sir William Rowley Edward Boscawen Sir William Rowley Edward Boscawen John Forbes Earl Howe Sir Charles Saunders Augustus Keppel Sir Peircy Brett Sir Francis Holburne First Naval Lords (1771–1904) Augustus Hervey Sir Hugh Palliser Robert Man George Darby Sir Robert Harland Sir Hugh Pigot John Leveson-Gower Lord Hood Sir Charles Middleton James Gambier Sir Thomas Troubridge James Gambier John Markham James Gambier Sir Richard Bickerton William Domett Sir Joseph Yorke Sir Graham Moore Sir William Johnstone Hope Sir George Cockburn Sir Thomas Hardy The Hon. George Dundas Charles Adam Sir George Cockburn Sir Charles Adam Sir George Cockburn Sir William Parker Sir Charles Adam Sir James Dundas The Hon. Maurice Berkeley Hyde Parker The Hon. Maurice Berkeley The Hon. Sir Richard Dundas William Martin The Hon. Sir Richard Dundas The Hon. Sir Frederick Grey Sir Alexander Milne Sir Sydney Dacres Sir Alexander Milne Sir Hastings Yelverton Sir George Wellesley Sir Astley Key Sir Arthur Hood Lord John Hay Sir Arthur Hood Sir Richard Hamilton Sir Anthony Hoskins Sir Frederick Richards Lord Walter Kerr First Sea Lords (1904–present) Sir John Fisher Sir Arthur Wilson Sir Francis Bridgeman Prince Louis of Battenberg The Lord Fisher Sir Henry Jackson Sir John Jellicoe Sir Rosslyn Wemyss The Earl Beatty Sir Charles Madden, Bt Sir Frederick Field The Lord Chatfield Sir Roger Backhouse Sir Dudley Pound The Lord Cunningham of Hyndhope Sir John Cunningham The Lord Fraser of North Cape Sir Rhoderick McGrigor The Earl Mountbatten of Burma Sir Charles Lambe Sir Caspar John Sir David Luce Sir Varyl Begg Sir Michael Le Fanu Sir Peter Hill-Norton Sir Michael Pollock Sir Edward Ashmore Sir Terence Lewin Sir Henry Leach Sir John Fieldhouse Sir William Staveley Sir Julian Oswald Sir Benjamin Bathurst Sir Jock Slater Sir Michael Boyce Sir Nigel Essenhigh Sir Alan West Sir Jonathon Band Sir Mark Stanhope Sir George Zambellas Sir Philip Jones Sir Antony Radakin Sir Ben Key vteUnited Kingdom Chiefs of Staff Committee Sir Tony Radakin (Chief of the Defence Staff) Gwyn Jenkins (Vice-Chief of the Defence Staff) Sir Ben Key (Royal Navy) Sir Roland Walker (British Army) Sir Richard Knighton (Royal Air Force) Sir James Hockenhull (Strategic Command)
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral_(Royal_Navy)"},{"link_name":"KCB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath"},{"link_name":"ADC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide_de_Camp#The_Royal_Household"},{"link_name":"Royal Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Navy"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Defence Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"British Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"First Sea Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Sea_Lord"},{"link_name":"Naval Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Naval_Service"},{"link_name":"Joint Forces Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Forces_Command"},{"link_name":"Second Sea Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sea_Lord"},{"link_name":"Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Lord High Constable of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_High_Constable_of_England"},{"link_name":"Coronation of Charles III and Camilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_of_Charles_III_and_Camilla"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Admiral Sir Antony David Radakin, KCB, ADC (born 10 November 1965) is a senior Royal Navy officer. He was appointed Chief of the Defence Staff, the professional head of the British Armed Forces, in November 2021. Radakin was previously the First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Naval Service from June 2019 to November 2021. He was Chief of Staff, Joint Forces Command, from 2016 to 2018, and the Second Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff from 2018 to 2019. He was appointed Lord High Constable of England in 2023, and in that role took part in the Coronation of Charles III and Camilla.[2]","title":"Tony Radakin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oldham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldham"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GOV_1SL-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheTimes2-5"},{"link_name":"Portishead, Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portishead,_Somerset"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sancti_Brendani-6"},{"link_name":"St Brendan's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Brendan%27s_Sixth_Form_College"},{"link_name":"state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_school"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_school"},{"link_name":"grammar school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_school"},{"link_name":"Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph_works-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sancti_Brendani-6"},{"link_name":"University of Southampton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southampton"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheTimes2-5"},{"link_name":"Bachelor of Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Laws"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph_works-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-3"},{"link_name":"barrister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrister"},{"link_name":"called to the Bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Called_to_the_Bar"},{"link_name":"Middle Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Temple"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GOV_new-8"},{"link_name":"international relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations"},{"link_name":"defence studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_studies"},{"link_name":"King's College London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College_London"},{"link_name":"Master of Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GOV_new-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheTimes2-5"}],"text":"Radakin was born on 10 November 1965 in Oldham, Greater Manchester, England.[3][4][5] He moved to Portishead, Somerset, when he was five years old.[6] He was educated at St Brendan's College, then an all-boys state Catholic grammar school in Bristol.[7][3][6]Radakin studied law at the University of Southampton,[5] graduating with a Bachelor of Laws (LLB) degree in 1989.[3][7] He was sponsored through university by the Royal Navy.[3]He continued his legal career alongside his naval service, and qualified as a barrister and was called to the Bar from the Middle Temple in 1996.[3][8]He later studied international relations and defence studies at King's College London, completing a Master of Arts (MA) degree in 2000.[8][3][5]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Second_Sea_Lords_2019_(Tony_Radakin_cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal 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commander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_commander_(Royal_Navy)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"frigate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frigate"},{"link_name":"HMS Norfolk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Norfolk_(F230)"},{"link_name":"Combined Task Force Iraqi Maritime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combined_Task_Force_Iraqi_Maritime"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-9"},{"link_name":"Bronze Star Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal"},{"link_name":"President of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"commodore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_(Royal_Navy)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"HMNB Portsmouth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMNB_Portsmouth"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-appoints-15"},{"link_name":"rear admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_admiral_(Royal_Navy)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces and Rear Admiral Surface Ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_United_Kingdom_Maritime_Forces_and_Rear_Admiral_Surface_Ships"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-9"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Joint Forces 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Honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Birthday_Honours"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"admiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiral_(Royal_Navy)"},{"link_name":"Sir Philip Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Jones_(Royal_Navy_officer)"},{"link_name":"First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Sea_Lord_and_Chief_of_the_Naval_Staff"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GOV_1SL-4"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"HMS Queen Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Queen_Elizabeth_(R08)"},{"link_name":"HMS Prince of Wales,","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS_Prince_of_Wales_(R09)"},{"link_name":"Royal Marines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Marines"},{"link_name":"Future Commando Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Commando_Force"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_Bath"},{"link_name":"2021 Birthday Honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Birthday_Honours"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Vice Admiral Radakin as Second Sea LordRadakin gained his commission in the Royal Navy on 20 October 1990.[9][10] After a period watchkeeping on HMS Leeds Castle, he was navigating officer aboard HMS Charybdis and HMS Andromeda (1991–1992).[3] He was commanding officer of HMS Blazer from 1993 to 1995.[3] He was promoted to lieutenant commander on 1 November 1996,[11] and went on to become commanding officer of the frigate HMS Norfolk in 2003, commanding officer of the US/UK Iraqi Naval Transition Team in 2006, and commanding officer of the US/UK Combined Task Force Iraqi Maritime in 2010.[9] For this tour he was awarded the Bronze Star Medal by the President of the United States.[12]Promoted to commodore on 30 August 2011,[13] Radakin became commander of HMNB Portsmouth in October 2011.[14] He was appointed Director of Force Development at the Ministry of Defence in November 2012.[15] Promoted to rear admiral on 3 December 2014,[16] he became Commander United Kingdom Maritime Forces and Rear Admiral Surface Ships in December 2014,[9][17] and Chief of Staff, Joint Forces Command, in March 2016.[15][18]Promoted to the rank of vice admiral on 27 March 2018 on appointment as Second Sea Lord and Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff,[19][20] Radakin was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the 2018 Birthday Honours three months later.[21] He was promoted to admiral and succeeded Admiral Sir Philip Jones as First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff in June 2019.[4][22][23]In 2019, Radakin initiated a programme of reform across the Royal Navy under the banner of Royal Navy Transformation. The initiative encompassed increasing the UK's operational advantage in the North Atlantic, developing carrier strike operations using the newly constructed aircraft carriers HMS Queen Elizabeth and HMS Prince of Wales, increasing the Royal Navy's forward presence around the world, reforming the Royal Marines into the Future Commando Force and improving the Navy's use of technology and innovation.[24] Controversially, this also included a forty percent reduction in admirals across the Royal Navy and a forty percent cut in headquarters staff.[25]Radakin was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in the 2021 Birthday Honours.[26]","title":"Naval career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ben_Wallace_in_Moscow_(2022-02-11)_04.png"},{"link_name":"Ben Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Wallace_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Sergei Shoigu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Shoigu"},{"link_name":"Chief of the Defence Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_the_Defence_Staff_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Boris Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Patrick Sanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Sanders_(British_Army_officer)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Ben Key","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Key"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Royal United Services Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_United_Services_Institute"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sky-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speech-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheTimes-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sky2-34"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheTimes2-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheTimes2-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_President_of_Ukraine_met_with_the_British_Prime_Minister_in_Kyiv._(52510587050).jpg"},{"link_name":"Volodymyr Zelenskyy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy"},{"link_name":"Rishi Sunak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishi_Sunak"},{"link_name":"Valery Gerasimov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valery_Gerasimov"},{"link_name":"planning to invade Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Russo-Ukrainian_crisis"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"House of Lords International Relations and Defence Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Relations_and_Defence_Committee"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Independent2022-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Independent2022-38"},{"link_name":"a relatively stable regime in Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"any opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_Vladimir_Putin_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coronation_of_Charles_III_and_Camilla_-_Coronation_Procession_(11).jpg"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PH2022-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inews2022-41"},{"link_name":"her state funeral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Elizabeth_II#Queue"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PH2022-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inews2022-41"},{"link_name":"Lord Mayor of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Mayor_of_London"},{"link_name":"Mansion House, London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansion_House,_London"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKGov2022-42"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UKGov2022-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reuters2022speech-43"},{"link_name":"2022 strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_United_Kingdom_industrial_disputes"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Lord High Constable of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_High_Constable_of_England"},{"link_name":"coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_of_King_Charles_III_and_Queen_Camilla"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Commander of the Legion of Merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_Merit"},{"link_name":"Mark Milley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Milley"},{"link_name":"Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairman_of_the_Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Chief of the Defence Staff","text":"Radakin and UK Defence Secretary Ben Wallace with Russian Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu in Moscow on 11 February 2022Radakin was appointed Chief of the Defence Staff on 30 November 2021.[27] Prime Minister Boris Johnson appointed Radakin instead of the Ministry of Defence's preferred candidate, General Sir Patrick Sanders, due to Radakin's reputation as a reformer and Johnson's anticipation of future naval conflicts in the Mediterranean and Indo-Pacific regions.[28][29] Radakin relinquished the position of First Sea Lord to Admiral Sir Ben Key on 8 November 2021.[30]Radakin made his first Chief of Defence Staff speech to the Royal United Services Institute in December 2021. He stated that the security outlook for the UK was \"far more complex and dangerous than at any time over the past 30 years\" and that the geopolitical situation was in \"a real sense of back to the future, with the return of the State as the central, indispensable feature of the international system.\"[31][32] Radakin also said that the UK military was at risk of looking \"ridiculous\" until it improved diversity and leadership in the armed forces.[33]Radakin said on 7 January 2022 that the UK faced a number of security challenges from Russia, and that an attempt to damage underwater communication cables could be considered by the UK as an \"act of war\".[34][5] However, he also said that the UK and Russia continue to test daily the telephone connection between the UK Ministry of Defence and the Russian Situation centre, which could be used \"if urgent talks were needed to de-escalate an incident.\"[5]Radakin with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and UK Prime Minister Rishi Sunak in Kyiv, Ukraine on 19 November 2022On 11 February 2022, Radakin met with Valery Gerasimov, the Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Armed Forces. Gerasimov denied that Russia was planning to invade Ukraine.[35]Asked on the BBC's Sunday Morning programme shortly after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine whether Russia taking over Ukraine was inevitable, Radakin said: \"No. I think we’ve seen a Russian invasion that is not going well\".[36] Later, on 31 March 2022, he said Russian President Vladimir Putin had \"already lost\" the war in Ukraine due to \"catastrophic misjudgments.\"[37] In June 2022, Radakin answered questions from the House of Lords International Relations and Defence Committee.[38] He said that, following support for Ukraine, replacing the weapons stockpiles of the UK could take \"years\" to achieve and that it may also be \"five to ten years\" before the UK was ready to deploy a division with sufficient capabilities to fight with US forces.[38]In July 2022, he said \"As military professionals, we see a relatively stable regime in Russia. President Putin has been able to quash any opposition. We see a hierarchy that is invested in President Putin and so nobody at the top has got the motivation to challenge President Putin. And that is bleak.\"[39]Radakin at the Coronation of Charles III in 2023In September 2022, Radakin paid tribute to Queen Elizabeth II following her death.[40][41] He described the relationship between the Queen and the armed forces as \"deeply personal\" and that the armed forces would perform their final duty to the Queen by participating in her state funeral.[40][41]On 19 October 2022, Radakin delivered the annual Lord Mayor of London Defence and Security Lecture in Mansion House, London.[42] He discussed the wider security situation in Europe, focusing on Ukraine and Russia.[42][43]In light of the 2022 strikes, Radakin, said it would be \"slightly perilous\" to expect the UK Armed Forces to be used routinely in the event of strikes by public sector workers. \"We're not spare capacity,\" he said. \"We're busy and we're doing lots of things on behalf of the nation. We've got to focus on our primary role.\"[44]Radakin served as Lord High Constable of England at the coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla in 2023.[45]In September 2023, Radakin was appointed a Commander of the Legion of Merit by the United States. The honour was presented by General Mark Milley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.[46]It was announced in February 2024 that Radakin would stay in post as Chief of the Defence Staff until autumn 2025 after proving to be a key player in helping Ukraine in its fight against Russia.[47]","title":"Naval career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whoswho-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheTimes2-5"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"text":"In 1995, Radakin married. He lives in Hampshire with his wife, Louise, and their four sons, born between 1998 and 2005.[3][5] Radakin is president of the Royal Navy Squash Association and the Armed Forces Tennis Association, and the vice admiral of the Royal Naval Sailing Association.[48]","title":"Personal life"}]
[{"image_text":"Vice Admiral Radakin as Second Sea Lord","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Second_Sea_Lords_2019_%28Tony_Radakin_cropped%29.jpg/220px-Second_Sea_Lords_2019_%28Tony_Radakin_cropped%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Radakin and UK Defence Secretary Ben Wallace with Russian Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu in Moscow on 11 February 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Ben_Wallace_in_Moscow_%282022-02-11%29_04.png/220px-Ben_Wallace_in_Moscow_%282022-02-11%29_04.png"},{"image_text":"Radakin with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and UK Prime Minister Rishi Sunak in Kyiv, Ukraine on 19 November 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/The_President_of_Ukraine_met_with_the_British_Prime_Minister_in_Kyiv._%2852510587050%29.jpg/220px-The_President_of_Ukraine_met_with_the_British_Prime_Minister_in_Kyiv._%2852510587050%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Radakin at the Coronation of Charles III in 2023","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Coronation_of_Charles_III_and_Camilla_-_Coronation_Procession_%2811%29.jpg/220px-Coronation_of_Charles_III_and_Camilla_-_Coronation_Procession_%2811%29.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/75px-Naval_Ensign_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"No. 62310\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 9 June 2018. p. B3.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/62310/supplement/B3","url_text":"\"No. 62310\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"Coronation order of service in full\". BBC News. 5 May 2023. Retrieved 6 May 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-65503950","url_text":"\"Coronation order of service in full\""}]},{"reference":"\"Radakin, Adm. Sir Antony David, (Sir Tony)\". Who's Who. A & C Black. 2023. doi:10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U282403.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ukwhoswho.com/view/article/oupww/whoswho/U282403","url_text":"\"Radakin, Adm. Sir Antony David, (Sir Tony)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%27s_Who_(UK)","url_text":"Who's Who"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fww%2F9780199540884.013.U282403","url_text":"10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.U282403"}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Tony Radakin CB ADC\". gov.uk. Ministry of Defence. 19 June 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019. First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/people/tony-radakin","url_text":"\"Admiral Tony Radakin CB ADC\""}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Sir Tony Radakin: 'We check every day that the line to Russia works — but there isn't a chat'\". The Times. 7 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/admiral-sir-tony-radakin-we-check-every-day-that-the-line-to-russia-works-but-there-isnt-a-chat-zpg37tpfx","url_text":"\"Admiral Sir Tony Radakin: 'We check every day that the line to Russia works — but there isn't a chat'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Most Famous Old Boys: Admiral Sir Antony David Radakin, KCB, ADC\". Sancti Brendani. Retrieved 24 October 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sanctibrendani.co.uk/mostfamous.asp","url_text":"\"Most Famous Old Boys: Admiral Sir Antony David Radakin, KCB, ADC\""}]},{"reference":"Sheridan, Danielle (7 October 2021). \"Tony Radakin: The state school-educated boy from Oldham who 'changed how the Navy works'\". The Telegraph. 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The London Gazette (Supplement). 12 June 2021. p. B2.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/63377/supplement/B2","url_text":"\"No. 63377\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Sir Tony Radakin KCB ADC appointed new Chief of the Defence Staff\". UK Ministry of Defence. 7 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/news/admiral-sir-tony-radakin-kcb-adc-appointed-new-chief-of-the-defence-staff","url_text":"\"Admiral Sir Tony Radakin KCB ADC appointed new Chief of the Defence Staff\""}]},{"reference":"Parker, George (2 October 2021). \"UK military chiefs battle to become next head of armed forces\". Financial Times. 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The Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/admiral-sir-tony-radakin-improve-diversity-or-well-look-ridiculous-urges-new-defence-chief-hzg6x3bml","url_text":"\"Admiral Sir Tony Radakin: Improve diversity or we'll look ridiculous, urges new defence chief\""}]},{"reference":"\"Russian submarines threatening undersea network of internet cables, says UK defence chief Sir Tony Radakin\". Sky News. Retrieved 9 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.sky.com/story/russian-submarines-threatening-undersea-network-of-internet-cables-says-uk-defence-chief-sir-tony-radakin-12511437","url_text":"\"Russian submarines threatening undersea network of internet cables, says UK defence chief Sir Tony Radakin\""}]},{"reference":"\"Britain's most recent defence attaché in Moscow on the failings of Valery Gerasimov\". 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ISSN 0140-0460.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/how-head-of-the-armed-forces-is-secretly-helping-ukraine-with-battle-plans-6tcmw67hs","url_text":"\"British military chief helped Zelensky destroy Russian war ships\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0140-0460","url_text":"0140-0460"}]},{"reference":"\"Admiral Tony Radakin CB ADC\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 5 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/people/tony-radakin","url_text":"\"Admiral Tony Radakin CB ADC\""}]}]
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Official\""},{"Link":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/admiral-chief-of-the-defence-staff-ukraine-uk-armed-forces-government-b2106807.html7","external_links_name":"\"Replacing UK's weapons stockpiles could take 'years', says head of armed forces\""},{"Link":"https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-50000-casualties-ukraine/31947401.html","external_links_name":"\"Russia Has Lost 50,000 Soldiers In Ukraine, U.K. Military Chief Says\""},{"Link":"https://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/news/plymouth-news/royal-navy-play-special-role-7565362","external_links_name":"\"Royal Navy to play special role in Queen's funeral\""},{"Link":"https://inews.co.uk/news/the-queen-military-titles-honours-what-happens-elizabeth-ii-death-1668315","external_links_name":"\"The Queen's military titles: What happens to the honours held by Elizabeth II after her death aged 96\""},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/chief-of-the-defence-staff-lord-mayor-of-london-defence-security-lecture","external_links_name":"\"Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Mayor of London Defence & Security Lecture\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/world/british-defence-chief-putins-nuclear-rhetoric-deeply-irresponsible-2022-10-19/","external_links_name":"\"British defence chief: Putin's nuclear rhetoric \"deeply irresponsible\"\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2022/dec/18/army-should-not-be-used-as-ultimate-backstop-in-strikes-defence-chief-says","external_links_name":"\"Army should not be used as 'ultimate backstop' in strikes, defence chief says\""},{"Link":"https://www.royal.uk/news-and-activity/2023-04-27/roles-to-be-performed-at-the-coronation-service-at-westminster-abbey","external_links_name":"\"Roles to be performed at the Coronation Service at Westminster Abbey\""},{"Link":"https://www.forces.net/services/army/head-uk-armed-forces-honoured-us-legion-merit-highest-distinction-foreign-officers","external_links_name":"\"Head of UK Armed Forces honoured with United States' highest distinction for foreigners\""},{"Link":"https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/how-head-of-the-armed-forces-is-secretly-helping-ukraine-with-battle-plans-6tcmw67hs","external_links_name":"\"British military chief helped Zelensky destroy Russian war ships\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0140-0460","external_links_name":"0140-0460"},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/government/people/tony-radakin","external_links_name":"\"Admiral Tony Radakin CB ADC\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guard_(computer_science)
Guard (computer science)
["1 Uses","1.1 Flatter code with less nesting","2 Terminology","3 Mathematics","4 Multiple guards","5 Evolution","6 Pattern guard","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
Concept in computer science This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In computer programming, a guard is a boolean expression that must evaluate to true if the execution of the program is to continue in the branch in question. Regardless of which programming language is used, a guard clause, guard code, or guard statement, is a check of integrity preconditions used to avoid errors during execution. Uses A typical example is checking that a reference about to be processed is not null, which avoids null-pointer failures. Other uses include using a boolean field for idempotence (so subsequent calls are nops), as in the dispose pattern.public string Foo(string username) { if (username == null) { throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(username), "Username is null."); } // Rest of the method code follows here... } Flatter code with less nesting The guard provides an early exit from a subroutine, and is a commonly used deviation from structured programming, removing one level of nesting and resulting in flatter code: replacing if guard { ... } with if not guard: return; .... Using guard clauses can be a refactoring technique to improve code. In general, less nesting is good, as it simplifies the code and reduces cognitive burden. For example, in Python: # This function has no guard clause def f_noguard(x): if isinstance(x, int): #code #code #code return x + 1 else: return None # Equivalent function with a guard clause. Note that most of the code is less indented, which is good def f_guard(x): if not isinstance(x, int): return None #code #code #code return x + 1 Another example, written in C: // This function has no guard clause int funcNoGuard(int x) { if (x >= 0) { //code //code //code return x + 1; } else { return 0; } } // Equivalent function with a guard clause int funcGuard(int x) { if (x < 0) { return 0; } //code //code //code return x + 1; } Terminology The term is used with specific meaning in APL, Haskell, Clean, Erlang, occam, Promela, OCaml, Swift, Python from version 3.10, and Scala programming languages. In Mathematica, guards are called constraints. Guards are the fundamental concept in Guarded Command Language, a language in formal methods. Guards can be used to augment pattern matching with the possibility to skip a pattern even if the structure matches. Boolean expressions in conditional statements usually also fit this definition of a guard although they are called conditions. Mathematics In the following Haskell example, the guards occur between each pair of "|" and "=": f x | x > 0 = 1 | otherwise = 0 This is similar to the respective mathematical notation: f ( x ) = { 1 if  x > 0 0 otherwise {\displaystyle f(x)=\left\{{\begin{matrix}1&{\mbox{if }}x>0\\0&{\mbox{otherwise}}\end{matrix}}\right.} In this case the guards are in the "if" and "otherwise" clauses. Multiple guards If there are several parallel guards, they are normally tried in a top-to-bottom order, and the branch of the first to pass is chosen. Guards in a list of cases are typically parallel. However, in Haskell list comprehensions the guards are in series, and if any of them fails, the list element is not produced. This would be the same as combining the separate guards with logical AND, except that there can be other list comprehension clauses among the guards. Evolution A simple conditional expression, already present in CPL in 1963, has a guard on first sub-expression, and another sub-expression to use in case the first one cannot be used. Some common ways to write this: (x>0) -> 1/x; 0 x>0 ? 1/x : 0 If the second sub-expression can be a further simple conditional expression, we can give more alternatives to try before the last fall-through: (x>0) -> 1/x; (x<0) -> -1/x; 0 In 1966 ISWIM had a form of conditional expression without an obligatory fall-through case, thus separating guard from the concept of choosing either-or. In the case of ISWIM, if none of the alternatives could be used, the value was to be undefined, which was defined to never compute into a value. KRC, a "miniaturized version" of SASL (1976), was one of the first programming languages to use the term "guard". Its function definitions could have several clauses, and the one to apply was chosen based on the guards that followed each clause: fac n = 1, n = 0 = n * fac (n-1), n > 0 Use of guard clauses, and the term "guard clause", dates at least to Smalltalk practice in the 1990s, as codified by Kent Beck. In 1996, Dyalog APL adopted an alternative pure functional style in which the guard is the only control structure. This example, in APL, computes the parity of the input number:parity←{ 2∣⍵ : 'odd' 'even' } Pattern guard In addition to a guard attached to a pattern, pattern guard can refer to the use of pattern matching in the context of a guard. In effect, a match of the pattern is taken to mean pass. This meaning was introduced in a proposal for Haskell by Simon Peyton Jones titled A new view of guards in April 1997 and was used in the implementation of the proposal. The feature provides the ability to use patterns in the guards of a pattern. An example in extended Haskell: clunky env var1 var2 | Just val1 <- lookup env var1 , Just val2 <- lookup env var2 = val1 + val2 -- ...other equations for clunky... This would read: "Clunky for an environment and two variables, in case the lookups of the variables from the environment produce values, is the sum of the values. ..." As in list comprehensions, the guards are in series, and if any of them fails the branch is not taken. See also Assertion Guarded suspension Iverson bracket Logical conditional Sentinel node, an object to represent the end of a data structure Switch statement References ^ a b Beck, Kent (1997). "Guard Clause". Smalltalk Best Practice Patterns,. pp. 178–179. ^ Cook, Nate. "guard & defer". NSHipster. Retrieved 2016-02-26. ^ Turner, D. A. "Some History of Functional Programming Languages" (PDF). ^ Scholes, John. "Direct Functions in Dyalog APL" (PDF). External links Guard in Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing - FOLDOC, Denis Howe (editor). Guard Clause, WikiWikiWeb The Haskell 98 Report, chapter 3 Expressions. The Mathematica Book, section 2.3.5 Putting Constraints on Patterns The Glorious Glasgow Haskell Compilation System User's Guide, Version 6.4, section 7.3.2. Pattern guards
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Regardless of which programming language is used, a guard clause, guard code, or guard statement, is a check of integrity preconditions used to avoid errors during execution.","title":"Guard (computer science)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"null-pointer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_pointer"},{"link_name":"idempotence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idempotence"},{"link_name":"nops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOP_(code)"},{"link_name":"dispose pattern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispose_pattern"}],"text":"A typical example is checking that a reference about to be processed is not null, which avoids null-pointer failures.Other uses include using a boolean field for idempotence (so subsequent calls are nops), as in the dispose pattern.public string Foo(string username)\n{\n if (username == null) {\n throw new ArgumentNullException(nameof(username), \"Username is null.\");\n }\n // Rest of the method code follows here...\n}","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"early exit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_exit"},{"link_name":"subroutine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"structured programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_programming"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beck-1"},{"link_name":"refactoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refactoring"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Flatter code with less nesting","text":"The guard provides an early exit from a subroutine, and is a commonly used deviation from structured programming, removing one level of nesting and resulting in flatter code:[1] replacing if guard { ... } with if not guard: return; ....Using guard clauses can be a refactoring technique to improve code. In general, less nesting is good, as it simplifies the code and reduces cognitive burden.For example, in Python:# This function has no guard clause\ndef f_noguard(x):\n if isinstance(x, int):\n #code\n #code\n #code\n return x + 1\n else:\n return None\n\n# Equivalent function with a guard clause. Note that most of the code is less indented, which is good\ndef f_guard(x):\n if not isinstance(x, int):\n return None\n #code\n #code\n #code\n return x + 1Another example, written in C:// This function has no guard clause\nint funcNoGuard(int x) {\n if (x >= 0) {\n //code\n //code\n //code\n return x + 1; \n } else {\n return 0;\n }\n}\n\n// Equivalent function with a guard clause\nint funcGuard(int x) {\n if (x < 0) {\n return 0;\n }\n\n //code\n //code\n //code\n return x + 1; \n}","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"APL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Clean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Erlang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erlang_programming_language"},{"link_name":"occam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Promela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promela"},{"link_name":"OCaml","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCaml"},{"link_name":"Swift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Scala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scala_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematica"},{"link_name":"Guarded Command Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guarded_Command_Language"},{"link_name":"formal methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_methods"},{"link_name":"pattern matching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_matching"},{"link_name":"conditional statements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_(programming)"}],"text":"The term is used with specific meaning in APL, Haskell, Clean, Erlang, occam, Promela, OCaml, Swift,[2] Python from version 3.10, and Scala programming languages.[citation needed] In Mathematica, guards are called constraints. Guards are the fundamental concept in Guarded Command Language, a language in formal methods. Guards can be used to augment pattern matching with the possibility to skip a pattern even if the structure matches. Boolean expressions in conditional statements usually also fit this definition of a guard although they are called conditions.","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In the following Haskell example, the guards occur between each pair of \"|\" and \"=\":f x\n | x > 0 = 1\n | otherwise = 0This is similar to the respective mathematical notation:f\n (\n x\n )\n =\n \n {\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n x\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n otherwise\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(x)=\\left\\{{\\begin{matrix}1&{\\mbox{if }}x>0\\\\0&{\\mbox{otherwise}}\\end{matrix}}\\right.}In this case the guards are in the \"if\" and \"otherwise\" clauses.","title":"Mathematics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"list comprehensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_comprehension"},{"link_name":"logical AND","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction"}],"text":"If there are several parallel guards, they are normally tried in a top-to-bottom order, and the branch of the first to pass is chosen. Guards in a list of cases are typically parallel.However, in Haskell list comprehensions the guards are in series, and if any of them fails, the list element is not produced. This would be the same as combining the separate guards with logical AND, except that there can be other list comprehension clauses among the guards.","title":"Multiple guards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPL_programming_language"},{"link_name":"ISWIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISWIM"},{"link_name":"KRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Recursive_Calculator"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"SASL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SASL_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Smalltalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smalltalk"},{"link_name":"Kent Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Beck"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-beck-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"A simple conditional expression, already present in CPL in 1963, has a guard on first sub-expression, and another sub-expression to use in case the first one cannot be used. Some common ways to write this:(x>0) -> 1/x; 0\nx>0 ? 1/x : 0If the second sub-expression can be a further simple conditional expression, we can give more alternatives to try before the last fall-through:(x>0) -> 1/x; (x<0) -> -1/x; 0In 1966 ISWIM had a form of conditional expression without an obligatory fall-through case, thus separating guard from the concept of choosing either-or. In the case of ISWIM, if none of the alternatives could be used, the value was to be undefined, which was defined to never compute into a value.KRC, a \"miniaturized version\"[3] of SASL (1976), was one of the first programming languages to use the term \"guard\". Its function definitions could have several clauses, and the one to apply was chosen based on the guards that followed each clause:fac n = 1, n = 0\n = n * fac (n-1), n > 0Use of guard clauses, and the term \"guard clause\", dates at least to Smalltalk practice in the 1990s, as codified by Kent Beck.[1]In 1996, Dyalog APL adopted an alternative pure functional style in which the guard is the only control structure.[4] This example, in APL, computes the parity of the input number:parity←{\n 2∣⍵ : 'odd'\n 'even'\n }","title":"Evolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pattern matching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_matching"},{"link_name":"Simon Peyton Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Peyton_Jones"},{"link_name":"A new view of guards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20160203203811/http://research.microsoft.com/en-us/um/people/simonpj/Haskell/guards.html"},{"link_name":"list comprehensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_comprehension"}],"text":"In addition to a guard attached to a pattern, pattern guard can refer to the use of pattern matching in the context of a guard. In effect, a match of the pattern is taken to mean pass. This meaning was introduced in a proposal for Haskell by Simon Peyton Jones titled A new view of guards in April 1997 and was used in the implementation of the proposal. The feature provides the ability to use patterns in the guards of a pattern.An example in extended Haskell:clunky env var1 var2\n | Just val1 <- lookup env var1\n , Just val2 <- lookup env var2\n = val1 + val2\n -- ...other equations for clunky...This would read: \"Clunky for an environment and two variables, in case the lookups of the variables from the environment produce values, is the sum of the values. ...\" As in list comprehensions, the guards are in series, and if any of them fails the branch is not taken.","title":"Pattern guard"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Register
The Register
["1 History","2 Readership and content","2.1 Writers","3 Intel chips flaw investigation","4 Criticism","5 References","6 External links"]
This article is about the technology news website. For other uses, see Register (disambiguation). British technology news and opinion website The RegisterScreenshot of the home page, July 2021Type of siteTechnology newsAvailable inEnglishHeadquartersLondon, EnglandOwnerSituation PublishingCreated byMike MageeJohn LetticeURLwww.theregister.com CommercialYesRegistrationOptionalLaunched1994; 30 years ago (1994)Current statusActive The Register is a British technology news website co-founded in 1994 by Mike Magee and John Lettice. The online newspaper's masthead sublogo is "Biting the hand that feeds IT." The publication's primary focus is information technology news and opinions. Situation Publishing Ltd is the site's publisher. Drew Cullen is an owner and Linus Birtles is the managing director. Andrew Orlowski was the executive editor before leaving the website in May 2019. History The Register was founded in London as an email newsletter called Chip Connection. In 1998 The Register became a daily online news source. Magee left in 2001 to start competing publications The Inquirer, and later the IT Examiner and TechEye. In 2002, The Register expanded to have a presence in London and San Francisco, creating The Register USA at theregus.com through a joint venture with Tom's Hardware. In 2003, that site moved to theregister.com. That content was later merged onto theregister.co.uk. The Register carries syndicated content including Simon Travaglia's BOFH stories. In 2010 The Register supported the successful launch of the Paper Aircraft Released into Space, a project they announced in 2009 that released a paper plane in the extreme upper atmosphere. The Register also ran the websites Register Hardware and Channel Register, which merged into The Register. Readership and content In 2011 it was read daily by over 350,000 users according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, rising to 468,000 daily and nearly 9.5 million monthly in 2013. In November 2011 the UK and US each accounted for approximately 42% and 34% of page impressions respectively, with Canada being the next most significant origin of page hits at 3%. In 2012 the UK and US accounted for approximately 41% and 28% of page impressions respectively, with Canada at 3.61%. Channel Register covers computer business and trade news, which includes business press releases. News and articles for computer hardware and consumer electronics are covered by Reg Hardware. Reg Research is an in-depth resource on technologies and how they relate to business. Their stories are cited by major news sources and also used for backup information. Stories in other periodicals were based on their exposés. For instance, InformationWeek ran a story about The Register's story, as used as the source for a New York Times article. In September 2018, the Alexa ranking was #7,194. National Archives and Records Administration has archived part of the Web site. Writers The Register has an editorial staff of 16 writers and production experts. Chris Williams is editor-in-chief. Paul Kunert is UK editor, Iain Thomson is US news editor and Simon Sharwood is Asia-Pacific editor. Columnists include Mark Pesce and Rupert Goodwins. Intel chips flaw investigation Further information: Intel Atom § Issues, Meltdown (security vulnerability), and Spectre (security vulnerability) On 6 February 2017, The Register linked a clock signal issue in Cisco hardware to a serious defect on Intel's Atom C2000 series processors. Around 3 January 2018, The Register broke news about Google's long-ongoing investigation into Intel's processor design, which revealed that a serious flaw in the design of their chips would require Microsoft, Apple, and Linux developers to release patches for their operating systems. Criticism On 12 October 2010 Martin Robbins of The Guardian accused The Register of misunderstanding climate science and misrepresenting a paper from the journal Nature in a manner that deliberately minimized the climate impact of human emissions. The Register published its "amusingly put-out 'response'" the same day. References ^ a b Mitchell, Dan (26 November 2005). "Big Google Becomes Big Target". The New York Times. ^ Grossman, Wendy M. (2 June 2006). "How online journalism got its UK start". Press Gazette. Wilmington Media Ltd. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. ^ Appel, Marvin; Domash, Harry; Kahn, Michael N. (7 January 2011). Investor's Library: Fundamental Analysis, Technical Analysis, and Income Investing. Pearson Education. ISBN 9780132678186. ^ Orlowski, Andrew (9 May 2019). "Veteran vulture Andrew Orlowski is offski after 19 years at The Register". The Register. ^ Walsh, Bob (2007). Clear Blogging: How People Blogging Are Changing the World and How You Can Join Them. Berkeley, California: Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-0321-6. OCLC 184907857. ^ Cullen, Drew (25 February 2002). "The Register Comes to the US". The Register. Archived from the original on 26 December 2004. Retrieved 12 April 2023. ^ Cullen, Drew (24 February 2003). "theregister.com goes live". The Register. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2023. ^ Adams, Andrew A.; McCrindle, Rachel J. (2008). Pandora's Box: Social and Professional Issues of the Information Age. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-06553-2. OCLC 137325218. ^ "Paper plane launched into space captures Earth images". BBC News. 11 November 2010. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2010. ^ a b "The Register" (PDF). Audit Bureau of Circulations Limited. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012. ^ a b "The Register" (PDF). Audit Bureau of Circulations Limited. Retrieved 1 October 2013. ^ Storm, Darlene (7 January 2015). "CES: FTC chairwoman warns how IoT device data can secretly be used against you". Computerworld. ^ DeJean, David (1 May 2006). "Vista: the 'Anti-Linux'?". InformationWeek. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020. ^ Streitfeld, David (25 January 2012). "Groupon Promotion Goes Too Far". The New York Times. ^ "See http://www.theregister.co.uk/2016 ... "Worst Passwords Of 2015 Reveal Our Stupidity". InformationWeek. ^ Zeman, Eric. "Android VP Barra Exits For Chinese Smartphone". InformationWeek. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2020. ^ Maisto, Michelle (25 February 2016). "Apple Preparing Enhanced iPhone Security, NYT Reports". InformationWeek. Retrieved 29 February 2024. InformationWeek ran a story about The Register's story about a New York Times article. ^ "Theregister.co.uk Traffic, Demographics and Competitors". Alexa. Archived from the original on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018. ^ "Networks News and Views for the World". The Register. Archived from the original on 25 December 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012. ^ "Contact The Register". The Register. Retrieved 26 April 2021. ^ Claburn, Thomas (2 February 2017). "FYI: Ticking time-bomb fault will brick Cisco gear after 18 months". The Register. ^ Claburn, Thomas (6 February 2017). "FYI: Intel's Atom C2000 chips are bricking products – and it's not just Cisco hit". The Register. Archived from the original on 24 November 2019. ^ Wakefield, Jane (3 January 2018). "Major flaw in millions of Intel chips". BBC News. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2018. ^ Robbins, Martin (12 October 2010). "One climate paper, two conflicting headlines". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. ^ Page, Lewis (12 October 2010). "Guardian super-blogger flames Reg boffinry desk". The Register. Archived from the original on 24 December 2016. External links Official website "Archive of articles about Wikipedia". The Register.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Register (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"technology news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_journalism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheRegister.NYT2005-1"},{"link_name":"Mike Magee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Magee_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grossman-2"},{"link_name":"online newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_newspaper"},{"link_name":"masthead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nameplate_(publishing)"},{"link_name":"sublogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logo"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheRegister.Masthead-3"},{"link_name":"Andrew Orlowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Orlowski"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"This article is about the technology news website. For other uses, see Register (disambiguation).British technology news and opinion websiteThe Register is a British technology news website[1] co-founded in 1994 by Mike Magee and John Lettice.[2] The online newspaper's masthead sublogo is \"Biting the hand that feeds IT.\" The publication's primary focus is information technology news and opinions.[3]Situation Publishing Ltd is the site's publisher. Drew Cullen is an owner and Linus Birtles is the managing director. Andrew Orlowski was the executive editor before leaving the website in May 2019.[4]","title":"The Register"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Inquirer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Inquirer"},{"link_name":"IT Examiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_Examiner"},{"link_name":"TechEye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechEye"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Walsh-5"},{"link_name":"Tom's Hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%27s_Hardware"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cullen2002-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cullen2003-7"},{"link_name":"Simon Travaglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Travaglia"},{"link_name":"BOFH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BOFH"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adams-8"},{"link_name":"Paper Aircraft Released into Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_Aircraft_Released_Into_Space"},{"link_name":"paper plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_plane"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-project-bbc-coverage-9"}],"text":"The Register was founded in London as an email newsletter called Chip Connection. In 1998 The Register became a daily online news source. Magee left in 2001 to start competing publications The Inquirer, and later the IT Examiner and TechEye.[5]In 2002, The Register expanded to have a presence in London and San Francisco, creating The Register USA at theregus.com through a joint venture with Tom's Hardware.[6] In 2003, that site moved to theregister.com.[7] That content was later merged onto theregister.co.uk. The Register carries syndicated content including Simon Travaglia's BOFH stories.[8]In 2010 The Register supported the successful launch of the Paper Aircraft Released into Space, a project they announced in 2009 that released a paper plane in the extreme upper atmosphere.[9]The Register also ran the websites Register Hardware and Channel Register, which merged into The Register.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Audit Bureau of Circulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_Bureau_of_Circulations_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abc2011-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abc2012-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abc2011-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abc2012-11"},{"link_name":"consumer electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheRegister.NYT2012-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheRegister.NYT2005-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"exposés","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expos%C3%A9_(journalism)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"National Archives and Records Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"In 2011 it was read daily by over 350,000 users according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations,[10] rising to 468,000 daily and nearly 9.5 million monthly in 2013.[11] In November 2011 the UK and US each accounted for approximately 42% and 34% of page impressions respectively, with Canada being the next most significant origin of page hits at 3%.[10] In 2012 the UK and US accounted for approximately 41% and 28% of page impressions respectively, with Canada at 3.61%.[11]Channel Register covers computer business and trade news, which includes business press releases. News and articles for computer hardware and consumer electronics are covered by Reg Hardware. Reg Research is an in-depth resource on technologies and how they relate to business.[12][13]Their stories are cited by major news sources[14] and also used for backup information.[1][15] Stories in other periodicals were based on their exposés.[16] For instance, InformationWeek ran a story about The Register's story, as used as the source for a New York Times article.[17]In September 2018, the Alexa ranking was #7,194.[18]National Archives and Records Administration has archived part of the Web site.[19]","title":"Readership and content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Mark Pesce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Pesce"}],"sub_title":"Writers","text":"The Register has an editorial staff of 16 writers and production experts.[20] Chris Williams is editor-in-chief. Paul Kunert is UK editor, Iain Thomson is US news editor and Simon Sharwood is Asia-Pacific editor. Columnists include Mark Pesce and Rupert Goodwins.","title":"Readership and content"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel Atom § Issues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Atom#Issues"},{"link_name":"Meltdown (security vulnerability)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meltdown_(security_vulnerability)"},{"link_name":"Spectre (security vulnerability)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectre_(security_vulnerability)"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"text":"Further information: Intel Atom § Issues, Meltdown (security vulnerability), and Spectre (security vulnerability)On 6 February 2017, The Register linked a clock signal issue in Cisco hardware to a serious defect on Intel's Atom C2000 series processors.[21][22]Around 3 January 2018, The Register broke news about Google's long-ongoing investigation into Intel's processor design, which revealed that a serious flaw in the design of their chips would require Microsoft, Apple, and Linux developers to release patches for their operating systems.[23]","title":"Intel chips flaw investigation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"climate science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climatology"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BuffGuard-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"On 12 October 2010 Martin Robbins of The Guardian accused The Register of misunderstanding climate science and misrepresenting a paper from the journal Nature in a manner that deliberately minimized the climate impact of human emissions.[24] The Register published its \"amusingly put-out 'response'\" the same day.[25]","title":"Criticism"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Mitchell, Dan (26 November 2005). \"Big Google Becomes Big Target\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/26/technology/big-google-becomes-big-target.html","url_text":"\"Big Google Becomes Big Target\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Grossman, Wendy M. (2 June 2006). \"How online journalism got its UK start\". Press Gazette. Wilmington Media Ltd. Archived from the original on 5 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131105035712/http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/node/34330","url_text":"\"How online journalism got its UK start\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_Gazette","url_text":"Press Gazette"},{"url":"http://www.pressgazette.co.uk/node/34330","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Appel, Marvin; Domash, Harry; Kahn, Michael N. (7 January 2011). Investor's Library: Fundamental Analysis, Technical Analysis, and Income Investing. Pearson Education. ISBN 9780132678186.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780132678186","url_text":"9780132678186"}]},{"reference":"Orlowski, Andrew (9 May 2019). \"Veteran vulture Andrew Orlowski is offski after 19 years at The Register\". The Register.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2019/05/09/andrew_okthxbye/","url_text":"\"Veteran vulture Andrew Orlowski is offski after 19 years at The Register\""}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Bob (2007). Clear Blogging: How People Blogging Are Changing the World and How You Can Join Them. Berkeley, California: Apress. ISBN 978-1-4302-0321-6. OCLC 184907857.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4302-0321-6","url_text":"978-1-4302-0321-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/184907857","url_text":"184907857"}]},{"reference":"Cullen, Drew (25 February 2002). \"The Register Comes to the US\". The Register. Archived from the original on 26 December 2004. Retrieved 12 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041226053405/https://www.theregister.com/2002/02/25/the_register_comes/","url_text":"\"The Register Comes to the US\""},{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2002/02/25/the_register_comes/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Cullen, Drew (24 February 2003). \"theregister.com goes live\". The Register. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305191659/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/02/24/theregister_com_goes_live/","url_text":"\"theregister.com goes live\""},{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2003/02/24/theregister_com_goes_live/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Adams, Andrew A.; McCrindle, Rachel J. (2008). Pandora's Box: Social and Professional Issues of the Information Age. Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-06553-2. OCLC 137325218.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-06553-2","url_text":"978-0-470-06553-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/137325218","url_text":"137325218"}]},{"reference":"\"Paper plane launched into space captures Earth images\". BBC News. 11 November 2010. Archived from the original on 14 November 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-11734084","url_text":"\"Paper plane launched into space captures Earth images\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101114025447/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-11734084","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Register\" (PDF). Audit Bureau of Circulations Limited. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.org.uk/Certificates/17591287.pdf","url_text":"\"The Register\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_Bureau_of_Circulations_(UK)","url_text":"Audit Bureau of Circulations Limited"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120719175001/http://www.abc.org.uk/Certificates/17591287.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Register\" (PDF). Audit Bureau of Circulations Limited. Retrieved 1 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.org.uk/Certificates/18799747.pdf","url_text":"\"The Register\""}]},{"reference":"Storm, Darlene (7 January 2015). \"CES: FTC chairwoman warns how IoT device data can secretly be used against you\". Computerworld.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerworld.com/article/2866533/ces-ftc-chairwoman-warns-how-iot-device-data-can-secretly-be-used-against-you.html","url_text":"\"CES: FTC chairwoman warns how IoT device data can secretly be used against you\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerworld","url_text":"Computerworld"}]},{"reference":"DeJean, David (1 May 2006). \"Vista: the 'Anti-Linux'?\". InformationWeek. Archived from the original on 20 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200820233110/https://www.informationweek.com/desktop/vista-the-anti-linux/d/d-id/1042748","url_text":"\"Vista: the 'Anti-Linux'?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InformationWeek","url_text":"InformationWeek"},{"url":"https://www.informationweek.com/desktop/vista-the-anti-linux/d/d-id/1042748?piddl_msgorder=thrd","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Streitfeld, David (25 January 2012). \"Groupon Promotion Goes Too Far\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/01/25/todays-scuttlebot-video-game-rats-and-groupons-snake-serum","url_text":"\"Groupon Promotion Goes Too Far\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"\"Worst Passwords Of 2015 Reveal Our Stupidity\". InformationWeek.","urls":[{"url":"https://informationweek.com/messages.asp?piddl_msgthreadid=26250%26piddl_msgid=314304","url_text":"\"Worst Passwords Of 2015 Reveal Our Stupidity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InformationWeek","url_text":"InformationWeek"}]},{"reference":"Zeman, Eric. \"Android VP Barra Exits For Chinese Smartphone\". InformationWeek. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 30 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210625014214/https://www.informationweek.com/mobile/mobile-devices/android-vp-barra-exits-for-chinese-smartphone-maker/d/d-id/1111339","url_text":"\"Android VP Barra Exits For Chinese Smartphone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InformationWeek","url_text":"InformationWeek"},{"url":"https://www.informationweek.com/mobile/mobile-devices/android-vp-barra-exits-for-chinese-smartphone-maker/d/d-id/1111339","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Maisto, Michelle (25 February 2016). \"Apple Preparing Enhanced iPhone Security, NYT Reports\". InformationWeek. Retrieved 29 February 2024. InformationWeek ran a story about The Register's story about a New York Times article.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.informationweek.com/cyber-resilience/apple-preparing-enhanced-iphone-security-nyt-reports","url_text":"\"Apple Preparing Enhanced iPhone Security, NYT Reports\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InformationWeek","url_text":"InformationWeek"}]},{"reference":"\"Theregister.co.uk Traffic, Demographics and Competitors\". Alexa. Archived from the original on 13 September 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180913002429/https://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/theregister.co.uk","url_text":"\"Theregister.co.uk Traffic, Demographics and Competitors\""},{"url":"https://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/theregister.co.uk","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Networks News and Views for the World\". The Register. Archived from the original on 25 December 2012. Retrieved 25 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.webharvest.gov/congress112th/20121225042847/http://www.theregister.co.uk/networks/","url_text":"\"Networks News and Views for the World\""},{"url":"http://www.theregister.co.uk/networks/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Contact The Register\". The Register. Retrieved 26 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/Profile/contact/","url_text":"\"Contact The Register\""}]},{"reference":"Claburn, Thomas (2 February 2017). \"FYI: Ticking time-bomb fault will brick Cisco gear after 18 months\". The Register.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/02/03/cisco_clock_component_may_fail/","url_text":"\"FYI: Ticking time-bomb fault will brick Cisco gear after 18 months\""}]},{"reference":"Claburn, Thomas (6 February 2017). \"FYI: Intel's Atom C2000 chips are bricking products – and it's not just Cisco hit\". The Register. Archived from the original on 24 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/02/06/cisco_intel_decline_to_link_product_warning_to_faulty_chip/","url_text":"\"FYI: Intel's Atom C2000 chips are bricking products – and it's not just Cisco hit\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191124122330/https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/02/06/cisco_intel_decline_to_link_product_warning_to_faulty_chip/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wakefield, Jane (3 January 2018). \"Major flaw in millions of Intel chips\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 6 July 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-42553818","url_text":"\"Major flaw in millions of Intel chips\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180706013820/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-42553818","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Robbins, Martin (12 October 2010). \"One climate paper, two conflicting headlines\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/environment/blog/2010/dec/17/register-climate-myths","url_text":"\"One climate paper, two conflicting headlines\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161231080259/https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-lay-scientist/2010/oct/11/2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Page, Lewis (12 October 2010). \"Guardian super-blogger flames Reg boffinry desk\". The Register. Archived from the original on 24 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/10/12/graun_robbins_counterblast/","url_text":"\"Guardian super-blogger flames Reg boffinry desk\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161224100035/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/10/12/graun_robbins_counterblast/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Archive of articles about Wikipedia\". The Register.","urls":[{"url":"https://search.theregister.com/?q=wikipedia","url_text":"\"Archive of articles about Wikipedia\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flipchart
Flip chart
["1 Forms","2 Usage","3 History","4 Digital","5 References","6 External links"]
Stationery item consisting of a pad of large paper sheets, often used in presentations This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Flip chart" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A flip chart A flip chart is a stationery item consisting of a pad of large paper sheets. It is typically fixed to the upper edge of a whiteboard, or supported on a tripod or four-legged easel. Such charts are commonly used for presentations. Forms Although most commonly supported on a tripod, flip charts come in various forms. Some of these are: stand-alone flip chart: resembles a big isosceles triangle box that usually sits on a table. Imagine a book that you would open at 270° angle and then lay on a table. The paper is flipped from one side of the top of the triangle box to the other. metallic tripod (or easel) stand: usually has 3 or 4 metallic legs that are linked together at one extremity. A support board is attached to two of these legs to support the large paper pad. This is the most common type of flip chart stand. metallic mount on wheels: usually has a flat base to support the paper pad and is mounted on one or two legs that then have a set of wheels. The advantage of these more recent forms of stands is that it is easier to transport the flip chart from one location to another. Usage Text is usually hand written with marker pens and may include figures or charts. A sheet can be flipped over by the presenter to continue to a new page. Some flip charts may have a reduced version of the page that faces the audience printed on the back of the preceding page, making it possible for the presenter to see the same thing the audience is seeing. Others have teaching notes printed on the back. Flip charts are used in many different settings such as: in any type of presentation where the papers pads are pre-filled with information on a given topic for capturing information in meetings and brainstorming sessions in classrooms and teaching institutions of any kind to record relevant information in manufacturing plants a creative drawing board for Art students a palette for artists in “life-drawing” classes for strategy coaching for sports teams for teaching A variety of paper sizes are used from the floor standing through to the smaller table-top versions, subject to the country's adopted paper sizes. These include A1, B1, 25" x30" through to 20" x 23". History The earliest known patent of a flipchart is from May 8, 1913. Flip charts have being in use from the 1900s, the earliest recorded use of a flip chart is a photo from 1912 of John Henry Patterson (1844-1922), NCR's CEO while addressing the 100 Point Club standing next to a pair of flip charts on casters. The flipchart we know (on a small whiteboard) was invented by Peter Kent in the 1970s. Peter Kent was the founder and CEO of the visual communications group Nobo plc, and it is believed that they were the first company to put the large pieces of paper over whiteboards, rather than over other materials. In 1999, Flipcharts2go.com went online offering wide format, custom printed and bound flipcharts for both short term and long term use in planning, sales presentations, training and production tracking. Digital Recently, scientists have developed a digital self writing flip chart which writes word for word everything it is instructed to record. The disability action group "Armless" has stated that this is a significant step forward for disabilities groups to have conferences like people without disabilities. Also available are flipchart stands that are self heightening. References ^ "Search Flip Chart". Archived from the original on 2011-06-04. Retrieved 2013-05-05. ^ http://www.staples.com/flipi+chart/directory_flipi+chart? ^ Patent US1087336 USPTO ^ The Patterson Principles of Selling, by Jeffrey Gitomer, 2014 (page 53) ^ Initially Registered on GoDaddy Jul 26, 1999 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Flip charts. Using Flip Charts Flipchart Authority control databases: National Germany
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Imagine a book that you would open at 270° angle and then lay on a table. The paper is flipped from one side of the top of the triangle box to the other.\nmetallic tripod (or easel) stand: usually has 3 or 4 metallic legs that are linked together at one extremity. A support board is attached to two of these legs to support the large paper pad. This is the most common type of flip chart stand.\nmetallic mount on wheels: usually has a flat base to support the paper pad and is mounted on one or two legs that then have a set of wheels. The advantage of these more recent forms of stands is that it is easier to transport the flip chart from one location to another.","title":"Forms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hand written","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting"},{"link_name":"marker pens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marker_pen"},{"link_name":"A1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A1_paper_size"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Text is usually hand written with marker pens and may include figures or charts. A sheet can be flipped over by the presenter to continue to a new page.Some flip charts may have a reduced version of the page that faces the audience printed on the back of the preceding page, making it possible for the presenter to see the same thing the audience is seeing. Others have teaching notes printed on the back.Flip charts are used in many different settings such as:in any type of presentation where the papers pads are pre-filled with information on a given topic\nfor capturing information in meetings and brainstorming sessions\nin classrooms and teaching institutions of any kind\nto record relevant information in manufacturing plants\na creative drawing board for Art students\na palette for artists in “life-drawing” classes\nfor strategy coaching for sports teams\nfor teachingA variety of paper sizes are used from the floor standing through to the smaller table-top versions, subject to the country's adopted paper sizes. These include A1, B1, 25\" x30\" through to 20\" x 23\".[1][2]","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The earliest known patent of a flipchart is from May 8, 1913.[3] Flip charts have being in use from the 1900s, the earliest recorded use of a flip chart is a photo from 1912 of John Henry Patterson (1844-1922), NCR's CEO while addressing the 100 Point Club standing next to a pair of flip charts on casters.[4] The flipchart we know (on a small whiteboard) was invented by Peter Kent in the 1970s. Peter Kent was the founder and CEO of the visual communications group Nobo plc, and it is believed[by whom?] that they were the first company to put the large pieces of paper over whiteboards, rather than over other materials.[citation needed] In 1999, Flipcharts2go.com went online offering wide format, custom printed and bound flipcharts for both short term and long term use in planning, sales presentations, training and production tracking.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Recently,[when?] scientists have developed a digital self writing flip chart which writes word for word everything it is instructed to record. The disability action group \"Armless\" has stated that this is a significant step forward for disabilities groups to have conferences like people without disabilities. \nAlso available are flipchart stands that are self heightening.[citation needed]","title":"Digital"}]
[{"image_text":"A flip chart","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flipchart1-Asio.JPG/220px-Flipchart1-Asio.JPG"}]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A76
ARM Cortex-A76
["1 Design","2 Licensing","3 Usage","4 See also","5 References"]
CPU released in 2018 ARM Cortex-A76General informationLaunched2018Designed byARM HoldingsPerformanceMax. CPU clock rateto 3.0 GHz in phones and 3.3 GHz in tablets/laptops FSB speeds100  to 104 Address width40-bitCacheL1 cache128 KiB (64 KiB I-cache with parity, 64 KiB D-cache) per coreL2 cache128–512 KiB per coreL3 cache512 KiB–4 MiB (optional)Architecture and classificationMicroarchitectureARM Cortex-A76Instruction setARMv8-A: A64, A32, and T32 (at the EL0 only)ExtensionsARMv8.1-A, ARMv8.2-A, Cryptography, RAS, ARMv8.3-A LDAPR instructions, ARMv8.4-A dot productPhysical specificationsCores1–4 per clusterCo-processorARM Cortex-A55 (optional)Products, models, variantsProduct code nameEnyoVariantArm Neoverse N1HistoryPredecessorsARM Cortex-A75ARM Cortex-A73ARM Cortex-A72SuccessorARM Cortex-A77 The ARM Cortex-A76 is a central processing unit implementing the ARMv8.2-A 64-bit instruction set designed by ARM Holdings' Austin design centre. ARM states a 25% and 35% increase in integer and floating point performance, respectively, over a Cortex-A75 of the previous generation. Design The Cortex-A76 serves as the successor of the ARM Cortex-A73 and ARM Cortex-A75, though based on a clean sheet design. The Cortex-A76 frontend is a 4-wide decode out-of-order superscalar design. It can fetch 4 instructions per cycle. And rename and dispatch 4 Mops, and 8 μops per cycle. The out-of-order window size is 128 entries. The backend is 8 execution ports with a pipeline depth of 13 stages and the execution latencies of 11 stages. The core supports unprivileged 32-bit applications, but privileged applications must utilize the 64-bit ARMv8-A ISA. It also supports Load acquire (LDAPR) instructions (ARMv8.3-A), Dot Product instructions (ARMv8.4-A), PSTATE Speculative Store Bypass Safe (SSBS) bit and the speculation barriers (CSDB, SSBB, PSSBB) instructions (ARMv8.5-A). Memory bandwidth increased 90% relative to the A75. According to ARM, the A76 is expected to offer twice the performance of an A73 and is targeted beyond mobile workloads. The performance is targeted at "laptop class", including Windows 10 devices, competitive with Intel's Kaby Lake. The Cortex-A76 support ARM's DynamIQ technology, expected to be used as high-performance cores when used in combination with Cortex-A55 power-efficient cores. Licensing The Cortex-A76 is available as a SIP core to licensees, and its design makes it suitable for integration with other SIP cores (e.g. GPU, display controller, DSP, image processor, etc.) into one die constituting a system on a chip (SoC). Usage The Cortex-A76 was first used in the HiSilicon Kirin 980. ARM has also collaborated with Qualcomm for a semi-custom version of the Cortex-A76, used within their high-end Kryo 495 (Snapdragon 8cx)/Kryo 485 (Snapdragon 855 and 855 Plus), and also in their mid-range Kryo 460 (Snapdragon 675) and Kryo 470 (Snapdragon 730) CPUs. One of the modifications Qualcomm made was increasing reorder buffer to increase the out-of-order window size. It is also used in the Exynos 990 and Exynos Auto V9, the MediaTek Helio G90/G90T/G95/G99 and Dimensity 800 and Dimensity 820, and the HiSilicon Kirin 985 5G and Kirin 990 4G/990 5G/990E 5G. The Cortex-A76 can be found in Snapdragon 855 as Big-core. The Cortex-A76 is used as Big-core in Intel Agilex D-series SoC FPGA devices. In 2020 Cortex-A76 was used in Rockchip RK3588 and RK3588s. In September 2023, the Raspberry Pi 5 was introduced with a Broadcom BCM2712 quad-core Arm Cortex-A76 processor with a clock speed of 2.4 GHz. See also ARM Cortex-A75, predecessor ARM Cortex-A77, successor Comparison of ARMv8-A cores, ARMv8 family References ^ Shrout, Ryan; Moorhead, Patrick (31 May 2018). "Ep 23 - 5/31/18 - The Future of Arm with Nandan Nayampally". The Tech Analysts Podcast. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ a b c Frumusanu, Andrei (31 May 2018). "Arm Cortex-A76 CPU Unveiled". Anandtech. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "Arm Unveils Cortex-A77, Emphasizes Single-Thread Performance". WikiChip Fuse. 2019-05-26. Retrieved 2020-06-18. ^ Williams, Chris (31 May 2018). "Arm emits Cortex-A76 – its first 64-bit-only CPU core (in kernel mode)". The Register. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ "ARM documentation set for Cortex-A76". infocenter.arm.com. Retrieved 2019-06-15. ^ Armasu, Lucian (31 May 2018). "Arm's Cortex-A76 Could Be The First True Challenger To x86 Chips On Laptops". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ Triggs, Robert (31 May 2018). "Arm Cortex-A76 CPU deep dive". Android Authority. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ Hruska, Joel (31 May 2018). "ARM's New Cortex-A76 SoC Targets Windows Laptop Market". Extreme Tech. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ Bright, Peter (1 June 2018). "ARM promises laptop-level performance in 2019". Ars Technica. Retrieved 1 June 2018. ^ Frumusanu, Andrei. "HiSilicon Announces The Kirin 980: First A76, G76 on 7nm". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2020-11-13. ^ Frumusanu, Andrei. "Arm's New Cortex-A77 CPU Micro-architecture: Evolving Performance". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2019-06-16. ^ "Exynos 990 Mobile Processor: Specs, Features | Samsung Exynos". Samsung Semiconductor. Retrieved 2020-06-18. ^ MediaTek (2020-06-18). "MediaTek Helio G90 Series". MediaTek. Retrieved 2020-06-18. ^ MediaTek (2020-06-18). "MediaTek Dimensity 800". MediaTek. Retrieved 2020-06-18. ^ MediaTek (2020-06-18). "MediaTek Dimensity 820". MediaTek. Retrieved 2020-06-18. ^ Mark van der Zalm. "Intel Agilex D-Series FPGA White Paper". Intel. Retrieved 2022-10-20. ^ Eben Upton. "Introducing: Raspberry Pi 5!". Raspberry Pi. Retrieved 2023-10-21. vteApplication ARM-based chips Arm ARM architecture family List of ARM processors List of products using ARM processors ARM Cortex-A ARM Cortex-R ARM Cortex-M Comparison of ARM processors Applicationprocessors(32-bit)ARMv7-ACortex-A5 Actions ATM702x Amlogic M805/S805, T82x Atmel SAMA5D3 InfoTM iMAPx820, iMAPx15 Qualcomm Snapdragon S4 Play, 200 RDA RDA8810PL Telechips TCC892x Cortex-A7 Allwinner A2x, A3x, A83T, H3, H8 NXP i.MX7, QorIQ LS10xx, NXP i.MX6UL Broadcom VideoCore BCM2836, BCM23550 Leadcore LC1813, LC1860/C, LC1913, LC1960 Marvell Armada PXA1920, 1500 mini plus MediaTek MT65xx Qualcomm Snapdragon 200, 400 Cortex-A8 Allwinner A1x Apple A4 Freescale i.MX5 Rockchip RK291x Samsung Exynos 3110(S5PC110), S5PV210 Texas Instruments OMAP 3 Texas Instruments Sitara AM3xxx Texas Instruments DM38x ZiiLABS ZMS-08 Cortex-A9 Actions ATM702x, ATM703x Altera Cyclone V, Arria V/10 Amlogic AML8726, MX, M6x, M801, M802/S802, S812, T86x Apple A5, A5X Broadcom VideoCore BCM21xxx, BCM28xxx Freescale i.MX6 HiSilicon K3V2, 910's InfoTM iMAPx912 Leadcore LC1810, LC1811 Marvell Armada 1500 mini MediaTek MT65xx Nvidia Tegra, 2, 3, 4i Nufront NuSmart 2816M, NS115, NS115M Renesas EMMA EV2, R-Car H1, RZ/A Rockchip RK292x, RK30xx, RK31xx Samsung Exynos 4 421x, 441x ST-Ericsson NovaThor Telechips TCC8803 Texas Instruments OMAP 4 Texas Instruments Sitara AM4xxx VIA WonderMedia WM88x0, 89x0 Xilinx Zynq-7000 ZiiLABS ZMS-20, ZMS-40 Cortex-A15 Allwinner A80 HiSilicon K3V3 MediaTek MT8135/V Nvidia Tegra 4, K1 Renesas R-Car H2 Samsung Exynos 5 52xx, 54xx Texas Instruments OMAP 5, DRA7xx, AM57xx Texas Instruments Sitara AM5xxx Cortex-A17 MediaTek MT6595, MT5595 MStar 6A928 Rockchip RK3288 Others Cortex-A12 ARMv7-Acompatible Apple A6, A6X, S1, S1P, S2, S3 Broadcom Brahma-B15 Marvell P4J Qualcomm Snapdragon S1, S2, S3, S4 Plus, S4 Pro, 600, 800 (Scorpion, Krait) ARMv8-AOthers Cortex-A32 Applicationprocessors(64-bit)ARMv8-ACortex-A35 NXP i.MX8X MediaTek MT6799, MT8516 Rockchip RK3308 Cortex-A53 Actions GT7, S900, V700 Allwinner A64, H5, H64, R18 Altera Stratix 10 Amlogic S9 Family, T96x Broadcom BCM2837 EZchip TILE-Mx100 HiSilicon Kirin 620, 650, 655, 658, 659, 930, 935 Marvell Armada PXA1928, Mobile PXA1908/PXA1936 MediaTek MT673x, MT675x, MT6761V, MT6762/V, MT6763T, MT6765/G/H, MT6795, MT8161, MT8163, MT8165, MT8732, MT8735, MT8752 NXP ARM S32, QorIQ LS1088, LS1043, i.MX8M Qualcomm Snapdragon 215, 410, 412, 415, 425, 427, 430, 435, 429, 439, 450, 610, 615, 616, 617, 625, 626, 630 Renesas RZ/V2M Rockchip RK3328, RK3368 Samsung Exynos 7570, 7578, 7580, 7870, 7880 Texas Instruments Sitara AM6xxx UNISOC SC9820E, SC9832E, SC9860/GV Xilinx ZynqMP Cortex-A57 AMD Opteron A1100-series NXP QorIQ LS20xx Nvidia Tegra X1 and Tegra X2 Qualcomm Snapdragon 808 and 810 Samsung Exynos 7 5433, 7420 HiSilicon Kirin Hi1610 and Hi1612 Cortex-A72 AWS Graviton Broadcom BCM2711 HiSilicon Kirin 950, 955, Kunpeng 916 MediaTek MT6797/D/T/X, MT8173, MT8176, MT8693 MStar 6A938 Qualcomm Snapdragon 650, 652, 653 Rockchip RK3399 NXP QorIQ LS2088, QorIQ LS1046A, QorIQ LX2160A, QorIQ LS1028A, i.MX8 Cortex-A73 Qualcomm Snapdragon 460, 636, 660, 632, 662, 665, 680, 685, 835 Samsung Exynos 7872, 7884, 7885, 7904, 9609, 9610, 9611 HiSilicon Kirin 710, 960, 970 MediaTek MT6771/V, MT6799, MT8183, MT8788 Amlogic S922X Others Cortex-A34 ARMv8-Acompatible Ampere eMAG Apple A7, A8, A8X, A9, A9X, A10, A10X Applied Micro X-Gene Cavium ThunderX Nvidia Tegra K1 (Denver), Tegra X2 (Denver2) Qualcomm Kryo, Falkor Samsung Exynos M1 (Mongoose), M2 (Mongoose) ARMv8.1-AARMv8.1-Acompatible Cavium ThunderX2 ARMv8.2-ACortex-A55 Samsung Exynos 850 UNISOC SC9863/A, T603 Cortex-A75 Qualcomm Snapdragon 670, 710, 712, 845, 850 Samsung Exynos 9820, 9825 MediaTek MT6769H/T/V/Z, MT6768, MT6779V UNISOC T310, T606, T610, T616, T618, T619, T700, T710, T740 Cortex-A76 Google Tensor HiSilicon Kirin 810, 820, 980, 985, 990 Qualcomm Snapdragon 480(+), 675, 678, 720G, 730(G), 732G, 765(G), 768G, 855(+) and 860, 7c, 7c Gen 2, 8c, 8cx and 8cx Gen 2 Microsoft SQ1 and SQ2 MediaTek MT6781, MT6785V, MT6789, MT6833V/P, MT6853V/T, MT6873, MT6875, Dimensity 6020, 6080, 6100+, 6300, MT8192 Samsung Exynos 990 UNISOC T750, T760, T770, T765, T820 Cortex-A77 MediaTek Dimensity 1000(+) Qualcomm Snapdragon 690, 750G, 865(+) and 870 HiSilicon Kirin 9000 Samsung Exynos 880, 980 Cortex-A78 Google Tensor G2 MediaTek MT6877, MT6878, MT6879, MT6891, MT6893, Dimensity 7020, 7025, 7030, 7050, 8000, 8020, 8050, 8100, 8200, Kompanio 900T, 1200, 1380, 1300T Qualcomm Snapdragon 4 Gen 1, 4 Gen 2, 695, 6 Gen 1, 778G(+), 780G, 782G, 888(+) Samsung Exynos 1080, 1280, 1330, 1380, 2100 Cortex-X1 Google Tensor, Tensor G2 Qualcomm Snapdragon 888(+) Samsung Exynos 2100 Neoverse N1 Ampere Altra, Altra Max AWS Graviton2 Others Cortex-A65, Cortex-A65AE, Cortex-A76AE, Cortex-A78C, Cortex-X1C, Neoverse E1 ARMv8.2-Acompatible Apple A11 Fujitsu A64FX HiSilicon TaiShan v110 Nvidia Tegra Xavier (Carmel) Samsung Exynos M3 (Meerkat), M4 (Cheetah), M5 (Lion) ARMv8.3-AARMv8.3-Acompatible Apple A12, A12X/A12Z, S4, S5 Marvell ThunderX3 ARMv8.4-ANeoverse V1 AWS Graviton3 ARMv8.4-Acompatible Apple A13, S6, S7, S8 ARMv8.5-AARMv8.5-Acompatible Apple A14, M1 ARMv8.6-AARMv8.6-Acompatible Apple A15, A16, A17, M2, M3 ARMv9.0-ACortex-A510 MediaTek Dimensity 7200 (Pro/Ultra), 8300 (Ultra), 9000/9000+, 9200 Qualcomm Snapdragon 7 Gen 1, 7s/7+ Gen 2, 7 Gen 3, 8(+) Gen 1, 8 Gen 2 Samsung Exynos 2200 Cortex-A710 MediaTek Dimensity 9000/9000+ Qualcomm Snapdragon 7 Gen 1, 7s/7+ Gen 2, 8(+) Gen 1, 8 Gen 2 Samsung Exynos 2200 Cortex-A715 MediaTek Dimensity 7200 (Pro/Ultra), 8300 (Ultra), 9200 Qualcomm Snapdragon 7 Gen 3, 8 Gen 2 Cortex-X2 MediaTek Dimensity 9000/9000+ Qualcomm Snapdragon 7s/7+ Gen 2, 8(+) Gen 1 Samsung Exynos 2200 Cortex-X3 Google Tensor G3 MediaTek Dimensity 9200/9200+ Qualcomm Snapdragon 8 Gen 2 Neoverse N2 Alibaba YiTian 710 Microsoft Azure Cobalt 100 Neoverse V2 AWS Graviton4 Nvidia Grace Google Axion ARMv9.2-ACortex-A520 Qualcomm Snapdragon 7+ Gen 3, Snapdragon 8(s) Gen 3 Samsung Exynos 2400 Cortex-A720 MediaTek Dimensity 9300(+) Qualcomm Snapdragon 7+ Gen 3, Snapdragon 8(s) Gen 3 Samsung Exynos 2400 Cortex-X4 MediaTek Dimensity 9300(+) Qualcomm Snapdragon 7+ Gen 3, Snapdragon 8(s) Gen 3 Samsung Exynos 2400 Neoverse N3-Neoverse V3-ARMv9.2-AcompatibleApple M4
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"central processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"ARMv8.2-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARMv8.2-A"},{"link_name":"instruction set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set"},{"link_name":"ARM Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Holdings"},{"link_name":"Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Cortex-A75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A75"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-2"}],"text":"The ARM Cortex-A76 is a central processing unit implementing the ARMv8.2-A 64-bit instruction set designed by ARM Holdings' Austin design centre. ARM states a 25% and 35% increase in integer and floating point performance, respectively, over a Cortex-A75 of the previous generation.[2]","title":"ARM Cortex-A76"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ARM Cortex-A73","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A73"},{"link_name":"ARM Cortex-A75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A75"},{"link_name":"out-of-order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-order_execution"},{"link_name":"superscalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superscalar"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"unprivileged","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privilege_(computing)"},{"link_name":"ARMv8-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARMv8-A"},{"link_name":"ISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-the_reg-4"},{"link_name":"ARMv8.3-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture#ARMv8.3-A"},{"link_name":"ARMv8.4-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARMv8.4-A"},{"link_name":"ARMv8.5-A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARMv8.5-A"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"laptop class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_class"},{"link_name":"Windows 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_10"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"Kaby Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaby_Lake"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"ARM's DynamIQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_DynamIQ"},{"link_name":"Cortex-A55","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A55"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-2"}],"text":"The Cortex-A76 serves as the successor of the ARM Cortex-A73 and ARM Cortex-A75, though based on a clean sheet design.The Cortex-A76 frontend is a 4-wide decode out-of-order superscalar design. It can fetch 4 instructions per cycle. And[clarification needed] rename and dispatch 4 Mops, and 8 μops per cycle. The out-of-order window size is 128 entries. The backend is 8 execution ports[clarification needed] with a pipeline depth of 13 stages and the execution latencies of 11 stages.[2][3]The core supports unprivileged 32-bit applications, but privileged applications must utilize the 64-bit ARMv8-A ISA.[4] It also supports Load acquire (LDAPR) instructions (ARMv8.3-A), Dot Product instructions (ARMv8.4-A), PSTATE Speculative Store Bypass Safe (SSBS) bit and the speculation barriers (CSDB, SSBB, PSSBB) instructions (ARMv8.5-A).[5]Memory bandwidth increased 90% relative to the A75.[6][7] According to ARM, the A76 is expected to offer twice the performance of an A73 and is targeted beyond mobile workloads. The performance is targeted at \"laptop class\", including Windows 10 devices,[8] competitive with Intel's Kaby Lake.[9]The Cortex-A76 support ARM's DynamIQ technology, expected to be used as high-performance cores when used in combination with Cortex-A55 power-efficient cores.[2]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SIP core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_intellectual_property_core"},{"link_name":"GPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"display controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_controller"},{"link_name":"DSP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"image processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processor"},{"link_name":"die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)"},{"link_name":"system on a chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip"}],"text":"The Cortex-A76 is available as a SIP core to licensees, and its design makes it suitable for integration with other SIP cores (e.g. GPU, display controller, DSP, image processor, etc.) into one die constituting a system on a chip (SoC).","title":"Licensing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HiSilicon Kirin 980","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiSilicon#Kirin_980_and_Kirin_985_5G/4G"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Kryo 495","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryo#Kryo_495"},{"link_name":"Kryo 485","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryo#Kryo_485"},{"link_name":"Kryo 460","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryo#Kryo_460"},{"link_name":"Kryo 470","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kryo#Kryo_470"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Exynos 990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exynos#Exynos_900_series"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"MediaTek Helio G90/G90T/G95/G99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_MediaTek_systems_on_chips#Helio_G_Series_(2019%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"Dimensity 800 and Dimensity 820","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_MediaTek_systems_on_chips#Dimensity_800_Series"},{"link_name":"HiSilicon Kirin 985 5G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiSilicon#Kirin_980_and_Kirin_985_5G/4G"},{"link_name":"Kirin 990 4G/990 5G/990E 5G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HiSilicon#Kirin_990_4G,_Kirin_990_5G_and_Kirin_990E_5G"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Snapdragon 855","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapdragon_855"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Rockchip RK3588","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Rockchip_products#RK3588"},{"link_name":"Raspberry Pi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi"},{"link_name":"Broadcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcom"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"The Cortex-A76 was first used in the HiSilicon Kirin 980.[10]ARM has also collaborated with Qualcomm for a semi-custom version of the Cortex-A76, used within their high-end Kryo 495 (Snapdragon 8cx)/Kryo 485 (Snapdragon 855 and 855 Plus), and also in their mid-range Kryo 460 (Snapdragon 675) and Kryo 470 (Snapdragon 730) CPUs. One of the modifications Qualcomm made was increasing reorder buffer to increase the out-of-order window size.[11]It is also used in the Exynos 990 and Exynos Auto V9,[12] the MediaTek Helio G90/G90T/G95/G99 and Dimensity 800 and Dimensity 820, and the HiSilicon Kirin 985 5G and Kirin 990 4G/990 5G/990E 5G.[13][14][15]The Cortex-A76 can be found in Snapdragon 855 as Big-core.The Cortex-A76 is used as Big-core in Intel Agilex D-series SoC FPGA devices.[16]In 2020 Cortex-A76 was used in Rockchip RK3588 and RK3588s.In September 2023, the Raspberry Pi 5 was introduced with a Broadcom BCM2712 quad-core Arm Cortex-A76 processor with a clock speed of 2.4 GHz.[17]","title":"Usage"}]
[]
[{"title":"ARM Cortex-A75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A75"},{"title":"ARM Cortex-A77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-A77"},{"title":"Comparison of ARMv8-A cores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_ARMv8-A_cores"}]
[{"reference":"Shrout, Ryan; Moorhead, Patrick (31 May 2018). \"Ep 23 - 5/31/18 - The Future of Arm with Nandan Nayampally\". The Tech Analysts Podcast. Retrieved 1 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thetechanalysts.com/home/2018/05/ep-23-the-future-of-arm-with-nandan-nayampal","url_text":"\"Ep 23 - 5/31/18 - The Future of Arm with Nandan Nayampally\""}]},{"reference":"Frumusanu, Andrei (31 May 2018). \"Arm Cortex-A76 CPU Unveiled\". Anandtech. Retrieved 1 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/12785/arm-cortex-a76-cpu-unveiled-7nm-powerhouse","url_text":"\"Arm Cortex-A76 CPU Unveiled\""}]},{"reference":"\"Arm Unveils Cortex-A77, Emphasizes Single-Thread Performance\". WikiChip Fuse. 2019-05-26. Retrieved 2020-06-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://fuse.wikichip.org/news/2339/arm-unveils-cortex-a77-emphasizes-single-thread-performance/","url_text":"\"Arm Unveils Cortex-A77, Emphasizes Single-Thread Performance\""}]},{"reference":"Williams, Chris (31 May 2018). \"Arm emits Cortex-A76 – its first 64-bit-only CPU core (in kernel mode)\". The Register. Retrieved 1 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2018/05/31/arm_cortex_a76/","url_text":"\"Arm emits Cortex-A76 – its first 64-bit-only CPU core (in kernel mode)\""}]},{"reference":"\"ARM documentation set for Cortex-A76\". infocenter.arm.com. Retrieved 2019-06-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://infocenter.arm.com/help/index.jsp?topic=/com.arm.doc.100798_0300_00_en/index.html","url_text":"\"ARM documentation set for Cortex-A76\""}]},{"reference":"Armasu, Lucian (31 May 2018). \"Arm's Cortex-A76 Could Be The First True Challenger To x86 Chips On Laptops\". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved 1 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tomshardware.com/news/cortex-76-high-laptop-performance,37158.html","url_text":"\"Arm's Cortex-A76 Could Be The First True Challenger To x86 Chips On Laptops\""}]},{"reference":"Triggs, Robert (31 May 2018). \"Arm Cortex-A76 CPU deep dive\". Android Authority. Retrieved 1 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.androidauthority.com/cortex-a76-deep-dive-870896/","url_text":"\"Arm Cortex-A76 CPU deep dive\""}]},{"reference":"Hruska, Joel (31 May 2018). \"ARM's New Cortex-A76 SoC Targets Windows Laptop Market\". Extreme Tech. Retrieved 1 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/270362-arm-cortex-a76-targets-laptop-market","url_text":"\"ARM's New Cortex-A76 SoC Targets Windows Laptop Market\""}]},{"reference":"Bright, Peter (1 June 2018). \"ARM promises laptop-level performance in 2019\". Ars Technica. Retrieved 1 June 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2018/06/arm-promises-laptop-level-performance-in-2019/","url_text":"\"ARM promises laptop-level performance in 2019\""}]},{"reference":"Frumusanu, Andrei. \"HiSilicon Announces The Kirin 980: First A76, G76 on 7nm\". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2020-11-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/13298/hisilicon-announces-the-kirin-980-first-a76-g76-on-7nm","url_text":"\"HiSilicon Announces The Kirin 980: First A76, G76 on 7nm\""}]},{"reference":"Frumusanu, Andrei. \"Arm's New Cortex-A77 CPU Micro-architecture: Evolving Performance\". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2019-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/14384/arm-announces-cortexa77-cpu-ip","url_text":"\"Arm's New Cortex-A77 CPU Micro-architecture: Evolving Performance\""}]},{"reference":"\"Exynos 990 Mobile Processor: Specs, Features | Samsung Exynos\". Samsung Semiconductor. Retrieved 2020-06-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.samsung.com/semiconductor/minisite/exynos/products/mobileprocessor/exynos-990/","url_text":"\"Exynos 990 Mobile Processor: Specs, Features | Samsung Exynos\""}]},{"reference":"MediaTek (2020-06-18). \"MediaTek Helio G90 Series\". MediaTek. Retrieved 2020-06-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mediatek.com/products/smartphones/mediatek-helio-g90-series","url_text":"\"MediaTek Helio G90 Series\""}]},{"reference":"MediaTek (2020-06-18). \"MediaTek Dimensity 800\". MediaTek. Retrieved 2020-06-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mediatek.com/products/smartphones/dimensity-800","url_text":"\"MediaTek Dimensity 800\""}]},{"reference":"MediaTek (2020-06-18). \"MediaTek Dimensity 820\". MediaTek. Retrieved 2020-06-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mediatek.com/products/smartphones/dimensity-820","url_text":"\"MediaTek Dimensity 820\""}]},{"reference":"Mark van der Zalm. \"Intel Agilex D-Series FPGA White Paper\". Intel. Retrieved 2022-10-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/products/docs/programmable/agilex-d-series-fpga-whitepaper.html","url_text":"\"Intel Agilex D-Series FPGA White Paper\""}]},{"reference":"Eben Upton. \"Introducing: Raspberry Pi 5!\". Raspberry Pi. Retrieved 2023-10-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.raspberrypi.com/news/introducing-raspberry-pi-5/","url_text":"\"Introducing: Raspberry Pi 5!\""}]}]
[{"Link":"http://www.thetechanalysts.com/home/2018/05/ep-23-the-future-of-arm-with-nandan-nayampal","external_links_name":"\"Ep 23 - 5/31/18 - The Future of Arm with Nandan Nayampally\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/12785/arm-cortex-a76-cpu-unveiled-7nm-powerhouse","external_links_name":"\"Arm Cortex-A76 CPU Unveiled\""},{"Link":"https://fuse.wikichip.org/news/2339/arm-unveils-cortex-a77-emphasizes-single-thread-performance/","external_links_name":"\"Arm Unveils Cortex-A77, Emphasizes Single-Thread Performance\""},{"Link":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2018/05/31/arm_cortex_a76/","external_links_name":"\"Arm emits Cortex-A76 – its first 64-bit-only CPU core (in kernel mode)\""},{"Link":"http://infocenter.arm.com/help/index.jsp?topic=/com.arm.doc.100798_0300_00_en/index.html","external_links_name":"\"ARM documentation set for Cortex-A76\""},{"Link":"https://www.tomshardware.com/news/cortex-76-high-laptop-performance,37158.html","external_links_name":"\"Arm's Cortex-A76 Could Be The First True Challenger To x86 Chips On Laptops\""},{"Link":"https://www.androidauthority.com/cortex-a76-deep-dive-870896/","external_links_name":"\"Arm Cortex-A76 CPU deep dive\""},{"Link":"https://www.extremetech.com/mobile/270362-arm-cortex-a76-targets-laptop-market","external_links_name":"\"ARM's New Cortex-A76 SoC Targets Windows Laptop Market\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2018/06/arm-promises-laptop-level-performance-in-2019/","external_links_name":"\"ARM promises laptop-level performance in 2019\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/13298/hisilicon-announces-the-kirin-980-first-a76-g76-on-7nm","external_links_name":"\"HiSilicon Announces The Kirin 980: First A76, G76 on 7nm\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/14384/arm-announces-cortexa77-cpu-ip","external_links_name":"\"Arm's New Cortex-A77 CPU Micro-architecture: Evolving Performance\""},{"Link":"https://www.samsung.com/semiconductor/minisite/exynos/products/mobileprocessor/exynos-990/","external_links_name":"\"Exynos 990 Mobile Processor: Specs, Features | Samsung Exynos\""},{"Link":"https://www.mediatek.com/products/smartphones/mediatek-helio-g90-series","external_links_name":"\"MediaTek Helio G90 Series\""},{"Link":"https://www.mediatek.com/products/smartphones/dimensity-800","external_links_name":"\"MediaTek Dimensity 800\""},{"Link":"https://www.mediatek.com/products/smartphones/dimensity-820","external_links_name":"\"MediaTek Dimensity 820\""},{"Link":"https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/products/docs/programmable/agilex-d-series-fpga-whitepaper.html","external_links_name":"\"Intel Agilex D-Series FPGA White Paper\""},{"Link":"https://www.raspberrypi.com/news/introducing-raspberry-pi-5/","external_links_name":"\"Introducing: Raspberry Pi 5!\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_(economics)
Labour economics
["1 Macro and micro analysis of labour markets","2 Macroeconomics of labour markets","3 Neoclassical microeconomics","3.1 Neoclassical supply","3.2 Neoclassical demand","3.3 Equilibrium","4 Monopsony","5 Asymmetric information","5.1 Search models","6 Personnel economics: hiring and incentives","6.1 Discrimination and inequality","7 Criticisms","7.1 Wage slavery","8 See also","9 References","10 Sources","11 Further reading","12 External links"]
Study of the markets for wage labour For the journal, see Labour Economics (journal). The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A "help wanted" sign seeks available workers for jobs. 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Labour is a commodity that is supplied by labourers, usually in exchange for a wage paid by demanding firms. Because these labourers exist as parts of a social, institutional, or political system, labour economics must also account for social, cultural and political variables. Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure. Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about a 'planetary labour market' in some sectors. Labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with other factors of production, such as land and capital. Some theories focus on human capital, or entrepreneurship, (which refers to the skills that workers possess and not necessarily the actual work that they produce). Labour is unique to study because it is a special type of good that cannot be separated from the owner (i.e. the work cannot be separated from the person who does it). A labour market is also different from other markets in that workers are the suppliers and firms are the demanders. Macro and micro analysis of labour markets There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market. Microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income and gross domestic product. Macroeconomics of labour markets Job advertisement board in Shenzhen The labour market in macroeconomic theory shows that the supply of labour exceeds demand, which has been proven by salary growth that lags productivity growth. When labour supply exceeds demand, salary faces downward pressure due to an employer's ability to pick from a labour pool that exceeds the jobs pool. However, if the demand for labour is larger than the supply, salary increases, as employee have more bargaining power while employers have to compete for scarce labour. The Labour force (LF) is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work (unemployed). The labour force participation rate (LFPR) is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population of working age that is not institutionalized), LFPR = LF/Population. The non-labour force includes those who are not looking for work, those who are institutionalized (such as in prisons or psychiatric wards), stay-at-home spouses, children not of working age, and those serving in the military. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population (or by the population of working age). In these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed. The labour market has the ability to create a higher derivative efficiency of labour, especially on a national and international level, compared to simpler forms of labour distribution, leading to a higher financial GDP growth and output. An efficient labour market is important for the private sector as it drives up derivative income through the reduction of relative costs of labour. This presupposes that division of labour is used as a method to attain cost efficiency. Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time. They can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements. Changes in unemployment depend on inflows (non-employed people starting to look for jobs and employed people who lose their jobs that are looking for new ones) and outflows (people who find new employment and people who stop looking for employment). When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identified, which can be separated into two categories of natural and unnatural unemployment. Natural Unemployment Frictional unemployment – This reflects the fact that it takes time for people to find and settle into new jobs that they feel are appropriate for them and their skill set. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment; for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost and time associated with locating employment or personnel selection. Structural unemployment – The number of jobs available in an industry are not sufficient enough to provide jobs to all persons who are interested in working or qualified to work in that industry. This can be due to the changes in industries prevalent in a country or because wages for the industry are too high, causing people to want to supply their labour to that industry. Natural rate of unemployment (also known as full employment) – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment, that excludes cyclical contributions of unemployment (e.g. recessions) and seasonal unemployment. It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the natural rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%, or on its meaning – some associate it with "non-accelerating inflation". The estimated rate varies between countries and across time. Unnatural Unemployment Demand deficient unemployment (also known as cyclical unemployment) – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour). Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased, according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C), increasing investment spending (I), increasing government spending (G), or increasing the net of exports minus imports (X−M), since AE = C + I + G + (X−M). Seasonal unemployment – Unemployment due to seasonal fluctuations of demand for workers across industries, such as in the retail industry after holidays that involve a lot of shopping are over. Neoclassical microeconomics Neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine the price (in this case the wage rate) and quantity (in this case the number of people employed). However, the labour market differs from other markets (like the markets for goods or the financial market) in several ways. In particular, the labour market may act as a non-clearing market. While according to neoclassical theory most markets quickly attain a point of equilibrium without excess supply or demand, this may not be true of the labour market: it may have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent compensating differentials among similar workers. Models that assume perfect competition in the labour market, as discussed below, conclude that workers earn their marginal product of labour. Neoclassical supply See also: Labour supply The neoclassical model analyzes the trade-off between leisure hours and working hours. Railroad work Households are suppliers of labour. In microeconomic theory, people are assumed to be rational and seeking to maximize their utility function. In the labour market model, their utility function expresses trade-offs in preference between leisure time and income from time used for labour. However, they are constrained by the hours available to them. Let w denote the hourly wage, k denote total hours available for labour and leisure, L denote the chosen number of working hours, π denote income from non-labour sources, and A denote leisure hours chosen. The individual's problem is to maximise utility U, which depends on total income available for spending on consumption and also depends on the time spent in leisure, subject to a time constraint, with respect to the choices of labour time and leisure time: maximize U ( w L + π , A ) subject to L + A ≤ k . {\displaystyle {\text{maximize}}\quad U(wL+\pi ,A)\quad {\text{subject to}}\quad L+A\leq k.} This is shown in the graph below, which illustrates the trade-off between allocating time to leisure activities and allocating it to income-generating activities. The linear constraint indicates that every additional hour of leisure undertaken requires the loss of an hour of labour and thus of the fixed amount of goods that that labour's income could purchase. Individuals must choose how much time to allocate to leisure activities and how much to working. This allocation decision is informed by the indifference curve labelled IC1. The curve indicates the combinations of leisure and work that will give the individual a specific level of utility. The point where the highest indifference curve is just tangent to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the optimum for this supplier of labour services. If consumption is measured by the value of income obtained, this diagram can be used to show a variety of interesting effects. This is because the absolute value of the slope of the budget constraint is the wage rate. The point of optimisation (point A) reflects the equivalency between the wage rate and the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income (the absolute value of the slope of the indifference curve). Because the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income is also the ratio of the marginal utility of leisure (MUL) to the marginal utility of income (MUY), one can conclude: M U L M U Y = d Y d L , {\displaystyle {{MU^{L}} \over {MU^{Y}}}={{dY} \over {dL}},} where Y is total income and the right side is the wage rate. Effects of a wage increase If the wage rate increases, this individual's constraint line pivots up from X,Y1 to X,Y2. He/she can now purchase more goods and services. His/her utility will increase from point A on IC1 to point B on IC2. To understand what effect this might have on the decision of how many hours to work, one must look at the income effect and substitution effect. The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decomposed into two separate effects. The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to point C in the next diagram. Consumption increases from YA to YC and – since the diagram assumes that leisure is a normal good – leisure time increases from XA to XC. (Employment time decreases by the same amount as leisure increases.) The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increase But that is only part of the picture. As the wage rate rises, the worker will substitute away from leisure and into the provision of labour—that is, will work more hours to take advantage of the higher wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher opportunity cost. This substitution effect is represented by the shift from point C to point B. The net impact of these two effects is shown by the shift from point A to point B. The relative magnitude of the two effects depends on the circumstances. In some cases, such as the one shown, the substitution effect is greater than the income effect (in which case more time will be allocated to working), but in other cases, the income effect will be greater than the substitution effect (in which case less time is allocated to working). The intuition behind this latter case is that the individual decides that the higher earnings on the previous amount of labour can be "spent" by purchasing more leisure. The Labour Supply curve If the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, an individual's supply of labour services will increase as the wage rate rises, which is represented by a positive slope in the labour supply curve (as at point E in the adjacent diagram, which exhibits a positive wage elasticity). This positive relationship is increasing until point F, beyond which the income effect dominates the substitution effect and the individual starts to reduce the number of labour hours he supplies (point G) as wage increases; in other words, the wage elasticity is now negative. The direction of the slope may change more than once for some individuals, and the labour supply curve is different for different individuals. Other variables that affect the labour supply decision, and can be readily incorporated into the model, include taxation, welfare, work environment, and income as a signal of ability or social contribution. Neoclassical demand See also: Labour demand A firm's labour demand is based on its marginal physical product of labour (MPPL). This is defined as the additional output (or physical product) that results from an increase of one unit of labour (or from an infinitesimal increase in labour). (See also Production theory basics.) Labour demand is a derived demand; that is, hiring labour is not desired for its own sake but rather because it aids in producing output, which contributes to an employer's revenue and hence profits. The demand for an additional amount of labour depends on the Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) and the marginal cost (MC) of the worker. With a perfectly competitive goods market, the MRP is calculated by multiplying the price of the end product or service by the Marginal Physical Product of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then the firm will employ the worker since doing so will increase profit. The firm only employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, and not beyond, in neoclassical economic theory. The MRP of the worker is affected by other inputs to production with which the worker can work (e.g. machinery), often aggregated under the term "capital". It is typical in economic models for greater availability of capital for a firm to increase the MRP of the worker, all else equal. Education and training are counted as "human capital". Since the amount of physical capital affects MRP, and since financial capital flows can affect the amount of physical capital available, MRP and thus wages can be affected by financial capital flows within and between countries, and the degree of capital mobility within and between countries. According to neoclassical theory, over the relevant range of outputs, the marginal physical product of labour is declining (law of diminishing returns). That is, as more and more units of labour are employed, their additional output begins to decline. Additionally, although the MRP is a good way of expressing an employer's demand, other factors such as social group formation can the demand, as well as the labour supply. This constantly restructures exactly what a labour market is, and leads way to cause problems for theories of inflation. Equilibrium A firm's labour demand in the short run (D) and a horizontal supply curve (S) The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for this firm in the short run. In competitive markets, a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of labour which corresponds with the wage rate and the marginal resource cost of labour (W = SL = MFCL). In imperfect markets, the diagram would have to be adjusted because MFCL would then be equal to the wage rate divided by marginal costs. Because optimum resource allocation requires that marginal factor costs equal marginal revenue product, this firm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram. The demand for labour of this firm can be summed with the demand for labour of all other firms in the economy to obtain the aggregate demand for labour. Likewise, the supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned above) can be summed to obtain the aggregate supply of labour. These supply and demand curves can be analysed in the same way as any other industry demand and supply curves to determine equilibrium wage and employment levels. Wage differences exist, particularly in mixed and fully/partly flexible labour markets. For example, the wages of a doctor and a port cleaner, both employed by the NHS, differ greatly. There are various factors concerning this phenomenon. This includes the MRP of the worker. A doctor's MRP is far greater than that of the port cleaner. In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner. To become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which is costly, and only those who excel in academia can succeed in becoming doctors. The port cleaner, however, requires relatively less training. The supply of doctors is therefore significantly less elastic than that of port cleaners. Demand is also inelastic as there is a high demand for doctors and medical care is a necessity, so the NHS will pay higher wage rates to attract the profession. Monopsony Main article: Monopsony Some labour markets have a single employer and thus do not satisfy the perfect competition assumption of the neoclassical model above. The model of a monopsonistic labour market gives a lower quantity of employment and a lower equilibrium wage rate than does the competitive model. Asymmetric information An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala Lumpur In many real-life situations, the assumption of perfect information is unrealistic. An employer does not necessarily know how hard workers are working or how productive they are. This provides an incentive for workers to shirk from providing their full effort, called moral hazard. Since it is difficult for the employer to identify the hard-working and the shirking employees, there is no incentive to work hard and productivity falls overall, leading to the hiring of more workers and a lower unemployment rate. One solution that is used to avoid a moral hazard is stock options that grant employees the chance to benefit directly from a firm's success. However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock-option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to the detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm. Another solution, foreshadowed by the rise of temporary workers in Japan and the firing of many of these workers in response to the financial crisis of 2008, is more flexible job- contracts and -terms that encourage employees to work less than full-time by partially compensating for the loss of hours, relying on workers to adapt their working time in response to job requirements and economic conditions instead of the employer trying to determine how much work is needed to complete a given task and overestimating. Another aspect of uncertainty results from the firm's imperfect knowledge about worker ability. If a firm is unsure about a worker's ability, it pays a wage assuming that the worker's ability is the average of similar workers. This wage under compensates high-ability workers which may drive them away from the labour market as well as at the same time attracting low-ability workers. Such a phenomenon, called adverse selection, can sometimes lead to market collapse. One way to combat adverse selection, firms will try to use signalling, pioneered by Michael Spence, whereby employers could use various characteristics of applicants differentiate between high-ability or low-ability workers. One common signal used is education, whereby employers assume that high-ability workers will have higher levels of education. Employers can then compensate high-ability workers with higher wages. However, signalling does not always work, and it may appear to an external observer that education has raised the marginal product of labour, without this necessarily being true. Search models Main articles: Search theory and Matching theory (macroeconomics) One of the major research achievements of the 1990–2010 period was the development of a framework with dynamic search, matching, and bargaining. Personnel economics: hiring and incentives Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed. (January 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) At the micro level, one sub-discipline eliciting increased attention in recent decades is analysis of internal labour markets, that is, within firms (or other organisations), studied in personnel economics from the perspective of personnel management. By contrast, external labour markets "imply that workers move somewhat fluidly between firms and wages are determined by some aggregate process where firms do not have significant discretion over wage setting." The focus is on "how firms establish, maintain, and end employment relationships and on how firms provide incentives to employees," including models and empirical work on incentive systems and as constrained by economic efficiency and risk/incentive tradeoffs relating to personnel compensation. Discrimination and inequality Inequality and discrimination in the workplace can have many effects on workers. In the context of labour economics, inequality is usually referring to the unequal distribution of earning between households. Inequality is commonly measured by economists using the Gini coefficient. This coefficient does not have a concrete meaning but is more used as a way to compare inequality across regions. The higher the Gini coefficient is calculated to be the larger inequality exists in a region. Over time, inequality has, on average, been increasing. This is due to numerous factors including labour supply and demand shifts as well as institutional changes in the labour market. On the shifts in labour supply and demand, factors include demand for skilled workers going up more than the supply of skilled workers and relative to unskilled workers as well as technological changes that increase productivity; all of these things cause wages to go up for skilled labour while unskilled worker wages stay the same or decline. As for the institutional changes, a decrease in union power and a declining real minimum wage, which both reduce unskilled workers wages, and tax cuts for the wealthy all increase the inequality gap between groups of earners. As for discrimination, it is the difference in pay that can be attributed to the demographic differences between people, such as gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, etc, even though these factors do not affect the productivity of the worker. Many regions and countries have enacted government policies to combat discrimination, including discrimination in the workplace. Discrimination can be modelled and measured in numerous ways. The Oaxaca decomposition is a common method used to calculate the amount of discrimination that exists when wages differ between groups of people. This decomposition aims to calculate the difference in wages that occurs because of differences in skills versus the returns to those skills. A way of modelling discrimination in the workplace when dealing with wages are Gary Becker's taste models. Using taste models, employer discrimination can be thought of as the employer not hiring the minority worker because of their perceived cost of hiring that worker is higher than that of the cost of hiring a non-minority worker, which causes less hiring of the minority. Another taste model is for employee discrimination, which does not cause a decline in the hiring of minorities, but instead causes a more segregated workforce because the prejudiced worker feels that they should be paid more to work next to the worker they are prejudiced against or that they are not paid an equal amount as the worker they are prejudiced against. One more taste model involves customer discrimination, whereby the employers themselves are not prejudiced but believe that their customers might be, so therefore the employer is less likely to hire the minority worker if they are going to interact with customers that are prejudiced. There are many other taste models other than these that Gary Becker has made to explain discrimination that causes differences in hiring in wages in the labour market. Criticisms Many sociologists, political economists, and heterodox economists claim that labour economics tends to lose sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions. These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and a purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions of the process, such as social benefits of a high income or wage rate regardless of the marginal utility from increased consumption or specific economic goals. From the perspective of mainstream economics, neoclassical models are not meant to serve as a full description of the psychological and subjective factors that go into a given individual's employment relations, but as a useful approximation of human behaviour in the aggregate, which can be fleshed out further by the use of concepts such as information asymmetry, transaction costs, contract theory etc. Also missing from most labour market analyses is the role of unpaid labour such as unpaid internships where workers with little or no experience are allowed to work a job without pay so that they can gain experience in a particular profession. Even though this type of labour is unpaid it can nevertheless play an important part in society if not abused by employers. The most dramatic example is child raising. However, over the past 25 years an increasing literature, usually designated as the economics of the family, has sought to study within household decision making, including joint labour supply, fertility, child-raising, as well as other areas of what is generally referred to as home production. Wage slavery Main article: Wage slavery Further information: Economic exploitation and Contemporary slavery The labour market, as institutionalised under today's market economic systems, has been criticised, especially by both mainstream socialists and anarcho-syndicalists, who utilise the term wage slavery as a pejorative for wage labour. Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels. According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era. In his 1791 book On the Limits of State Action, classical liberal thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt explained how "whatever does not spring from a man's free choice, or is only the result of instruction and guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness" and so when the labourer works under external control, "we may admire what he does, but we despise what he is." Both the Milgram and Stanford experiments have been found useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations. The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business". Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state. As per anthropologist David Graeber, the earliest wage labour contracts we know about were in fact contracts for the rental of chattel slaves (usually the owner would receive a share of the money, and the slave, another, with which to maintain his or her living expenses.) Such arrangements, according to Graeber, were quite common in New World slavery as well, whether in the United States or Brazil. C. L. R. James argued that most of the techniques of human organisation employed on factory workers during the industrial revolution were first developed on slave plantations. Additionally, Marxists posit that labour-as-commodity, which is how they regard wage labour, provides an absolutely fundamental point of attack against capitalism. "It can be persuasively argued", noted one concerned philosopher, "that the conception of the worker's labour as a commodity confirms Marx's stigmatisation of the wage system of private capitalism as 'wage-slavery;' that is, as an instrument of the capitalist's for reducing the worker's condition to that of a slave, if not below it." See also Portals: Organized labour Economics Business Society Career and Life Planning Education Collective bargaining Salary inversion Employment Unemployment Employment Protection Legislation Compensation of employees Manual labour Affective labour Volunteer Unfree labour Offshore outsourcing Housework Human resources Human Resource Management Systems Cost the limit of price Demographic economics Beveridge curve Consumer theory Conditional factor demands Labour market flexibility Frisch elasticity of labour supply Labour power Economic rent Industrial relations References ^ a b c d e f Borjas, George J. (14 January 2015). Labor economics (Seventh ed.). 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Retrieved January 26, 2023. ^ Becker, Gary S. (1971). The economics of discrimination (2d ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-04115-8. OCLC 173468. ^ Teixeira, Pedro N. (2007). Jacob Mincer: A Founding Father of Modern Labor Economics - Oxford Scholarship. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211319.001.0001. ISBN 9780199211319. ^ "Putting the family in economics". University Affairs. Retrieved 2024-03-14. ^ Ellerman, David P. (1992). Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy. Blackwell. ISBN 1557863091. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912. ^ Ostergaard, Geoffrey (1997). The Tradition of Workers' Control. London: Freedom Press. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-900384-91-2. ^ Lazonick, William (1990). Competitive Advantage on the Shop Floor. Harvard University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780674154162. Retrieved January 26, 2023. ^ "wage slave". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013. ^ "wage slave". dictionary.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013. ^ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis ^ Chomsky, Noam (1993). Year 501: The Conquest Continues (PDF). Black Rose Books. p. 19. ISBN 9781895431629. Retrieved January 26, 2023. ^ Lawler, Edward J.; Thye, Shane R. (2006). "Social Exchange Theory of Emotions". In Stets, Jan E.; Turner, Jonathan H. (eds.). Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Boston: Springer. pp. 295–320. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30715-2_14. hdl:1813/76104. ISBN 978-0-387-30713-8. Retrieved January 26, 2023.. ^ Dewey, John (March 18, 1931). "The Need for a New Party". The New Republic. Retrieved January 26, 2023. As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance ^ Ferguson, Thomas (1995). Golden Rule : The Investment Theory of Party Competition and the Logic of Money-Driven Political Systems. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226243176. Retrieved January 26, 2023. ^ Graeber, David (2004). Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology (PDF). Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-9728196-4-9. LCCN 2004090746. Retrieved January 26, 2023. ^ Marx, Karl (1990). Capital: A Critique of Political Economy (PDF). Vol. 1. Translated by Fowkes, Ben. Penguin Books. p. 1006. Retrieved January 26, 2023. abour-power, a commodity sold by the worker himself. ^ Another one, of course, being the capitalists' alleged theft from workers via surplus-value. ^ Nelson, John O. (April 1995). "That a Worker's Labour Cannot Be a Commodity". Philosophy. 40 (272). Cambridge University Press: 157–165. doi:10.1017/S0031819100065359. JSTOR 3751199. S2CID 171054136. Sources Thompson, E. P. (1966). The Making of the English Working Class (reprinted ed.). New York City: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780394703220. Further reading Richard Blundell and Thomas MaCurdy, 2008. "labour supply," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition Freeman, R.B., 1987. "Labour economics," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 72–76. John R. Hicks, 1932, 2nd ed., 1963. The Theory of Wages. London, Macmillan. Handbook of Labor Economics. Elsevier. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Links to one-page chapter previews for each volume: Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard, ed., 1986, v. 1 & 2; Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 1999, v. 3A, 3B, and 3C Orley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 2011, v. 4A & 4B. Mark R. Killingsworth, 1983. Labour Supply. Cambridge: Cambridge Surveys of Economic Literature. Jacob Mincer, 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York: Columbia University Press. Anindya Bakrie & Morendy Octora, 2002. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York, Singapore National University: Columbia University Press. Acocella, Nicola; Di Bartolomeo, Giovanni; Hibbs, Douglas A. (2008). "Labor market regimes and the effects of monetary policy". Journal of Macroeconomics. 30: 134–156. doi:10.1016/j.jmacro.2006.08.006. hdl:2077/25796. S2CID 5758901. Cain, Glen G. (1976). "The Challenge of Segmented Labor Market Theories to Orthodox Theory: A Survey". Journal of Economic Literature. 14 (4): 1215–1257. JSTOR 2722547. Lindbeck, Assar; Snower, Dennis J. (1986). "Wage Setting, Unemployment, and Insider-Outsider Relations". American Economic Review. 76 (2): 235–239. JSTOR 1818771. McGaughey, Ewan (2014-06-30). "Behavioural Economics and Labour Law". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2460685. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 151022170. SSRN 2460685. Archived from the original on 2016-11-04. Head, Simon (2005-02-11). The New Ruthless Economy: Work and Power in the Digital Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195179835. Khan, Ali (2006-10-12). "The Dignity of Manual Labor". SSRN Electronic Journal. ISSN 1556-5068. SSRN 936890. Archived from the original on 2019-11-12. Miller, Doug (2013-02-05). "Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2212100. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 166733679. SSRN 2212100. Archived from the original on 2017-01-27. External links Ageing workers EU-OSHA The Labour Economics Gateway – Collection of Internet sites that are of interest to labour economists Labour & Worklife Program at Harvard Law School, Changing Labour Markets Project W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research ILO: Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM). 2007 LabourFair Resources – Link to Fair Labour Practices Labour Research Network – Labour research programme treating various fields Labour Research Department – Independent labour economics research organisation vteEconomicsTheoretical Microeconomics Decision theory Price theory Game theory Contract theory Mechanism design Macroeconomics Mathematical economics Computational economics Behavioral economics Pluralism in economics Empirical Econometrics Economic statistics Experimental economics Economic history Applied Agricultural Behavioral Business Cultural Demographic Development Digitization Ecological Education Engineering Environmental Evolutionary Expeditionary Feminist Financial Geographical Happiness Health Historical Humanistic Industrial organization Information Institutional Knowledge Labour Law Managerial Monetary Natural resource Organizational Participation Personnel Planning Policy Public Public choice / Social choice theory Regional Rural Service Socio Sociological Solidarity Statistics Urban Welfare Schools(history) Mainstream Heterodox American (National) Ancient thought Anarchist Mutualism Austrian Behavioral Buddhist Chartalism Modern monetary theory Chicago Classical Critique of political economy Democracy Disequilibrium Ecological Evolutionary Feminist Georgism Happiness Historical Humanistic Institutional Keynesian Neo- (neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis) New Post- Circuitism Malthusianism Marginalism Marxian Neo- Mercantilism Mixed Neoclassical Lausanne New classical Real business-cycle theory New institutional Physiocracy Socialist Stockholm Supply-side Thermo Economists de Mandeville Quesnay Smith Malthus Say Ricardo von Thünen List Bastiat Cournot Mill Gossen Marx Walras Jevons George Menger Marshall Edgeworth Clark Pareto von Böhm-Bawerk von Wieser Veblen Fisher Pigou Heckscher von Mises Schumpeter Keynes Knight Polanyi Frisch Sraffa Myrdal Hayek Kalecki Röpke Kuznets Tinbergen Robinson von Neumann Hicks Lange Leontief Galbraith Koopmans Schumacher Friedman Samuelson Simon Buchanan Arrow Baumol Solow Rothbard Greenspan Sowell Becker Ostrom Sen Lucas Stiglitz Thaler Hoppe Krugman Piketty more Lists Glossary Economists Publications (journals) Schools Category Index Lists Outline Publications Business portal vteSyndicalismPrecursors Guild socialism Orthodox Marxism Revolutions of 1848 Utopian socialismVariants Anarchist Council communism De Leonism Fascist Green Nationalist SorelianismEconomics Co-operative economics Labour economics General strike Labour rights Labour unionisation Workers' self-management Mutual aidOrganisations International Workingmen's Association (1864–1876) IWA–AIT and affiliates Argentine Regional Workers' Federation (FORA) Brazilian Workers Confederation (COB) General Confederation of Labour (CGT, Spain) Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT–AIT, Spain) Confederation of Revolutionary Anarcho-Syndicalists (CRAS, Russia) Free Workers' Union (FAU, Germany) Norsk Syndikalistisk Forbund (NSF–IAA, Norway) Solidarity Federation (SF–IWA, Britain) Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) International Workingmen's Association (IWA) Irish Transport and General Workers' Union (ITGWU) Sveriges Arbetares Centralorganisation (SAC, Sweden) People Bain Berth De Ambris De Leon Delesalle Fitzgerald Griffuelhes Haywood Janvion Jouhaux Lagardelle Larkin Monatte García Panunzio Pelloutier Rocker Sorel ValoisRelated topics Communism Copyleft Corporatism Criticism of capitalism Criticism of copyright Critique of work Fascism Labour power Libertarian socialism Post-capitalism Revisionism Socialism Anarchism portal Communism portal Labour economics Organized Labour Politics portal Socialism portal Syndicalism Authority control databases National France BnF data Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Labour Economics (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Economics_(journal)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%22Emergency_-_Your_help_is_Needed_to_Can_the_Crops%22_-_NARA_-_513835.tif"},{"link_name":"markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)"},{"link_name":"wage labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_labour"},{"link_name":"Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_(human_activity)"},{"link_name":"labourers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labourer"},{"link_name":"wage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tarling-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"factors of production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factors_of_production"},{"link_name":"land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_(economics)"},{"link_name":"capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(economics)"},{"link_name":"human capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_capital"},{"link_name":"entrepreneurship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneurship"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-1"}],"text":"For the journal, see Labour Economics (journal).A \"help wanted\" sign seeks available workers for jobs.Labour economics, or labor economics, seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for wage labour. Labour is a commodity that is supplied by labourers, usually in exchange for a wage paid by demanding firms.[1][2] Because these labourers exist as parts of a social, institutional, or political system, labour economics must also account for social, cultural and political variables.[3]Labour markets or job markets function through the interaction of workers and employers. Labour economics looks at the suppliers of labour services (workers) and the demanders of labour services (employers), and attempts to understand the resulting pattern of wages, employment, and income. These patterns exist because each individual in the market is presumed to make rational choices based on the information that they know regarding wage, desire to provide labour, and desire for leisure. Labour markets are normally geographically bounded, but the rise of the internet has brought about a 'planetary labour market' in some sectors.[4]Labour is a measure of the work done by human beings. It is conventionally contrasted with other factors of production, such as land and capital. Some theories focus on human capital, or entrepreneurship, (which refers to the skills that workers possess and not necessarily the actual work that they produce). Labour is unique to study because it is a special type of good that cannot be separated from the owner (i.e. the work cannot be separated from the person who does it). A labour market is also different from other markets in that workers are the suppliers and firms are the demanders.[1]","title":"Labour economics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"microeconomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microeconomics"},{"link_name":"macroeconomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroeconomics"},{"link_name":"gross domestic product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product"}],"text":"There are two sides to labour economics. Labour economics can generally be seen as the application of microeconomic or macroeconomic techniques to the labour market. Microeconomic techniques study the role of individuals and individual firms in the labour market. Macroeconomic techniques look at the interrelations between the labour market, the goods market, the money market, and the foreign trade market. It looks at how these interactions influence macro variables such as employment levels, participation rates, aggregate income and gross domestic product.","title":"Macro and micro analysis of labour markets"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Shenzhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhen"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Labour force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workforce"},{"link_name":"working age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_age"},{"link_name":"civilian noninstitutional population","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian_noninstitutional_population"},{"link_name":"institutionalized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutionalisation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-6"},{"link_name":"unemployment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-6"},{"link_name":"division of labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division_of_labour"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"retirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retirement"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-6"},{"link_name":"personnel selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personnel_selection"},{"link_name":"Structural unemployment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_unemployment"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-6"},{"link_name":"inflation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-6"},{"link_name":"Keynesian economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynesian_economics"},{"link_name":"aggregate expenditure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aggregate_expenditure&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-6"}],"text":"Job advertisement board in ShenzhenThe labour market in macroeconomic theory shows that the supply of labour exceeds demand, which has been proven by salary growth that lags productivity growth. When labour supply exceeds demand, salary faces downward pressure due to an employer's ability to pick from a labour pool that exceeds the jobs pool. However, if the demand for labour is larger than the supply, salary increases, as employee have more bargaining power while employers have to compete for scarce labour.[5]The Labour force (LF) is defined as the number of people of working age, who are either employed or actively looking for work (unemployed). The labour force participation rate (LFPR) is the number of people in the labour force divided by the size of the adult civilian noninstitutional population (or by the population of working age that is not institutionalized), LFPR = LF/Population.[6]The non-labour force includes those who are not looking for work, those who are institutionalized (such as in prisons or psychiatric wards), stay-at-home spouses, children not of working age, and those serving in the military. The unemployment level is defined as the labour force minus the number of people currently employed. The unemployment rate is defined as the level of unemployment divided by the labour force. The employment rate is defined as the number of people currently employed divided by the adult population (or by the population of working age). In these statistics, self-employed people are counted as employed.[6]The labour market has the ability to create a higher derivative efficiency of labour, especially on a national and international level, compared to simpler forms of labour distribution, leading to a higher financial GDP growth and output. An efficient labour market is important for the private sector as it drives up derivative income through the reduction of relative costs of labour. This presupposes that division of labour is used as a method to attain cost efficiency.[7][8][9]Variables like employment level, unemployment level, labour force, and unfilled vacancies are called stock variables because they measure a quantity at a point in time. They can be contrasted with flow variables which measure a quantity over a duration of time. Changes in the labour force are due to flow variables such as natural population growth, net immigration, new entrants, and retirements. Changes in unemployment depend on inflows (non-employed people starting to look for jobs and employed people who lose their jobs that are looking for new ones) and outflows (people who find new employment and people who stop looking for employment). When looking at the overall macroeconomy, several types of unemployment have been identified, which can be separated into two categories of natural and unnatural unemployment.[6]Natural UnemploymentFrictional unemployment – This reflects the fact that it takes time for people to find and settle into new jobs that they feel are appropriate for them and their skill set.[6] Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment; for example, internet search engines have reduced the cost and time associated with locating employment or personnel selection.\nStructural unemployment – The number of jobs available in an industry are not sufficient enough to provide jobs to all persons who are interested in working or qualified to work in that industry. This can be due to the changes in industries prevalent in a country or because wages for the industry are too high, causing people to want to supply their labour to that industry.[6]\nNatural rate of unemployment (also known as full employment) – This is the summation of frictional and structural unemployment, that excludes cyclical contributions of unemployment (e.g. recessions) and seasonal unemployment. It is the lowest rate of unemployment that a stable economy can expect to achieve, given that some frictional and structural unemployment is inevitable. Economists do not agree on the level of the natural rate, with estimates ranging from 1% to 5%, or on its meaning – some associate it with \"non-accelerating inflation\". The estimated rate varies between countries and across time.[6]Unnatural UnemploymentDemand deficient unemployment (also known as cyclical unemployment) – In Keynesian economics, any level of unemployment beyond the natural rate is probably due to insufficient goods demand in the overall economy. During a recession, aggregate expenditure is deficient causing the underutilisation of inputs (including labour).Aggregate expenditure (AE) can be increased,according to Keynes, by increasing consumption spending (C),increasing investment spending (I),increasing government spending (G),or increasing the net of exports minus imports (X−M),since AE = C + I + G + (X−M).Seasonal unemployment – Unemployment due to seasonal fluctuations of demand for workers across industries, such as in the retail industry after holidays that involve a lot of shopping are over.[6]","title":"Macroeconomics of labour markets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neoclassical economists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_economics"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"non-clearing market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_clearing"},{"link_name":"compensating differentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensating_differential"},{"link_name":"perfect competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_competition"},{"link_name":"marginal product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_product"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Neoclassical economists view the labour market as similar to other markets in that the forces of supply and demand jointly determine the price (in this case the wage rate) and quantity (in this case the number of people employed).However, the labour market differs from other markets (like the markets for goods or the financial market) in several ways. In particular, the labour market may act as a non-clearing market. While according to neoclassical theory most markets quickly attain a point of equilibrium without excess supply or demand, this may not be true of the labour market: it may have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent compensating differentials among similar workers.Models that assume perfect competition in the labour market, as discussed below, conclude that workers earn their marginal product of labour.[10]","title":"Neoclassical microeconomics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Labour supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_supply"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON,_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT,_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg"},{"link_name":"utility function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utility_function"},{"link_name":"leisure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leisure"},{"link_name":"working","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_labour"},{"link_name":"indifference curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indifference_curve"},{"link_name":"marginal rate of substitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_rate_of_substitution"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-robertfrank-11"},{"link_name":"marginal utility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_utility"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Labour_wage_increase_small.png"},{"link_name":"income effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Income_effect"},{"link_name":"substitution effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitution_effect"},{"link_name":"normal good","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_good"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Labour_supply_income_and_substitution_effects_small.png"},{"link_name":"opportunity cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_cost"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Labour_supply_small.png"},{"link_name":"elasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_(economics)"},{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(economics)"}],"sub_title":"Neoclassical supply","text":"See also: Labour supplyThe neoclassical model analyzes the trade-off between leisure hours and working hours.Railroad workHouseholds are suppliers of labour. In microeconomic theory, people are assumed to be rational and seeking to maximize their utility function. In the labour market model, their utility function expresses trade-offs in preference between leisure time and income from time used for labour. However, they are constrained by the hours available to them.Let w denote the hourly wage, k denote total hours available for labour and leisure, L denote the chosen number of working hours, π denote income from non-labour sources, and A denote leisure hours chosen. The individual's problem is to maximise utility U, which depends on total income available for spending on consumption and also depends on the time spent in leisure, subject to a time constraint, with respect to the choices of labour time and leisure time:maximize\n \n \n U\n (\n w\n L\n +\n π\n ,\n A\n )\n \n \n subject to\n \n \n L\n +\n A\n ≤\n k\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{maximize}}\\quad U(wL+\\pi ,A)\\quad {\\text{subject to}}\\quad L+A\\leq k.}This is shown in the graph below, which illustrates the trade-off between allocating time to leisure activities and allocating it to income-generating activities. The linear constraint indicates that every additional hour of leisure undertaken requires the loss of an hour of labour and thus of the fixed amount of goods that that labour's income could purchase. Individuals must choose how much time to allocate to leisure activities and how much to working. This allocation decision is informed by the indifference curve labelled IC1. The curve indicates the combinations of leisure and work that will give the individual a specific level of utility. The point where the highest indifference curve is just tangent to the constraint line (point A), illustrates the optimum for this supplier of labour services.If consumption is measured by the value of income obtained, this diagram can be used to show a variety of interesting effects. This is because the absolute value of the slope of the budget constraint is the wage rate. The point of optimisation (point A) reflects the equivalency between the wage rate and the marginal rate of substitution[11] of leisure for income (the absolute value of the slope of the indifference curve). Because the marginal rate of substitution of leisure for income is also the ratio of the marginal utility of leisure (MUL) to the marginal utility of income (MUY), one can conclude:M\n \n U\n \n L\n \n \n \n \n M\n \n U\n \n Y\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n Y\n \n \n d\n L\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {{MU^{L}} \\over {MU^{Y}}}={{dY} \\over {dL}},}where Y is total income and the right side is the wage rate.Effects of a wage increaseIf the wage rate increases, this individual's constraint line pivots up from X,Y1 to X,Y2. He/she can now purchase more goods and services. His/her utility will increase from point A on IC1 to point B on IC2.\nTo understand what effect this might have on the decision of how many hours to work, one must look at the income effect and substitution effect.The wage increase shown in the previous diagram can be decomposed into two separate effects. The pure income effect is shown as the movement from point A to point C in the next diagram. Consumption increases from YA to YC and – since the diagram assumes that leisure is a normal good – leisure time increases from XA to XC. (Employment time decreases by the same amount as leisure increases.)The Income and Substitution effects of a wage increaseBut that is only part of the picture. As the wage rate rises, the worker will substitute away from leisure and into the provision of labour—that is, will work more hours to take advantage of the higher wage rate, or in other words substitute away from leisure because of its higher opportunity cost. This substitution effect is represented by the shift from point C to point B. The net impact of these two effects is shown by the shift from point A to point B. The relative magnitude of the two effects depends on the circumstances. In some cases, such as the one shown, the substitution effect is greater than the income effect (in which case more time will be allocated to working), but in other cases, the income effect will be greater than the substitution effect (in which case less time is allocated to working). The intuition behind this latter case is that the individual decides that the higher earnings on the previous amount of labour can be \"spent\" by purchasing more leisure.The Labour Supply curveIf the substitution effect is greater than the income effect, an individual's supply of labour services will increase as the wage rate rises, which is represented by a positive slope in the labour supply curve (as at point E in the adjacent diagram, which exhibits a positive wage elasticity). This positive relationship is increasing until point F, beyond which the income effect dominates the substitution effect and the individual starts to reduce the number of labour hours he supplies (point G) as wage increases; in other words, the wage elasticity is now negative.The direction of the slope may change more than once for some individuals, and the labour supply curve is different for different individuals.Other variables that affect the labour supply decision, and can be readily incorporated into the model, include taxation, welfare, work environment, and income as a signal of ability or social contribution.","title":"Neoclassical microeconomics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Labour demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_demand"},{"link_name":"marginal physical product of labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_product_of_labour"},{"link_name":"Production theory basics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_theory_basics"},{"link_name":"Marginal Revenue Product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_Revenue_Product"},{"link_name":"marginal cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_cost"},{"link_name":"perfectly competitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_competition"},{"link_name":"price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price"},{"link_name":"Marginal Physical Product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_Physical_Product"},{"link_name":"profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_(economics)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-robertfrank-11"},{"link_name":"capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(economics)"},{"link_name":"Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"},{"link_name":"human capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_capital"},{"link_name":"wages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wages"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tarling-3"}],"sub_title":"Neoclassical demand","text":"See also: Labour demandA firm's labour demand is based on its marginal physical product of labour (MPPL). This is defined as the additional output (or physical product) that results from an increase of one unit of labour (or from an infinitesimal increase in labour). (See also Production theory basics.)Labour demand is a derived demand; that is, hiring labour is not desired for its own sake but rather because it aids in producing output, which contributes to an employer's revenue and hence profits. The demand for an additional amount of labour depends on the Marginal Revenue Product (MRP) and the marginal cost (MC) of the worker. With a perfectly competitive goods market, the MRP is calculated by multiplying the price of the end product or service by the Marginal Physical Product of the worker. If the MRP is greater than a firm's Marginal Cost, then the firm will employ the worker since doing so will increase profit. The firm only employs however up to the point where MRP=MC, and not beyond, in neoclassical economic theory.[11]The MRP of the worker is affected by other inputs to production with which the worker can work (e.g. machinery), often aggregated under the term \"capital\". It is typical in economic models for greater availability of capital for a firm to increase the MRP of the worker, all else equal. Education and training are counted as \"human capital\". Since the amount of physical capital affects MRP, and since financial capital flows can affect the amount of physical capital available, MRP and thus wages can be affected by financial capital flows within and between countries, and the degree of capital mobility within and between countries.[12]According to neoclassical theory, over the relevant range of outputs, the marginal physical product of labour is declining (law of diminishing returns). That is, as more and more units of labour are employed, their additional output begins to decline.Additionally, although the MRP is a good way of expressing an employer's demand, other factors such as social group formation can the demand, as well as the labour supply. This constantly restructures exactly what a labour market is, and leads way to cause problems for theories of inflation.[3]","title":"Neoclassical microeconomics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Labour_demand_in_the_short_run_small.png"},{"link_name":"competitive markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(economics)"},{"link_name":"marginal factor costs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marginal_factor_cost"},{"link_name":"supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"},{"link_name":"doctor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine"},{"link_name":"NHS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Health_Service_(England)"}],"sub_title":"Equilibrium","text":"A firm's labour demand in the short run (D) and a horizontal supply curve (S)The marginal revenue product of labour can be used as the demand for labour curve for this firm in the short run. In competitive markets, a firm faces a perfectly elastic supply of labour which corresponds with the wage rate and the marginal resource cost of labour (W = SL = MFCL). In imperfect markets, the diagram would have to be adjusted because MFCL would then be equal to the wage rate divided by marginal costs. Because optimum resource allocation requires that marginal factor costs equal marginal revenue product, this firm would demand L units of labour as shown in the diagram.The demand for labour of this firm can be summed with the demand for labour of all other firms in the economy to obtain the aggregate demand for labour. Likewise, the supply curves of all the individual workers (mentioned above) can be summed to obtain the aggregate supply of labour. These supply and demand curves can be analysed in the same way as any other industry demand and supply curves to determine equilibrium wage and employment levels.Wage differences exist, particularly in mixed and fully/partly flexible labour markets. For example, the wages of a doctor and a port cleaner, both employed by the NHS, differ greatly. There are various factors concerning this phenomenon. This includes the MRP of the worker. A doctor's MRP is far greater than that of the port cleaner. In addition, the barriers to becoming a doctor are far greater than that of becoming a port cleaner. To become a doctor takes a lot of education and training which is costly, and only those who excel in academia can succeed in becoming doctors. The port cleaner, however, requires relatively less training. The supply of doctors is therefore significantly less elastic than that of port cleaners. Demand is also inelastic as there is a high demand for doctors and medical care is a necessity, so the NHS will pay higher wage rates to attract the profession.","title":"Neoclassical microeconomics"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Some labour markets have a single employer and thus do not satisfy the perfect competition assumption of the neoclassical model above. The model of a monopsonistic labour market gives a lower quantity of employment and a lower equilibrium wage rate than does the competitive model.","title":"Monopsony"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG"},{"link_name":"Jalan Petaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jalan_Petaling"},{"link_name":"shirk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laziness"},{"link_name":"moral hazard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_hazard"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-13"},{"link_name":"stock options","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee_stock_options"},{"link_name":"temporary workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporary_work"},{"link_name":"firing of many of these workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haken-giri"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"adverse selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adverse_selection"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:03-13"},{"link_name":"signalling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(economics)"},{"link_name":"Michael Spence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Spence"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-1"}],"text":"An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala LumpurIn many real-life situations, the assumption of perfect information is unrealistic. An employer does not necessarily know how hard workers are working or how productive they are. This provides an incentive for workers to shirk from providing their full effort, called moral hazard.[13] Since it is difficult for the employer to identify the hard-working and the shirking employees, there is no incentive to work hard and productivity falls overall, leading to the hiring of more workers and a lower unemployment rate.One solution that is used to avoid a moral hazard is stock options that grant employees the chance to benefit directly from a firm's success. However, this solution has attracted criticism as executives with large stock-option packages have been suspected of acting to over-inflate share values to the detriment of the long-run welfare of the firm. Another solution, foreshadowed by the rise of temporary workers in Japan and the firing of many of these workers in response to the financial crisis of 2008, is more flexible job- contracts and -terms that encourage employees to work less than full-time by partially compensating for the loss of hours, relying on workers to adapt their working time in response to job requirements and economic conditions instead of the employer trying to determine how much work is needed to complete a given task and overestimating.[citation needed]Another aspect of uncertainty results from the firm's imperfect knowledge about worker ability. If a firm is unsure about a worker's ability, it pays a wage assuming that the worker's ability is the average of similar workers. This wage under compensates high-ability workers which may drive them away from the labour market as well as at the same time attracting low-ability workers. Such a phenomenon, called adverse selection, can sometimes lead to market collapse.[13]One way to combat adverse selection, firms will try to use signalling, pioneered by Michael Spence, whereby employers could use various characteristics of applicants differentiate between high-ability or low-ability workers. One common signal used is education, whereby employers assume that high-ability workers will have higher levels of education.[1] Employers can then compensate high-ability workers with higher wages. However, signalling does not always work, and it may appear to an external observer that education has raised the marginal product of labour, without this necessarily being true.","title":"Asymmetric information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"search","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search_theory"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Search models","text":"One of the major research achievements of the 1990–2010 period was the development of a framework with dynamic search, matching, and bargaining.[14]","title":"Asymmetric information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"internal labour markets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_labor_market"},{"link_name":"personnel economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personnel_economics"},{"link_name":"personnel management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personnel_management"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"unreliable source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"economic efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_efficiency"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"At the micro level, one sub-discipline eliciting increased attention in recent decades is analysis of internal labour markets, that is, within firms (or other organisations), studied in personnel economics from the perspective of personnel management. By contrast, external labour markets \"imply that workers move somewhat fluidly between firms and wages are determined by some aggregate process where firms do not have significant discretion over wage setting.\"[15][16][unreliable source?] The focus is on \"how firms establish, maintain, and end employment relationships and on how firms provide incentives to employees,\" including models and empirical work on incentive systems and as constrained by economic efficiency and risk/incentive tradeoffs relating to personnel compensation.[17]","title":"Personnel economics: hiring and incentives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_inequality"},{"link_name":"discrimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-1"},{"link_name":"Gini coefficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gini_coefficient"},{"link_name":"skilled workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skilled_worker"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-1"},{"link_name":"Oaxaca decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blinder%E2%80%93Oaxaca_decomposition"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-1"},{"link_name":"Gary Becker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Becker"},{"link_name":"workforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workforce"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Discrimination and inequality","text":"Inequality and discrimination in the workplace can have many effects on workers.In the context of labour economics, inequality is usually referring to the unequal distribution of earning between households.[1] Inequality is commonly measured by economists using the Gini coefficient. This coefficient does not have a concrete meaning but is more used as a way to compare inequality across regions. The higher the Gini coefficient is calculated to be the larger inequality exists in a region. Over time, inequality has, on average, been increasing. This is due to numerous factors including labour supply and demand shifts as well as institutional changes in the labour market. On the shifts in labour supply and demand, factors include demand for skilled workers going up more than the supply of skilled workers and relative to unskilled workers as well as technological changes that increase productivity; all of these things cause wages to go up for skilled labour while unskilled worker wages stay the same or decline. As for the institutional changes, a decrease in union power and a declining real minimum wage, which both reduce unskilled workers wages, and tax cuts for the wealthy all increase the inequality gap between groups of earners.As for discrimination, it is the difference in pay that can be attributed to the demographic differences between people, such as gender, race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation, etc, even though these factors do not affect the productivity of the worker.[1] Many regions and countries have enacted government policies to combat discrimination, including discrimination in the workplace. Discrimination can be modelled and measured in numerous ways. The Oaxaca decomposition is a common method used to calculate the amount of discrimination that exists when wages differ between groups of people. This decomposition aims to calculate the difference in wages that occurs because of differences in skills versus the returns to those skills.[1] A way of modelling discrimination in the workplace when dealing with wages are Gary Becker's taste models. Using taste models, employer discrimination can be thought of as the employer not hiring the minority worker because of their perceived cost of hiring that worker is higher than that of the cost of hiring a non-minority worker, which causes less hiring of the minority. Another taste model is for employee discrimination, which does not cause a decline in the hiring of minorities, but instead causes a more segregated workforce because the prejudiced worker feels that they should be paid more to work next to the worker they are prejudiced against or that they are not paid an equal amount as the worker they are prejudiced against. One more taste model involves customer discrimination, whereby the employers themselves are not prejudiced but believe that their customers might be, so therefore the employer is less likely to hire the minority worker if they are going to interact with customers that are prejudiced. There are many other taste models other than these that Gary Becker has made to explain discrimination that causes differences in hiring in wages in the labour market.[18]","title":"Personnel economics: hiring and incentives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"heterodox economists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterodox_economics"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"emotional baggage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotional_baggage"},{"link_name":"mainstream economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainstream_economics"},{"link_name":"information asymmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_asymmetry"},{"link_name":"transaction costs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_cost"},{"link_name":"contract theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_theory"},{"link_name":"unpaid labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_economics#Unpaid_work"},{"link_name":"profession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profession"},{"link_name":"economics of the family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_economics"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Many sociologists, political economists, and heterodox economists claim that labour economics tends to lose sight of the complexity of individual employment decisions.[19] These decisions, particularly on the supply side, are often loaded with considerable emotional baggage and a purely numerical analysis can miss important dimensions of the process, such as social benefits of a high income or wage rate regardless of the marginal utility from increased consumption or specific economic goals.From the perspective of mainstream economics, neoclassical models are not meant to serve as a full description of the psychological and subjective factors that go into a given individual's employment relations, but as a useful approximation of human behaviour in the aggregate, which can be fleshed out further by the use of concepts such as information asymmetry, transaction costs, contract theory etc.Also missing from most labour market analyses is the role of unpaid labour such as unpaid internships where workers with little or no experience are allowed to work a job without pay so that they can gain experience in a particular profession. Even though this type of labour is unpaid it can nevertheless play an important part in society if not abused by employers. The most dramatic example is child raising. However, over the past 25 years an increasing literature, usually designated as the economics of the family, has sought to study within household decision making, including joint labour supply, fertility, child-raising, as well as other areas of what is generally referred to as home production.[20]","title":"Criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Economic exploitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_exploitation"},{"link_name":"Contemporary slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_slavery"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"socialists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism"},{"link_name":"anarcho-syndicalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-syndicalism"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-English_Working_Class_p._599-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-English_Working_Class_p._912-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"wage slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_slavery"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-merriam-webster.com-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"pejorative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pejorative"},{"link_name":"wage labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_labour"},{"link_name":"slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Noam Chomsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky"},{"link_name":"Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment"},{"link_name":"liberal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberalism"},{"link_name":"Wilhelm von Humboldt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Milgram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milgram_experiment"},{"link_name":"Stanford experiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_experiment"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans"},{"link_name":"philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosopher"},{"link_name":"John Dewey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey"},{"link_name":"industrial feudalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-feudalism"},{"link_name":"democracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Thomas Ferguson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Ferguson_(academic)"},{"link_name":"investment theory of party competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment_theory_of_party_competition"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"David Graeber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Graeber"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Marxists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"capitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalism"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Wage slavery","text":"Further information: Economic exploitation and Contemporary slaveryThe labour market, as institutionalised under today's market economic systems, has been criticised,[21] especially by both mainstream socialists and anarcho-syndicalists,[22][23][24][25] who utilise the term wage slavery[26][27] as a pejorative for wage labour. Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labour as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[28]According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era. In his 1791 book On the Limits of State Action, classical liberal thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt explained how \"whatever does not spring from a man's free choice, or is only the result of instruction and guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness\" and so when the labourer works under external control, \"we may admire what he does, but we despise what he is.\"[29] Both the Milgram and Stanford experiments have been found useful in the psychological study of wage-based workplace relations.[30]The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until \"industrial feudalism\" is replaced by \"industrial democracy\", politics will be \"the shadow cast on society by big business\".[31] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state.[32]As per anthropologist David Graeber, the earliest wage labour contracts we know about were in fact contracts for the rental of chattel slaves (usually the owner would receive a share of the money, and the slave, another, with which to maintain his or her living expenses.) Such arrangements, according to Graeber, were quite common in New World slavery as well, whether in the United States or Brazil. C. L. R. James argued that most of the techniques of human organisation employed on factory workers during the industrial revolution were first developed on slave plantations.[33]Additionally, Marxists posit that labour-as-commodity, which is how they regard wage labour,[34] provides an absolutely fundamental point of attack against capitalism.[35] \"It can be persuasively argued\", noted one concerned philosopher, \"that the conception of the worker's labour as a commodity confirms Marx's stigmatisation of the wage system of private capitalism as 'wage-slavery;' that is, as an instrument of the capitalist's for reducing the worker's condition to that of a slave, if not below it.\"[36]","title":"Criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thompson, E. P.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._P._Thompson"},{"link_name":"The Making of the English Working Class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Making_of_the_English_Working_Class"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Vintage Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintage_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780394703220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780394703220"}],"text":"Thompson, E. P. (1966). The Making of the English Working Class (reprinted ed.). New York City: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780394703220.","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Richard Blundell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Blundell"},{"link_name":"The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"Freeman, R.B.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_B._Freeman"},{"link_name":"The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Palgrave:_A_Dictionary_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"John R. Hicks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hicks"},{"link_name":"The Theory of Wages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Theory_of_Wages"},{"link_name":"Orley C. Ashenfelter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orley_Ashenfelter"},{"link_name":"Richard Layard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Layard"},{"link_name":"1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/1"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/2"},{"link_name":"David Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Card"},{"link_name":"3A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/3/part/PA"},{"link_name":"3B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/3/part/PB"},{"link_name":"3C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/3/part/PC"},{"link_name":"4A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/4/part/PA"},{"link_name":"4B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.sciencedirect.com/handbook/handbook-of-labor-economics/vol/4/part/PB"},{"link_name":"Jacob Mincer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Mincer"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.jmacro.2006.08.006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmacro.2006.08.006"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2077/25796","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/2077%2F25796"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"5758901","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5758901"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2722547","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2722547"},{"link_name":"Lindbeck, Assar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assar_Lindbeck"},{"link_name":"Snower, Dennis J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_J._Snower"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1818771","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1818771"},{"link_name":"\"Behavioural Economics and Labour Law\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685"},{"link_name":"SSRN Electronic Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2139/ssrn.2460685","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2460685"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1556-5068","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"151022170","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151022170"},{"link_name":"SSRN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2460685","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161104030552/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2460685"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780195179835","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195179835"},{"link_name":"\"The Dignity of Manual Labor\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=936890"},{"link_name":"SSRN Electronic Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1556-5068","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068"},{"link_name":"SSRN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"936890","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=936890"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20191112211539/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=936890"},{"link_name":"\"Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2212100"},{"link_name":"SSRN Electronic Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Science_Research_Network"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2139/ssrn.2212100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2139%2Fssrn.2212100"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1556-5068","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1556-5068"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"166733679","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:166733679"},{"link_name":"SSRN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2212100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2212100"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170127163940/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2212100"}],"text":"Richard Blundell and Thomas MaCurdy, 2008. \"labour supply,\" The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition\nFreeman, R.B., 1987. \"Labour economics,\" The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 3, pp. 72–76.\nJohn R. Hicks, 1932, 2nd ed., 1963. The Theory of Wages. London, Macmillan.\nHandbook of Labor Economics. Elsevier. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Links to one-page chapter previews for each volume:Orley C. Ashenfelter and Richard Layard, ed., 1986, v. 1 & 2;\nOrley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 1999, v. 3A, 3B, and 3C\nOrley Ashenfelter and David Card, ed., 2011, v. 4A & 4B.Mark R. Killingsworth, 1983. Labour Supply. Cambridge: Cambridge Surveys of Economic Literature.\nJacob Mincer, 1974. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York: Columbia University Press.\nAnindya Bakrie & Morendy Octora, 2002. Schooling, Experience, and Earnings. New York, Singapore National University: Columbia University Press.\nAcocella, Nicola; Di Bartolomeo, Giovanni; Hibbs, Douglas A. (2008). \"Labor market regimes and the effects of monetary policy\". Journal of Macroeconomics. 30: 134–156. doi:10.1016/j.jmacro.2006.08.006. hdl:2077/25796. S2CID 5758901.\nCain, Glen G. (1976). \"The Challenge of Segmented Labor Market Theories to Orthodox Theory: A Survey\". Journal of Economic Literature. 14 (4): 1215–1257. JSTOR 2722547.\nLindbeck, Assar; Snower, Dennis J. (1986). \"Wage Setting, Unemployment, and Insider-Outsider Relations\". American Economic Review. 76 (2): 235–239. JSTOR 1818771.\nMcGaughey, Ewan (2014-06-30). \"Behavioural Economics and Labour Law\". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2460685. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 151022170. SSRN 2460685. Archived from the original on 2016-11-04.\nHead, Simon (2005-02-11). The New Ruthless Economy: Work and Power in the Digital Age. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195179835.\nKhan, Ali (2006-10-12). \"The Dignity of Manual Labor\". SSRN Electronic Journal. ISSN 1556-5068. SSRN 936890. Archived from the original on 2019-11-12.\nMiller, Doug (2013-02-05). \"Towards Sustainable Labour Costing in UK Fashion Retail\". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2212100. ISSN 1556-5068. S2CID 166733679. SSRN 2212100. Archived from the original on 2017-01-27.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"A \"help wanted\" sign seeks available workers for jobs.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/%22Emergency_-_Your_help_is_Needed_to_Can_the_Crops%22_-_NARA_-_513835.tif/lossy-page1-200px-%22Emergency_-_Your_help_is_Needed_to_Can_the_Crops%22_-_NARA_-_513835.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"Job advertisement board in Shenzhen","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg/200px-Job_Advertisement_Board_in_Shenzhen_-01.jpg"},{"image_text":"The neoclassical model analyzes the trade-off between leisure hours and working hours.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg/220px-Tompkins_Square_Park_Central_Knoll.jpg"},{"image_text":"Railroad work","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg/220px-RAILROAD_WORK_CREW_IMPROVES_THE_TRACKS_AND_BED_OF_THE_ATCHISON%2C_TOPEKA_AND_SANTA_FE_RAILROAD_NEAR_BELLEFONT%2C_KANSAS..._-_NARA_-_556012.jpg"},{"image_text":"An advertisement for labour from Sabah and Sarawak, seen in Jalan Petaling, Kuala Lumpur","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG/220px-Sabah_Sarawak_labour_advert_Kuala_Lumpur.JPG"}]
[{"title":"Portals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Syndicalism.svg"},{"title":"Organized labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Organized_labour"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg"},{"title":"Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Economics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emblem-money.svg"},{"title":"Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Business"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg"},{"title":"Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Society"},{"title":"Career and Life Planning Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_and_Life_Planning_Education"},{"title":"Collective bargaining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_bargaining"},{"title":"Salary inversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salary_inversion"},{"title":"Employment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment"},{"title":"Unemployment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment"},{"title":"Employment Protection Legislation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_Protection_Legislation"},{"title":"Compensation of employees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensation_of_employees"},{"title":"Manual labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_labour"},{"title":"Affective labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affective_labour"},{"title":"Volunteer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteering"},{"title":"Unfree labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfree_labour"},{"title":"Offshore outsourcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offshore_outsourcing"},{"title":"Housework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homemaking"},{"title":"Human resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resources"},{"title":"Human Resource Management Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Resource_Management_Systems"},{"title":"Cost the limit of price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_the_limit_of_price"},{"title":"Demographic economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_economics"},{"title":"Beveridge curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beveridge_curve"},{"title":"Consumer theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_theory"},{"title":"Conditional factor demands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_factor_demands"},{"title":"Labour market flexibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_market_flexibility"},{"title":"Frisch elasticity of labour supply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisch_elasticity_of_labor_supply"},{"title":"Labour power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_power"},{"title":"Economic rent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_rent"},{"title":"Industrial relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_relations"}]
[{"reference":"Borjas, George J. (14 January 2015). Labor economics (Seventh ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-07-802188-6. OCLC 889577338.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-802188-6","url_text":"978-0-07-802188-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/889577338","url_text":"889577338"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of LABOR\". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 2022-03-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/labor","url_text":"\"Definition of LABOR\""}]},{"reference":"Tarling, R. (1987). \"Labour Markets\". In Eatwell, John; Milgate, Murray; Newman, Peter (eds.). The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics (1st ed.). London: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–4. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1213-1. ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eatwell","url_text":"Eatwell, John"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Milgate","url_text":"Milgate, Murray"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kenneth_Newman","url_text":"Newman, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Palgrave_Dictionary_of_Economics","url_text":"The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London","url_text":"London"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan","url_text":"Palgrave Macmillan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_1213-1","url_text":"10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1213-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-95121-5","url_text":"978-1-349-95121-5"}]},{"reference":"Graham, Mark; Anwar, Mohammad Amir (2019-04-01). \"The global gig economy: Towards a planetary labour market?\". First Monday. doi:10.5210/fm.v24i4.9913. ISSN 1396-0466. S2CID 108292032.","urls":[{"url":"https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/9913","url_text":"\"The global gig economy: Towards a planetary labour market?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v24i4.9913","url_text":"10.5210/fm.v24i4.9913"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1396-0466","url_text":"1396-0466"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:108292032","url_text":"108292032"}]},{"reference":"Kenton, Will (March 30, 2022). \"Labor Market Explained: Theories and Who Is Included\". Investopedia. Retrieved January 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/labor-market.asp","url_text":"\"Labor Market Explained: Theories and Who Is Included\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investopedia","url_text":"Investopedia"}]},{"reference":"Mankiw, N. Gregory (2016). Principles of economics (Eighth ed.). Boston, MA, USA: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-58512-6. OCLC 974706695.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Mankiw","url_text":"Mankiw, N. Gregory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cengage","url_text":"Cengage Learning"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-58512-6","url_text":"978-1-305-58512-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/974706695","url_text":"974706695"}]},{"reference":"\"What is 'Labour Market'\". The Economic Times. Retrieved 15 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/labour-market","url_text":"\"What is 'Labour Market'\""}]},{"reference":"Karanassou, Marika; Sala, Hector; Snower, Dennis J. \"The Macroeconomics of the Labor Market: Three Fundamental Views\" (PDF). Institute for the Study of Labor. Retrieved 15 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.iza.org/dp2480.pdf","url_text":"\"The Macroeconomics of the Labor Market: Three Fundamental Views\""}]},{"reference":"Frenkel, Roberto; Ros, Jaime. \"Unemployment, macroeconomic policy and labor market flexibility: Argentina and Mexico in the 1990s\" (PDF). repositorio.cepal.org. Retrieved 15 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/31908/S2004202.pdf?sequence=1","url_text":"\"Unemployment, macroeconomic policy and labor market flexibility: Argentina and Mexico in the 1990s\""}]},{"reference":"Gustav Ranis (February 1997). \"The Micro-Economics of \"Surplus Labor\"\" (PDF). Yale University. Retrieved January 23, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp772.pdf","url_text":"\"The Micro-Economics of \"Surplus Labor\"\""}]},{"reference":"Frank, Robert H. (2008). Microeconomics and Behavior (PDF) (Seventh ed.). McGraw Hill/Irwin. ISBN 978-0-07-337573-1. Retrieved January 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_H._Frank","url_text":"Frank, Robert H."},{"url":"http://students.aiu.edu/submissions/profiles/resources/onlineBook/P3w4i7_Frank-Microeconomics-and-Behavior.pdf","url_text":"Microeconomics and Behavior"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGraw_Hill_Education","url_text":"McGraw Hill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-337573-1","url_text":"978-0-07-337573-1"}]},{"reference":"Hacker, R. Scott (2000). \"The Impact of International Capital Mobility on the Volatility of Labour Income\". Annals of Regional Science. 34 (2): 157–172. doi:10.1007/s001689900005. S2CID 154020468.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs001689900005","url_text":"10.1007/s001689900005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154020468","url_text":"154020468"}]},{"reference":"Froeb, Luke M.; McCann, Brian T.; Shor, Mikhael; Ward, Michael R. (2016). Managerial economics : a problem solving approach (Fourth ed.). Boston, MA. ISBN 978-1-305-25933-1. OCLC 900237955.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-25933-1","url_text":"978-1-305-25933-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/900237955","url_text":"900237955"}]},{"reference":"\"The Prize in Economic Sciences 2010\" (PDF). NobelPrize.org (Press release). Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Nobel Prize Outreach AB. October 11, 2010. Retrieved January 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/press-12.pdf","url_text":"\"The Prize in Economic Sciences 2010\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences","url_text":"Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences"}]},{"reference":"Lazear, Edward P.; Oyer, Paul (October 2004). \"Internal and external labor markets: a personnel economics approach\" (PDF). Labour Economics. 11 (5): 527–554. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2004.01.001. S2CID 17727574. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 1, 2014. Retrieved January 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_P._Lazear","url_text":"Lazear, Edward P."},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140201235733/http://faculty-gsb.stanford.edu/oyer/wp/ports.pdf","url_text":"\"Internal and external labor markets: a personnel economics approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Economics_(journal)","url_text":"Labour Economics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.labeco.2004.01.001","url_text":"10.1016/j.labeco.2004.01.001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17727574","url_text":"17727574"},{"url":"http://faculty-gsb.stanford.edu/oyer/wp/ports.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"JEL Classification Codes Guide: M5 Personnel Economics\". American Economic Association. Retrieved January 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aeaweb.org/jel/guide/jel.php","url_text":"\"JEL Classification Codes Guide: M5 Personnel Economics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Economic_Association","url_text":"American Economic Association"}]},{"reference":"Oyer, Paul; Scott, Schaefer (2011). Personnel Economics: Hiring and Incentives (PDF). Handbook of Labor Economics. Vol. 4B. pp. 1769–1823. doi:10.1016/S0169-7218(11)02418-X. ISBN 9780444534521. S2CID 17678162. Retrieved January 26, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w15977/w15977.pdf","url_text":"Personnel Economics: Hiring and Incentives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0169-7218%2811%2902418-X","url_text":"10.1016/S0169-7218(11)02418-X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780444534521","url_text":"9780444534521"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17678162","url_text":"17678162"}]},{"reference":"Becker, Gary S. (1971). The economics of discrimination (2d ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-04115-8. OCLC 173468.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Becker","url_text":"Becker, Gary S."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/economicsofdiscr0000beck","url_text":"The economics of discrimination"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press","url_text":"University of Chicago Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-04115-8","url_text":"0-226-04115-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/173468","url_text":"173468"}]},{"reference":"Teixeira, Pedro N. (2007). Jacob Mincer: A Founding Father of Modern Labor Economics - Oxford Scholarship. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211319.001.0001. ISBN 9780199211319.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199211319.001.0001","url_text":"10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199211319.001.0001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199211319","url_text":"9780199211319"}]},{"reference":"\"Putting the family in economics\". University Affairs. Retrieved 2024-03-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://universityaffairs.ca/features/feature-article/putting-the-family-in-economics/","url_text":"\"Putting the family in economics\""}]},{"reference":"Ellerman, David P. (1992). Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy. Blackwell. 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Upjohn Institute for Employment Research"},{"Link":"https://www.ilo.org/global/statistics-and-databases/research-and-databases/kilm/lang--en/index.htm","external_links_name":"ILO: Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM). 2007"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170630140325/http://labourfair.com/resources.php","external_links_name":"LabourFair Resources"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130805114559/http://www.labour-research.net/index.php?id=21&L=5","external_links_name":"Labour Research Network"},{"Link":"http://www.lrd.org.uk/","external_links_name":"Labour Research Department"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934163m","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934163m","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007550702905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85073687","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/01122607","external_links_name":"Japan"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph171128&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=18736","external_links_name":"Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation
Literal translation
["1 Translation studies","1.1 Usage","1.2 Cribs","1.3 Poetry to prose","2 Bad practice","2.1 Examples","2.2 Machine translation","2.3 Pidgins","3 Translator's humor","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading"]
Word-for-word translation of a text Not to be confused with literary translation or loan translation. See also: Transliteration This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Literal translation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Part of a series onTranslation Types Legal Literary Bible Quran Kural Linguistic validation Medical Regulatory Technical Interpretation Cultural Word-for-word Sense-for-sense Homophonic Theory Translation studies Skopos theory Translation project Translation criticism Dynamic and formal equivalence Contrastive linguistics Polysystem theory Technologies CAT Machine translation Mobile translation Translation management system Dubbing Subtitling Pre-editing Postediting Multimedia translation Localization Glocalization Internationalization and localization Language localization Video game localization Dub localization Website localization Software localization Institutional Associations Awards Organizations Schools Related topics Untranslatability Transcription Transliteration Video relay service (VRS) Telephone interpreting Language barrier Fan translation (of video games) Fansub Fandub Scanlation Journalistic translation Books and magazines on translation Bible translations by language Translated books List of most translated works Translators Kural translations by language vte Literal translation, direct translation, or word-for-word translation is a translation of a text done by translating each word separately without looking at how the words are used together in a phrase or sentence. In translation theory, another term for literal translation is metaphrase (as opposed to paraphrase for an analogous translation). It is to be distinguished from an interpretation (done, for example, by an interpreter). Literal translation leads to mistranslation of idioms, which can be a serious problem for machine translation. Translation studies Usage The term "literal translation" often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of the classical Bible and other texts. Cribs Word-for-word translations ("cribs", "ponies", or "trots") are sometimes prepared for writers who are translating a work written in a language they do not know. For example, Robert Pinsky is reported to have used a literal translation in preparing his translation of Dante's Inferno (1994), as he does not know Italian. Similarly, Richard Pevear worked from literal translations provided by his wife, Larissa Volokhonsky, in their translations of several Russian novels. Poetry to prose Literal translation can also denote a translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry. There is, however, a great deal of difference between a literal translation of a poetic work and a prose translation. A literal translation of poetry may be in prose rather than verse but also be error-free. Charles Singleton's 1975 translation of the Divine Comedy is regarded as a prose translation. Bad practice The term literal translation implies that it is probably full of errors, since the translator has made no effort to (or is unable to) convey correct idioms or shades of meaning, for example, but it can also be a useful way of seeing how words are used to convey meaning in the source language. Examples Example of broken English and German directly translated from French A literal English translation of the German phrase "Ich habe Hunger" would be "I have hunger" in English, but this is clearly not a phrase that would generally be used in English, even though its meaning might be clear. Literal translations in which individual components within words or compounds are translated to create new lexical items in the target language (a process also known as "loan translation") are called calques, e.g., beer garden from German Biergarten. The literal translation of the Italian sentence, "So che questo non va bene" ("I know that this is not good"), produces "Know(I) that this not goes(it) well", which has English words and Italian grammar. Machine translation Early machine translations (as of 1962 at least) were notorious for this type of translation, as they simply employed a database of words and their translations. Later attempts utilized common phrases, which resulted in better grammatical structure and the capture of idioms, but with many words left in the original language. For translating synthetic languages, a morphosyntactic analyzer and synthesizer are required. The best systems today use a combination of the above technologies and apply algorithms to correct the "natural" sound of the translation. In the end, though, professional translation firms that employ machine translation use it as a tool to create a rough translation that is then tweaked by a human, professional translator. Douglas Hofstadter gave an example of a failure of machine translation: the English sentence "In their house, everything comes in pairs. There's his car and her car, his towels and her towels, and his library and hers." might be translated into French as "Dans leur maison, tout vient en paires. Il y a sa voiture et sa voiture, ses serviettes et ses serviettes, sa bibliothèque et les siennes." That does not make sense because it does not distinguish between "his" car and "hers". Pidgins Often, first-generation immigrants create something of a literal translation in how they speak their parents' native language. This results in a mix of the two languages that is something of a pidgin. Many such mixes have specific names, e.g., Spanglish or Denglisch. For example, American children of German immigrants are heard using "rockingstool" from the German word Schaukelstuhl instead of "rocking chair". Translator's humor Literal translation of idioms is a source of translators' jokes. One such joke, often told about machine translation, translates "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" (an allusion to Mark 14:38) into Russian and then back into English, getting "The vodka is good, but the meat is rotten". This is not an actual machine-translation error, but rather a joke which dates back to 1956 or 1958. Another joke in the genre transforms "out of sight, out of mind" to "blind idiot" or "invisible idiot". See also All your base are belong to us – Internet meme from a video game Dynamic and formal equivalence – Two dissimilar translation approachesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Literal Standard Version – Modern English translation of the Bible Semantic translation Transliteration Young's Literal Translation – 1862 translation of the Bible into English English as She Is Spoke References ^ "LITERAL | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary". dictionary.cambridge.org. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 21 September 2019. ^ a b c Hutchins, John (June 1995). ""The whisky was invisible", or Persistent myths of MT" (PDF). MT News International (11): 17–18. Archived from the original on 3 January 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link) ^ Hofstadter, Douglas (30 January 2018). "The Shallowness of Google Translate". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020. Retrieved 16 February 2022. Further reading Olive Classe, Encyclopedia of literary translation into English, vol. 1, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 1-884964-36-2, p. viii.
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It is to be distinguished from an interpretation (done, for example, by an interpreter).Literal translation leads to mistranslation of idioms, which can be a serious problem for machine translation.[2]","title":"Literal translation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Translation studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Usage","text":"The term \"literal translation\" often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of the classical Bible and other texts.[citation needed]","title":"Translation studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Pinsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Pinsky"},{"link_name":"Dante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dante"},{"link_name":"Inferno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferno_(Dante)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Richard Pevear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Pevear"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Cribs","text":"Word-for-word translations (\"cribs\", \"ponies\", or \"trots\") are sometimes prepared for writers who are translating a work written in a language they do not know. For example, Robert Pinsky is reported to have used a literal translation in preparing his translation of Dante's Inferno (1994), as he does not know Italian.[citation needed] Similarly, Richard Pevear worked from literal translations provided by his wife, Larissa Volokhonsky, in their translations of several Russian novels.[citation needed]","title":"Translation studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Divine Comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Poetry to prose","text":"Literal translation can also denote a translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry. There is, however, a great deal of difference between a literal translation of a poetic work and a prose translation. A literal translation of poetry may be in prose rather than verse but also be error-free. Charles Singleton's 1975 translation of the Divine Comedy is regarded as a prose translation.[citation needed]","title":"Translation studies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The term literal translation implies that it is probably full of errors,[citation needed] since the translator has made no effort to (or is unable to) convey correct idioms or shades of meaning, for example, but it can also be a useful way of seeing how words are used to convey meaning in the source language.","title":"Bad practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vernosc_Tirez_la_porte.jpg"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"calques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calque"},{"link_name":"Biergarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Biergarten"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Italian grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_grammar"}],"sub_title":"Examples","text":"Example of broken English and German directly translated from FrenchA literal English translation of the German phrase \"Ich habe Hunger\" would be \"I have hunger\" in English, but this is clearly not a phrase that would generally be used in English, even though its meaning might be clear. Literal translations in which individual components within words or compounds are translated to create new lexical items in the target language (a process also known as \"loan translation\") are called calques, e.g., beer garden from German Biergarten.The literal translation of the Italian sentence, \"So che questo non va bene\" (\"I know that this is not good\"), produces \"Know(I) that this not goes(it) well\", which has English words and Italian grammar.","title":"Bad practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"machine translations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hutchins-2"},{"link_name":"phrases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase"},{"link_name":"synthetic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_language"},{"link_name":"Douglas Hofstadter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Hofstadter"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Machine translation","text":"Early machine translations (as of 1962[2] at least) were notorious for this type of translation, as they simply employed a database of words and their translations. Later attempts utilized common phrases, which resulted in better grammatical structure and the capture of idioms, but with many words left in the original language. For translating synthetic languages, a morphosyntactic analyzer and synthesizer are required.The best systems today use a combination of the above technologies and apply algorithms to correct the \"natural\" sound of the translation. In the end, though, professional translation firms that employ machine translation use it as a tool to create a rough translation that is then tweaked by a human, professional translator.Douglas Hofstadter gave an example of a failure of machine translation: the English sentence \"In their house, everything comes in pairs. There's his car and her car, his towels and her towels, and his library and hers.\" might be translated into French as \"Dans leur maison, tout vient en paires. Il y a sa voiture et sa voiture, ses serviettes et ses serviettes, sa bibliothèque et les siennes.\" That does not make sense because it does not distinguish between \"his\" car and \"hers\".[3]","title":"Bad practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pidgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pidgin"},{"link_name":"Spanglish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanglish"},{"link_name":"Denglisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germish"},{"link_name":"Schaukelstuhl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Schaukelstuhl"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Pidgins","text":"Often, first-generation immigrants create something of a literal translation in how they speak their parents' native language. This results in a mix of the two languages that is something of a pidgin. Many such mixes have specific names, e.g., Spanglish or Denglisch. For example, American children of German immigrants are heard using \"rockingstool\" from the German word Schaukelstuhl instead of \"rocking chair\".[citation needed]","title":"Bad practice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"idioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiom"},{"link_name":"machine translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation"},{"link_name":"Mark 14:38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mark%2014:38;&version=NASB;"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hutchins-2"}],"text":"Literal translation of idioms is a source of translators' jokes. One such joke, often told about machine translation, translates \"The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak\" (an allusion to Mark 14:38) into Russian and then back into English, getting \"The vodka is good, but the meat is rotten\". This is not an actual machine-translation error, but rather a joke which dates back to 1956 or 1958. Another joke in the genre transforms \"out of sight, out of mind\" to \"blind idiot\" or \"invisible idiot\".[2]","title":"Translator's humor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of literary translation into English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=myLDA0_brhcC&dq=Literal+translation&pg=RA1-PA270"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-884964-36-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-884964-36-2"}],"text":"Olive Classe, Encyclopedia of literary translation into English, vol. 1, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 1-884964-36-2, p. viii.","title":"Further reading"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alison_Gopnik
Alison Gopnik
["1 Academic career","2 Notable publications","3 Personal life","4 Bibliography","5 References","6 External links"]
American psychologist (born 1955) Alison GopnikGopnik in 2008Born (1955-06-16) June 16, 1955 (age 68)Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U S.CitizenshipAmericanAlma mater McGill University Oxford University Known forTheory of mind, theory theory, causal learningSpouses George Lewinski ​ ​(m. 1975⁠–⁠2007)​ Alvy Ray Smith ​(m. 2010)​Children3AwardsCarl Sagan Prize for Science Popularization (2021)James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award (2021)Scientific careerFieldsDevelopmental psychologyInstitutionsUniversity of California, BerkeleyThesis The development of non-nominal expressions in 12–24 month old children  (1980)Doctoral advisorJerome Bruner Alison Gopnik (born June 16, 1955) is an American professor of psychology and affiliate professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. She is known for her work in the areas of cognitive and language development, specializing in the effect of language on thought, the development of a theory of mind, and causal learning. Her writing on psychology and cognitive science has appeared in Science, Scientific American, The Times Literary Supplement, The New York Review of Books, The New York Times, New Scientist, Slate and others. Her body of work also includes four books and over 100 journal articles. She has frequently appeared on TV and radio including The Charlie Rose Show and The Colbert Report. Slate writes of Gopnik, "One of the most prominent researchers in the field, Gopnik is also one of the finest writers, with a special gift for relating scientific research to the questions that parents and others most want answered. This is where to go if you want to get into the head of a baby." Gopnik is a columnist for The Wall Street Journal, sharing the Mind & Matter column with Robert Sapolsky on alternating Saturdays. Academic career Gopnik received a B.A., majoring in psychology and philosophy, from McGill University in 1975. In 1980, she received a D.Phil. in experimental psychology from Oxford University. She worked at the University of Toronto before joining the faculty at UC Berkeley in 1988. Lecturing at SkeptiCal – Berkeley, CA – April 21, 2012 – "The Philosophical Baby: What Children's Minds Tell us about Truth, Love and the Meaning of Life" Gopnik has done extensive work with applying Bayesian networks to human learning and has published and presented numerous papers on the topic. Gopnik says of this work, "The interesting thing about Bayes nets is that they search out causes rather than mere associations. They give you a single representational structure for dealing both with things that just happen and with interventions—things you observe others doing to the world or things you do to the world. This is important because there is something really special about the way we treat and understand human action. We give it a special status in terms of our causal inferences. We think of human actions as things that you do that are designed to change things in the world as opposed to other events that just take place." Judea Pearl, developer of Bayesian networks, says Gopnik was one of the first psychologists to note that the mathematical models also resemble how children learn. Gopnik's work at Berkeley's Child Study Center seeks to develop mathematical models of how children learn. These models could be used to develop better algorithms for artificial intelligence. In April, 2013, Gopnik was inducted into The American Academy of Arts and Sciences. She is, as of 2014, a Fellow of the Cognitive Science Society. In 2021, she will receive the James McKeen Cattell Lifetime Achievement Award for Applied Research from the Association for Psychological Science (APS). Notable publications Gopnik is an authority on the philosophy of mind and a preeminent developmental psychologist. Gopnik is known for advocating the "theory theory" which postulates that the same mechanisms used by scientists to develop scientific theories are used by children to develop causal models of their environment. The "theory theory" was explored in "Words, Thoughts, and Theories," co-authored with Andrew N. Meltzoff. Gopnik co-authored with Andrew N. Meltzoff and Patricia K. Kuhl "The Scientist in the Crib: What Early Learning Tells Us About the Mind." The book posits that the cognitive development of children in early life is made possible by three factors: innate knowledge, advanced learning ability, and the evolved ability of parents to teach their offspring. "Causal Learning: Psychology, Philosophy, and Computation," edited with Laura Schulz, explores causal learning and the interdisciplinary work done in furthering the understanding of learning and reasoning. In her book "The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us about Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life," Gopnik explores how infants and young children cognitively develop by using processes similar to those used by scientists, including experimenting on their environment. The book explains how an environment maximized for an infant's cognitive development is one that is safe to explore. The book also explores what babies can tell us about love, imagination and identity, as well as considering the broader philosophical significance of care-giving. "The Philosophical Baby" has been recognized as a New York Times Extended List Bestseller, a San Francisco Chronicle Bestseller, and an Independent Bookstores Bestseller. It has also received acclaim on the New York Times Editor's Choice list, the San Francisco Chronicle Editors Choice list, and as one of Babble's 50 Best Parenting Books. It has also been recognized as recommended reading by Scientific American. In 2009, Gopnik published a paper in Hume Studies arguing that the historical record regarding the circumstances around David Hume's authoring of A Treatise of Human Nature are wrong. Gopnik argued that Hume had access to the library of the Royal College at La Flèche, a Jesuit institution that had been founded by Henri IV. At the time Hume was living nearby and working on the Treatise, La Flèche was home to a Jesuit missionary named Charles François Dolu, a learned man who was an expert on different world religions who had visited the French embassy in Siam. In addition, Dolu had met Ippolito Desideri, another Jesuit missionary who had visited Tibet from 1716 to 1721. Gopnik argues that because of his exposure to Theravada Buddhism, Dolu may form the source of the Buddhist influence on Hume's Treatise. Gopnik cites a number of letters from Hume that mention his time at La Flèche and his meeting with Jesuits from the college. It is from this Buddhist connection through the learning of the Jesuit college that Hume is influenced to deny the ontological reality of the self—which Gopnik links to the Buddhist idea of Śūnyatā (Emptiness). The feature-length documentary film The Singularity by independent filmmaker Doug Wolens (released at the end of 2012), showcasing Gopnik's work in cognitive development as it relates to computer learning, has been acclaimed as "a large-scale achievement in its documentation of futurist and counter-futurist ideas" and "the best documentary on the Singularity to date." Personal life Gopnik is the daughter of linguist Myrna Gopnik. She is Jewish. She is the firstborn of six siblings who include Blake Gopnik, the Newsweek art critic, and Adam Gopnik, a writer for The New Yorker. She was formerly married to journalist George Lewinski and has three sons: Alexei, Nicholas, and Andres Gopnik-Lewinski. In 2010, she married computer graphics pioneer Alvy Ray Smith, the co-founder of Pixar. Bibliography Scholia has a profile for Alison Gopnik (Q2647225). The Gardener and the Carpenter: What the New Science of Child Development Tells Us About the Relationship Between Parents and Children (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016, ISBN 978-0374229702) The Philosophical Baby: What Children's Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life (hardcover: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009, ISBN 978-0312429843) (softcover: Picador, 2010, ISBN 978-0312429843) Causal Learning: Psychology, Philosophy, and Computation (Edited with Laura Schulz) (Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0195176803) The Scientist in the Crib: What Early Learning Tells Us About the Mind (with Andrew N. Meltzoff and Patricia K. Kuhl) (hardcover: William Morrow, 1999, ISBN 978-0688159887) (softcover: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000, ISBN 978-0688177881) Words, Thoughts, and Theories (with Andrew N. Meltzoff) (hardcover: The MIT Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0262071758) (softcover: A Bradford Book, 1998, ISBN 978-0262571265) References ^ Gopnik, Alison (1980). The development of non-nominal expressions in 12-24-month-old children. ox.ac.uk (DPhil thesis). University of Oxford. ^ Gopnik, Alison, "Making AI More Human: Artificial intelligence has staged a revival by starting to incorporate what we know about how children learn", Scientific American, vol. 316, no. 6 (June 2017), pp. 60–65. ^ "Alison Gopnik". Auburn University. Archived from the original on 2012-07-28. Retrieved 24 March 2012. ^ Bloom, Paul. "What's Inside a Big Baby Head?". Slate. Retrieved 24 March 2012. ^ Gopnik, Alison. "Why Are Our Kids Useless? Because We're Smart". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 10 April 2013. ^ a b "Alison Gopnik, Ph.D. Curriculum Vitae" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 26 March 2012. ^ "What every baby knows". New Scientist. Retrieved 1 April 2012. ^ Tung, Stephen. "Tables turned: UC Berkeley researchers study kids to make computers smarter". MercuryNews.com. Retrieved 14 May 2012. ^ Abdelghaffar, Seif. "10 campus professors inducted into American Academy of Arts and Sciences". The Daily Californian. Retrieved 4 June 2013. ^ "Fellows of the Cognitive Science Society". Archived from the original on 16 July 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015. ^ Anwar, Yasmin. "Psychologist Alison Gopnik wins lifetime achievement award". Berkeley News. University of California, Berkeley. Retrieved 12 December 2020. ^ a b Remmel, Ethan. "Brainstorming Babies". American Scientist. Retrieved 29 March 2012. ^ "publisher description". The MIT Press. Archived from the original on 2006-09-13. Retrieved 1 April 2012. ^ Lerman, Kristina. "The Scientist in the Crib" (PDF). Information Sciences Institute. Retrieved 31 March 2012. ^ "publisher description". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 1 April 2012. ^ Hoffman, Jascha. "MIND Reviews: The Philosophical Baby: What Children's Minds Tell". Recommendations from Scientific American MIND. Scientific American. Retrieved 1 April 2012. ^ "New Book Offers Philosophical Insights into Babies' Thinking". University of California, Berkeley. Archived from the original on 2015-07-16. Retrieved 1 April 2012. ^ Reiter, Amy. "Alison Gopnik: The Philosophical Baby author decodes your child's brain". Babble.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-10. Retrieved 2012-04-06. ^ a b ""The Philosophical Baby" book site". Retrieved 10 April 2012. ^ "Editors' Choice". The New York Times. 16 August 2009. Retrieved 10 April 2012. ^ "50 Best Parenting Books". Babble.com. Archived from the original on 2012-04-04. Retrieved 10 April 2012. ^ Wong, Kate. "Recommended: The Philosophical Baby". Scientific American. Retrieved 10 April 2012. ^ Gopnik, Alison (2009). "Could David Hume Have Known about Buddhism? Charles Francois Dolu, the Royal College of La Flèche, and the Global Jesuit Intellectual Network" (PDF). Hume Studies. 35 (1&2): 5–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2013. ^ "The Singularity: A Documentary by Doug Wolens". Ieet.org. Retrieved 2013-10-22. ^ "Pondering Our Cyborg Future in a Documentary About the Singularity – Kasia Cieplak-Mayr von Baldegg". The Atlantic. 2013-01-08. Archived from the original on 2013-10-21. Retrieved 2013-10-22. ^ Moorhead, Laurel. "Author Gopnik on the wonders of babies' brains". Oakland North. Retrieved 25 March 2012. ^ Straus, Tamara (3 August 2009). "'Philosophical Baby' author's thoughts on kids". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 25 March 2012. ^ "Keynotes, bios, pix". dimeboulder.com. Retrieved 26 March 2012. ^ Gopnik, Alison. "How an 18th-Century Philosopher Helped Solve My Midlife Crisis". The Atlantic (October 2015). ^ "Book review, starred". publishersweekly.com. Publishers Weekly. Retrieved 26 May 2016. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alison Gopnik. Official website Alison Gopnik's UC Berkeley page Alison Gopnik publications indexed by Google Scholar Alison Gopnik at IMDb Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Catalonia Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Greece Korea Netherlands Poland Portugal Academics CiNii Google Scholar Mathematics Genealogy Project ORCID PhilPeople Scopus Other IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"University of California, Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"cognitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_development"},{"link_name":"language development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_development"},{"link_name":"theory of mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_mind"},{"link_name":"Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Scientific American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_American"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"The Times Literary Supplement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_Literary_Supplement"},{"link_name":"The New York Review of Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Review_of_Books"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"New Scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist"},{"link_name":"Slate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"The Charlie Rose Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Rose_(talk_show)"},{"link_name":"The Colbert Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Colbert_Report"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"The Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"Robert Sapolsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Sapolsky"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Alison Gopnik (born June 16, 1955) is an American professor of psychology and affiliate professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. She is known for her work in the areas of cognitive and language development, specializing in the effect of language on thought, the development of a theory of mind, and causal learning. Her writing on psychology and cognitive science has appeared in Science, Scientific American,[2] The Times Literary Supplement, The New York Review of Books, The New York Times, New Scientist, Slate and others.[3] Her body of work also includes four books and over 100 journal articles.She has frequently appeared on TV and radio including The Charlie Rose Show and The Colbert Report. Slate writes of Gopnik, \"One of the most prominent researchers in the field, Gopnik is also one of the finest writers, with a special gift for relating scientific research to the questions that parents and others most want answered. This is where to go if you want to get into the head of a baby.\"[4] Gopnik is a columnist for The Wall Street Journal, sharing the Mind & Matter column with Robert Sapolsky on alternating Saturdays.[5]","title":"Alison Gopnik"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"B.A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"McGill University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University"},{"link_name":"D.Phil.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.Phil."},{"link_name":"experimental psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_psychology"},{"link_name":"Oxford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University"},{"link_name":"University of Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto"},{"link_name":"UC Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UC_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CurriculumVitae-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alison_Gopnik_SkeptiCal.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bayesian networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_networks"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CurriculumVitae-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Judea Pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea_Pearl"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"The American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Gopnik received a B.A., majoring in psychology and philosophy, from McGill University in 1975. In 1980, she received a D.Phil. in experimental psychology from Oxford University. She worked at the University of Toronto before joining the faculty at UC Berkeley in 1988.[6]Lecturing at SkeptiCal – Berkeley, CA – April 21, 2012 – \"The Philosophical Baby: What Children's Minds Tell us about Truth, Love and the Meaning of Life\"Gopnik has done extensive work with applying Bayesian networks to human learning and has published and presented numerous papers on the topic.[6] Gopnik says of this work, \"The interesting thing about Bayes nets is that they search out causes rather than mere associations. They give you a single representational structure for dealing both with things that just happen and with interventions—things you observe others doing to the world or things you do to the world. This is important because there is something really special about the way we treat and understand human action. We give it a special status in terms of our causal inferences. We think of human actions as things that you do that are designed to change things in the world as opposed to other events that just take place.\"[7]Judea Pearl, developer of Bayesian networks, says Gopnik was one of the first psychologists to note that the mathematical models also resemble how children learn. Gopnik's work at Berkeley's Child Study Center seeks to develop mathematical models of how children learn. These models could be used to develop better algorithms for artificial intelligence.[8]In April, 2013, Gopnik was inducted into The American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[9] She is, as of 2014, a Fellow of the Cognitive Science Society.[10] In 2021, she will receive the James McKeen Cattell Lifetime Achievement Award for Applied Research from the Association for Psychological Science (APS).[11]","title":"Academic career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"philosophy of mind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind"},{"link_name":"developmental psychologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychologist"},{"link_name":"theory theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_theory"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Remmel-12"},{"link_name":"Andrew N. Meltzoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_N._Meltzoff"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Patricia K. Kuhl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_K._Kuhl"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Laura Schulz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Schulz"},{"link_name":"causal learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_learning"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"New York Times Extended List Bestseller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Best_Seller_list"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ThePhilosophicalBaby-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ThePhilosophicalBaby-19"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"David Hume","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hume"},{"link_name":"A Treatise of Human Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature"},{"link_name":"Royal College at La Flèche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prytan%C3%A9e_National_Militaire"},{"link_name":"Jesuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Jesus"},{"link_name":"Charles François Dolu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_Fran%C3%A7ois_Dolu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ippolito Desideri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ippolito_Desideri"},{"link_name":"Theravada Buddhism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism"},{"link_name":"Śūnyatā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"The Singularity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Singularity_(film)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atlantic-25"}],"text":"Gopnik is an authority on the philosophy of mind and a preeminent developmental psychologist. Gopnik is known for advocating the \"theory theory\" which postulates that the same mechanisms used by scientists to develop scientific theories are used by children to develop causal models of their environment.[12] The \"theory theory\" was explored in \"Words, Thoughts, and Theories,\" co-authored with Andrew N. Meltzoff.[13] Gopnik co-authored with Andrew N. Meltzoff and Patricia K. Kuhl \"The Scientist in the Crib: What Early Learning Tells Us About the Mind.\" The book posits that the cognitive development of children in early life is made possible by three factors: innate knowledge, advanced learning ability, and the evolved ability of parents to teach their offspring.[14] \"Causal Learning: Psychology, Philosophy, and Computation,\" edited with Laura Schulz, explores causal learning and the interdisciplinary work done in furthering the understanding of learning and reasoning.[15]In her book \"The Philosophical Baby: What Children’s Minds Tell Us about Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life,\" Gopnik explores how infants and young children cognitively develop by using processes similar to those used by scientists, including experimenting on their environment.[16] The book explains how an environment maximized for an infant's cognitive development is one that is safe to explore.[17] The book also explores what babies can tell us about love, imagination and identity, as well as considering the broader philosophical significance of care-giving.[18] \"The Philosophical Baby\" has been recognized as a New York Times Extended List Bestseller, a San Francisco Chronicle Bestseller, and an Independent Bookstores Bestseller.[19] It has also received acclaim on the New York Times Editor's Choice[20] list, the San Francisco Chronicle Editors Choice list, and as one of Babble's 50 Best Parenting Books.[21] It has also been recognized as recommended reading by Scientific American.[19][22]In 2009, Gopnik published a paper in Hume Studies arguing that the historical record regarding the circumstances around David Hume's authoring of A Treatise of Human Nature are wrong. Gopnik argued that Hume had access to the library of the Royal College at La Flèche, a Jesuit institution that had been founded by Henri IV. At the time Hume was living nearby and working on the Treatise, La Flèche was home to a Jesuit missionary named Charles François Dolu, a learned man who was an expert on different world religions who had visited the French embassy in Siam. In addition, Dolu had met Ippolito Desideri, another Jesuit missionary who had visited Tibet from 1716 to 1721. Gopnik argues that because of his exposure to Theravada Buddhism, Dolu may form the source of the Buddhist influence on Hume's Treatise. Gopnik cites a number of letters from Hume that mention his time at La Flèche and his meeting with Jesuits from the college. It is from this Buddhist connection through the learning of the Jesuit college that Hume is influenced to deny the ontological reality of the self—which Gopnik links to the Buddhist idea of Śūnyatā (Emptiness).[23]The feature-length documentary film The Singularity by independent filmmaker Doug Wolens (released at the end of 2012), showcasing Gopnik's work in cognitive development as it relates to computer learning, has been acclaimed as \"a large-scale achievement in its documentation of futurist and counter-futurist ideas\" and \"the best documentary on the Singularity to date.\"[24][25]","title":"Notable publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"linguist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"Myrna Gopnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myrna_Gopnik"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Blake Gopnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blake_Gopnik"},{"link_name":"Newsweek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek"},{"link_name":"Adam Gopnik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Gopnik"},{"link_name":"The New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Remmel-12"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Alvy Ray Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvy_Ray_Smith"},{"link_name":"Pixar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixar"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"text":"Gopnik is the daughter of linguist Myrna Gopnik. She is Jewish. She is the firstborn of six siblings[26] who include Blake Gopnik, the Newsweek art critic, and Adam Gopnik, a writer for The New Yorker.[12] She was formerly married to journalist George Lewinski and has three sons: Alexei, Nicholas, and Andres Gopnik-Lewinski.[27] In 2010, she married computer graphics pioneer Alvy Ray Smith, the co-founder of Pixar.[28][29]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scholia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia"},{"link_name":"Alison Gopnik (Q2647225)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//iw.toolforge.org/scholia/Q2647225"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0374229702","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0374229702"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0312429843","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312429843"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0312429843","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312429843"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0195176803","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195176803"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0688159887","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0688159887"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0688177881","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0688177881"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0262071758","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262071758"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0262571265","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262571265"}],"text":"Scholia has a profile for Alison Gopnik (Q2647225).The Gardener and the Carpenter: What the New Science of Child Development Tells Us About the Relationship Between Parents and Children (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2016, ISBN 978-0374229702)[30]\nThe Philosophical Baby: What Children's Minds Tell Us About Truth, Love, and the Meaning of Life (hardcover: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2009, ISBN 978-0312429843) (softcover: Picador, 2010, ISBN 978-0312429843)\nCausal Learning: Psychology, Philosophy, and Computation (Edited with Laura Schulz) (Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 978-0195176803)\nThe Scientist in the Crib: What Early Learning Tells Us About the Mind (with Andrew N. Meltzoff and Patricia K. Kuhl) (hardcover: William Morrow, 1999, ISBN 978-0688159887) (softcover: HarperCollins Publishers, 2000, ISBN 978-0688177881)\nWords, Thoughts, and Theories (with Andrew N. Meltzoff) (hardcover: The MIT Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0262071758) (softcover: A Bradford Book, 1998, ISBN 978-0262571265)","title":"Bibliography"}]
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null
[{"reference":"Gopnik, Alison (1980). The development of non-nominal expressions in 12-24-month-old children. ox.ac.uk (DPhil thesis). University of Oxford.","urls":[{"url":"https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:06cdd643-98a6-4c27-b4a3-73af189c32f1/files/m781a2a0d5d69b09fa396237d9344c1bc","url_text":"The development of non-nominal expressions in 12-24-month-old children"}]},{"reference":"\"Alison Gopnik\". Auburn University. Archived from the original on 2012-07-28. Retrieved 24 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120728004139/http://www.cla.auburn.edu/cla/littleton-franklin/alison-gopnik/","url_text":"\"Alison Gopnik\""},{"url":"http://www.cla.auburn.edu/cla/littleton-franklin/alison-gopnik/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bloom, Paul. \"What's Inside a Big Baby Head?\". Slate. Retrieved 24 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/books/2009/08/whats_inside_a_big_baby_head.html","url_text":"\"What's Inside a Big Baby Head?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_(magazine)","url_text":"Slate"}]},{"reference":"Gopnik, Alison. \"Why Are Our Kids Useless? Because We're Smart\". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 10 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324128504578346214194756042?KEYWORDS=gopnik","url_text":"\"Why Are Our Kids Useless? Because We're Smart\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal","url_text":"The Wall Street Journal"}]},{"reference":"\"Alison Gopnik, Ph.D. Curriculum Vitae\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 26 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120316235637/http://psychology.berkeley.edu/faculty/profiles/agopnik_cv.pdf","url_text":"\"Alison Gopnik, Ph.D. Curriculum Vitae\""},{"url":"http://psychology.berkeley.edu/faculty/profiles/agopnik_cv.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"What every baby knows\". New Scientist. Retrieved 1 April 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17823955.400-what-every-baby-knows.html","url_text":"\"What every baby knows\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist","url_text":"New Scientist"}]},{"reference":"Tung, Stephen. \"Tables turned: UC Berkeley researchers study kids to make computers smarter\". MercuryNews.com. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo_Geo_(console)
Neo Geo (system)
["1 History","1.1 Reception","2 Technical details","2.1 ROM sizes and startup screens","3 Specifications","3.1 CPU","3.2 Memory","3.3 Display","3.4 Sound","3.5 Other","4 Legacy","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"]
Cartridge-based arcade system board and home video game console This article is about the original Neo Geo arcade and console systems. For the Neo Geo brand as a whole, see Neo Geo. Neo GeoNeo Geo AES console (top) and 4-slot MVS arcade cabinet (bottom)ManufacturerSNK CorporationProduct familyNeo GeoTypeArcade system boardHome video game consoleGenerationFourthRelease dateNeo Geo Multi Video System JP: April 26, 1990NA: August 22, 1990AU: August 1990EU: 1991 Neo Geo Rental System/Neo Geo Advanced Entertainment System JP: April 26, 1990 (rental)JP: July 1, 1991 (home)NA: July 1, 1991EU: 1991Introductory priceUS$649.99Discontinued1997 (hardware)August 2007 (technical support)Units sold1.18 millionMediaROM cartridgeCPUMotorola 68000 @ 12MHz, Zilog Z80A @ 4MHzMemory64KB RAM, 84KB VRAM, 2KB Sound MemoryStorageMemory cardDisplay320×224 resolution, 3840 on-screen colors out of a palette of 65536SoundYamaha YM2610Power8 W older Systems5 W newer SystemsDimensions325 × 237 × 60 mmSuccessorNeo Geo CDHyper Neo Geo 64 The Neo Geo (Japanese: ネオジオ, Hepburn: Neojio), stylized as NEO•GEO and also written as NEOGEO, is a ROM cartridge-based arcade system board and fourth-generation home video game console released on April 26, 1990, by Japanese game company SNK Corporation. It was the first system in SNK's Neo Geo family. The Neo Geo originally launched as the Multi Video System (MVS) coin-operated arcade machine. With its games stored on self-contained cartridges, a game cabinet can easily be changed to a different game title by swapping the game's cartridge and cabinet artwork. The MVS offers owners the ability to put up to six different cartridges into a single cabinet. This unique feature was a key economic consideration for operators with limited floorspace, as well as saving money long term. A home console version was also made, called Advanced Entertainment System (AES). It was originally released solely as a rental console for video game stores in Japan called the Neo Geo Rental System, with its high manufacturing costs causing SNK not to release it for retail sale. This was later reversed due to high demand and it was released at retail as a luxury console. Adjusted for inflation, it was the most expensive home video game console ever released, costing US$649.99 (equivalent to $1,454 in 2023). The AES had identical hardware to the MVS, allowing home users to play the games exactly as they were in the arcades. The Neo Geo was marketed as the first 24-bit system; its CPU is actually a 16/32-bit 68000 with an 8-bit Z80 coprocessor, while its GPU chipset has a 24-bit graphics data bus. It was a very powerful system when released, more powerful than any video game console at the time, and many arcade systems such as rival Capcom's CPS, which did not surpass it until the CP System II in 1993. The Neo Geo MVS was a success during the 1990s due to the cabinet's low cost, multiple cartridge slots, and compact size. Several successful video game series were released for the platform, such as Fatal Fury, Art of Fighting, Samurai Shodown, World Heroes, The King of Fighters and Metal Slug. The AES had a very niche market in Japan, though sales were very low in the U.S. due to its high price for both the hardware and software, but it has since gained a cult following and is now considered a collectable. Neo Geo hardware production lasted seven years, being discontinued in 1997, whereas game software production lasted until 2004, making Neo Geo the longest-supported arcade system of all time. The AES console was succeeded by the Neo Geo CD and the MVS arcade by the Hyper Neo Geo 64. The Neo Geo AES and the Neo Geo CD have sold 980,000 units combined worldwide as of March 1997. One million Neo Geo MVS units have been shipped worldwide as of April 1997. History The Neo Geo AES shipped with large, arcade-style controllers. The Neo Geo hardware was an evolution of an older SNK/Alpha Denshi M68000 arcade platform that was used in Time Soldiers in 1987, further developed in the SNK M68000 hardware platform as used for P.O.W.: Prisoners of War in 1988. Contrary to other popular arcade hardware of the time, the SNK/Alpha Denshi hardware used sprite strips instead of the more common tilemap-based backgrounds. The Neo Geo hardware was essentially developed by Alpha Denshi's Eiji Fukatsu, adding sprite scaling through the use of scaling tables stored in ROM as well as support for a much higher amount of data on cartridges and better sound hardware. The system's hardware specifications were finalized in December 1989. Takashi Nishiyama left Capcom, where he had created the fighting game Street Fighter (1987), to join SNK after they invited him to join the company. There, he was involved in developing the Neo Geo. He proposed the concept of an arcade system that uses ROM cartridges like a game console, and also proposed a home console version of the system. His reasons for these proposals were to make the system cheaper for markets such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Central America, and South America, where it was difficult to sell dedicated arcade games due to piracy. Nishiyama also created the Fatal Fury fighting game franchise, as a spiritual successor to the original Street Fighter. He also worked on the fighting game franchises Art of Fighting and The King of Fighters, as well as the run and gun video game series Metal Slug. The Neo Geo was announced and demonstrated on January 31, 1990, in Osaka, Japan. SNK exhibited several Neo Geo games at Japan's Amusement Machine Operators' Union (AOU) show in February 1990, including NAM-1975, Magician Lord, Baseball Stars Professional, Top Player's Golf and Riding Hero. The Neo Geo then made its overseas debut at Chicago's American Coin Machine Exposition (ACME) in March 1990, with several games demonstrated. The system was then released in Japan on April 26, 1990. Initially, the AES home system was only available for rent to commercial establishments, such as hotel chains, bars and restaurants. When customer response indicated that some gamers were willing to buy a US$650 console, SNK expanded sales and marketing into the home console market in 1991. Neo Geo's graphics and sound are largely superior to other contemporary home consoles, computers (such as the X68000) and even some arcade systems. Unlike earlier systems, the Neo Geo AES was intended to reproduce the same quality of the game as the arcade MVS system. The MVS was one of the most powerful arcade units at the time, allowing the game ROM to be loaded from interchangeable cartridges instead of using custom, dedicated hardware cabinets for each game. In the United States, the console's debut price was planned to be US$599 and included two joystick controllers and a game: either Baseball Stars Professional or NAM-1975. However, the price was raised and its American launch debuted as the Gold System at US$649.99 (equivalent to $1,454 in 2023). Later, the Gold System was bundled with Magician Lord and Fatal Fury. The Silver System package, launched at US$399.99, included one joystick controller and no pack-in game. Other games were launched at about US$200 and up. At double or quadruple the price of the competition, the console and its games were accessible only to a niche market. However, its full compatibility meant that no additional money was being spent on porting or marketing for the AES, since the MVS' success was automatically feeding the AES, making the console profitable for SNK. In January 1991, Romstar released an arcade conversion kit version of the Neo Geo in the United States, allowing the conversion of an arcade cabinet into a Neo Geo system. The same month, the Neo Geo home console version made its North American debut at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES). SNK also announced that there would generally be a roughly six-month gap between the arcade and home releases of Neo Geo games. When real-time 3D graphics became the norm in the arcade industry, the Neo Geo's 2D hardware was unable to do likewise. Despite this, Neo Geo arcade games retained profitability through the mid-1990s, and the system was one of three 1995 recipients of the American Amusement Machine Association's Diamond Awards (which are based strictly on sales achievements). SNK developed a new home console in 1994, called the Neo Geo CD. A new arcade system was also made in 1997, called Hyper Neo Geo 64. However, these two systems had low popularity and only a few games. While it ceased manufacturing home consoles by the end of 1997, SNK continued making software for the original 2D Neo Geo. Despite being very aged by the end of the decade, the Neo Geo continued getting popular releases, such as the critically acclaimed The King of Fighters 2002. The last official game by SNK for the Neo Geo system, Samurai Shodown V Special, was released in 2004, 14 years after the system's introduction. On August 31, 2007, SNK stopped offering maintenance and repairs to Neo Geo home consoles, handhelds, and games. The Neo Geo X, an officially licensed device with a collection of Neo Geo games pre-installed, was first released in 2012 by TOMMO Inc. After just one year and a lukewarm reception due to its price and poor quality of the emulation, on October 2, 2013, SNK Playmore terminated the license agreement and demanded an immediate cease and desist of distribution and sales of all licensed products. Reception The Neo Geo MVS was a worldwide commercial success upon release in arcades, becoming one of the highest-earning machines at various arcades across markets such as North America and Australia in 1990. In North America, three Neo Geo games were later among the ten top-grossing arcade software conversion kits in December 1992: Art of Fighting at number one, World Heroes at number two, and King of the Monsters 2 at number ten. The Neo Geo MVS received Diamond awards from the American Amusement Machine Association (AAMA) two years in a row, for being among America's top four best-selling arcade machines of 1992 (with Street Fighter II: Champion Edition, Mortal Kombat and Terminator 2) and 1993. In 1994, the Neo Geo MVS was best-selling arcade printed circuit board (PCB) worldwide. In the 1990 Gamest Awards, the Neo Geo received the Special Award. At the 1991 AMOA Awards held by the Amusement & Music Operators Association (AMOA), the Neo Geo won the "Most Innovative New Technology" award. In a 1993 review, GamePro gave the Neo Geo a "thumbs up". Though they voiced several criticisms, noting that the system was not as powerful as the soon-to-launch 3DO and had few releases which were not fighting games, they generally praised both the hardware and games library and recommended that gamers who could not afford the console (which was still priced at $649.99) play the games in the arcade. Technical details Inside a four cartridge Neo Geo arcade machine The Neo Geo AES motherboard Each joystick controller is 280mm (width) × 190mm (depth) × 95mm (height) ( 11 × 8 × 2.5 in.) and contains the same four-button layout as the arcade MVS cabinet. The arcade machines have a memory card system by which a player could save a game to return to at a later time and could also be used to continue play on the SNK home console of the same name. The arcade version of the video game hardware is often referred to as the "MVS," or Multi Video System (available in 1-slot, 2-slot, 4-slot, and 6-slot variations, differing in the amount of game cartridges loaded into the machine at the time), with its console counterpart referred to as the "AES", or Advanced Entertainment System. Early motherboard revisions contain daughterboards, used to enhance the clarity of the video output. The MVS and AES hardware can execute identical machine code. Owners can move EPROMs from one type to the other, and the game will still run. The program specifics for both MVS and AES game options are contained on every game ROM, whether the cartridge is intended for home or arcade use. However, the arcade and home cartridges do have a different pinout. They were designed this way to prevent arcade operators from buying the cheaper home carts and then using them in arcades. In a few home version games, the arcade version of the game can be unlocked by inputting a special code. ROM sizes and startup screens The original specification for ROM size is up to 330 megabits, hence the system displaying "Max 330 Mega Pro-Gear Spec" upon startup. While no technical advances were required to achieve it, some games over 100 megabits, such as Top Hunter, followed this screen by displaying an animation proclaiming "The 100Mega Shock!". The original ROM size specification was later enhanced on cartridges with bank switching memory technology, increasing the maximum cartridge size to around 716 megabits. These new cartridges also cause the system to display "Giga Power Pro-Gear Spec" upon startup or during attract mode, indicating this enhancement. The 100Mega Shock! Giga Power Specifications The game cartridges measure 19 centimetres (7.5 in) by 14 centimetres (5.5 in) by 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in) Neo Geo Memory Card The system uses seven different specialist processors, which divide the workload for the visuals, audio and gameplay. CPU Main CPU processor: Motorola 68000 (often a second sourced version, usually by Toshiba or Hitachi, initially a Hitachi HD68HC000PS12) @ 12 MHz (16/32-bit instructions @ 1.75 MIPS) CPU co-processor: Zilog Z80 @ 4 MHz (also used as audio controller) (8/16-bit instructions @ 0.58 MIPS) Memory RAM: 214 KB SRAM Main 68000 RAM: 64 KB (32 KB SRAM ×2) Video RAM: 84 KB SRAM Main VRAM: 64 KB (32 KB SRAM ×2) Palette memory: 16 KB (8 KB SRAM ×2) Fast video sprite RAM: 4 KB (2 KB SRAM ×2) Z80 sound RAM: 2 KB SRAM Battery-backup save NVRAM: 64 KB SRAM On-board ROM: 512 KB Zoom look-up table: 128 KB Fix layer graphics: 128 KB Z80 sound: 128 KB 68000 BIOS: 128 KB Display The SNK custom video chipset allows the system to draw sprites in vertical strips of tiles (blocks of 16x16 pixels), and can be 32 tiles tall (total of 512 pixels); it can draw up to 380 sprites on the screen at a time, with the limitation of 96 sprites per scanline. Each tile can be assigned a palette, which defines 15 colors (+ transparency). Allowing up to 256 palettes at the same time, the system can display 3840 colors simultaneously. Unlike most other video game consoles of its time, the Neo Geo does not use scrolling tilemap background layers. Instead, it has a single non-scrolling tilemap layer called the fix layer, while any scrolling layers rely exclusively on drawing sprites to create the scrolling backgrounds (like the Sega Y Board). By laying multiple sprites side by side, the system can simulate a tilemap background layer. The Neo Geo sprite system represents a step between conventional sprites and tilemaps. GPU chipset: SNK LSPC2-A2 (line sprite generator & VRAM interface) @ 24 MHz SNK PRO-B0 (palette arbiter) SNK PRO-A0, NEO-B1, NEO-GRC GPU graphics data bus: 24-bit Display resolution: 320×224 px (many games only use the centermost 304 px), progressive scan Color palette: 65,536 (16-bit) (not RGB565, but RGB666, where the lowest bit of each channel is shared, being common to the three RGB components) Maximum colors on screen: 3840 Maximum sprites on screen: 380 Minimum sprite size: 16×16 px Maximum sprite size: 16×512 px Maximum sprites per scanline: 96 Maximum sprite pixels per scanline: 1536 px Static tilemap plane: 1 (512×256 px fix layer) Background planes: Up to 3 planes, which enable parallax scrolling (large sprites can be chained together to make objects that function similarly to tilemap backgrounds) Aspect ratio: 4:3 A/V output: RF, composite video/RCA audio, RGB (with separate 21 pin RGB cable FCG-9, or European standard RGB SCART cable). Sound The onboard Yamaha YM2610 sound chip gives the system 15 channels of sound. Sound chip: Yamaha YM2610 4 concurrent FM synthesis channels (voices), four operators per channel 3 SSG channels 1 programmable noise channel 7 pulse-code modulation (PCM) channels ADPCM-A: 6 ADPCM channels, 18.5 kHz sampling rate, 12-bit audio depth ADPCM-B: 1 ADPCM channel, 1.85–55.5 kHz sampling rate, 16-bit audio depth 2 interval timers 1 low frequency oscillator (LFO) Sound/Work RAM: 2KB Sound ROM: 128 KB on-board (only less than 32 KB used), up to 512 KB sound ROM on cartridges Other Power Source: separate DC 5 V (older systems) and DC 9 V adapter (newer systems). Consumption: 8 W older Systems, 5 W newer Systems Dimensions Console: 325 mm (width) × 237 mm (depth) × 60 mm (height). Controller: 280 mm (width) × 190 mm (depth) × 95 mm (height). Console storage Removable memory card: 2KB or 68-pin JEIDA ver. 3 spec memory. Any 68-pin memory that fits the JEIDA version 3 spec will work. Arcade storage Removable memory card: 68-pin. Cartridge is composed of 2 PCBs. Legacy The Neo Geo is the first home game console to feature a removable memory card for saved games. The GameTap subscription service has included a Neo Geo emulator and a small library of Neo Geo games. In 2007 Nintendo announced that Neo Geo games would appear on the Wii's Virtual Console, starting with Fatal Fury: King of Fighters, Art of Fighting, The King of Fighters '94, and World Heroes. Neo Geo games were released through Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network (For the PlayStation 3/PlayStation Network, the service was called NEOGEO Station), including Fatal Fury Special, Samurai Shodown II, Metal Slug 3, Garou: Mark of the Wolves and The King of Fighters '98. Many Neo Geo games were released on the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows, and Nintendo Switch through the Arcade Archives service. Homebrew activity began after the console's discontinuation, both by noncommercial hobbyists and commercially. Neo Geo has a community of collectors. Because of the limited production runs received by cartridges amongst the sizable available arcade library, some of the rarest Neo Geo games can sell for well over $1,000. The most valuable game is the European AES version of Kizuna Encounter: Super Tag Battle. The MVS market provides a cheaper alternative to the expensive and rare home cartridges, and complete arcade kits are priced at a premium. It is also possible to play the MVS cartridges, which generally cost much less, on the AES home system through the use of adapters. In 2009, the Neo Geo was ranked 19th out of the 25 best video game consoles of all time by video game website IGN. See also Arcade system board: SNK CP System Neo Geo CD DECO Cassette System Taito B System List of Neo Geo games List of Sega arcade system boards Notes ^ 1 million in Japan. 180,000 overseas. References ^ a b c d e f g h i j NEO•GEO Hardware Specification. 18 June 1991. Retrieved 2014-07-22. ^ a b "American operators vote for Neo-Geo". Leisure Line. Australia: Leisure & Allied Industries. August 1990. p. 27. ^ a b c "ネオジオ修理のお問い合わせ" (in Japanese). SNK Playmore. Archived from the original on July 17, 2007. Retrieved April 24, 2024. ^ "Hardware Totals". Game Data Library. Retrieved 13 October 2016. ^ "Tokyorama". Consoles + (in French). No. 73. February 1998. pp. 46–7. ^ "SNK Neo-Geo 101: A Beginner's Guide - RetroGaming with Racketboy". 20 May 2011. ^ Plunkett, Luke (December 17, 2013). "36 Years of Console Prices, Adjusted for Inflation". Kotaku. Retrieved 24 June 2021. ^ Slaven, Andy (2002). Video Game Bible, 1985-2002. Trafford Publishing. pp. 338–. ISBN 978-1-55369-731-2. ^ "Neo Geo History". Neo Geo, Arcade & Retro Games. Archived from the original on 2012-12-31. Retrieved 2016-01-25. ^ Hirohiko Niizumi, , GameSpot, July 23, 2004, Accessed June 8, 2008. ^ "Longest support for an arcade system". Guinness World Records. ^ "Japon Previews: Tokyorama - Les Ventes De L'année". Consoles + (in French). No. 73. M.E.R.7. February 1998. p. 47. ^ "Overseas Readers Column - SNK To Intro "NEO•GEO 64" In Summer". Game Machine (in Japanese). No. 539. Amusement Press, Inc. 15 April 1997. p. 22. ^ "MAME - BryanMcPhail.com". www.bryanmcphail.com. ^ "ADK会社案内". 3 August 2001. Archived from the original on 3 August 2001. ^ "ADK". www.neo-geo.com. ^ "100,000 + 1 things you never new about neo - Page 9". www.neo-geo.com. ^ "The Man Who Created Street Fighter from 1UP.com". 3 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-01-03. Retrieved 8 January 2019. "Interview with Takashi Nishiyama, Street Fighter and Fatal Fury creator". Culturaneogeo. 2011-12-14. ^ "Mortal Shang - Neo-Geo". Mortal Shang. Archived from the original on 2018-02-26. Retrieved 2012-01-26. ^ "News Digest: SNK Smiling With 2 Fine Dedicated Games; Multi-Game System Coming at ACME". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 5. February 1990. p. 14. ^ a b "Cover story: SNK Corp. Readies Multi-Game Neo-Geo Video System For World Release; Stateside Debut Slated for ACME". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 6. March 1990. pp. 83–6. ^ "Overseas Readers Column: Many Videos Unveiled At AOU Expo '90 Chiba" (PDF). Game Machine (in Japanese). No. 377. Amusement Press, Inc. 1 April 1990. p. 26. ^ a b c "ACME: New Product Review". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 7. April 1990. pp. 50–84. ^ "Sneak Preview: sizzling new equipment of all stripes will be on display at ACME". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 6. March 1990. pp. 30–8. ^ "Arcade Gear - Neo Geo". MArcade Gear. Archived from the original on 2016-10-07. Retrieved 2015-07-11. ^ "SNK's Neo-Geo Vidgame System is Cooking". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 1. October 1990. p. 18. ^ Nicoll, Benjamin (2015). "Bridging the Gap: The Neo Geo, the Media Imaginary, and the Domestication of Arcade Games". Games and Culture. doi:10.1177/1555412015590048. S2CID 147981978. ^ "Which Game System is the Best!?". Next Generation. No. 12. December 1995. p. 75. The original Neo-Geo home system basically brought the exact same arcade experience home. Cartridges, however, cost upward of $200, which relegated the system to a very select market. ^ "News Digest: Romstar Set To Ship One-Slot Neo-Geo Hardware Kits". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 4. January 1991. pp. 20, 88. ^ "Kawasaki Puts Coin-Op First In New Neo-Geo Scheme". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 5. February 1991. p. 23. ^ Webb, Marcus (November 1995). "Arcadia". Next Generation. No. 11. p. 26. Basically, SNK's Neo Geo system has proved the existence of a die-hard market for lower-cost videogames in arcades ... ^ "And the Winner Is...". Next Generation. No. 17. May 1996. p. 21. ^ "No Love: SNK Stop Neo Geo Support". Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. ^ "SNK terminates Neo Geo X Gold licensing, Tommo required to cease production". Engadget. ^ "SNK's First Mega Shock Game Goes Right to #1". RePlay. Vol. 18, no. 4. January 1993. pp. 21–2. ^ "RePlay: The Players' Choice". RePlay. Vol. 18, no. 3. December 1992. p. 13. ^ "ACME '93: Play Meter, AAMA present awards". Play Meter. Vol. 19, no. 5. April 1993. pp. 74–6. ^ "ACME '94: Play Meter, AAMA salute best games". Play Meter. 20 (5): ACME 73-4. April 1994. ^ "Letter From Europe". RePlay. Vol. 20, no. 7. April 1995. p. 36, 38. ^ "第４回ゲーメスト大賞" . Gamest (in Japanese). Vol. 54 (February 1991). December 27, 1990. pp. 6–24. alternate url ^ "Are the Stars Out Tonight?". RePlay. Vol. 17, no. 1. October 1991. p. 128. ^ "System Shopper". GamePro. No. 63. IDG. December 1993. pp. 46–49. ^ "This Fall Everything Turns To Gold With Neo-Geo: The Player's Gold Card Keeps Them Coming Back For More". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 2. November 1990. pp. 26–7. ^ Elizabeth Olson, "Neo Geo: The Shape of Things to Come?", Game Informer, issue 2 (November–December 1991), page 14 ^ a b "Lud's RetroComputing Info". drolez.com. ^ a b c d e f g h i MacDonald, Charles. "Neo*Geo MVS Hardware Notes". Retrieved 2012-01-26. ^ "GPU - NeoGeo Development Wiki". Archived from the original on 2015-12-10. Retrieved 2014-09-26. ^ "Category:Chips - NeoGeo Development Wiki". wiki.neogeodev.org. ^ "SNK Neo Geo AES". ConsoleGen. ^ P bus, Neo Geo Development ^ LSPC2-A2, Neo Geo Development ^ a b "YM2610 - NeoGeo Development Wiki". wiki.neogeodev.org. ^ Neo-Geo Hardware Specification ^ "Repairing a Neo-Geo MVS cartridge?". June 2007. Retrieved 2011-12-14. ^ Nicoll, Benjamin (2015). "Bridging the Gap: The Neo Geo, the Media Imaginary, and the Domestication of Arcade Games". Games and Culture. 12 (2): 1–22. doi:10.1177/1555412015590048. S2CID 147981978. ^ "The Return of the NeoGeo". Wii.ign.com. Archived from the original on May 5, 2007. Retrieved 2012-01-26. ^ "Virtual Console: NeoGeo Games Coming To Virtual Console". Kotaku. ^ "Neo Geo Comes to European Virtual Console". Nintendo of Europe. 1 October 2007. Retrieved 15 December 2009. Alt URL ^ "Wii-kly Update: Three New Classic Games Added to Wii Shop Channel". Nintendo of America. 8 October 2007. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 15 December 2009. ^ "NG:Dev.Team, a third party NeoGeo publisher". Retrieved 23 April 2015. ^ "Neo Geo AES price guide". Neo-geo.com. Retrieved 2012-01-26. ^ "NeoGeo is number 19". IGN. Retrieved 2012-01-26. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Neo-Geo. Official website NEOGEO Museum A complete software and artwork resource for the Neo Geo The NeoGeo Development Wiki Video of Neo Geo AES hardware and features from FamicomDojo.TV vteNeo GeoConsoles Neo Geo AES List of games Neo Geo CD Arcade system boards Neo Geo MVS List of games Hyper Neo Geo 64 Handheld consoles Neo Geo Pocket Neo Geo Pocket Color List of games Neo Geo X Original franchises Art of Fighting Fatal Fury The King of Fighters King of the Monsters The Last Blade Metal Slug Samurai Shodown Super Sidekicks World Heroes Re-releases Arcade Archives Art of Fighting Anthology Metal Slug Anthology Neo Geo Online Collection Samurai Shodown Anthology SNK Arcade Classics Vol. 1 World Heroes Anthology Sengoku Anthology NEOGEO Station Neo Geo Pocket Color Selection vteSNKFranchises Alpha Mission Art of Fighting Athena Baseball Stars Beast Busters Doki Doki Majo Shinpan! Fatal Fury Ikari Warriors The King of Fighters King of the Monsters The Last Blade Metal Slug Prehistoric Isle Pulstar Samurai Shodown Sengoku Shock Troopers Stakes Winner Super Sidekicks Twinkle Star Sprites Vanguard World Heroes HardwareArcade Neo Geo MVS Hyper Neo Geo 64 Console Neo Geo AES Neo Geo CD Handheld consoles Neo Geo Pocket Neo Geo Pocket Color (List of games) Neo Geo X Services Neo Geo Online Collection NEOGEO Station People Falcoon Nobuyuki Kuroki Takashi Nishiyama Yasuyuki Oda Eisuke Ogura Shinkiro Related List of games Arcade Neo Geo ADK Aicom Nazca Corporation Noise Factory Sacnoth vteVideo game consoles (fourth generation)Types Home video game console list Handheld game console list Microconsole list Dedicated console list Hybrid console Retro console list Generations First (1972–1980) Second (1976–1992) Third (1983–2003) Fourth (1987–2004) Fifth (1993–2006) Sixth (1998–2013) Seventh (2005–2017) Eighth (2012–present) Ninth (2020–present) FourthgenerationHome Commodore CDTV Neo Geo Neo Geo CD Philips CD-i LaserActive Sega Genesis Super A'Can Super Nintendo Entertainment System SNS-101 TurboGrafx-16 Handheld Game Boy Atari Lynx Game Gear TurboExpress Gamate Watara Supervision Mega Duck/Cougar Boy Game Master ← Third generation Fifth generation → Emulator Game Services History List Manufacturer vteHome video game consolesAtari Atari 2600 Atari 5200 Atari 7800 XEGS Jaguar Atari VCS (2021) Bandai Super Vision 8000 Arcadia RX-78 Playdia Apple Pippin Terebikko Casio PV-1000 Casio Loopy Coleco Coleco Telstar Arcade ColecoVision Commodore Commodore 64 Games System CDTV Amiga CD32 Epoch Cassette Vision Super Cassette Vision LeapFrog Leapster TV ClickStart LeapTV Mattel Intellivision HyperScan Microsoft (Xbox) Xbox Xbox 360 Xbox One Xbox Series X/S NEC PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16 PC-FX Nintendo Family Computer/Nintendo Entertainment System Super Famicom/Super NES Nintendo 64 GameCube Wii Wii U Switch Panasonic 3DO Interactive Multiplayer Panasonic Q Philips Magnavox Odyssey Odyssey 2 Videopac+ G7400 CD-i RCA RCA Studio II RCA Nuon Sega SG-1000 Master System Mega Drive/Genesis Saturn Dreamcast SNK (Neo Geo) Neo Geo Neo Geo CD Sony (PlayStation) PlayStation PlayStation 2 PlayStation 3 PlayStation 4 PlayStation 5 VTech CreatiVision Socrates V.Smile V.Flash Others1970s APF-MP1000 Bally Astrocade Fairchild Channel F Interton VC 4000/1292 Advanced Programmable Video System 1980s Action Max Arcadia 2001 Gakken Compact Vision TV Boy RDI Halcyon Vectrex View-Master Interactive Vision 1990s Amstrad GX4000 Apple Pippin CPS Changer FM Towns Marty LaserActive Super A'Can 2000s DISCover EVO Smart Console Game Wave Xavix Zeebo 2010s CT510 Steam Machine 2020s Polymega Evercade VS List
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For the Neo Geo brand as a whole, see Neo Geo.The Neo Geo (Japanese: ネオジオ, Hepburn: Neojio), stylized as NEO•GEO and also written as NEOGEO, is a ROM cartridge-based arcade system board and fourth-generation home video game console released on April 26, 1990, by Japanese game company SNK Corporation. It was the first system in SNK's Neo Geo family.The Neo Geo originally launched as the Multi Video System (MVS) coin-operated arcade machine. With its games stored on self-contained cartridges, a game cabinet can easily be changed to a different game title by swapping the game's cartridge and cabinet artwork. The MVS offers owners the ability to put up to six different cartridges into a single cabinet. This unique feature was a key economic consideration for operators with limited floorspace, as well as saving money long term.[6]A home console version was also made, called Advanced Entertainment System (AES). It was originally released solely as a rental console for video game stores in Japan called the Neo Geo Rental System, with its high manufacturing costs causing SNK not to release it for retail sale. This was later reversed due to high demand and it was released at retail as a luxury console. Adjusted for inflation, it was the most expensive home video game console ever released, costing US$649.99 (equivalent to $1,454 in 2023).[7] The AES had identical hardware to the MVS, allowing home users to play the games exactly as they were in the arcades.[8]The Neo Geo was marketed as the first 24-bit system; its CPU is actually a 16/32-bit 68000 with an 8-bit Z80 coprocessor, while its GPU chipset has a 24-bit graphics data bus. It was a very powerful system when released, more powerful than any video game console at the time, and many arcade systems such as rival Capcom's CPS, which did not surpass it until the CP System II in 1993.[9]The Neo Geo MVS was a success during the 1990s due to the cabinet's low cost, multiple cartridge slots, and compact size. Several successful video game series were released for the platform, such as Fatal Fury, Art of Fighting, Samurai Shodown, World Heroes, The King of Fighters and Metal Slug. The AES had a very niche market in Japan, though sales were very low in the U.S. due to its high price for both the hardware and software, but it has since gained a cult following and is now considered a collectable. Neo Geo hardware production lasted seven years, being discontinued in 1997, whereas game software production lasted until 2004,[10] making Neo Geo the longest-supported arcade system of all time.[11] The AES console was succeeded by the Neo Geo CD and the MVS arcade by the Hyper Neo Geo 64. The Neo Geo AES and the Neo Geo CD have sold 980,000 units combined worldwide as of March 1997.[12] One million Neo Geo MVS units have been shipped worldwide as of April 1997.[13]","title":"Neo Geo (system)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neo-Geo-AES-Controller-FL.jpg"},{"link_name":"Time Soldiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_Soldiers"},{"link_name":"P.O.W.: Prisoners of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.O.W.:_Prisoners_of_War"},{"link_name":"sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"tilemap-based","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile-based_video_game"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Alpha Denshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADK_(company)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"Takashi Nishiyama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takashi_Nishiyama"},{"link_name":"Capcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capcom"},{"link_name":"fighting game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighting_game"},{"link_name":"Street Fighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_Fighter_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"ROM cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM_cartridge"},{"link_name":"game console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_console"},{"link_name":"home console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_console"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"Central America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_America"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"due to piracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_piracy"},{"link_name":"Fatal Fury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatal_Fury"},{"link_name":"Art of Fighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Fighting"},{"link_name":"The King of Fighters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_of_Fighters"},{"link_name":"run and gun video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run_and_gun_video_game"},{"link_name":"Metal Slug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_Slug"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1up-19"},{"link_name":"Osaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RePlay83-22"},{"link_name":"NAM-1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAM-1975"},{"link_name":"Magician Lord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magician_Lord"},{"link_name":"Baseball Stars Professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_Stars_Professional"},{"link_name":"Top Player's Golf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Player%27s_Golf"},{"link_name":"Riding Hero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riding_Hero"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACME-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RePlay83-22"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"rent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renting"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotel"},{"link_name":"X68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X68000"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM"},{"link_name":"cartridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM_cartridge"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nicoll-28"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"joystick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick"},{"link_name":"Baseball Stars Professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball_Stars_Professional"},{"link_name":"NAM-1975","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAM-1975"},{"link_name":"niche market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_market"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Romstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romstar"},{"link_name":"arcade conversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_conversion"},{"link_name":"arcade cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Consumer Electronics Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_Electronics_Show"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"3D graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"American Amusement Machine Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Amusement_Machine_Association"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Neo Geo CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo_Geo_CD"},{"link_name":"Hyper Neo Geo 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper_Neo_Geo_64"},{"link_name":"The King of Fighters 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_of_Fighters_2002"},{"link_name":"Samurai Shodown V Special","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai_Shodown_V_Special"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ngend-3"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Neo Geo X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo_Geo_X"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"The Neo Geo AES shipped with large, arcade-style controllers.The Neo Geo hardware was an evolution of an older SNK/Alpha Denshi M68000 arcade platform that was used in Time Soldiers in 1987, further developed in the SNK M68000 hardware platform as used for P.O.W.: Prisoners of War in 1988. Contrary to other popular arcade hardware of the time, the SNK/Alpha Denshi hardware used sprite strips instead of the more common tilemap-based backgrounds.[14] The Neo Geo hardware was essentially developed by Alpha Denshi's Eiji Fukatsu, adding sprite scaling through the use of scaling tables stored in ROM as well as support for a much higher amount of data on cartridges and better sound hardware.[15][16][17] The system's hardware specifications were finalized in December 1989.[1]Takashi Nishiyama left Capcom, where he had created the fighting game Street Fighter (1987), to join SNK after they invited him to join the company. There, he was involved in developing the Neo Geo. He proposed the concept of an arcade system that uses ROM cartridges like a game console, and also proposed a home console version of the system. His reasons for these proposals were to make the system cheaper for markets such as China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Central America, and South America, where it was difficult to sell dedicated arcade games due to piracy. Nishiyama also created the Fatal Fury fighting game franchise, as a spiritual successor to the original Street Fighter. He also worked on the fighting game franchises Art of Fighting and The King of Fighters, as well as the run and gun video game series Metal Slug.[18]The Neo Geo was announced and demonstrated on January 31, 1990, in Osaka, Japan.[19][20][21] SNK exhibited several Neo Geo games at Japan's Amusement Machine Operators' Union (AOU) show in February 1990, including NAM-1975, Magician Lord, Baseball Stars Professional, Top Player's Golf and Riding Hero.[22] The Neo Geo then made its overseas debut at Chicago's American Coin Machine Exposition (ACME) in March 1990, with several games demonstrated.[23][24][21] The system was then released in Japan on April 26, 1990.[25] Initially, the AES home system was only available for rent to commercial establishments,[26] such as hotel chains, bars and restaurants. When customer response indicated that some gamers were willing to buy a US$650 console, SNK expanded sales and marketing into the home console market in 1991.Neo Geo's graphics and sound are largely superior to other contemporary home consoles, computers (such as the X68000) and even some arcade systems. Unlike earlier systems, the Neo Geo AES was intended to reproduce the same quality of the game as the arcade MVS system. The MVS was one of the most powerful arcade units at the time, allowing the game ROM to be loaded from interchangeable cartridges instead of using custom, dedicated hardware cabinets for each game.[27]In the United States, the console's debut price was planned to be US$599 and included two joystick controllers and a game: either Baseball Stars Professional or NAM-1975. However, the price was raised and its American launch debuted as the Gold System at US$649.99 (equivalent to $1,454 in 2023). Later, the Gold System was bundled with Magician Lord and Fatal Fury. The Silver System package, launched at US$399.99, included one joystick controller and no pack-in game. Other games were launched at about US$200 and up. At double or quadruple the price of the competition, the console and its games were accessible only to a niche market.[28] However, its full compatibility meant that no additional money was being spent on porting or marketing for the AES, since the MVS' success was automatically feeding the AES, making the console profitable for SNK.[citation needed]In January 1991, Romstar released an arcade conversion kit version of the Neo Geo in the United States, allowing the conversion of an arcade cabinet into a Neo Geo system.[29] The same month, the Neo Geo home console version made its North American debut at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES). SNK also announced that there would generally be a roughly six-month gap between the arcade and home releases of Neo Geo games.[30]When real-time 3D graphics became the norm in the arcade industry, the Neo Geo's 2D hardware was unable to do likewise. Despite this, Neo Geo arcade games retained profitability through the mid-1990s,[31] and the system was one of three 1995 recipients of the American Amusement Machine Association's Diamond Awards (which are based strictly on sales achievements).[32] SNK developed a new home console in 1994, called the Neo Geo CD. A new arcade system was also made in 1997, called Hyper Neo Geo 64. However, these two systems had low popularity and only a few games.While it ceased manufacturing home consoles by the end of 1997, SNK continued making software for the original 2D Neo Geo. Despite being very aged by the end of the decade, the Neo Geo continued getting popular releases, such as the critically acclaimed The King of Fighters 2002. The last official game by SNK for the Neo Geo system, Samurai Shodown V Special, was released in 2004, 14 years after the system's introduction.On August 31, 2007, SNK stopped offering maintenance and repairs to Neo Geo home consoles, handhelds, and games.[3][33]The Neo Geo X, an officially licensed device with a collection of Neo Geo games pre-installed, was first released in 2012 by TOMMO Inc. After just one year and a lukewarm reception due to its price and poor quality of the emulation, on October 2, 2013, SNK Playmore terminated the license agreement and demanded an immediate cease and desist of distribution and sales of all licensed products.[34]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leisure-2"},{"link_name":"Art of Fighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Fighting"},{"link_name":"World Heroes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heroes_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"King of the Monsters 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_the_Monsters_2"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"arcade machines of 1992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"Street Fighter II: Champion Edition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_Fighter_II:_Champion_Edition"},{"link_name":"Mortal Kombat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortal_Kombat_(1992_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Terminator 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminator_2:_Judgment_Day_(arcade_game)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"1993","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"In 1994","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_in_video_games"},{"link_name":"printed circuit board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Gamest Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamest"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"3DO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer"},{"link_name":"fighting games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighting_game"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Reception","text":"The Neo Geo MVS was a worldwide commercial success upon release in arcades, becoming one of the highest-earning machines at various arcades across markets such as North America and Australia in 1990.[2] In North America, three Neo Geo games were later among the ten top-grossing arcade software conversion kits in December 1992: Art of Fighting at number one, World Heroes at number two, and King of the Monsters 2 at number ten.[35][36] The Neo Geo MVS received Diamond awards from the American Amusement Machine Association (AAMA) two years in a row, for being among America's top four best-selling arcade machines of 1992 (with Street Fighter II: Champion Edition, Mortal Kombat and Terminator 2)[37] and 1993.[38] In 1994, the Neo Geo MVS was best-selling arcade printed circuit board (PCB) worldwide.[39]In the 1990 Gamest Awards, the Neo Geo received the Special Award.[40] At the 1991 AMOA Awards held by the Amusement & Music Operators Association (AMOA), the Neo Geo won the \"Most Innovative New Technology\" award.[41]In a 1993 review, GamePro gave the Neo Geo a \"thumbs up\". Though they voiced several criticisms, noting that the system was not as powerful as the soon-to-launch 3DO and had few releases which were not fighting games, they generally praised both the hardware and games library and recommended that gamers who could not afford the console (which was still priced at $649.99) play the games in the arcade.[42]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neogeoguts.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neo-Geo-AES-Opened-FL.jpg"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetre"},{"link_name":"mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetre"},{"link_name":"mm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millimetre"},{"link_name":"cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_cabinet"},{"link_name":"memory card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_card"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"video game hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_hardware"},{"link_name":"daughterboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daughterboard"},{"link_name":"EPROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"link_name":"pinout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinout"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Inside a four cartridge Neo Geo arcade machineThe Neo Geo AES motherboardEach joystick controller is 280mm (width) × 190mm (depth) × 95mm (height) ( 11 × 8 × 2.5 in.) and contains the same four-button layout as the arcade MVS cabinet.The arcade machines have a memory card system by which a player could save a game to return to at a later time and could also be used to continue play on the SNK home console of the same name.[43]The arcade version of the video game hardware is often referred to as the \"MVS,\" or Multi Video System (available in 1-slot, 2-slot, 4-slot, and 6-slot variations, differing in the amount of game cartridges loaded into the machine at the time), with its console counterpart referred to as the \"AES\", or Advanced Entertainment System. Early motherboard revisions contain daughterboards, used to enhance the clarity of the video output.The MVS and AES hardware can execute identical machine code. Owners can move EPROMs from one type to the other, and the game will still run. The program specifics for both MVS and AES game options are contained on every game ROM, whether the cartridge is intended for home or arcade use. However, the arcade and home cartridges do have a different pinout. They were designed this way to prevent arcade operators from buying the cheaper home carts and then using them in arcades. In a few home version games,[which?] the arcade version of the game can be unlocked by inputting a special code.[which?][citation needed]","title":"Technical details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"megabits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabits"},{"link_name":"Top Hunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Hunter"},{"link_name":"bank switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_switching"},{"link_name":"attract mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attract_mode"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neogeo_100megashock.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GigaPower.png"}],"sub_title":"ROM sizes and startup screens","text":"The original specification for ROM size is up to 330 megabits, hence the system displaying \"Max 330 Mega Pro-Gear Spec\" upon startup. While no technical advances were required to achieve it, some games over 100 megabits, such as Top Hunter, followed this screen by displaying an animation proclaiming \"The 100Mega Shock!\". The original ROM size specification was later enhanced on cartridges with bank switching memory technology, increasing the maximum cartridge size to around 716 megabits. These new cartridges also cause the system to display \"Giga Power Pro-Gear Spec\" upon startup or during attract mode, indicating this enhancement.The 100Mega Shock!\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGiga Power","title":"Technical details"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neo-Geo-AES-Cartridge-Bottom.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neo-Geo-Memory-Card.jpg"},{"link_name":"Memory Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_Card"},{"link_name":"processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"The game cartridges measure 19 centimetres (7.5 in) by 14 centimetres (5.5 in) by 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in)Neo Geo Memory CardThe system uses seven different specialist processors, which divide the workload for the visuals, audio and gameplay.[44]","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"Motorola 68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68000"},{"link_name":"second sourced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_source"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"Hitachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi"},{"link_name":"MHz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"16/32-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit#16/32-bit_Motorola_68000_and_Intel_386SX"},{"link_name":"instructions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set"},{"link_name":"MIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructions_per_second"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retro-46"},{"link_name":"co-processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coprocessor"},{"link_name":"Zilog Z80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80"},{"link_name":"8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bit"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-retro-46"}],"sub_title":"CPU","text":"Main CPU processor: Motorola 68000 (often a second sourced version, usually by Toshiba or Hitachi, initially a Hitachi HD68HC000PS12) @ 12 MHz[1] (16/32-bit instructions @ 1.75 MIPS[45])\nCPU co-processor: Zilog Z80 @ 4 MHz (also used as audio controller) (8/16-bit instructions @ 0.58 MIPS[45])","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"KB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kibibyte"},{"link_name":"SRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"Video RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_memory"},{"link_name":"VRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VRAM"},{"link_name":"sprite RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_memory"},{"link_name":"save","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saved_game"},{"link_name":"NVRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_random-access_memory"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"look-up table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lookup_table"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"}],"sub_title":"Memory","text":"RAM: 214 KB SRAM[46][1]Main 68000 RAM: 64 KB (32 KB SRAM ×2)\nVideo RAM: 84 KB SRAM\nMain VRAM: 64 KB (32 KB SRAM ×2)\nPalette memory: 16 KB (8 KB SRAM ×2)\nFast video sprite RAM: 4 KB (2 KB SRAM ×2)\nZ80 sound RAM: 2 KB SRAM\nBattery-backup save NVRAM: 64 KB SRAMOn-board ROM: 512 KB[46]Zoom look-up table: 128 KB\nFix layer graphics: 128 KB\nZ80 sound: 128 KB\n68000 BIOS: 128 KB","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sprites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"tilemap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile_engine"},{"link_name":"Sega Y Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega_Y_Board"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"GPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"SNK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNK"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_(computing)"},{"link_name":"24-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24-bit_computing"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Display resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_resolution"},{"link_name":"px","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"progressive scan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_scan"},{"link_name":"Color palette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palette_(computing)"},{"link_name":"16-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highcolor"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"sprites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"scanline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scan_line"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"sprite pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texel_(graphics)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"tilemap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile_engine"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACME-24"},{"link_name":"parallax scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax_scrolling"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mvstech-47"},{"link_name":"composite video","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_video"},{"link_name":"RGB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB"}],"sub_title":"Display","text":"The SNK custom video chipset allows the system to draw sprites in vertical strips of tiles (blocks of 16x16 pixels), and can be 32 tiles tall (total of 512 pixels); it can draw up to 380 sprites on the screen at a time, with the limitation of 96 sprites per scanline. Each tile can be assigned a palette, which defines 15 colors (+ transparency). Allowing up to 256 palettes at the same time, the system can display 3840 colors simultaneously. Unlike most other video game consoles of its time, the Neo Geo does not use scrolling tilemap background layers. Instead, it has a single non-scrolling tilemap layer called the fix layer, while any scrolling layers rely exclusively on drawing sprites to create the scrolling backgrounds (like the Sega Y Board). By laying multiple sprites side by side, the system can simulate a tilemap background layer. The Neo Geo sprite system represents a step between conventional sprites and tilemaps.[46]GPU chipset:[47]\nSNK LSPC2-A2 (line sprite generator & VRAM interface) @ 24 MHz[46]\nSNK PRO-B0 (palette arbiter)[48]\nSNK PRO-A0, NEO-B1, NEO-GRC[49]\nGPU graphics data bus: 24-bit[50][51]\nDisplay resolution: 320×224 px (many games only use the centermost 304 px),[46] progressive scan\nColor palette: 65,536 (16-bit) (not RGB565, but RGB666, where the lowest bit of each channel is shared, being common to the three RGB components)[46]\nMaximum colors on screen: 3840\nMaximum sprites on screen: 380[1]\nMinimum sprite size: 16×16 px[1]\nMaximum sprite size: 16×512 px[1]\nMaximum sprites per scanline: 96[1]\nMaximum sprite pixels per scanline: 1536 px[46]\nStatic tilemap plane: 1 (512×256 px fix layer)[46]\nBackground planes: Up to 3 planes,[23] which enable parallax scrolling (large sprites can be chained together to make objects that function similarly to tilemap backgrounds)[46]\nAspect ratio: 4:3\nA/V output: RF, composite video/RCA audio, RGB (with separate 21 pin RGB cable FCG-9, or European standard RGB SCART cable).","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yamaha YM2610","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_YM2610"},{"link_name":"sound chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_chip"},{"link_name":"Sound chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_chip"},{"link_name":"Yamaha YM2610","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamaha_YM2610"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"},{"link_name":"FM synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_synthesis"},{"link_name":"SSG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_sound_generator"},{"link_name":"noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_noise"},{"link_name":"pulse-code modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACME-24"},{"link_name":"ADPCM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_DPCM"},{"link_name":"sampling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"audio depth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_bit_depth"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ym2610-53"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ym2610-53"},{"link_name":"interval timers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_Interval_Timer"},{"link_name":"low frequency oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_frequency_oscillation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Specification-1"}],"sub_title":"Sound","text":"The onboard Yamaha YM2610 sound chip gives the system 15 channels of sound.Sound chip: Yamaha YM2610[1]\n4 concurrent FM synthesis channels (voices), four operators per channel\n3 SSG channels\n1 programmable noise channel\n7 pulse-code modulation (PCM) channels[23]\nADPCM-A: 6 ADPCM channels, 18.5 kHz sampling rate, 12-bit audio depth[52]\nADPCM-B: 1 ADPCM channel, 1.85–55.5 kHz sampling rate, 16-bit audio depth[52]\n2 interval timers\n1 low frequency oscillator (LFO)\nSound/Work RAM: 2KB[1]\nSound ROM: 128 KB on-board (only less than 32 KB used), up to 512 KB sound ROM on cartridges","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt"},{"link_name":"JEIDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEIDA_memory_card"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"PowerSource: separate DC 5 V (older systems) and DC 9 V adapter (newer systems).\nConsumption: 8 W older Systems, 5 W newer SystemsDimensionsConsole: 325 mm (width) × 237 mm (depth) × 60 mm (height).\nController: 280 mm (width) × 190 mm (depth) × 95 mm (height).Console storageRemovable memory card: 2KB or 68-pin JEIDA ver. 3 spec memory.[53] Any 68-pin memory that fits the JEIDA version 3 spec will work.Arcade storageRemovable memory card: 68-pin. Cartridge is composed of 2 PCBs.[54]","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"saved games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saved_game"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"GameTap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameTap"},{"link_name":"emulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console_emulator"},{"link_name":"Nintendo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo"},{"link_name":"Wii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wii"},{"link_name":"Virtual Console","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Console"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Fatal Fury: King of Fighters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatal_Fury:_King_of_Fighters"},{"link_name":"Art of Fighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_Fighting"},{"link_name":"The King of Fighters '94","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_of_Fighters_%2794"},{"link_name":"World Heroes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heroes"},{"link_name":"Xbox Live Arcade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_Live_Arcade"},{"link_name":"PlayStation Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Network"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_3"},{"link_name":"NEOGEO Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEOGEO_Station"},{"link_name":"Fatal Fury Special","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatal_Fury_Special"},{"link_name":"Samurai Shodown II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samurai_Shodown_II"},{"link_name":"Metal Slug 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_Slug_3"},{"link_name":"Garou: Mark of the Wolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garou:_Mark_of_the_Wolves"},{"link_name":"The King of Fighters '98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_King_of_Fighters_%2798"},{"link_name":"PlayStation 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_4"},{"link_name":"Xbox One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xbox_One"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Nintendo Switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Switch"},{"link_name":"Arcade Archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_Archives"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ngdevteam-61"},{"link_name":"Kizuna Encounter: Super Tag Battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kizuna_Encounter:_Super_Tag_Battle"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"text":"The Neo Geo is the first home game console to feature a removable memory card for saved games.[55]The GameTap subscription service has included a Neo Geo emulator and a small library of Neo Geo games. In 2007 Nintendo announced that Neo Geo games would appear on the Wii's Virtual Console,[56][57][58][59] starting with Fatal Fury: King of Fighters, Art of Fighting, The King of Fighters '94, and World Heroes. Neo Geo games were released through Xbox Live Arcade and PlayStation Network (For the PlayStation 3/PlayStation Network, the service was called NEOGEO Station), including Fatal Fury Special, Samurai Shodown II, Metal Slug 3, Garou: Mark of the Wolves and The King of Fighters '98. Many Neo Geo games were released on the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows, and Nintendo Switch through the Arcade Archives service.Homebrew activity began after the console's discontinuation, both by noncommercial hobbyists and commercially.[60]Neo Geo has a community of collectors. Because of the limited production runs received by cartridges amongst the sizable available arcade library, some of the rarest Neo Geo games can sell for well over $1,000. The most valuable game is the European AES version of Kizuna Encounter: Super Tag Battle. The MVS market provides a cheaper alternative to the expensive and rare home cartridges, and complete arcade kits are priced at a premium.[61] It is also possible to play the MVS cartridges, which generally cost much less, on the AES home system through the use of adapters.In 2009, the Neo Geo was ranked 19th out of the 25 best video game consoles of all time by video game website IGN.[62]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"text":"^ 1 million in Japan.[4] 180,000 overseas.[5]","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"The Neo Geo AES shipped with large, arcade-style controllers.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Neo-Geo-AES-Controller-FL.jpg/220px-Neo-Geo-AES-Controller-FL.jpg"},{"image_text":"Inside a four cartridge Neo Geo arcade machine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Neogeoguts.JPG/220px-Neogeoguts.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Neo Geo AES motherboard","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Neo-Geo-AES-Opened-FL.jpg/220px-Neo-Geo-AES-Opened-FL.jpg"},{"image_text":"The game cartridges measure 19 centimetres (7.5 in) by 14 centimetres (5.5 in) by 2.5 centimetres (0.98 in)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Neo-Geo-AES-Cartridge-Bottom.jpg/250px-Neo-Geo-AES-Cartridge-Bottom.jpg"},{"image_text":"Neo Geo Memory Card","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Neo-Geo-Memory-Card.jpg/250px-Neo-Geo-Memory-Card.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Arcade system board: SNK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_system_board#SNK"},{"title":"CP System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CP_System"},{"title":"Neo Geo CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo_Geo_CD"},{"title":"DECO Cassette System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DECO_Cassette_System"},{"title":"Taito B System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taito_B_System"},{"title":"List of Neo Geo games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neo_Geo_games"},{"title":"List of Sega arcade system boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Sega_arcade_system_boards"}]
[{"reference":"NEO•GEO Hardware Specification. 18 June 1991. Retrieved 2014-07-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/NeoGeoHardwareSpecification","url_text":"NEO•GEO Hardware Specification"}]},{"reference":"\"American operators vote for Neo-Geo\". Leisure Line. Australia: Leisure & Allied Industries. August 1990. p. 27.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/Leisure_Line_1990-08_Leisure_Allied_Industries_AU/page/n26","url_text":"\"American operators vote for Neo-Geo\""}]},{"reference":"\"ネオジオ修理のお問い合わせ\" (in Japanese). SNK Playmore. Archived from the original on July 17, 2007. Retrieved April 24, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070717003130/https://www.snkplaymore.co.jp/game/inquiry/mente_index.php","url_text":"\"ネオジオ修理のお問い合わせ\""},{"url":"https://www.snkplaymore.co.jp/game/inquiry/mente_index.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Hardware Totals\". Game Data Library. Retrieved 13 October 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://sites.google.com/site/gamedatalibrary/hardware-totals","url_text":"\"Hardware Totals\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tokyorama\". Consoles + (in French). No. 73. February 1998. pp. 46–7.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abandonware-magazines.org/affiche_mag.php?mag=51&num=4862&album=oui","url_text":"\"Tokyorama\""},{"url":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consoles_%2B","url_text":"Consoles +"}]},{"reference":"\"SNK Neo-Geo 101: A Beginner's Guide - RetroGaming with Racketboy\". 20 May 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.racketboy.com/retro/snk-neo-geo-101-a-beginners-guide","url_text":"\"SNK Neo-Geo 101: A Beginner's Guide - RetroGaming with Racketboy\""}]},{"reference":"Plunkett, Luke (December 17, 2013). \"36 Years of Console Prices, Adjusted for Inflation\". Kotaku. Retrieved 24 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://kotaku.com/36-years-of-console-prices-adjusted-for-inflation-1485353267","url_text":"\"36 Years of Console Prices, Adjusted for Inflation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kotaku","url_text":"Kotaku"}]},{"reference":"Slaven, Andy (2002). Video Game Bible, 1985-2002. Trafford Publishing. pp. 338–. ISBN 978-1-55369-731-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PnPRd6QwvbQC&pg=PA338","url_text":"Video Game Bible, 1985-2002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55369-731-2","url_text":"978-1-55369-731-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Neo Geo History\". Neo Geo, Arcade & Retro Games. Archived from the original on 2012-12-31. Retrieved 2016-01-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121231233202/http://www.neogeokult.com/articles-us/neo-geo-history/","url_text":"\"Neo Geo History\""},{"url":"http://www.neogeokult.com/articles-us/neo-geo-history/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Longest support for an arcade system\". Guinness World Records.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/longest-support-for-an-arcade-system","url_text":"\"Longest support for an arcade system\""}]},{"reference":"\"Japon Previews: Tokyorama - Les Ventes De L'année\". Consoles + (in French). No. 73. M.E.R.7. February 1998. p. 47.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/Console_Plus_Numero_073#page/n46/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Japon Previews: Tokyorama - Les Ventes De L'année\""},{"url":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consoles_%2B","url_text":"Consoles +"},{"url":"https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.E.R.7","url_text":"M.E.R.7"}]},{"reference":"\"Overseas Readers Column - SNK To Intro \"NEO•GEO 64\" In Summer\". Game Machine (in Japanese). No. 539. Amusement Press, Inc. 15 April 1997. p. 22.","urls":[{"url":"https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%83%9E%E3%82%B7%E3%83%B3","url_text":"Game Machine"},{"url":"https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A1%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1%E7%A4%BE","url_text":"Amusement Press, Inc."}]},{"reference":"\"MAME - BryanMcPhail.com\". www.bryanmcphail.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bryanmcphail.com/wp/?page_id=8","url_text":"\"MAME - BryanMcPhail.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"ADK会社案内\". 3 August 2001. Archived from the original on 3 August 2001.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010803022135/http://z-ch.miraisoft.co.jp/adk.php3","url_text":"\"ADK会社案内\""},{"url":"http://z-ch.miraisoft.co.jp/adk.php3","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"ADK\". www.neo-geo.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.neo-geo.com/forums/showthread.php?148-ADK&p=1975&viewfull=1#post1975","url_text":"\"ADK\""}]},{"reference":"\"100,000 + 1 things you never new about neo - Page 9\". www.neo-geo.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.neo-geo.com/forums/showthread.php?745-100-000-1-things-you-never-new-about-neo&p=2263381&viewfull=1#post2263381","url_text":"\"100,000 + 1 things you never new about neo - Page 9\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Man Who Created Street Fighter from 1UP.com\". 3 January 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-01-03. Retrieved 8 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120103143919/http://www.1up.com/features/the-man-who-created-street-fighter","url_text":"\"The Man Who Created Street Fighter from 1UP.com\""},{"url":"http://www.1up.com/features/the-man-who-created-street-fighter","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Interview with Takashi Nishiyama, Street Fighter and Fatal Fury creator\". Culturaneogeo. 2011-12-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.culturaneogeo.com/imagenes/entrevistas/streeteng.htm","url_text":"\"Interview with Takashi Nishiyama, Street Fighter and Fatal Fury creator\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mortal Shang - Neo-Geo\". Mortal Shang. Archived from the original on 2018-02-26. Retrieved 2012-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180226081909/http://mortal.shang.free.fr/pages/neo-geo.htm","url_text":"\"Mortal Shang - Neo-Geo\""},{"url":"http://mortal.shang.free.fr/pages/neo-geo.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"News Digest: SNK Smiling With 2 Fine Dedicated Games; Multi-Game System Coming at ACME\". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 5. February 1990. p. 14.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-14-issue-no.-5-february-1990-600dpi/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2014%2C%20Issue%20No.%205%20-%20February%201990/page/14","url_text":"\"News Digest: SNK Smiling With 2 Fine Dedicated Games; Multi-Game System Coming at ACME\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cover story: SNK Corp. Readies Multi-Game Neo-Geo Video System For World Release; Stateside Debut Slated for ACME\". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 6. March 1990. pp. 83–6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-14-issue-no.-6-march-1990-600dpi/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2014%2C%20Issue%20No.%206%20-%20March%201990/page/83","url_text":"\"Cover story: SNK Corp. Readies Multi-Game Neo-Geo Video System For World Release; Stateside Debut Slated for ACME\""}]},{"reference":"\"Overseas Readers Column: Many Videos Unveiled At AOU Expo '90 Chiba\" (PDF). Game Machine (in Japanese). No. 377. Amusement Press, Inc. 1 April 1990. p. 26.","urls":[{"url":"https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/19900401p.pdf#page=14","url_text":"\"Overseas Readers Column: Many Videos Unveiled At AOU Expo '90 Chiba\""},{"url":"https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B2%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%83%9E%E3%82%B7%E3%83%B3","url_text":"Game Machine"},{"url":"https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A1%E3%83%B3%E3%83%88%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%A1%E7%A4%BE","url_text":"Amusement Press, Inc."}]},{"reference":"\"ACME: New Product Review\". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 7. April 1990. pp. 50–84.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-14-issue-no.-7-april-1990-600dpi/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2014%2C%20Issue%20No.%207%20-%20April%201990/page/50/mode/2up","url_text":"\"ACME: New Product Review\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sneak Preview: sizzling new equipment of all stripes will be on display at ACME\". RePlay. Vol. 15, no. 6. March 1990. pp. 30–8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-14-issue-no.-6-march-1990-600dpi/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2014%2C%20Issue%20No.%206%20-%20March%201990/page/30","url_text":"\"Sneak Preview: sizzling new equipment of all stripes will be on display at ACME\""}]},{"reference":"\"Arcade Gear - Neo Geo\". MArcade Gear. Archived from the original on 2016-10-07. Retrieved 2015-07-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161007053910/http://www.arcade-gear.com/Games/SNK/SNK_Neo_Geo.htm","url_text":"\"Arcade Gear - Neo Geo\""},{"url":"http://www.arcade-gear.com/Games/SNK/SNK_Neo_Geo.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SNK's Neo-Geo Vidgame System is Cooking\". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 1. October 1990. p. 18.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-16-issue-no.-1-october-1990-600DPI/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2016%2C%20Issue%20No.%201%20-%20October%201990/page/18","url_text":"\"SNK's Neo-Geo Vidgame System is Cooking\""}]},{"reference":"Nicoll, Benjamin (2015). \"Bridging the Gap: The Neo Geo, the Media Imaginary, and the Domestication of Arcade Games\". Games and Culture. doi:10.1177/1555412015590048. S2CID 147981978.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1555412015590048","url_text":"10.1177/1555412015590048"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147981978","url_text":"147981978"}]},{"reference":"\"Which Game System is the Best!?\". Next Generation. No. 12. December 1995. p. 75. The original Neo-Geo home system basically brought the exact same arcade experience home. Cartridges, however, cost upward of $200, which relegated the system to a very select market.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)","url_text":"Next Generation"}]},{"reference":"\"News Digest: Romstar Set To Ship One-Slot Neo-Geo Hardware Kits\". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 4. January 1991. pp. 20, 88.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-16-issue-no.-4-january-1991-600dpi/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2016%2C%20Issue%20No.%204%20-%20January%201991/page/20","url_text":"\"News Digest: Romstar Set To Ship One-Slot Neo-Geo Hardware Kits\""}]},{"reference":"\"Kawasaki Puts Coin-Op First In New Neo-Geo Scheme\". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 5. February 1991. p. 23.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-16-issue-no.-5-february-1991-600dpi/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2016%2C%20Issue%20No.%205%20-%20February%201991/page/23","url_text":"\"Kawasaki Puts Coin-Op First In New Neo-Geo Scheme\""}]},{"reference":"Webb, Marcus (November 1995). \"Arcadia\". Next Generation. No. 11. p. 26. Basically, SNK's Neo Geo system has proved the existence of a die-hard market for lower-cost videogames in arcades ...","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)","url_text":"Next Generation"}]},{"reference":"\"And the Winner Is...\". Next Generation. No. 17. May 1996. p. 21.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine)","url_text":"Next Generation"}]},{"reference":"\"No Love: SNK Stop Neo Geo Support\". Archived from the original on 17 July 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120717163744/kotaku.com/gaming/no-love/snk-stop-neo-geo-support-265509.php","url_text":"\"No Love: SNK Stop Neo Geo Support\""},{"url":"https://kotaku.com/gaming/no-love/snk-stop-neo-geo-support-265509.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SNK terminates Neo Geo X Gold licensing, Tommo required to cease production\". Engadget.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.engadget.com/2013/10/06/neo-geo-gold-x-discontinued/","url_text":"\"SNK terminates Neo Geo X Gold licensing, Tommo required to cease production\""}]},{"reference":"\"SNK's First Mega Shock Game Goes Right to #1\". RePlay. Vol. 18, no. 4. January 1993. pp. 21–2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-18-issue-no.-4-january-1993-600DPI/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2018%2C%20Issue%20No.%204%20-%20January%201993/page/n19/mode/1up","url_text":"\"SNK's First Mega Shock Game Goes Right to #1\""}]},{"reference":"\"RePlay: The Players' Choice\". RePlay. Vol. 18, no. 3. December 1992. p. 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-18-issue-no.-3-december-1992-600DPI/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2018%2C%20Issue%20No.%203%20-%20December%201992/page/13","url_text":"\"RePlay: The Players' Choice\""}]},{"reference":"\"ACME '93: Play Meter, AAMA present awards\". Play Meter. Vol. 19, no. 5. April 1993. pp. 74–6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/play-meter-volume-19-number-5-april-1993/Play%20Meter%20-%20Volume%2019%2C%20Number%205%20-%20April%201993/page/n137/mode/2up","url_text":"\"ACME '93: Play Meter, AAMA present awards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_Meter","url_text":"Play Meter"}]},{"reference":"\"ACME '94: Play Meter, AAMA salute best games\". Play Meter. 20 (5): ACME 73-4. April 1994.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/play-meter-volume-20-number-5-april-1994/Play%20Meter%20-%20Volume%2020%2C%20Number%205%20-%20April%201994/page/n144","url_text":"\"ACME '94: Play Meter, AAMA salute best games\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_Meter","url_text":"Play Meter"}]},{"reference":"\"Letter From Europe\". RePlay. Vol. 20, no. 7. April 1995. p. 36, 38.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-20-issue-no.-7-april-1995/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2020%2C%20Issue%20No.%207%20-%20April%201995/page/36","url_text":"\"Letter From Europe\""}]},{"reference":"\"第４回ゲーメスト大賞\" [4th Gamest Awards]. Gamest (in Japanese). Vol. 54 (February 1991). December 27, 1990. pp. 6–24.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gamest0054/page/7","url_text":"\"第４回ゲーメスト大賞\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamest","url_text":"Gamest"}]},{"reference":"\"Are the Stars Out Tonight?\". RePlay. Vol. 17, no. 1. October 1991. p. 128.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-17-issue-no.-1-october-1991-600DPI/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2017%2C%20Issue%20No.%201%20-%20October%201991/page/128","url_text":"\"Are the Stars Out Tonight?\""}]},{"reference":"\"System Shopper\". GamePro. No. 63. IDG. December 1993. pp. 46–49.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro","url_text":"GamePro"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Group","url_text":"IDG"}]},{"reference":"\"This Fall Everything Turns To Gold With Neo-Geo: The Player's Gold Card Keeps Them Coming Back For More\". RePlay. Vol. 16, no. 2. November 1990. pp. 26–7.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/re-play-volume-16-issue-no.-2-november-1990-600dpi/RePlay%20-%20Volume%2016%2C%20Issue%20No.%202%20-%20November%201990/page/26/mode/2up","url_text":"\"This Fall Everything Turns To Gold With Neo-Geo: The Player's Gold Card Keeps Them Coming Back For More\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lud's RetroComputing Info\". drolez.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://drolez.com/retro/","url_text":"\"Lud's RetroComputing Info\""}]},{"reference":"MacDonald, Charles. \"Neo*Geo MVS Hardware Notes\". Retrieved 2012-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://furrtek.free.fr/noclass/neogeo/mvstech.txt","url_text":"\"Neo*Geo MVS Hardware Notes\""}]},{"reference":"\"GPU - NeoGeo Development Wiki\". Archived from the original on 2015-12-10. Retrieved 2014-09-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151210234154/https://wiki.neogeodev.org/index.php?title=GPU","url_text":"\"GPU - NeoGeo Development Wiki\""},{"url":"https://wiki.neogeodev.org/index.php?title=GPU","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Category:Chips - NeoGeo Development Wiki\". wiki.neogeodev.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://wiki.neogeodev.org/index.php?title=Category:Chips","url_text":"\"Category:Chips - NeoGeo Development Wiki\""}]},{"reference":"\"SNK Neo Geo AES\". ConsoleGen.","urls":[{"url":"http://consolegen.weebly.com/snk-neo-geo-aes.html","url_text":"\"SNK Neo Geo AES\""}]},{"reference":"\"YM2610 - NeoGeo Development Wiki\". wiki.neogeodev.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://wiki.neogeodev.org/index.php?title=YM2610","url_text":"\"YM2610 - NeoGeo Development Wiki\""}]},{"reference":"\"Repairing a Neo-Geo MVS cartridge?\". June 2007. Retrieved 2011-12-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://forums.arcade-museum.com/showthread.php?t=65639","url_text":"\"Repairing a Neo-Geo MVS cartridge?\""}]},{"reference":"Nicoll, Benjamin (2015). \"Bridging the Gap: The Neo Geo, the Media Imaginary, and the Domestication of Arcade Games\". Games and Culture. 12 (2): 1–22. doi:10.1177/1555412015590048. S2CID 147981978.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Games_and_Culture","url_text":"Games and Culture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1555412015590048","url_text":"10.1177/1555412015590048"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147981978","url_text":"147981978"}]},{"reference":"\"The Return of the NeoGeo\". Wii.ign.com. Archived from the original on May 5, 2007. Retrieved 2012-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070505165001/http://wii.ign.com/articles/781/781316p1.html","url_text":"\"The Return of the NeoGeo\""},{"url":"http://wii.ign.com/articles/781/781316p1.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Virtual Console: NeoGeo Games Coming To Virtual Console\". Kotaku.","urls":[{"url":"https://kotaku.com/gaming/virtual-console/neogeo-games-coming-to-virtual-console-299206.php","url_text":"\"Virtual Console: NeoGeo Games Coming To Virtual Console\""}]},{"reference":"\"Neo Geo Comes to European Virtual Console\". Nintendo of Europe. 1 October 2007. Retrieved 15 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nintendo-europe.com/NOE/en/GB/news/article.do?elementId=D--qmFO3FVtYdPz87C9EQpVaMtELiHP8","url_text":"\"Neo Geo Comes to European Virtual Console\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wii-kly Update: Three New Classic Games Added to Wii Shop Channel\". Nintendo of America. 8 October 2007. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 15 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071011003408/http://press.nintendo.com/articles.jsp?id=13620","url_text":"\"Wii-kly Update: Three New Classic Games Added to Wii Shop Channel\""},{"url":"http://press.nintendo.com/articles.jsp?id=13620","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"NG:Dev.Team, a third party NeoGeo publisher\". Retrieved 23 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ngdevteam.com/","url_text":"\"NG:Dev.Team, a third party NeoGeo publisher\""}]},{"reference":"\"Neo Geo AES price guide\". Neo-geo.com. Retrieved 2012-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.neo-geo.com/guides/aesguide.html","url_text":"\"Neo Geo AES price guide\""}]},{"reference":"\"NeoGeo is number 19\". IGN. Retrieved 2012-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ign.com/top-25-consoles/19.html","url_text":"\"NeoGeo is number 19\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_value
Return statement
["1 Overview","2 Syntax","3 Multiple return statements","4 Yield statements","5 Call/return sequences","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References"]
Statement which ends execution of a function and resumes in the main code This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Return statement" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In computer programming, a return statement causes execution to leave the current subroutine and resume at the point in the code immediately after the instruction which called the subroutine, known as its return address. The return address is saved by the calling routine, today usually on the process's call stack or in a register. Return statements in many programming languages allow a function to specify a return value to be passed back to the code that called the function. Overview In C and C++, return exp; (where exp is an expression) is a statement that tells a function to return execution of the program to the calling function, and report the value of exp. If a function has the return type void, the return statement can be used without a value, in which case the program just breaks out of the current function and returns to the calling one. Similar syntax is used in other languages including Modula-2 and Python. In Pascal there is no return statement. Functions or procedures automatically return when reaching their last statement. The return value from a function is provided within the function by making an assignment to an identifier with the same name as the function. However, some versions of Pascal provide a special function Exit(exp); that can be used to return a value immediately from a function, or, without parameters, to return immediately from a procedure. Like Pascal, FORTRAN II, Fortran 66, Fortran 77, and later versions of Fortran specify return values by an assignment to the function name, but also have a return statement; that statement does not specify a return value and, for a function, causes the value assigned to the function name to be returned. In some other languages a user defined output parameter is used instead of the function identifier. Oberon (Oberon-07) has a return clause instead of a return statement. The return clause is placed after the last statement of the procedure body. Some expression-oriented programming language, such as Lisp, Perl and Ruby, allow the programmer to omit an explicit return statement, specifying instead that the last evaluated expression is the return value of the subroutine. In other cases a Null value is returned if there is no explicit return statement: in Python, the value None is returned when the return statement is omitted, while in JavaScript the value undefined is returned. In Windows PowerShell all evaluated expressions which are not captured (e.g., assigned to a variable, cast to void or piped to $null) are returned from the subroutine as elements in an array, or as a single object in the case that only one object has not been captured. In Perl, a return value or values of a subroutine can depend on the context in which it was called. The most fundamental distinction is a scalar context where the calling code expects one value, a list context where the calling code expects a list of values and a void context where the calling code doesn't expect any return value at all. A subroutine can check the context using the wantarray function. A special syntax of return without arguments is used to return an undefined value in scalar context and an empty list in list context. The scalar context can be further divided into Boolean, number, string, and various reference types contexts. Also, a context-sensitive object can be returned using a contextual return sequence, with lazy evaluation of scalar values. Many operating systems let a program return a result (separate from normal output) when its process terminates; these values are referred to exit statuses. The amount of information that can be passed this way is quite limited, in practice often restricted to signalling success or fail. From within the program this return is typically achieved by calling Exit (system call) (common even in C, where the alternative mechanism of returning from the main function is available). Syntax Return statements come in many shapes. The following syntaxes are most common: Language Return statement If value omitted, return Ada, Bourne shell, C, C++, Java, PHP, C#, JavaScript, D return value; In the Bourne shell, exit value of the last command executed in the function In C and C++, undefined behavior if function is value-returning In PHP, returns NULL In Javascript, returns the value undefined In Java and C#, not permitted if function is value-returning BASIC RETURN Lisp (return value) Last statement value Perl, Ruby return @values; return $value; return; or a contextual return sequence Last statement value PL/I return(expression); return; Undefined behavior if procedure is declared as returning a value Python return value None Smalltalk ^ value Tcl return return $value return -code error "Error message" or some more complicated combination of options Last statement value Visual Basic .NET Return value Windows PowerShell return value; Object x86 assembly ret Contents of eax register (by conventions) In some assembly languages, for example that for the MOS Technology 6502, the mnemonic "RTS" (ReTurn from Subroutine) is used. Multiple return statements Further information: Early exit Languages with an explicit return statement create the possibility of multiple return statements in the same function. Whether or not that is a good thing is controversial. Strong adherents of structured programming make sure each function has a single entry and a single exit (SESE). It has thus been argued that one should eschew the use of the explicit return statement except at the textual end of a subroutine, considering that, when it is used to "return early", it may suffer from the same sort of problems that arise for the GOTO statement. Conversely, it can be argued that using the return statement is worthwhile when the alternative is more convoluted code, such as deeper nesting, harming readability. In his 2004 textbook, David Watt writes that "single-entry multi-exit control flows are often desirable". Using Tennent's framework notion of sequencer, Watt uniformly describes the control flow constructs found in contemporary programming languages and attempts to explain why certain types of sequencers are preferable to others in the context of multi-exit control flows. Watt writes that unrestricted gotos (jump sequencers) are bad because the destination of the jump is not self-explanatory to the reader of a program until the reader finds and examines the actual label or address that is the target of the jump. In contrast, Watt argues that the conceptual intent of a return sequencer is clear from its own context, without having to examine its destination. Furthermore, Watt writes that a class of sequencers known as escape sequencers, defined as "sequencer that terminates execution of a textually enclosing command or procedure", encompasses both breaks from loops (including multi-level breaks) and return statements. Watt also notes that while jump sequencers (gotos) have been somewhat restricted in languages like C, where the target must be an inside the local block or an encompassing outer block, that restriction alone is not sufficient to make the intent of gotos in C self-describing and so they can still produce "spaghetti code". Watt also examines how exception sequencers differ from escape and jump sequencers; for details on this see the article on structured programming. According to empirical studies cited by Eric S. Roberts, student programmers had difficulty formulating correct solutions for several simple problems in a language like Pascal, which does not allow multiple exit points. For the problem of writing a function to linearly searching an element in an array, a 1980 study by Henry Shapiro (cited by Roberts) found that using only the Pascal-provided control structures, the correct solution was given by only 20% of the subjects, while no subject wrote incorrect code for this problem if allowed to write a return from the middle of a loop. Others, including Kent Beck and Martin Fowler argue that one or more guard clauses—conditional "early exit" return statements near the beginning of a function—often make a function easier to read than the alternative. The most common problem in early exit is that cleanup or final statements are not executed – for example, allocated memory is not unallocated, or open files are not closed, causing leaks. These must be done at each return site, which is brittle and can easily result in bugs. For instance, in later development, a return statement could be overlooked by a developer, and an action which should be performed at the end of a subroutine (e.g. a trace statement) might not be performed in all cases. Languages without a return statement, such as standard Pascal don't have this problem. Some languages, such as C++ and Python, employ concepts which allow actions to be performed automatically upon return (or exception throw) which mitigates some of these issues – these are often known as "try/finally" or similar. Functionality like these "finally" clauses can be implemented by a goto to the single return point of the subroutine. An alternative solution is to use the normal stack unwinding (variable deallocation) at function exit to unallocate resources, such as via destructors on local variables, or similar mechanisms such as Python's "with" statement. Some early implementations of languages such as the original Pascal and C restricted the types that can be returned by a function (e.g. not supporting record or struct types) to simplify their compilers. In Java—and similar languages modeled after it, like JavaScript—it is possible to execute code even after return statement, because the finally block of a try-catch structure is always executed. So if the return statement is placed somewhere within try or catch blocks the code within finally (if added) will be executed. It is even possible to alter the return value of a non primitive type (a property of an already returned object) because the exit occurs afterwards as well. Yield statements Main article: Coroutines Cousin to return statements are yield statements: where a return causes a subroutine to terminate, a yield causes a coroutine to suspend. The coroutine will later continue from where it suspended if it is called again. Coroutines are significantly more involved to implement than subroutines, and thus yield statements are less common than return statements, but they are found in a number of languages. Call/return sequences Main article: Calling convention A number of possible call/return sequences are possible depending on the hardware instruction set, including the following: The CALL instruction pushes address of the next instruction on the stack and branches to the specified address. The RETURN instruction pops the return address from the stack into the instruction pointer and execution resumes at that address. (Examples: x86, PDP-11) In architectures such as the Motorola 96000, the stack area may be allocated in a separate address space, which is called 'Stack Memory Space', distinct from the main memory address space. The NEC μPD7720 also features a stack with its own separate address space. The CALL instruction places address of the next instruction in a register and branches to the specified address. The RETURN instruction sequence places the return address from the register into the instruction pointer and execution resumes at that address. (Examples: IBM System/360 and successors through z/Architecture, most RISC architectures) The CALL instruction places address of the next (or current) instruction in the storage location at the call address and branches to the specified address+1. The RETURN instruction sequence branches to the return address by an indirect jump to the first instruction of the subroutine. (Examples: IBM 1130, SDS 9XX, PDP-8) See also Return type Exit status Notes ^ in the Bourne shell, only integers in the range 0-255 may be returned References ^ a b "return Statement (C)". Microsoft Docs. 25 January 2023. ^ a b "return Statement (C++)". Microsoft Docs. 3 August 2021. ^ Gleaves, R. (2012). Modula-2 for Pascal Programmers. Springer. p. 71. ISBN 9781461385318. ^ a b c Martelli, Alex (2006). Python in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 73. ISBN 9781449379100. ^ a b Scott, Michael L. (2006). Programming Language Pragmatics. Morgan Kaufmann. p. 432. ISBN 9780126339512. ^ Flanders, Harley (2012). Scientific Pascal. Springer. p. 35. ISBN 9781461224280. ^ ANSI x3.9-1966. USA Standard FORTRAN (PDF). American National Standards Institute. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2011. Retrieved May 5, 2010.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ ANSI x3.9-1978. American National Standard – Programming Language FORTRAN. American National Standards Institute. 15.8 RETURN Statement. Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2007.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Sakkinen, Markku (March 1989). "How to best return the value of a function". ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 24 (3). Association for Computing Machinery: 55–56. doi:10.1145/66083.66087. ^ Wirth, Niklaus (May 3, 2016). "10. Procedure declarations". The Programming Language Oberon (PDF) (Report). p. 11. ^ "return - return from a function or dot script". Single UNIX Specification. ^ "PHP: return - Manual". PHP Manual. The PHP Group. Retrieved 26 March 2013. ^ "Return - Javascript". MDN Javascript Reference. Mozilla Developer Network. Retrieved 27 March 2013. ^ "C++ Notes: Function return Statement". ^ Watt, David Anthony; Findlay, William (2004). Programming Language Design Concepts. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 215–221. ISBN 978-0-470-85320-7. ^ Roberts, E. (March 1995). "Loop Exits and Structured Programming: Reopening the Debate". ACM SIGCSE Bulletin. 27 (1): 268–272. doi:10.1145/199691.199815. ^ Martin Fowler; Kent Beck; John Brant; William Opdyke; Don Roberts (2012). Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code (Google eBook). Addison-Wesley. pp. 237, 250. ISBN 9780133065268. ... one exit point mentality ... I don't follow the rule about one exit point from a method. ^ Kent Beck (2007). "7: Behavior". Implementation Patterns. Pearson Education. section "Guard Clause". ISBN 9780132702553. ^ "Multiple return statements". Java Practices. ^ Fred Swartz. "Return statements and the single exit fantasy". Archived from the original on 2020-02-23. ^ "The finally Block". The Java Tutorials. ^ "DSP96002 32-BIT DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR USER'S MANUAL" (PDF). p. 27(3 - 4). Retrieved 2023-12-24. ^ "DSP96002 32-BIT DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR USER'S MANUAL" (PDF). p. 50(4 - 11). Retrieved 2023-12-24. ^ "μPD77C20A, 7720A, 77P20 Digital Signal Processor". p. 4(3a-4). Retrieved 2023-12-25.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming"},{"link_name":"execution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_(computing)"},{"link_name":"subroutine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine"},{"link_name":"process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_(computing)"},{"link_name":"call stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack"},{"link_name":"register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_(computing)"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"}],"text":"In computer programming, a return statement causes execution to leave the current subroutine and resume at the point in the code immediately after the instruction which called the subroutine, known as its return address. The return address is saved by the calling routine, today usually on the process's call stack or in a register. Return statements in many programming languages allow a function to specify a return value to be passed back to the code that called the function.","title":"Return statement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(programming)"},{"link_name":"statement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statement_(programming)"},{"link_name":"void","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Void_type"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msc-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mscpp-2"},{"link_name":"Modula-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modula-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-python-4"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scott-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"FORTRAN II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FORTRAN_II"},{"link_name":"Fortran 66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran_66"},{"link_name":"Fortran 77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran_77"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scott-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"output parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_parameter"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Oberon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberon_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Oberon-07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberon-07"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"expression-oriented programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression-oriented_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"Ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-python-4"},{"link_name":"Windows PowerShell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_PowerShell"},{"link_name":"cast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_conversion"},{"link_name":"void","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Void_type"},{"link_name":"piped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"$null","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki//dev/null"},{"link_name":"scalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(computing)"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_(computing)"},{"link_name":"void","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Void_type"},{"link_name":"Boolean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_data_type"},{"link_name":"string","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"lazy evaluation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"output","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_streams"},{"link_name":"exit statuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_status"},{"link_name":"Exit (system call)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_(system_call)"},{"link_name":"main function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_function"}],"text":"In C and C++, return exp; (where exp is an expression) is a statement that tells a function to return execution of the program to the calling function, and report the value of exp. If a function has the return type void, the return statement can be used without a value, in which case the program just breaks out of the current function and returns to the calling one.[1][2] Similar syntax is used in other languages including Modula-2[3] and Python.[4]In Pascal there is no return statement. Functions or procedures automatically return when reaching their last statement. The return value from a function is provided within the function by making an assignment to an identifier with the same name as the function.[5] However, some versions of Pascal provide a special function Exit(exp); that can be used to return a value immediately from a function, or, without parameters, to return immediately from a procedure.[6]Like Pascal, FORTRAN II, Fortran 66, Fortran 77, and later versions of Fortran specify return values by an assignment to the function name, but also have a return statement; that statement does not specify a return value and, for a function, causes the value assigned to the function name to be returned.[5][7][8]In some other languages a user defined output parameter is used instead of the function identifier.[9]Oberon (Oberon-07) has a return clause instead of a return statement. The return clause is placed after the last statement of the procedure body.[10]Some expression-oriented programming language, such as Lisp, Perl and Ruby, allow the programmer to omit an explicit return statement, specifying instead that the last evaluated expression is the return value of the subroutine. In other cases a Null value is returned if there is no explicit return statement: in Python, the value None is returned when the return statement is omitted,[4] while in JavaScript the value undefined is returned.In Windows PowerShell all evaluated expressions which are not captured (e.g., assigned to a variable, cast to void or piped to $null) are returned from the subroutine as elements in an array, or as a single object in the case that only one object has not been captured.In Perl, a return value or values of a subroutine can depend on the context in which it was called. The most fundamental distinction is a scalar context where the calling code expects one value, a list context where the calling code expects a list of values and a void context where the calling code doesn't expect any return value at all. A subroutine can check the context using the wantarray function. A special syntax of return without arguments is used to return an undefined value in scalar context and an empty list in list context. The scalar context can be further divided into Boolean, number, string, and various reference types contexts. Also, a context-sensitive object can be returned using a contextual return sequence, with lazy evaluation of scalar values.Many operating systems let a program return a result (separate from normal output) when its process terminates; these values are referred to exit statuses. The amount of information that can be passed this way is quite limited, in practice often restricted to signalling success or fail. From within the program this return is typically achieved by calling Exit (system call) (common even in C, where the alternative mechanism of returning from the main function is available).","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"assembly languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language"},{"link_name":"MOS Technology 6502","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502"}],"text":"Return statements come in many shapes. The following syntaxes are most common:In some assembly languages, for example that for the MOS Technology 6502, the mnemonic \"RTS\" (ReTurn from Subroutine) is used.","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Early exit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_exit"},{"link_name":"structured programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_programming"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"GOTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GOTO"},{"link_name":"David Watt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Watt_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"sequencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-algol"},{"link_name":"breaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Break_statement"},{"link_name":"spaghetti code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaghetti_code"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Eric S. Roberts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_S._Roberts"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Kent Beck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent_Beck"},{"link_name":"Martin Fowler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Fowler_(software_engineer)"},{"link_name":"guard clauses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guard_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"trace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracing_(software)"},{"link_name":"record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"struct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struct_(C_programming_language)"},{"link_name":"compilers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"try-catch structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Try-catch_block"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Further information: Early exitLanguages with an explicit return statement create the possibility of multiple return statements in the same function. Whether or not that is a good thing is controversial.Strong adherents of structured programming make sure each function has a single entry and a single exit (SESE). It has thus been argued[14] that one should eschew the use of the explicit return statement except at the textual end of a subroutine, considering that, when it is used to \"return early\", it may suffer from the same sort of problems that arise for the GOTO statement. Conversely, it can be argued that using the return statement is worthwhile when the alternative is more convoluted code, such as deeper nesting, harming readability.In his 2004 textbook, David Watt writes that \"single-entry multi-exit control flows are often desirable\". Using Tennent's framework notion of sequencer, Watt uniformly describes the control flow constructs found in contemporary programming languages and attempts to explain why certain types of sequencers are preferable to others in the context of multi-exit control flows. Watt writes that unrestricted gotos (jump sequencers) are bad because the destination of the jump is not self-explanatory to the reader of a program until the reader finds and examines the actual label or address that is the target of the jump. In contrast, Watt argues that the conceptual intent of a return sequencer is clear from its own context, without having to examine its destination. Furthermore, Watt writes that a class of sequencers known as escape sequencers, defined as \"sequencer that terminates execution of a textually enclosing command or procedure\", encompasses both breaks from loops (including multi-level breaks) and return statements. Watt also notes that while jump sequencers (gotos) have been somewhat restricted in languages like C, where the target must be an inside the local block or an encompassing outer block, that restriction alone is not sufficient to make the intent of gotos in C self-describing and so they can still produce \"spaghetti code\". Watt also examines how exception sequencers differ from escape and jump sequencers; for details on this see the article on structured programming.[15]According to empirical studies cited by Eric S. Roberts, student programmers had difficulty formulating correct solutions for several simple problems in a language like Pascal, which does not allow multiple exit points. For the problem of writing a function to linearly searching an element in an array, a 1980 study by Henry Shapiro (cited by Roberts) found that using only the Pascal-provided control structures, the correct solution was given by only 20% of the subjects, while no subject wrote incorrect code for this problem if allowed to write a return from the middle of a loop.[16]Others, including Kent Beck and Martin Fowler argue that one or more guard clauses—conditional \"early exit\" return statements near the beginning of a function—often make a function easier to read than the alternative.[17][18][19][20]The most common problem in early exit is that cleanup or final statements are not executed – for example, allocated memory is not unallocated, or open files are not closed, causing leaks. These must be done at each return site, which is brittle and can easily result in bugs. For instance, in later development, a return statement could be overlooked by a developer, and an action which should be performed at the end of a subroutine (e.g. a trace statement) might not be performed in all cases. Languages without a return statement, such as standard Pascal don't have this problem. Some languages, such as C++ and Python, employ concepts which allow actions to be performed automatically upon return (or exception throw) which mitigates some of these issues – these are often known as \"try/finally\" or similar. Functionality like these \"finally\" clauses can be implemented by a goto to the single return point of the subroutine. An alternative solution is to use the normal stack unwinding (variable deallocation) at function exit to unallocate resources, such as via destructors on local variables, or similar mechanisms such as Python's \"with\" statement.Some early implementations of languages such as the original Pascal and C restricted the types that can be returned by a function (e.g. not supporting record or struct types) to simplify their compilers.In Java—and similar languages modeled after it, like JavaScript—it is possible to execute code even after return statement, because the finally block of a try-catch structure is always executed. So if the return statement is placed somewhere within try or catch blocks the code within finally (if added) will be executed. It is even possible to alter the return value of a non primitive type (a property of an already returned object) because the exit occurs afterwards as well.[21]","title":"Multiple return statements "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"yield statements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_statement"},{"link_name":"coroutine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine"}],"text":"Cousin to return statements are yield statements: where a return causes a subroutine to terminate, a yield causes a coroutine to suspend. The coroutine will later continue from where it suspended if it is called again. Coroutines are significantly more involved to implement than subroutines, and thus yield statements are less common than return statements, but they are found in a number of languages.","title":"Yield statements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"PDP-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11"},{"link_name":"Motorola 96000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_96000"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"NEC μPD7720","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_%CE%BCPD7720"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"IBM System/360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360"},{"link_name":"z/Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z/Architecture"},{"link_name":"RISC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computing"},{"link_name":"indirect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirection"},{"link_name":"IBM 1130","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1130"},{"link_name":"SDS 9XX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDS_9_Series"},{"link_name":"PDP-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-8"}],"text":"A number of possible call/return sequences are possible depending on the hardware instruction set, including the following:The CALL instruction pushes address of the next instruction on the stack and branches to the specified address. The RETURN instruction pops the return address from the stack into the instruction pointer and execution resumes at that address. (Examples: x86, PDP-11) In architectures such as the Motorola 96000, the stack area may be allocated in a separate address space, which is called 'Stack Memory Space',[22] distinct from the main memory address space.[23] The NEC μPD7720 also features a stack with its own separate address space.[24]\nThe CALL instruction places address of the next instruction in a register and branches to the specified address. The RETURN instruction sequence places the return address from the register into the instruction pointer and execution resumes at that address. (Examples: IBM System/360 and successors through z/Architecture, most RISC architectures)\nThe CALL instruction places address of the next (or current) instruction in the storage location at the call address and branches to the specified address+1. The RETURN instruction sequence branches to the return address by an indirect jump to the first instruction of the subroutine. (Examples: IBM 1130, SDS 9XX, PDP-8)","title":"Call/return sequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"^ in the Bourne shell, only integers in the range 0-255 may be returned[11]","title":"Notes"}]
[]
[{"title":"Return type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_type"},{"title":"Exit status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exit_status"}]
[{"reference":"\"return Statement (C)\". Microsoft Docs. 25 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-language/return-statement-c","url_text":"\"return Statement (C)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Docs","url_text":"Microsoft Docs"}]},{"reference":"\"return Statement (C++)\". Microsoft Docs. 3 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/cpp/return-statement-cpp","url_text":"\"return Statement (C++)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Docs","url_text":"Microsoft Docs"}]},{"reference":"Gleaves, R. (2012). Modula-2 for Pascal Programmers. Springer. p. 71. ISBN 9781461385318.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=pvzSBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA71","url_text":"Modula-2 for Pascal Programmers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781461385318","url_text":"9781461385318"}]},{"reference":"Martelli, Alex (2006). Python in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference (2nd ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 73. ISBN 9781449379100.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JnR9hQA3SncC&pg=PA73","url_text":"Python in a Nutshell: A Desktop Quick Reference"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781449379100","url_text":"9781449379100"}]},{"reference":"Scott, Michael L. (2006). Programming Language Pragmatics. Morgan Kaufmann. p. 432. ISBN 9780126339512.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TLbvODF1uIEC&pg=PA432","url_text":"Programming Language Pragmatics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780126339512","url_text":"9780126339512"}]},{"reference":"Flanders, Harley (2012). Scientific Pascal. Springer. p. 35. ISBN 9781461224280.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=D7gPBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA35","url_text":"Scientific Pascal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781461224280","url_text":"9781461224280"}]},{"reference":"ANSI x3.9-1966. USA Standard FORTRAN (PDF). American National Standards Institute. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2011. Retrieved May 5, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110515143149/http://www.fh-jena.de/~kleine/history/languages/ansi-x3dot9-1966-Fortran66.pdf","url_text":"USA Standard FORTRAN"},{"url":"http://www.fh-jena.de/~kleine/history/languages/ansi-x3dot9-1966-Fortran66.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"ANSI x3.9-1978. American National Standard – Programming Language FORTRAN. American National Standards Institute. 15.8 RETURN Statement. Archived from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved December 11, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131029134137/http://www.fortran.com/fortran/F77_std/rjcnf.html","url_text":"American National Standard – Programming Language FORTRAN"},{"url":"http://www.fortran.com/fortran/F77_std/rjcnf.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sakkinen, Markku (March 1989). \"How to best return the value of a function\". ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 24 (3). Association for Computing Machinery: 55–56. doi:10.1145/66083.66087.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F66083.66087","url_text":"\"How to best return the value of a function\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F66083.66087","url_text":"10.1145/66083.66087"}]},{"reference":"Wirth, Niklaus (May 3, 2016). \"10. Procedure declarations\". The Programming Language Oberon (PDF) (Report). p. 11.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklaus_Wirth","url_text":"Wirth, Niklaus"},{"url":"https://people.inf.ethz.ch/wirth/Oberon/Oberon07.Report.pdf","url_text":"The Programming Language Oberon"}]},{"reference":"\"return - return from a function or dot script\". Single UNIX Specification.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/utilities/V3_chap02.html#return","url_text":"\"return - return from a function or dot script\""}]},{"reference":"\"PHP: return - Manual\". PHP Manual. The PHP Group. Retrieved 26 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.php.net/manual/en/function.return.php","url_text":"\"PHP: return - Manual\""}]},{"reference":"\"Return - Javascript\". MDN Javascript Reference. Mozilla Developer Network. Retrieved 27 March 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/return","url_text":"\"Return - Javascript\""}]},{"reference":"\"C++ Notes: Function return Statement\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fredosaurus.com/notes-cpp/functions/return.html","url_text":"\"C++ Notes: Function return Statement\""}]},{"reference":"Watt, David Anthony; Findlay, William (2004). Programming Language Design Concepts. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 215–221. ISBN 978-0-470-85320-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-85320-7","url_text":"978-0-470-85320-7"}]},{"reference":"Roberts, E. (March 1995). \"Loop Exits and Structured Programming: Reopening the Debate\". ACM SIGCSE Bulletin. 27 (1): 268–272. doi:10.1145/199691.199815.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F199691.199815","url_text":"\"Loop Exits and Structured Programming: Reopening the Debate\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F199691.199815","url_text":"10.1145/199691.199815"}]},{"reference":"Martin Fowler; Kent Beck; John Brant; William Opdyke; Don Roberts (2012). Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code (Google eBook). Addison-Wesley. pp. 237, 250. ISBN 9780133065268. ... one exit point mentality ... I don't follow the rule about one exit point from a method.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HmrDHwgkbPsC","url_text":"Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code (Google eBook)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780133065268","url_text":"9780133065268"}]},{"reference":"Kent Beck (2007). \"7: Behavior\". Implementation Patterns. Pearson Education. section \"Guard Clause\". ISBN 9780132702553.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xLyXPCxBhQUC","url_text":"Implementation Patterns"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780132702553","url_text":"9780132702553"}]},{"reference":"\"Multiple return statements\". Java Practices.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.javapractices.com/topic/TopicAction.do?Id=114","url_text":"\"Multiple return statements\""}]},{"reference":"Fred Swartz. \"Return statements and the single exit fantasy\". Archived from the original on 2020-02-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200223081346/http://leepoint.net/JavaBasics/methods/method-commentary/methcom-30-multiple-return.html","url_text":"\"Return statements and the single exit fantasy\""},{"url":"http://www.leepoint.net/JavaBasics/methods/method-commentary/methcom-30-multiple-return.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"The finally Block\". The Java Tutorials.","urls":[{"url":"http://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/essential/exceptions/finally.html","url_text":"\"The finally Block\""}]},{"reference":"\"DSP96002 32-BIT DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR USER'S MANUAL\" (PDF). p. 27(3 - 4). Retrieved 2023-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/user-guide/DSP96002UM.pdf#page=27","url_text":"\"DSP96002 32-BIT DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR USER'S MANUAL\""}]},{"reference":"\"DSP96002 32-BIT DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR USER'S MANUAL\" (PDF). p. 50(4 - 11). Retrieved 2023-12-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/user-guide/DSP96002UM.pdf#page=50","url_text":"\"DSP96002 32-BIT DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR USER'S MANUAL\""}]},{"reference":"\"μPD77C20A, 7720A, 77P20 Digital Signal Processor\". p. 4(3a-4). Retrieved 2023-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.datasheetarchive.com/datasheet?id=71b7ef54b1f0964332c3db2035de7589c6d319&type=M&term=upd7720","url_text":"\"μPD77C20A, 7720A, 77P20 Digital Signal Processor\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STMicroelectronics
STMicroelectronics
["1 History","2 Shareholders","3 Manufacturing facilities","3.1 Grenoble, France","3.2 Rousset, France","3.3 Tours, France","3.4 Milan, Italy","3.5 Catania, Italy","3.6 Caserta, Italy","3.7 Kirkop, Malta","3.8 Singapore","3.9 Tunis, Tunisia","3.10 Bouskoura, Morocco","3.11 Norrköping, Sweden","4 Other sites","4.1 Administrative headquarters","4.2 Regional headquarters","4.3 Assembly plants","4.4 Design centers","4.5 Closing sites","4.6 Closed sites","4.7 Future locations","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
Semiconductor device manufacturer STMicroelectronics N.V.Headquarter in Plan-les-Ouates, SwitzerlandCompany typeNaamloze vennootschapTraded asEuronext Paris: STMPA NYSE: STMBIT: STMMICAC 40 componentFTSE MIB componentISINNL0000226223IndustrySemiconductorsFounded1987; 37 years ago (1987)HeadquartersPlan-les-Ouates, Geneva, SwitzerlandKey peopleJean-Marc Chery(President and CEO)Nicolas Dufourcq(Chairman)ProductsIntegrated circuits for specific applications, memory (including EEPROM), microcontrollers, microprocessors, transistors, smartcardsRevenue US$17.24 billion (2023)Operating income US$4.611 billion (2023)Net income US$4.222 billion (2023)Total assets US$24.45 billion (2023)Total equity US$16.85 billion (2023)Number of employees51,323 (2023)Websitewww.st.com Footnotes / references STM32 microcontroller made by STMicroelectronics STMicroelectronics N.V. (commonly referred to as ST or STMicro) is a multinational corporation and technology company of French-Italian origin. It is headquartered in Plan-les-Ouates, Switzerland and listed on the New York Stock Exchange, on the Euronext Paris in Paris (CAC 40) and on the Borsa Italiana in Milan (FTSE MIB). ST is the largest European semiconductor contract manufacturing and design company. The company resulted from the merger of two government-owned semiconductor companies in 1987: Thomson Semiconducteurs (Thomson Semiconductors) of France and SGS Microelettronica (SGS Microelectronic) of Italy. History ST was formed in 1987 by the merger of two government-owned semiconductor companies: Italian SGS Microelettronica (where SGS stands for Società Generale Semiconduttori, "General Semiconductor Company"), and French Thomson Semiconducteurs, the semiconductor arm of Thomson. SGS Microelettronica originated in 1972 from a previous merger of two companies: ATES (Aquila Tubi e Semiconduttori), a vacuum tube and semiconductor maker headquartered in L'Aquila, the regional capital of the region of Abruzzo in Southern Italy, which in 1961 changed its name to Azienda Tecnica ed Elettronica del Sud and relocated its manufacturing plant in the Industrial Zone of Catania, in Sicily; Società Generale Semiconduttori (founded in 1957 by Jewish-Italian engineer, politician, and industrialist Adriano Olivetti). Thomson Semiconducteurs was created in 1982 by the French government's widespread nationalization of industries following the election of socialist François Mitterrand to the presidency. It included: the semiconductor activities of the French electronics company Thomson; in 1985 it bought Mostek, a US company founded in 1969 as a spin-off of Texas Instruments, from United Technologies; Silec, founded in 1977; Eurotechnique, founded in 1979 in Rousset, Bouches-du-Rhône as a joint-venture between Saint-Gobain of France and US-based National Semiconductor; EFCIS (Étude et la Fabrication de Circuits Intégrés Spéciaux), founded in 1972 at CEA-Leti; SESCOSEM, founded in 1969. At the time of the merger of these two companies in 1987, the new corporation was named SGS-THOMSON and was led by chief executive officer Pasquale Pistorio. The company took its current name of STMicroelectronics in May 1998 following Thomson's sale of its shares. After its creation ST was ranked 14th among the top 20 semiconductor suppliers with sales of around US$850 million. The company has participated in the consolidation of the semiconductor industry since its formation, with acquisitions including: In 1989, British company Inmos known for its transputer microprocessors from parent Thorn EMI; In 1994, Canada-based Nortel's semiconductor activities; In 1999, UK, Edinburgh based VLSI-Vision CMOS Image Sensor research & development company, a spin-out of Edinburgh University. Incorporated on 1 January 2000, the company became STMicroelectronics Imaging Division, currently part of the Analog MEMS and Sensors business group; In 2000, WaferScale Integration Inc. (WSI, Fremont, California), a vendor of EPROM and flash memory-based programmable system-chips; In 2002, Alcatel's Microelectronics division, which along with the incorporation of smaller ventures such as UK company, Synad Ltd, helped the company expand into the Wireless-LAN market; In 2007, US-based Genesis Microchip. Genesis Microchip is known for their strength in video processing technology (Faroudja) and has design centres located in Santa Clara, California, Toronto, Taipei City and Bangalore. 4 Field-Programmable Microcontroller Peripheral from Wafer Scale Integration PSD311 On December 8, 1994, the company completed its initial public offering on the Paris and New York stock exchanges. Owner Thomson SA sold its stake in the company in 1998 when the company also listed on the Italian Bourse in Milan. In 2002, Motorola and TSMC joined ST and Philips in a new technology partnership. The Crolles 2 Alliance was created with a new 12" wafer manufacturing facility located in Crolles, France. In 2005, chief executive officer Pasquale Pistorio was succeeded by Carlo Bozotti, who then headed the memory products division and had been with the company’s predecessor since 1977. By 2005, ST was ranked fifth, behind Intel, Samsung, Texas Instruments and Toshiba, but ahead of Infineon, Renesas, NEC, NXP Semiconductors, and Freescale. The company was the largest European semiconductors supplier, ahead of Infineon and NXP. Early in 2007, NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors) and Freescale (formerly Motorola Semiconductors) decided to stop their participation in Crolles 2 Alliance. Under the terms of the agreement the Alliance came to an end on December 31, 2007. On May 22, 2007, ST and Intel created a joint venture in the memory application called Numonyx: this new company merged ST and Intel Flash Memory activities. Semiconductor market consolidation continued with ST and NXP announcing on April 10, 2008, the creation of a new joint venture of their mobile activities, with ST owning 80% of the new company and NXP 20%. This joint venture began on August 20, 2008. On February 10, 2009, ST Ericsson, a joint venture bringing together ST-NXP Wireless and Ericsson Mobile Platforms, was established. ST Ericsson was a multinational manufacturer of wireless products and semiconductors, supplying to mobile device manufacturers. ST-Ericsson was a 50/50 joint venture of STMicroelectronics and Ericsson established on February 3, 2009, and dissolved on August 2, 2013. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, it was a fabless company, outsourcing semiconductor manufacturing to foundry companies. ST90E40ZL1 - HCMOS MCU with 16Kbytes EPROM, 512 bytes EEPROM, 256 bytes RAM and A/D Converter in a 68-leaded windowed ceramic quad flat pack package In 2011, ST announced the creation of a joint lab with Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies. The lab focuses on research and innovation in biorobotics, smart systems and microelectronics. Past collaborations with Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies included DustBot, a platform that integrated self-navigating "service robots" for waste collection. In 2018, chief executive Carlo Bozotti was succeeded by Jean-Marc Chery. In 2023, STMicroelectronics partnered with Synopsys to design a working chip on Microsoft Corp’s cloud, marking the first time AI software had been utilized for chip design. Shareholders As of December 31, 2014, the shareholders were: 68.4% public (New York Stock Exchange, Euronext Paris, Borsa Italiana Milano); 4.1% treasury shares; 27.6% STMicroelectronics Holding B.V.: 50% FT1CI (Bpifrance 79.2% and French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) 20.8%; previously Areva and CEA); 50% Ministry of Economy and Finance of Italy (Finmeccanica until 2004, Cassa Depositi e Prestiti until 2010, both between 2004-2009). Manufacturing facilities Unlike fabless semiconductor companies, STMicroelectronics owns and operates its own semiconductor wafer fabs. The company owned five 8-inch (200 mm) wafer fabs and one 12-inch (300 mm) wafer fab in 2006. Most of the production is scaled at 0.18 μm, 0.13 μm, 90 nm and 65 nm (measurements of transistor gate length). STMicroelectronics also owns back-end plants, where silicon dies are assembled and bonded into plastic or ceramic packages. Major sites include: Grenoble, France Grenoble is one of the company's most important R&D centres, employing around 4,000 staff. The Polygone site employs 2,200 staff and is one of the historical bases of the company (ex SGS). All the historical wafer fab lines are now closed but the site hosts the headquarters of many divisions (marketing, design, industrialization) and an important R&D center, focused on silicon and software design and fab process development. The Crolles site hosts a 200 mm (8 in) and a 300 mm (12 in) fab and was originally built as a common R&D center for submicrometre technologies as part of the 1990 Grenoble 92 partnership between SGS-Thomson and CNET, the R&D center of French telecom company France Telecom. The 200 mm (8 in) fab, known as Crolles 1, is the company's first and was built as part of a 1991 partnership between SGS-Thomson and Philips to develop new manufacturing technologies. Crolles 1 was opened on September 9, 1993 by Gérard Longuet, French minister for industry, and Alain Carignon, mayor of Grenoble. The 300 mm (12 in) fab was inaugurated by French president Jacques Chirac, on February 27, 2003. It includes an R&D center which focuses on developing new nanometric technology processes for 90-nm to 32-nm scale using 300 mm (12 in) wafers and it was developed for The Crolles 2 Alliance. This alliance of STMicroelectronics, TSMC, NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips semiconductor) and Freescale (formerly Motorola semiconductor) partnered in 2002 to develop the facility and to work together on process development. The technologies developed at the facility were also used by global semiconductor foundry TSMC of Taiwan, allowing TSMC to build the products developed in Crolles on behalf of the Alliance partners who required such foundry capacity. A new fab is under construction since 2015. Rousset, France Employing around 3,000 staff, Rousset hosts several division headquarters including smartcards, microcontrollers, and EEPROM as well as several R&D centers. Rousset also hosts an 8-inch (200-mm) fab, which was opened on May 15, 2000 by French prime minister Lionel Jospin. The site opened in 1979 as a 100 mm (3.9 in) fab operated by Eurotechnique, a joint venture between Saint-Gobain of France and National Semiconductor of the US. Rousset was sold to Thomson-CSF in 1982 as part of the French government's 1981–82 nationalization of several industries. As part of the nationalisation, a former Thomson plant in the center of Aix-en-Provence operating since the 1960s was closed and staff were transferred to the new Rousset site. The original 100 mm (4 in) fab was upgraded into 130 mm (5 in) and later 150 mm (6 in) fab in 1996. It is now being shut down. The site also has a "Wafer Level Chip Scale Packaging" accreditation for eSIM ICs. In 1988, a small group of employees from the Thomson Rousset plant (including the director, Marc Lassus) founded a start-up company, Gemalto (formerly known as Gemplus), which became a leader in the smartcard industry. Tours, France Employing 1,500 staff, this site hosts a fab and R&D centers. Milan, Italy Employing 6,000 staff, the Milan facilities match Grenoble in importance. Agrate Brianza employs around 4,000 staff and is a historical base of the company (ex SGS). The site has several fab lines (including a 300 mm (12 in) fab) and an R&D center. Castelletto, employs 300 to 400 staff and hosts some divisions and R&D centers. Update-2012: Numonyx JV (with Intel) is acquired by Micron. As such, R2 Fab (Agrate previous R&D 200-mm Fab) is currently a Micron entity Catania, Italy The Catania plant in Sicily employs 5,000 staff and hosts several R&D centers and divisions, focusing on flash memory technologies as well as two fabs. The plant was launched in 1961 by ATES to supply under licensing to RCA of the US and initially using germanium. The site's two major wafer fabs are a 200 mm (8 in) fab, opened in April 1997 by then-Italian Prime Minister Romano Prodi, and a 300 mm (12 in) fab that has never been completed and which was transferred in its current state to "Numonyx" in 2008. A new manufacturing facility for silicon carbide (SiC) substrates of 150 mm should open here in 2023. In October 2022, the EU supported STMicroelectronics for the construction of a silicon carbide wafer plant in Catania with €293 million through the Recovery and Resilience Facility to be completed in 2026, and in line with the European Chips Act. Caserta, Italy STmicro eSIM and SIM production facility for embedded form factor eSIM. Kirkop, Malta As of 2010, ST employed some 1,500 people in Kirkop, making it the largest private sector employer, and the country's leading exporter. Singapore In 1970, SGS created its first assembly back-end plant in Singapore, in the area of Toa Payoh. Then in 1981, SGS decided to build a wafer fab in Singapore. The Singapore technical engineers have been trained in Italy and the fab of Ang Mo Kio started to produce its first wafers in 1984. Converted up to 200 mm (8 in) fab, this is now an important 200 mm (8 in) wafer fab of the group. Ang Mo Kio also hosts some design centers. As of 2004, the site employed 6,000 staff. Update-2012: Numonyx JV (with Intel) is acquired by Micron in 2010. As such, AMK8 Fab (200mm HVM Fab) is currently a Micron entity. AMK5 and AMK6 remains to be STM entities. Update-2019: AMK8 has been reacquired by STM from Micron. Tunis, Tunisia Application, design and support. about 110 employees. Divisions: MCD Bouskoura, Morocco Founded in 1979 as a radiofrequency products facility, the Bouskoura site now hosts back-end manufacturing activity, which includes chip testing and packaging. Since 2022 it also features a production line for silicon carbide products that primarily will be used in electric vehicles. Norrköping, Sweden The Norrköping plant is a wafer fab that, at the start of production in 2021, was the first to produce 200mm (8 in) Silicone Carbide wafers. The wafers are mostly used for SiC power devices. Other sites Administrative headquarters Geneva, Switzerland: Corporate headquarter which hosts most of the ST top management. It totals some hundred of employees. Saint-Genis-Pouilly, France, near Geneva: A few hundred of employees. Headquarters for logistics. Paris: Marketing and support. Regional headquarters Coppell, Texas: US headquarters. Singapore: Headquarters for the Asia-Pacific region. Tokyo: Headquarters for Japan and Korea operations. Shanghai: Headquarters for China operations. Assembly plants Malta: In 1981, SGS-Thomson (now STMicroelectronics) built its first assembly plant in Malta. STMicroelectronics is, as of 2008, the largest private employer on the island, employing around 1,800 people. Muar, Malaysia: around 4000 employees. This site was built in 1974 by Thomson and is now an assembly plant. Shenzhen, Guangdong province, China: In 1994, ST and the Shenzhen Electronics Group signed a partnership to construct and jointly operate an assembly plant (ST has majority with 60%). The plant is located in Futian Free Trade Zone and became operational in 1996. It has around 3,300 employees. A new assembly plant is built in Longgang since 2008, and closed up till 2014. The R&D, design, sales and marketing office is located in the Hi-tech industrial park in Nanshan, Shenzhen. Calamba in the province of Laguna, Philippines: In 2008, ST acquired this plant from NXP Semiconductors. Initially as part of joint venture with NXP but later acquired the whole share turning it into a full-fledged STMicroelectronics Assembly and Testing plant. Currently it employs 2,000 employees. Design centers Cairo, Egypt: Hardware and software design center, started in 2020, with 50 employees. Rabat, Morocco: A design center that employs 160 people. Naples, Italy: A design center employing 300 people. Lecce, Italy: HW & SW Design Center which hosts 20 researchers in the Advanced System Technology group. Ang Mo Kio, Singapore: In 1970, SGS created its first assembly back-end plant in Singapore, in the area of Toa Payoh. Then in 1981, SGS decided to build a wafer fab in Singapore. The Singapore technical engineers have been trained in Italy and the fab of Ang Mo Kio started to produce its first wafers in 1984. Converted up to 8 inch (200 mm) fab, this is now an important 8 inch (200 mm) wafer fab of the ST group. Ang Mo Kio also hosts design centers for various groups. Greater Noida, India: The Noida site was launched in 1992 to conduct software engineering activities. A silicon design center was inaugurated on February 14, 1995. With 120 employees, it was the largest design center of the company outside Europe at the time. In 2006, the site was shifted to Greater Noida for further expansion. The site hosts mainly design teams. It is now primarily involved with the design of home video products (Set-Top Box, DVD), GPS and Wireless LAN chips, and accompanying software. Worldwide Data center support is also transferred to Greater Noida in 2004. The employee strength in Greater Noida is around 2000. This also includes employees of ST-Ericsson. Santa Clara, California, (Silicon Valley), United States: 120 staff in marketing, design and applications. La Jolla, California, (San Diego, United States): 80 staff in design and applications. Lancaster, Pennsylvania, United States: Application, support, and marketing. Prague, Czech Republic: 100 to 200 employees. Application, design and support. Tunis, Tunisia: 110 employees. Application, design and support. Sophia Antipolis, near Nice, France: Design center with a few hundred employees. Edinburgh, Scotland: 200 staff focused in the field of imaging and photon detection. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: In 1993, SGS-Thomson purchased the semiconductor activities of Nortel which owned in Ottawa an R&D center and a fab. The fab was closed in 2000, however, a design, R&D centre and sales office is operating in the city. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: HW & SW Design Center primarily involved with the design of video processor ICs as part of ST's TVM Division. Bangalore, India: HW and SW design center employing more than 250 people (Including the employees of ST Ericsson and Genesis Microchip). Zaventem, Belgium: 100 employees. Design & Application Center. Helsinki, Finland: Design Center. Turku, Finland: Design Center. Oulu, Finland: Design Center. Tampere, Finland: Design Center. Longmont, Colorado United States: Design Center. Graz, Austria: NFC Competence Center. Pisa, Italy: A design center employing more than 50 people. R&D, analog and digital design. Closing sites The Phoenix, Arizona 8 inch (200 mm) fab, the Carrollton, Texas 6 inch (150 mm) fab, and the Ain Sebaa, Morocco fab are beginning rampdown plans, and are destined to close by 2010. The Casablanca, Morocco site consists of two assembly parts (Bouskoura and Aïn Sebaâ) and totals around 4000 employees. It was opened in the 1960s by Thomson. The Bristol, United Kingdom site employing well over 300 at its peak (in 2001/2) but was ramped down to approx. 150 employees at close by early 2014. The Ottawa, Ontario, Canada plant (approx. 450 employees) will close down by 2013 end. Closed sites Rennes, France hosted a 6-inch (150 mm) fab and was closed in 2004 Rancho Bernardo, California, a 4-inch (100 mm) fab created by Nortel and purchased by SGS-Thomson in 1994, after which it was converted into a 6-inch (150 mm) fab in 1996. SGS's first presence in the US was a sales office based in Phoenix in the early 1980s. Later, under SGS-Thomson, an 8-inch (200 mm) fab was completed in Phoenix in 1995. The company's second 8" fab after Crolles 1, the site was first dedicated to producing microprocessors for Cyrix. On July 10, 2007, ST said that it would close this site, and in July 2010 the shell of the Phoenix PF1 FAB was bought by Western Digital Corporation. The Carrollton, Texas site was built in 1969 by Mostek, an American company founded by former employees of Texas Instruments. In 1979, Mostek was acquired by United Technologies, which sold it to Thomson Semiconducteurs in 1985. Initially equipped with a 4-inch (100 mm) fab, it was converted into a 6-inch (150 mm) fab in 1988. The Colorado Springs activities of British company INMOS were transferred to Carrollton in 1989 following its acquisition by SGS Thomson. Since then the site has been refocused to wafer testing. On July 10, 2007, ST announced it would close this fab, and it was finally closed in 2010. Bristol, UK This R&D site housed the British company Inmos, which in 1978 began development of the famous Transputer microprocessor. The site was acquired with Inmos in 1989, and was primarily involved with the design of home video and entertainment products (e.g. Set-Top Box), GPS chips, and accompanying software. At its peak the site employed more than 250 employees. The site officially closed on March 31, 2014. Future locations On August 8, 2007, ST bought Nokia's microchip development team and plans to invest heavily in development of cellular ASIC applications. The purchase included Nokia's ASIC team in Southwood (UK) and the company plans several sites in Finland. In June 2023, ST announced its partnership with GlobalFoundries to build a new factory in Crolles, France. See also Switzerland portalCompanies portal Altitude SEE Test European Platform (ASTEP) Interuniversity Microelectronics Centre (IMEC) Numonyx ST-Ericsson List of semiconductor fabrication plants STM8 STM32 STMicroelectronics Small Shareholders' Group (STM.S.S.G.) (in French) Collectif Autonome et Démocratique de STMicroelectronics (CAD-ST) References ^ "2023 Annual Report (Form 20-F)". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024. ^ "Stock data - STMicroelectronics". STMicroelectronics. ^ a b Faucon, Benoit; Newswires, Gren Manueldow Jones (16 March 2004). "STMicro Names CEO to Succeed Retiring Pistorio". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 7 December 2023. ^ Clarke, Peter (2000-07-28). "STMicroelectronics buys WaferScale Integration". EE Times. Retrieved 2020-12-09. ^ "STMicroelectronics To Acquire Genesis Microchip". Archived from the original on 2018-06-27. Retrieved 2018-06-27. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on January 1, 2014. Retrieved July 15, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ glen (2009-02-17). "CSR-SiRF Merger Pairs Struggling Bluetooth and GPS Powerhouses - and Shows Handset Platform Dominance". Inside GNSS. Archived from the original on 2019-05-27. Retrieved 2019-05-27. ^ "About us – General Information – ST-Ericsson". stericsson.com. Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2011. ^ a b "ST Micro opens lab for humanoid robot research | EDN". Archived from the original on 2013-01-21. Retrieved 2011-07-27. ^ "ST Micro: CEO Bozotti Passes the Keys to the Ferrari". Barron's. Retrieved 7 December 2023. ^ Stephen Nellis. "STMicro leans on AI, cloud as chip designs become more complex". reuters. Retrieved 7 December 2023. ^ "2014 Annual Report". STMicroelectronics. 26 March 2015. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2016. ^ "Company Information - STMicroelectronics". STMicroelectronics. Archived from the original on 2013-02-03. Retrieved 2011-05-04. ST operates a worldwide network of front-end (wafer fabrication) and back-end (assembly and test and packaging) plants ^ "STMicroelectronics celebrates "Nano2017" R&D program at Crolles facility". powersystemsdesign.com. 2013-07-24. Retrieved 2023-11-03. ^ "The Controversy over Offshoring: Power, Resistance and Translations in the French Semiconductor Industry". strategie-aims.com. Retrieved 2023-11-03. ^ "Crolles2 Alliance Facility Expansion, Crolles". semiconductor-technology.com. Retrieved 2023-11-03. ^ "ST's Manufacturing Strategy – the Key to Business Success". eletimes.com. 2023-04-18. Retrieved 2023-11-03. ^ "STMicroelectronics Inaugurates New 8 in.-200mm- Wafer Fab in Rousset". wirelessdesignonline.com. Retrieved 2023-11-03. ^ "ST Offers eSIMs at Wafer Level". eetimes.com. 2018-06-27. Retrieved 2023-11-07. ^ "STMicroelectronics and Leti Develop GaN-on-Silicon Technology for Power Conversion Applications". leti-cea.com. 2018-08-24. Retrieved 2023-11-07. ^ "STMicro and Politecnico di Milano expand R&D capabilities". evertiq.com. 2021-12-15. Retrieved 2023-11-07. ^ Emilio, Maurizio Di Paolo (2022-10-05). "SiC Substrate Manufacturing Facility". Power Electronics News. Archived from the original on 2022-10-05. Retrieved 2022-10-06. ^ EU Press corner (2022-10-05). "State aid: Commission approves €292.5 million Italian measure under Recovery and Resilience Facility to support STMicroelectronics in construction of a plant in the semiconductor value chain". European Commission - European Commission. Archived from the original on 2020-08-25. Retrieved 2023-03-28. ^ "What Is an eSIM? The Pros, Cons, and Seeming Inevitability of Embedded SIM ICs". 2018-07-16. Retrieved 2023-11-07. ^ "ST Microelectronics announces investment in Malta". timesofmalta.com. 29 June 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-07-02. Retrieved 2013-07-10. ^ "STMicroelectronics establishes world's first Lab-in-Fab in Singapore". semimedia.cc. 2020-10-30. Retrieved 2023-11-14. ^ "STMicro to continue investing in Singapore technology park". siliconsemiconductor.net. 2004-12-02. Retrieved 2023-11-14. ^ "STMicroelectronics‌ ‌Bouskoura‌ ‌Launches‌ ‌Expansion,‌ ‌Eying‌ ‌Top‌ ‌Spot‌ ‌in‌ ‌Industry‌ ‌4.0‌". moroccoworldnews.com. 2021-07-30. Retrieved 2023-11-14. ^ "STMicroelectronics Opens New Plant for Electric Car Parts in Morocco". moroccoworldnews.com. 2022-06-08. Retrieved 2023-11-14. ^ "STMicroelectronics Begins Producing 200mm Silicon Carbide Wafers". eepower.com. 2021-08-12. Retrieved 2023-11-14. ^ ChinaTechNews. "STMicroelectronics Launches New China Headquarters In Shanghai Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine." Apr 11, 2008. Retrieved Dec 7, 2016. ^ AMS sells NFC and RFID business to STMicroelectronics – NFC World Archived 2018-10-23 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 2018-10-23. ^ a b c "ST | STMicroelectronics Outlines Next Steps to Improve Cost Structure | C2542C". Archived from the original on July 13, 2007. Retrieved July 11, 2007. ^ STMicroelectronics to close Ottawa plant - Archives - Ottawa Business Journal. Obj.ca (2001-05-31). Retrieved on 2013-12-08. ^ STMicroelectronics to close Aztec West Business Park site Archived July 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine BBC News ^ "ST | Nokia and STMicroelectronics plan deeper ties in 3G technology development | C2547C". Archived from the original on August 16, 2007. Retrieved August 14, 2007. ^ "About us". Nokia.com. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 5 July 2016. ^ "Nokia lines up chip transfer to ST - Electronics Weekly". Electronicsweekly.com. 8 August 2007. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2016. ^ "France to provide 2.9 billion euros in aid for new STMicro/GlobalFoundries factory". reuters.com. 2023-06-05. Retrieved 2024-04-03. 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(commonly referred to as ST or STMicro) is a multinational corporation and technology company of French-Italian origin. It is headquartered in Plan-les-Ouates, Switzerland and listed on the New York Stock Exchange, on the Euronext Paris in Paris (CAC 40) and on the Borsa Italiana in Milan (FTSE MIB).[2] ST is the largest European semiconductor contract manufacturing and design company. The company resulted from the merger of two government-owned semiconductor companies in 1987: Thomson Semiconducteurs (Thomson Semiconductors) of France and SGS Microelettronica (SGS Microelectronic) of Italy.","title":"STMicroelectronics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SGS Microelettronica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGS_Microelettronica"},{"link_name":"Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_SA"},{"link_name":"L'Aquila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Aquila"},{"link_name":"Abruzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo"},{"link_name":"Southern Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Italy"},{"link_name":"Catania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catania"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily"},{"link_name":"industrialist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialist"},{"link_name":"Adriano Olivetti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriano_Olivetti"},{"link_name":"election of socialist 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manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_manufacturing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ST90E40ZL1_(2).png"},{"link_name":"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sant%27Anna_School_of_Advanced_Studies"},{"link_name":"biorobotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorobotics"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potato-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potato-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Synopsys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synopsys"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"ST was formed in 1987 by the merger of two government-owned semiconductor companies: Italian SGS Microelettronica (where SGS stands for Società Generale Semiconduttori, \"General Semiconductor Company\"), and French Thomson Semiconducteurs, the semiconductor arm of Thomson.SGS Microelettronica originated in 1972 from a previous merger of two companies:ATES (Aquila Tubi e Semiconduttori), a vacuum tube and semiconductor maker headquartered in L'Aquila, the regional capital of the region of Abruzzo in Southern Italy, which in 1961 changed its name to Azienda Tecnica ed Elettronica del Sud and relocated its manufacturing plant in the Industrial Zone of Catania, in Sicily;\nSocietà Generale Semiconduttori (founded in 1957 by Jewish-Italian engineer, politician, and industrialist Adriano Olivetti).Thomson Semiconducteurs was created in 1982 by the French government's widespread nationalization of industries following the election of socialist François Mitterrand to the presidency. It included:the semiconductor activities of the French electronics company Thomson;\nin 1985 it bought Mostek, a US company founded in 1969 as a spin-off of Texas Instruments, from United Technologies;\nSilec, founded in 1977;\nEurotechnique, founded in 1979 in Rousset, Bouches-du-Rhône as a joint-venture between Saint-Gobain of France and US-based National Semiconductor;\nEFCIS (Étude et la Fabrication de Circuits Intégrés Spéciaux), founded in 1972 at CEA-Leti;\nSESCOSEM, founded in 1969.At the time of the merger of these two companies in 1987, the new corporation was named SGS-THOMSON and was led by chief executive officer Pasquale Pistorio. [3] The company took its current name of STMicroelectronics in May 1998 following Thomson's sale of its shares. After its creation ST was ranked 14th among the top 20 semiconductor suppliers with sales of around US$850 million. The company has participated in the consolidation of the semiconductor industry since its formation, with acquisitions including:In 1989, British company Inmos known for its transputer microprocessors from parent Thorn EMI;\nIn 1994, Canada-based Nortel's semiconductor activities;\nIn 1999, UK, Edinburgh based VLSI-Vision CMOS Image Sensor research & development company, a spin-out of Edinburgh University. Incorporated on 1 January 2000, the company became STMicroelectronics Imaging Division, currently part of the Analog MEMS and Sensors business group;\nIn 2000, WaferScale Integration Inc. (WSI, Fremont, California), a vendor of EPROM and flash memory-based programmable system-chips;[4]\nIn 2002, Alcatel's Microelectronics division, which along with the incorporation of smaller ventures such as UK company, Synad Ltd, helped the company expand into the Wireless-LAN market;\nIn 2007, US-based Genesis Microchip.[5] Genesis Microchip is known for their strength in video processing technology (Faroudja) and has design centres located in Santa Clara, California, Toronto, Taipei City and Bangalore.4 Field-Programmable Microcontroller Peripheral from Wafer Scale Integration PSD311On December 8, 1994, the company completed its initial public offering on the Paris and New York stock exchanges. Owner Thomson SA sold its stake in the company in 1998 when the company also listed on the Italian Bourse in Milan. In 2002, Motorola and TSMC joined ST and Philips in a new technology partnership. The Crolles 2 Alliance was created with a new 12\" wafer manufacturing facility located in Crolles, France. In 2005, chief executive officer Pasquale Pistorio was succeeded by Carlo Bozotti, who then headed the memory products division and had been with the company’s predecessor since 1977.[3] By 2005, ST was ranked fifth, behind Intel, Samsung, Texas Instruments and Toshiba, but ahead of Infineon, Renesas, NEC, NXP Semiconductors, and Freescale. The company was the largest European semiconductors supplier, ahead of Infineon and NXP.Early in 2007, NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips Semiconductors) and Freescale (formerly Motorola Semiconductors) decided to stop their participation in Crolles 2 Alliance. Under the terms of the agreement the Alliance came to an end on December 31, 2007.[6] On May 22, 2007, ST and Intel created a joint venture in the memory application called Numonyx: this new company merged ST and Intel Flash Memory activities. Semiconductor market consolidation continued with ST and NXP announcing on April 10, 2008, the creation of a new joint venture of their mobile activities, with ST owning 80% of the new company and NXP 20%. This joint venture began on August 20, 2008. On February 10, 2009, ST Ericsson, a joint venture bringing together ST-NXP Wireless and Ericsson Mobile Platforms, was established.[7]ST Ericsson was a multinational manufacturer of wireless products and semiconductors, supplying to mobile device manufacturers.[8] ST-Ericsson was a 50/50 joint venture of STMicroelectronics and Ericsson established on February 3, 2009, and dissolved on August 2, 2013. Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, it was a fabless company, outsourcing semiconductor manufacturing to foundry companies.ST90E40ZL1 - HCMOS MCU with 16Kbytes EPROM, 512 bytes EEPROM, 256 bytes RAM and A/D Converter in a 68-leaded windowed ceramic quad flat pack packageIn 2011, ST announced the creation of a joint lab with Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies. The lab focuses on research and innovation in biorobotics, smart systems and microelectronics.[9] Past collaborations with Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies included DustBot, a platform that integrated self-navigating \"service robots\" for waste collection.[9]In 2018, chief executive Carlo Bozotti was succeeded by Jean-Marc Chery.[10] In 2023, STMicroelectronics partnered with Synopsys to design a working chip on Microsoft Corp’s cloud, marking the first time AI software had been utilized for chip design. [11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-STM2014AR-12"},{"link_name":"New York Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"Euronext Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euronext_Paris"},{"link_name":"Borsa Italiana Milano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borsa_Italiana"},{"link_name":"treasury shares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_stock"},{"link_name":"Bpifrance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bpifrance"},{"link_name":"French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Alternative_Energies_and_Atomic_Energy_Commission"},{"link_name":"Areva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areva"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Economy and Finance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Economy_and_Finances_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"Finmeccanica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_(company)"},{"link_name":"Cassa Depositi e Prestiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassa_Depositi_e_Prestiti"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"As of December 31, 2014, the shareholders were:[12]68.4% public (New York Stock Exchange, Euronext Paris, Borsa Italiana Milano);\n4.1% treasury shares;\n27.6% STMicroelectronics Holding B.V.:\n50% FT1CI (Bpifrance 79.2% and French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) 20.8%; previously Areva and CEA[citation needed]);\n50% Ministry of Economy and Finance of Italy (Finmeccanica until 2004, Cassa Depositi e Prestiti until 2010, both between 2004-2009)[citation needed].","title":"Shareholders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fabless semiconductor companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabless_semiconductor_company"},{"link_name":"wafer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"fabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Unlike fabless semiconductor companies, STMicroelectronics owns and operates its own semiconductor wafer fabs. The company owned five 8-inch (200 mm) wafer fabs and one 12-inch (300 mm) wafer fab in 2006.[citation needed] Most of the production is scaled at 0.18 μm, 0.13 μm, 90 nm and 65 nm (measurements of transistor gate length). STMicroelectronics also owns back-end plants, where silicon dies are assembled and bonded into plastic or ceramic packages.[13]Major sites include: [citation needed]","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grenoble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoble"},{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Crolles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crolles"},{"link_name":"CNET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_national_d%27%C3%A9tudes_des_t%C3%A9l%C3%A9communications"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Jacques Chirac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Chirac"},{"link_name":"TSMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSMC"},{"link_name":"NXP Semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NXP_Semiconductors"},{"link_name":"Philips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"Freescale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freescale"},{"link_name":"Motorola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"foundry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry"},{"link_name":"TSMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSMC"}],"sub_title":"Grenoble, France","text":"Grenoble is one of the company's most important R&D centres, employing around 4,000 staff. The Polygone site employs 2,200 staff and is one of the historical bases of the company (ex SGS). All the historical wafer fab lines are now closed but the site hosts the headquarters of many divisions (marketing, design, industrialization) and an important R&D center, focused on silicon and software design and fab process development.[14]The Crolles site hosts a 200 mm (8 in) and a 300 mm (12 in) fab and was originally built as a common R&D center for submicrometre technologies as part of the 1990 Grenoble 92 partnership between SGS-Thomson and CNET, the R&D center of French telecom company France Telecom.[15] The 200 mm (8 in) fab, known as Crolles 1, is the company's first and was built as part of a 1991 partnership between SGS-Thomson and Philips to develop new manufacturing technologies. Crolles 1 was opened on September 9, 1993 by Gérard Longuet, French minister for industry, and Alain Carignon, mayor of Grenoble.The 300 mm (12 in) fab was inaugurated by French president Jacques Chirac, on February 27, 2003. It includes an R&D center which focuses on developing new nanometric technology processes for 90-nm to 32-nm scale using 300 mm (12 in) wafers and it was developed for The Crolles 2 Alliance. This alliance of STMicroelectronics, TSMC, NXP Semiconductors (formerly Philips semiconductor) and Freescale (formerly Motorola semiconductor) partnered in 2002 to develop the facility and to work together on process development.[16] The technologies developed at the facility were also used by global semiconductor foundry TSMC of Taiwan, allowing TSMC to build the products developed in Crolles on behalf of the Alliance partners who required such foundry capacity.\nA new fab is under construction since 2015.","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rousset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rousset,_Bouches-du-Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"smartcards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartcard"},{"link_name":"microcontrollers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollers"},{"link_name":"EEPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM"},{"link_name":"Lionel Jospin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Jospin"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"Saint-Gobain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Gobain"},{"link_name":"National Semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"Aix-en-Provence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aix-en-Provence"},{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Gemalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemalto"},{"link_name":"Gemplus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemplus"}],"sub_title":"Rousset, France","text":"Employing around 3,000 staff, Rousset hosts several division headquarters including smartcards, microcontrollers, and EEPROM as well as several R&D centers. Rousset also hosts an 8-inch (200-mm) fab, which was opened on May 15, 2000 by French prime minister Lionel Jospin.[17][18]The site opened in 1979 as a 100 mm (3.9 in) fab operated by Eurotechnique, a joint venture between Saint-Gobain of France and National Semiconductor of the US. Rousset was sold to Thomson-CSF in 1982 as part of the French government's 1981–82 nationalization of several industries. As part of the nationalisation, a former Thomson plant in the center of Aix-en-Provence operating since the 1960s was closed and staff were transferred to the new Rousset site. The original 100 mm (4 in) fab was upgraded into 130 mm (5 in) and later 150 mm (6 in) fab in 1996. It is now being shut down. The site also has a \"Wafer Level Chip Scale Packaging\" accreditation for eSIM ICs.[19]In 1988, a small group of employees from the Thomson Rousset plant (including the director, Marc Lassus) founded a start-up company, Gemalto (formerly known as Gemplus), which became a leader in the smartcard industry.","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Tours, France","text":"Employing 1,500 staff, this site hosts a fab and R&D centers.[20]","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Agrate Brianza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrate_Brianza"},{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Castelletto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Settimo_Milanese"}],"sub_title":"Milan, Italy","text":"Employing 6,000 staff, the Milan facilities match Grenoble in importance. Agrate Brianza employs around 4,000 staff and is a historical base of the company (ex SGS). The site has several fab lines (including a 300 mm (12 in) fab) and an R&D center.[21] Castelletto, employs 300 to 400 staff and hosts some divisions and R&D centers.Update-2012:\nNumonyx JV (with Intel) is acquired by Micron.\nAs such, R2 Fab (Agrate previous R&D 200-mm Fab) is currently a Micron entity","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Catania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catania"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily"},{"link_name":"R&D centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"},{"link_name":"fabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_fabrication_plant"},{"link_name":"RCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCA"},{"link_name":"germanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium"},{"link_name":"Romano Prodi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romano_Prodi"},{"link_name":"SiC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_carbide"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"European Chips Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Chips_Act"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Catania, Italy","text":"The Catania plant in Sicily employs 5,000 staff and hosts several R&D centers and divisions, focusing on flash memory technologies as well as two fabs. The plant was launched in 1961 by ATES to supply under licensing to RCA of the US and initially using germanium. The site's two major wafer fabs are a 200 mm (8 in) fab, opened in April 1997 by then-Italian Prime Minister Romano Prodi, and a 300 mm (12 in) fab that has never been completed and which was transferred in its current state to \"Numonyx\" in 2008. A new manufacturing facility for silicon carbide (SiC) substrates of 150 mm should open here in 2023.[22]In October 2022, the EU supported STMicroelectronics for the construction of a silicon carbide wafer plant in Catania with €293 million through the Recovery and Resilience Facility to be completed in 2026, and in line with the European Chips Act.[23]","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Caserta, Italy","text":"STmicro eSIM and SIM production facility for embedded form factor eSIM.[24]","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kirkop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkop"},{"link_name":"private sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_sector"},{"link_name":"employer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employer#Employer-worker_relationship"},{"link_name":"exporter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exporter"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Kirkop, Malta","text":"As of 2010, ST employed some 1,500 people in Kirkop, making it the largest private sector employer, and the country's leading exporter.[25]","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Toa Payoh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toa_Payoh"},{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Singapore","text":"In 1970, SGS created its first assembly back-end plant in Singapore, in the area of Toa Payoh. Then in 1981, SGS decided to build a wafer\nfab in Singapore. The Singapore technical engineers have been trained in Italy and the fab of Ang Mo Kio started to produce its first\nwafers in 1984. Converted up to 200 mm (8 in) fab, this is now an important 200 mm (8 in) wafer fab of the group. Ang Mo Kio also hosts some design centers.[26] As of 2004, the site employed 6,000 staff.[27]Update-2012: Numonyx JV (with Intel) is acquired by Micron in 2010. As such, AMK8 Fab (200mm HVM Fab) is currently a Micron entity. AMK5 and AMK6 remains to be STM entities.\nUpdate-2019: AMK8 has been reacquired by STM from Micron.","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Tunis, Tunisia","text":"Application, design and support. about 110 employees. Divisions: MCD","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Bouskoura, Morocco","text":"Founded in 1979 as a radiofrequency products facility, the Bouskoura site now hosts back-end manufacturing activity, which includes chip testing and packaging.[28] Since 2022 it also features a production line for silicon carbide products that primarily will be used in electric vehicles.[29]","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Norrköping, Sweden","text":"The Norrköping plant is a wafer fab that, at the start of production in 2021, was the first to produce 200mm (8 in) Silicone Carbide wafers. The wafers are mostly used for SiC power devices.[30]","title":"Manufacturing facilities"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Saint-Genis-Pouilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Genis-Pouilly"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"}],"sub_title":"Administrative headquarters","text":"Geneva, Switzerland: Corporate headquarter which hosts most of the ST top management. It totals some hundred of employees.\nSaint-Genis-Pouilly, France, near Geneva: A few hundred of employees. Headquarters for logistics.\nParis: Marketing and support.","title":"Other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coppell, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coppell,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Regional headquarters","text":"Coppell, Texas: US headquarters.\nSingapore: Headquarters for the Asia-Pacific region.\nTokyo: Headquarters for Japan and Korea operations.\nShanghai: Headquarters for China operations.[31]","title":"Other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta"},{"link_name":"Muar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muar_Town"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"Shenzhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenzhen"},{"link_name":"Futian Free Trade Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futian_Free_Trade_Zone"},{"link_name":"Nanshan, Shenzhen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanshan,_Shenzhen"},{"link_name":"Calamba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamba,_Laguna"},{"link_name":"Laguna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguna_(province)"},{"link_name":"NXP Semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NXP_Semiconductors"}],"sub_title":"Assembly plants","text":"Malta: In 1981, SGS-Thomson (now STMicroelectronics) built its first assembly plant in Malta. STMicroelectronics is, as of 2008, the largest private employer on the island, employing around 1,800 people.\nMuar, Malaysia: around 4000 employees. This site was built in 1974 by Thomson and is now an assembly plant.\nShenzhen, Guangdong province, China: In 1994, ST and the Shenzhen Electronics Group signed a partnership to construct and jointly operate an assembly plant (ST has majority with 60%). The plant is located in Futian Free Trade Zone and became operational in 1996. It has around 3,300 employees. A new assembly plant is built in Longgang since 2008, and closed up till 2014. The R&D, design, sales and marketing office is located in the Hi-tech industrial park in Nanshan, Shenzhen.\nCalamba in the province of Laguna, Philippines: In 2008, ST acquired this plant from NXP Semiconductors. Initially as part of joint venture with NXP but later acquired the whole share turning it into a full-fledged STMicroelectronics Assembly and Testing plant. Currently it employs 2,000 employees.","title":"Other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cairo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"Rabat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabat"},{"link_name":"Morocco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples"},{"link_name":"Lecce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecce"},{"link_name":"Ang Mo Kio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ang_Mo_Kio"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Greater Noida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Noida"},{"link_name":"Greater Noida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Noida"},{"link_name":"Set-Top Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set-top_box"},{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"Wireless LAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_LAN"},{"link_name":"Santa Clara, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara,_California"},{"link_name":"Silicon Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Valley"},{"link_name":"La Jolla, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Jolla,_California"},{"link_name":"San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego"},{"link_name":"Lancaster, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancaster,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Prague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prague"},{"link_name":"Tunis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunis"},{"link_name":"Tunisia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia"},{"link_name":"Sophia Antipolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_Antipolis"},{"link_name":"Nice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"Ottawa, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"Nortel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nortel"},{"link_name":"Toronto, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"Bangalore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore"},{"link_name":"ST Ericsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ST_Ericsson"},{"link_name":"Genesis Microchip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_Microchip"},{"link_name":"Zaventem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaventem"},{"link_name":"Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki"},{"link_name":"Turku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turku"},{"link_name":"Oulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oulu"},{"link_name":"Tampere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampere"},{"link_name":"Longmont, Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longmont,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"Graz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graz"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Pisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisa"}],"sub_title":"Design centers","text":"Cairo, Egypt: Hardware and software design center, started in 2020, with 50 employees.\nRabat, Morocco: A design center that employs 160 people.\nNaples, Italy: A design center employing 300 people.\nLecce, Italy: HW & SW Design Center which hosts 20 researchers in the Advanced System Technology group.\nAng Mo Kio, Singapore: In 1970, SGS created its first assembly back-end plant in Singapore, in the area of Toa Payoh. Then in 1981, SGS decided to build a wafer fab in Singapore. The Singapore technical engineers have been trained in Italy and the fab of Ang Mo Kio started to produce its first wafers in 1984. Converted up to 8 inch (200 mm) fab, this is now an important 8 inch (200 mm) wafer fab of the ST group. Ang Mo Kio also hosts design centers for various groups.\nGreater Noida, India: The Noida site was launched in 1992 to conduct software engineering activities. A silicon design center was inaugurated on February 14, 1995. With 120 employees, it was the largest design center of the company outside Europe at the time. In 2006, the site was shifted to Greater Noida for further expansion. The site hosts mainly design teams. It is now primarily involved with the design of home video products (Set-Top Box, DVD), GPS and Wireless LAN chips, and accompanying software. Worldwide Data center support is also transferred to Greater Noida in 2004. The employee strength in Greater Noida is around 2000. This also includes employees of ST-Ericsson.\nSanta Clara, California, (Silicon Valley), United States: 120 staff in marketing, design and applications.\nLa Jolla, California, (San Diego, United States): 80 staff in design and applications.\nLancaster, Pennsylvania, United States: Application, support, and marketing.\nPrague, Czech Republic: 100 to 200 employees. Application, design and support.\nTunis, Tunisia: 110 employees. Application, design and support.\nSophia Antipolis, near Nice, France: Design center with a few hundred employees.\nEdinburgh, Scotland: 200 staff focused in the field of imaging and photon detection.\nOttawa, Ontario, Canada: In 1993, SGS-Thomson purchased the semiconductor activities of Nortel which owned in Ottawa an R&D center and a fab. The fab was closed in 2000, however, a design, R&D centre and sales office is operating in the city.\nToronto, Ontario, Canada: HW & SW Design Center primarily involved with the design of video processor ICs as part of ST's TVM Division.\nBangalore, India: HW and SW design center employing more than 250 people (Including the employees of ST Ericsson and Genesis Microchip).\nZaventem, Belgium: 100 employees. Design & Application Center.\nHelsinki, Finland: Design Center.\nTurku, Finland: Design Center.\nOulu, Finland: Design Center.\nTampere, Finland: Design Center.\nLongmont, Colorado United States: Design Center.\nGraz, Austria: NFC Competence Center.[32]\nPisa, Italy: A design center employing more than 50 people. R&D, analog and digital design.","title":"Other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona"},{"link_name":"Carrollton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrollton,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"Ain Sebaa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ain_Sebaa"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-st.com-33"},{"link_name":"Casablanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casablanca"},{"link_name":"Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol"},{"link_name":"Ottawa, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Closing sites","text":"The Phoenix, Arizona 8 inch (200 mm) fab, the Carrollton, Texas 6 inch (150 mm) fab, and the Ain Sebaa, Morocco fab are beginning rampdown plans, and are destined to close by 2010.[33]The Casablanca, Morocco site consists of two assembly parts (Bouskoura and Aïn Sebaâ) and totals around 4000 employees. It was opened in the 1960s by Thomson.The Bristol, United Kingdom site employing well over 300 at its peak (in 2001/2) but was ramped down to approx. 150 employees at close by early 2014.The Ottawa, Ontario, Canada plant (approx. 450 employees) will close down by 2013 end.[34]","title":"Other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennes"},{"link_name":"Rancho Bernardo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancho_Bernardo"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"Cyrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrix"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-st.com-33"},{"link_name":"Carrollton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrollton,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"Mostek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mostek"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"United Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Technologies"},{"link_name":"fab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fab_(semiconductors)"},{"link_name":"Colorado Springs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Springs,_Colorado"},{"link_name":"INMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INMOS"},{"link_name":"wafer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wafer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-st.com-33"},{"link_name":"Bristol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol"},{"link_name":"UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK"},{"link_name":"Inmos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inmos"},{"link_name":"Transputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transputer"},{"link_name":"Set-Top Box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set-top_box"},{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Closed sites","text":"Rennes, France hosted a 6-inch (150 mm) fab and was closed in 2004\nRancho Bernardo, California, a 4-inch (100 mm) fab created by Nortel and purchased by SGS-Thomson in 1994, after which it was converted into a 6-inch (150 mm) fab in 1996.\nSGS's first presence in the US was a sales office based in Phoenix in the early 1980s. Later, under SGS-Thomson, an 8-inch (200 mm) fab was completed in Phoenix in 1995. The company's second 8\" fab after Crolles 1, the site was first dedicated to producing microprocessors for Cyrix. On July 10, 2007, ST said that it would close this site, and in July 2010 the shell of the Phoenix PF1 FAB was bought by Western Digital Corporation.[33]\nThe Carrollton, Texas site was built in 1969 by Mostek, an American company founded by former employees of Texas Instruments. In 1979, Mostek was acquired by United Technologies, which sold it to Thomson Semiconducteurs in 1985. Initially equipped with a 4-inch (100 mm) fab, it was converted into a 6-inch (150 mm) fab in 1988. The Colorado Springs activities of British company INMOS were transferred to Carrollton in 1989 following its acquisition by SGS Thomson. Since then the site has been refocused to wafer testing. On July 10, 2007, ST announced it would close this fab, and it was finally closed in 2010.[33]\nBristol, UK This R&D site housed the British company Inmos, which in 1978 began development of the famous Transputer microprocessor. The site was acquired with Inmos in 1989, and was primarily involved with the design of home video and entertainment products (e.g. Set-Top Box), GPS chips, and accompanying software. At its peak the site employed more than 250 employees. The site officially closed on March 31, 2014.[35]","title":"Other sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nokia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia"},{"link_name":"microchip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"ASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"Southwood (UK)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwood,_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"GlobalFoundries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GlobalFoundries"},{"link_name":"Crolles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crolles"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Future locations","text":"On August 8, 2007, ST bought Nokia's microchip development team and plans to invest heavily in development of cellular ASIC applications. The purchase included Nokia's ASIC team in Southwood (UK) and the company plans several sites in Finland.[36][37][38]\nIn June 2023, ST announced its partnership with GlobalFoundries to build a new factory in Crolles, France.[39]","title":"Other sites"}]
[{"image_text":"STM32 microcontroller made by STMicroelectronics","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/MicroSTM32.jpg/220px-MicroSTM32.jpg"},{"image_text":"4 Field-Programmable Microcontroller Peripheral from Wafer Scale Integration PSD311","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/256kbit_16kbit_EPROM_SRAM_Wafer_Scale_Integration_PSD311_%283%29.jpg/220px-256kbit_16kbit_EPROM_SRAM_Wafer_Scale_Integration_PSD311_%283%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"ST90E40ZL1 - HCMOS MCU with 16Kbytes EPROM, 512 bytes EEPROM, 256 bytes RAM and A/D Converter in a 68-leaded windowed ceramic quad flat pack package","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/ST90E40ZL1_%282%29.png/220px-ST90E40ZL1_%282%29.png"}]
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[{"reference":"\"2023 Annual Report (Form 20-F)\". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. 22 February 2024. Retrieved 22 February 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/932787/000162828024006353/stm-20231231.htm","url_text":"\"2023 Annual Report (Form 20-F)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission","url_text":"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"Stock data - STMicroelectronics\". STMicroelectronics.","urls":[{"url":"https://investors.st.com/stock-and-bond-information/stock-data","url_text":"\"Stock data - STMicroelectronics\""}]},{"reference":"Faucon, Benoit; Newswires, Gren Manueldow Jones (16 March 2004). \"STMicro Names CEO to Succeed Retiring Pistorio\". Wall Street Journal. 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ST operates a worldwide network of front-end (wafer fabrication) and back-end (assembly and test and packaging) plants","urls":[{"url":"https://www.st.com/content/st_com/en/about/st_company_information/who-we-are.html","url_text":"\"Company Information - STMicroelectronics\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130203012056/http://www.st.com/internet/com/about_st/st_company_information.jsp","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"STMicroelectronics celebrates \"Nano2017\" R&D program at Crolles facility\". powersystemsdesign.com. 2013-07-24. Retrieved 2023-11-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.powersystemsdesign.com/articles/d-program-at-crolles-facility/36/702","url_text":"\"STMicroelectronics celebrates \"Nano2017\" R&D program at Crolles facility\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Controversy over Offshoring: Power, Resistance and Translations in the French Semiconductor Industry\". strategie-aims.com. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_inline_package
Dual in-line package
["1 Applications","1.1 Types of devices","1.2 Uses","1.3 Mounting","2 Construction","2.1 Variants","2.2 Single in-line","2.3 Quad in-line","2.4 Lead count and spacing","3 Orientation and lead numbering","4 Descendants","5 See also","6 Notes","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
Type of electronic component package "PDIP" redirects here. The term may also refer to Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle. 4000-series logic ICs in 0.3" wide 14-pin plastic DIP packages (DIP-14N), also known as PDIP (Plastic DIP) EPROM ICs in 0.6" wide ceramic DIP-40, DIP-32, DIP-28, DIP-24 packages, also known as CDIP (Ceramic DIP) Eight-contact DIP switch with 0.3" wide 16-pin (DIP-16N) footprint In microelectronics, a dual in-line package (DIP or DIL) is an electronic component package with a rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical connecting pins. The package may be through-hole mounted to a printed circuit board (PCB) or inserted in a socket. The dual-inline format was invented by Don Forbes, Rex Rice and Bryant Rogers at Fairchild R&D in 1964, when the restricted number of leads available on circular transistor-style packages became a limitation in the use of integrated circuits. Increasingly complex circuits required more signal and power supply leads (as observed in Rent's rule); eventually microprocessors and similar complex devices required more leads than could be put on a DIP package, leading to development of higher-density chip carriers. Furthermore, square and rectangular packages made it easier to route printed-circuit traces beneath the packages. A DIP is usually referred to as a DIPn, where n is the total number of pins. For example, a microcircuit package with two rows of seven vertical leads would be a DIP14. The photograph at the upper right shows three DIP14 ICs. Common packages have as few as three and as many as 64 leads. Many analog and digital integrated circuit types are available in DIP packages, as are arrays of transistors, switches, light emitting diodes, and resistors. DIP plugs for ribbon cables can be used with standard IC sockets. DIP packages are usually made from an opaque molded epoxy plastic pressed around a tin-, silver-, or gold-plated lead frame that supports the device die and provides connection pins. Some types of IC are made in ceramic DIP packages, where high temperature or high reliability is required, or where the device has an optical window to the interior of the package. Most DIP packages are secured to a PCB by inserting the pins through holes in the board and soldering them in place. Where replacement of the parts is necessary, such as in test fixtures or where programmable devices must be removed for changes, a DIP socket is used. Some sockets include a zero insertion force (ZIF) mechanism. Variations of the DIP package include those with only a single row of pins, e.g. a resistor array, possibly including a heat sink tab in place of the second row of pins, and types with four rows of pins, two rows, staggered, on each side of the package. DIP packages have been mostly displaced by surface-mount package types, which avoid the expense of drilling holes in a PCB and which allow higher density of interconnections. Applications Types of devices An operating prototyped circuit on a solderless breadboard incorporating four DIP ICs, a DIP LED bargraph display (upper left), and a DIP 7-segment LED display (lower left) DIPs are commonly used for integrated circuits (ICs). Other devices in DIP packages include resistor networks, DIP switches, LED segmented and bar graph displays, and electromechanical relays. DIP connector plugs for ribbon cables are common in computers and other electronic equipment. Dallas Semiconductor manufactured integrated DIP real-time clock (RTC) modules which contained an IC chip and a non-replaceable 10-year lithium battery. DIP header blocks on to which discrete components could be soldered were used where groups of components needed to be easily removed, for configuration changes, optional features or calibration. Uses Breadboard prototype: Ultrasonic microphone preamp build with SMD-parts soldered to DIP and SIP breakout boards The original dual-in-line package was invented by Bryant "Buck" Rogers in 1964 while working for Fairchild Semiconductor. The first devices had 14 pins and looked much like they do today. The rectangular shape allowed integrated circuits to be packaged more densely than previous round packages. The package was well-suited to automated assembly equipment; a PCB could be populated with scores or hundreds of ICs, then all the components on the circuit board could be soldered at one time on a wave soldering machine and passed on to automated testing machines, with very little human labor required. DIP packages were still large with respect to the integrated circuits within them. By the end of the 20th century, surface-mount packages allowed further reduction in the size and weight of systems. DIP chips are still popular for circuit prototyping on a breadboard because of how easily they can be inserted and used there. DIPs were the mainstream of the microelectronics industry in the 1970s and 1980s. Their use has declined in the first decade of the 21st century due to the emerging new surface-mount technology (SMT) packages such as plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC) and small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC), though DIPs continued in extensive use through the 1990s, and still continue to be used substantially as the year 2011 passes. Because some modern chips are available only in surface-mount package types, a number of companies sell various prototyping adapters to allow those surface-mount devices (SMD) to be used like DIP devices with through-hole breadboards and soldered prototyping boards (such as stripboard and perfboard). (SMT can pose quite a problem, at least an inconvenience, for prototyping in general; most of the characteristics of SMT that are advantages for mass production are difficulties for prototyping.) For programmable devices like EPROMs and GALs, DIPs remained popular for many years due to their easy handling with external programming circuitry (i.e., the DIP devices could be simply plugged into a socket on the programming device.) However, with In-System Programming (ISP) technology now state of the art, this advantage of DIPs is rapidly losing importance as well. Through the 1990s, devices with fewer than 20 leads were manufactured in a DIP format in addition to the newer formats. Since about 2000, newer devices are often unavailable in the DIP format. Mounting DIPs can be mounted either by through-hole soldering or in sockets. Sockets allow easy replacement of a device and eliminates the risk of damage from overheating during soldering. Generally sockets were used for high-value or large ICs, which cost much more than the socket. Where devices would be frequently inserted and removed, such as in test equipment or EPROM programmers, a zero insertion force socket would be used. DIPs are also used with breadboards, a temporary mounting arrangement for education, design development or device testing. Some hobbyists, for one-off construction or permanent prototyping, use point-to-point wiring with DIPs, and their appearance when physically inverted as part of this method inspires the informal term "dead bug style" for the method. 0.3" wide DIP sockets with dual-wipe contacts for 16-, 14-, and 8-pin DIP ICs 0.3" wide 16-pin DIP socket with machined round contacts for DIP-16 IC Zero insertion force (ZIF) socket for 0.6" wide DIP-28W IC, commonly used on EPROM IC programmers 0.3" wide DIP socket for narrow DIP-28 IC, also known as DIP-28N, commonly used on older Arduino boards Arduino UNO R2 board with ATmega328P 8-bit microcontroller in 28-pin IC socket Construction Side view of a dual in-line package (DIP) IC Dual in-line (DIP) integrated circuit metal tape base with contacts The body (housing) of a DIP containing an IC chip is usually made from molded plastic or ceramic. The hermetic nature of a ceramic housing is preferred for extremely high reliability devices. However, the vast majority of DIPs are manufactured via a thermoset molding process in which an epoxy mold compound is heated and transferred under pressure to encapsulate the device. Typical cure cycles for the resins are less than 2 minutes and a single cycle may produce hundreds of devices. The leads emerge from the longer sides of the package along the seam, parallel to the top and bottom planes of the package, and are bent downward approximately 90 degrees (or slightly less, leaving them angled slightly outward from the centerline of the package body). (The SOIC, the SMT package that most resembles a typical DIP, appears essentially the same, notwithstanding size scale, except that after being bent down the leads are bent upward again by an equal angle to become parallel with the bottom plane of the package.) In ceramic (CERDIP) packages, an epoxy or grout is used to hermetically seal the two halves together, providing an air and moisture tight seal to protect the IC die inside. Plastic DIP (PDIP) packages are usually sealed by fusing or cementing the plastic halves around the leads, but a high degree of hermeticity is not achieved because the plastic itself is usually somewhat porous to moisture and the process cannot ensure a good microscopic seal between the leads and the plastic at all points around the perimeter. However, contaminants are usually still kept out well enough that the device can operate reliably for decades with reasonable care in a controlled environment. Inside the package, the lower half has the leads embedded, and at the center of the package is a rectangular space, chamber, or void into which the IC die is cemented. The leads of the package extend diagonally inside the package from their positions of emergence along the periphery to points along a rectangular perimeter surrounding the die, tapering as they go to become fine contacts at the die. Ultra-fine bond wires (barely visible to the naked human eye) are welded between these die periphery contacts and bond pads on the die itself, connecting one lead to each bond pad, and making the final connection between the microcircuits and the external DIP leads. The bond wires are not usually taut but loop upward slightly to allow slack for thermal expansion and contraction of the materials; if a single bond wire breaks or detaches, the entire IC may become useless. The top of the package covers all of this delicate assemblage without crushing the bond wires, protecting it from contamination by foreign materials. Usually, a company logo, alphanumeric codes and sometimes words are printed on top of the package to identify its manufacturer and type, when it was made (usually as a year and a week number), sometimes where it was made, and other proprietary information (perhaps revision numbers, manufacturing plant codes, or stepping ID codes.) The necessity of laying out all of the leads in a basically radial pattern in a single plane from the die perimeter to two rows on the periphery of the package is the main reason that DIP packages with higher lead counts must have wider spacing between the lead rows, and it effectively limits the number of leads which a practical DIP package may have. Even for a very small die with many bond pads (e.g. a chip with 15 inverters, requiring 32 leads), a wider DIP would still be required to accommodate the radiating leads internally. This is one of the reasons that four-sided and multiple rowed packages, such as PGAs, were introduced (around the early 1980s). A large DIP package (such as the DIP64 used for the Motorola 68000 CPU) has long leads inside the package between pins and the die, making such a package unsuitable for high speed devices. Some other types of DIP devices are built very differently. Most of these have molded plastic housings and straight leads or leads that extend directly out of the bottom of the package. For some, LED displays particularly, the housing is usually a hollow plastic box with the bottom/back open, filled (around the contained electronic components) with a hard translucent epoxy material from which the leads emerge. Others, such as DIP switches, are composed of two (or more) plastic housing parts snapped, welded, or glued together around a set of contacts and tiny mechanical parts, with the leads emerging through molded-in holes or notches in the plastic. Variants Several PDIPs and CERDIPs. The large CERDIP in the foreground is an NEC 8080AF (Intel 8080-compatible) microprocessor. Several DIP variants for ICs exist, mostly distinguished by packaging material: Ceramic dual in-line package (CERDIP or CDIP) Plastic dual in-line package (PDIP) Shrink plastic dual in-line package (SPDIP) – A denser version of the PDIP with a 0.07 in (1.778 mm) lead pitch. Skinny dual in-line package (SDIP or SPDIP) – Sometimes used to refer to a "narrow" 0.300 in. (or 300 mil) wide DIP, normally when clarification is needed e.g. for DIP with 24 pins or more, which usually come in "wide" 0.600 in wide DIP package. An example of a typical proper full spec for a "narrow" DIP package would be 300 mil body width, 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin pitch. EPROMs were sold in ceramic DIPs manufactured with a circular window of clear quartz over the chip die to allow the part to be erased by ultraviolet light. Often, the same chips were also sold in less expensive windowless PDIP or CERDIP packages as one-time programmable (OTP) versions. Windowed and windowless packages were also used for microcontrollers, and other devices, containing EPROM memory. Windowed CERDIP-packaged EPROMs were used for the BIOS ROM of many early IBM PC clones with an adhesive label covering the window to prevent inadvertent erasure through exposure to ambient light. Molded plastic DIPs are much lower in cost than ceramic packages; one 1979 study showed that a plastic 14 pin DIP cost around US$0.063 and a ceramic package cost US$0.82. Single in-line Not to be confused with SIPP memory. Package sample for single in-line package (SIP or SIL) devices A single in-line package (SIP or SIL package) has one row of connecting pins. It is not as popular as the DIP, but has been used for packaging RAM chips and multiple resistors with a common pin. As compared to DIPs with a typical maximum pin count of 64, SIPs have a typical maximum pin count of 24 with lower package costs. One variant of the single in-line package uses part of the lead frame for a heat sink tab. This multi-leaded power package is useful for such applications as audio power amplifiers, for example. Quad in-line A Rockwell 6502-based microcontroller in a QIP Main article: Quad in-line package The QIP, sometimes called a QIL package, has the same dimensions as a DIL package, but the leads on each side are bent into an alternating zigzag configuration so as to fit four lines of solder pads (instead of two with a DIL). The QIL design increased the spacing between solder pads without increasing package size, for two reasons: It allowed more reliable soldering. This may seem odd today, given the far closer solder pad spacing in use now, but in the 1970s, the heyday of the QIL, bridging of neighbouring solder pads on DIL chips was an issue at times, QIL also increased the possibility of running a copper track between 2 solder pads. This was very handy on the then standard single sided single layer PCBs. Lead count and spacing Commonly found DIP packages that conform to JEDEC standards use an inter-lead spacing (lead pitch) of 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) (JEDEC MS-001BA). Row spacing varies depending on lead counts, with 0.3 in. (7.62 mm) (JEDEC MS-001) or 0.6 inch (15.24 mm) (JEDEC MS-011) the most common. Less common standardized row spacings include 0.4 inch (10.16 mm) (JEDEC MS-010) and 0.9 inch (22.86 mm), as well as a row spacing of 0.3 inch, 0.6 inch or 0.75 inch with a 0.07 inch (1.778 mm) lead pitch. The former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries used similar packages, but with a metric pin-to-pin spacing of 2.5 mm rather than 0.1 inches (2.54 mm). The number of leads is always even. For 0.3 inch spacing, typical lead counts are 8, 14, 16, 18, and 28; less common are 4, 6, 20, and 24 lead counts. To have an even number of leads some DIPs have unused not connected (NC) leads to the internal chip, or are duplicated, e.g. two ground pins. For 0.6 inch spacing, typical lead counts are 24, 28, 32, and 40; less common are 36, 42, 48, 52, and 64 lead counts. Some microprocessors, such as the Motorola 68000 and Zilog Z180, used lead counts as high as 64; this is typically the maximum number of leads for a DIP package. Orientation and lead numbering Pin numbering is counter-clockwise As shown in the diagram, leads are numbered consecutively from Pin 1. When the identifying notch in the package is at the top, Pin 1 is the top left corner of the device. Sometimes Pin 1 is identified with an indent or paint dot mark. For example, for a 14-lead DIP, with the notch at the top, the left leads are numbered from 1 to 7 (top to bottom) and the right row of leads are numbered 8 to 14 (bottom to top). Leads are skipped on some DIP devices (e.g. segmented LED displays, relays, or devices that replace leads with a heat sink fin). The remaining leads are numbered as if all positions had leads. In addition to providing for human visual identification of the orientation of the package, the notch allows automated chip-insertion machinery to confirm correct orientation of the chip by mechanical sensing. Descendants The SOIC (Small Outline IC), a surface-mount package which is currently very popular, particularly in consumer electronics and personal computers, is essentially a shrunk version of the standard IC PDIP, the fundamental difference which makes it an SMT device being a second bend in the leads to flatten them parallel to the bottom plane of the plastic housing. The SOJ (Small Outline J-lead) and other SMT packages with "SOP" (for "Small Outline Package") in their names can be considered further relatives of the DIP, their original ancestor. SOIC packages tend to have half the pitch of DIP, and SOP are half that, a fourth of DIP. (0.1"/2.54 mm, 0.05"/1.27 mm, and 0.025"/0.635 mm, respectively) Pin grid array (PGA) packages may be considered to have evolved from the DIP. PGAs with the same 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin centers as most DIPs were popular for microprocessors from the early to mid-1980s through the 1990s. Owners of personal computers containing Intel 80286 through P5 Pentium processors may be most familiar with these PGA packages, which were often inserted into ZIF sockets on motherboards. The similarity is such that a PGA socket may be physically compatible with some DIP devices, though the converse is rarely true. See also Chip carrier DIP switch Flatpack (electronics) List of integrated circuit package dimensions NORBIT 2 (a larger 19-pin DIP, introduced in 1967) Pin grid array QFP Surface-mount technology Zig-zag in-line package Notes ^ The abbreviation N.C. (for "Not connected") is also used to mean "Normally closed" in the context of switches. References ^ "see for instance" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-09-30. Retrieved 2010-01-02. ^ Dummer, G.W.A. Electronic Inventions and Discoveries (2nd ed)., Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-08-022730-9 ^ Jackson, Kenneth.A.; Schröter, Wolfgang Handbook of Semiconductor Technology, John Wiley & Sons, 2000 ISBN 3-527-29835-5 page 610 ^ Dummer, G.W.A. Electronic Inventions and Discoveries 2nd ed. Pergamon Press ISBN 0-08-022730-9 ^ Computer Museum retrieved April 16, 2008 ^ For instance, Microchip: http://www.microchip.com/packaging ^ Rao R. Tummala, Eugene J. Rymaszewski, Alan G. Klopfenstein Microelectronics Packaging Handbook: Semiconductor packaging, Springer, 1997 ISBN 0-412-08441-4 page 395 ^ "Single-in-Line Package (SIP)". EE Semi. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021. ^ Pecht, M. (1994). Integrated circuit, hybrid, and multichip module package design guidelines. Wiley-IEEE. ^ Kang, Sung-Mo; Leblebici, Yusuf (2002). CMOS digital integrated circuits (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 42. ISBN 0-07-246053-9.  This article incorporates public domain material from Federal Standard 1037C. General Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2022-01-22. Further reading Intel (1996). Packaging Databook. Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 1-55512-254-X. OCLC 906673879. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dual inline packages. DIP packages documentation, photos and videos vteSemiconductor packagesSingle diode DO-201 (DO-27) DO-204 (DO-7 / DO-26 / DO-35 / DO-41) DO-213 (MELF / SOD-80 / LL34) DO-214 (SMA / SMB / SMC) SOD (SOD-123 / SOD-323 / SOD-523 / SOD-923) 3...5-pin SOT / TSOT TO-3 (TH / Panel) TO-5 (TH) TO-8 (TH) TO-18 (TH) TO-39 (TH) TO-66 (TH / Panel) TO-92 (TH) TO-126 (TH / Panel) TO-202 (TH / Panel) TO-220 (TH / Panel) TO-247 (TH / Panel) TO-251 (IPAK) (SMT) TO-252 (DPAK) (SMT) TO-262 (I2PAK) (SMT) TO-263 (D2PAK) (SMT) TO-268 (D3PAK) (SMT) TO-273 (Super-220) (SMT) TO-274 (Super-247) (SMT) Single row SIP / SIL Dual row DFN DIP / DIL Flat Pack MSOP SO / SOIC SOP / SSOP TSOP / HTSOP TSSOP / HTSSOP ZIP Quad row LCC QIP / QIL PLCC QFN QFP QUIP / QUIL Grid array BGA eWLB LGA PGA Wafer COB COF COG CSP Flip Chip PoP QP UICC WL-CSP / WLP Related topics Electronic packaging Integrated circuit packaging List of integrated circuit packaging types Printed circuit board Surface-mount technology Through-hole technology It is relatively common to find packages that contain other components than their designated ones, such as diodes or voltage regulators in transistor packages, etc. vteEarly CPU socketsOther packages DIP PLCC PGAs 486 Socket Socket 1 Socket 2 Socket 3 Socket 4 Socket 5 Socket 6 Socket 7 Socket 8
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_Democratic_Party_of_Struggle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Three_IC_circuit_chips.JPG"},{"link_name":"4000-series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4000-series_integrated_circuits"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EPROMs_4M,_2M,_256k,_16kbit.jpg"},{"link_name":"EPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nedap_ESD1_-_printer_controller_-_DIP_switch-91833.jpg"},{"link_name":"DIP switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIP_switch"},{"link_name":"microelectronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microelectronics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"electronic component package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_package"},{"link_name":"through-hole mounted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-hole_technology"},{"link_name":"printed circuit board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"Fairchild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Rent's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rent%27s_rule"},{"link_name":"chip carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_carrier"},{"link_name":"lead frame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_frame"},{"link_name":"zero insertion force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_insertion_force"},{"link_name":"resistor array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component#Resistors"}],"text":"\"PDIP\" redirects here. The term may also refer to Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle.4000-series logic ICs in 0.3\" wide 14-pin plastic DIP packages (DIP-14N), also known as PDIP (Plastic DIP)EPROM ICs in 0.6\" wide ceramic DIP-40, DIP-32, DIP-28, DIP-24 packages, also known as CDIP (Ceramic DIP)Eight-contact DIP switch with 0.3\" wide 16-pin (DIP-16N) footprintIn microelectronics, a dual in-line package (DIP or DIL)[1] is an electronic component package with a rectangular housing and two parallel rows of electrical connecting pins. The package may be through-hole mounted to a printed circuit board (PCB) or inserted in a socket. The dual-inline format was invented by Don Forbes, Rex Rice and Bryant Rogers at Fairchild R&D in 1964,[2] when the restricted number of leads available on circular transistor-style packages became a limitation in the use of integrated circuits.[3] Increasingly complex circuits required more signal and power supply leads (as observed in Rent's rule); eventually microprocessors and similar complex devices required more leads than could be put on a DIP package, leading to development of higher-density chip carriers. Furthermore, square and rectangular packages made it easier to route printed-circuit traces beneath the packages.A DIP is usually referred to as a DIPn, where n is the total number of pins. For example, a microcircuit package with two rows of seven vertical leads would be a DIP14. The photograph at the upper right shows three DIP14 ICs. Common packages have as few as three and as many as 64 leads. Many analog and digital integrated circuit types are available in DIP packages, as are arrays of transistors, switches, light emitting diodes, and resistors. DIP plugs for ribbon cables can be used with standard IC sockets.DIP packages are usually made from an opaque molded epoxy plastic pressed around a tin-, silver-, or gold-plated lead frame that supports the device die and provides connection pins. Some types of IC are made in ceramic DIP packages, where high temperature or high reliability is required, or where the device has an optical window to the interior of the package. Most DIP packages are secured to a PCB by inserting the pins through holes in the board and soldering them in place. Where replacement of the parts is necessary, such as in test fixtures or where programmable devices must be removed for changes, a DIP socket is used. Some sockets include a zero insertion force (ZIF) mechanism.Variations of the DIP package include those with only a single row of pins, e.g. a resistor array, possibly including a heat sink tab in place of the second row of pins, and types with four rows of pins, two rows, staggered, on each side of the package. DIP packages have been mostly displaced by surface-mount package types, which avoid the expense of drilling holes in a PCB and which allow higher density of interconnections.","title":"Dual in-line package"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Breadboard_counter.jpg"},{"link_name":"breadboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard"},{"link_name":"integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"DIP switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIP_switch"},{"link_name":"LED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"},{"link_name":"segmented","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segmented_display"},{"link_name":"relays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"real-time clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_clock"},{"link_name":"header","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_header"}],"sub_title":"Types of devices","text":"An operating prototyped circuit on a solderless breadboard incorporating four DIP ICs, a DIP LED bargraph display (upper left), and a DIP 7-segment LED display (lower left)DIPs are commonly used for integrated circuits (ICs). Other devices in DIP packages include resistor networks, DIP switches, LED segmented and bar graph displays, and electromechanical relays.DIP connector plugs for ribbon cables are common in computers and other electronic equipment.Dallas Semiconductor manufactured integrated DIP real-time clock (RTC) modules which contained an IC chip and a non-replaceable 10-year lithium battery.DIP header blocks on to which discrete components could be soldered were used where groups of components needed to be easily removed, for configuration changes, optional features or calibration.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ultrasound-PreAmp-Breadboard.jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"wave soldering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_soldering"},{"link_name":"surface-mount","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"link_name":"breadboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadboard"},{"link_name":"surface-mount technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"link_name":"plastic leaded chip carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_leaded_chip_carrier"},{"link_name":"small-outline integrated circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-outline_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"stripboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripboard"},{"link_name":"perfboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfboard"},{"link_name":"EPROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"link_name":"GALs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generic_array_logic"},{"link_name":"In-System Programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-System_Programming"}],"sub_title":"Uses","text":"Breadboard prototype: Ultrasonic microphone preamp build with SMD-parts soldered to DIP and SIP breakout boardsThe original dual-in-line package was invented by Bryant \"Buck\" Rogers in 1964 while working for Fairchild Semiconductor. The first devices had 14 pins and looked much like they do today.[4] The rectangular shape allowed integrated circuits to be packaged more densely than previous round packages.[5] The package was well-suited to automated assembly equipment; a PCB could be populated with scores or hundreds of ICs, then all the components on the circuit board could be soldered at one time on a wave soldering machine and passed on to automated testing machines, with very little human labor required. DIP packages were still large with respect to the integrated circuits within them. By the end of the 20th century, surface-mount packages allowed further reduction in the size and weight of systems. DIP chips are still popular for circuit prototyping on a breadboard because of how easily they can be inserted and used there.DIPs were the mainstream of the microelectronics industry in the 1970s and 1980s. Their use has declined in the first decade of the 21st century due to the emerging new surface-mount technology (SMT) packages such as plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC) and small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC), though DIPs continued in extensive use through the 1990s, and still continue to be used substantially as the year 2011 passes. Because some modern chips are available only in surface-mount package types, a number of companies sell various prototyping adapters to allow those surface-mount devices (SMD) to be used like DIP devices with through-hole breadboards and soldered prototyping boards (such as stripboard and perfboard). (SMT can pose quite a problem, at least an inconvenience, for prototyping in general; most of the characteristics of SMT that are advantages for mass production are difficulties for prototyping.)For programmable devices like EPROMs and GALs, DIPs remained popular for many years due to their easy handling with external programming circuitry (i.e., the DIP devices could be simply plugged into a socket on the programming device.) However, with In-System Programming (ISP) technology now state of the art, this advantage of DIPs is rapidly losing importance as well.Through the 1990s, devices with fewer than 20 leads were manufactured in a DIP format in addition to the newer formats. Since about 2000, newer devices are often unavailable in the DIP format.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"through-hole soldering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Through-hole_technology"},{"link_name":"zero insertion force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_insertion_force"},{"link_name":"point-to-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_construction#'Dead_bug'_construction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DIP_sockets.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DIL_socket_16p.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Textoolfassung_28_(smial).jpg"},{"link_name":"Zero insertion force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_insertion_force"},{"link_name":"EPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:28_Pin_IC_Socket.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arduino_UNO_unpacked.jpg"},{"link_name":"Arduino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino"},{"link_name":"ATmega328P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AVR_microcontrollers"}],"sub_title":"Mounting","text":"DIPs can be mounted either by through-hole soldering or in sockets. Sockets allow easy replacement of a device and eliminates the risk of damage from overheating during soldering. Generally sockets were used for high-value or large ICs, which cost much more than the socket. Where devices would be frequently inserted and removed, such as in test equipment or EPROM programmers, a zero insertion force socket would be used.DIPs are also used with breadboards, a temporary mounting arrangement for education, design development or device testing. Some hobbyists, for one-off construction or permanent prototyping, use point-to-point wiring with DIPs, and their appearance when physically inverted as part of this method inspires the informal term \"dead bug style\" for the method.0.3\" wide DIP sockets with dual-wipe contacts for 16-, 14-, and 8-pin DIP ICs\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t0.3\" wide 16-pin DIP socket with machined round contacts for DIP-16 IC\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tZero insertion force (ZIF) socket for 0.6\" wide DIP-28W IC, commonly used on EPROM IC programmers\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t0.3\" wide DIP socket for narrow DIP-28 IC, also known as DIP-28N, commonly used on older Arduino boards\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tArduino UNO R2 board with ATmega328P 8-bit microcontroller in 28-pin IC socket","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DIP_Cross-section.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DIP_zagotovka.jpg"},{"link_name":"SOIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-outline_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"air","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air"},{"link_name":"moisture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moisture"},{"link_name":"die","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)"},{"link_name":"hermeticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeticity"},{"link_name":"bond wires","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_wire"},{"link_name":"PGAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_grid_array"},{"link_name":"Motorola 68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68000"}],"text":"Side view of a dual in-line package (DIP) ICDual in-line (DIP) integrated circuit metal tape base with contactsThe body (housing) of a DIP containing an IC chip is usually made from molded plastic or ceramic. The hermetic nature of a ceramic housing is preferred for extremely high reliability devices. However, the vast majority of DIPs are manufactured via a thermoset molding process in which an epoxy mold compound is heated and transferred under pressure to encapsulate the device. Typical cure cycles for the resins are less than 2 minutes and a single cycle may produce hundreds of devices.The leads emerge from the longer sides of the package along the seam, parallel to the top and bottom planes of the package, and are bent downward approximately 90 degrees (or slightly less, leaving them angled slightly outward from the centerline of the package body). (The SOIC, the SMT package that most resembles a typical DIP, appears essentially the same, notwithstanding size scale, except that after being bent down the leads are bent upward again by an equal angle to become parallel with the bottom plane of the package.) In ceramic (CERDIP) packages, an epoxy or grout is used to hermetically seal the two halves together, providing an air and moisture tight seal to protect the IC die inside. Plastic DIP (PDIP) packages are usually sealed by fusing or cementing the plastic halves around the leads, but a high degree of hermeticity is not achieved because the plastic itself is usually somewhat porous to moisture and the process cannot ensure a good microscopic seal between the leads and the plastic at all points around the perimeter. However, contaminants are usually still kept out well enough that the device can operate reliably for decades with reasonable care in a controlled environment.Inside the package, the lower half has the leads embedded, and at the center of the package is a rectangular space, chamber, or void into which the IC die is cemented. The leads of the package extend diagonally inside the package from their positions of emergence along the periphery to points along a rectangular perimeter surrounding the die, tapering as they go to become fine contacts at the die. Ultra-fine bond wires (barely visible to the naked human eye) are welded between these die periphery contacts and bond pads on the die itself, connecting one lead to each bond pad, and making the final connection between the microcircuits and the external DIP leads. The bond wires are not usually taut but loop upward slightly to allow slack for thermal expansion and contraction of the materials; if a single bond wire breaks or detaches, the entire IC may become useless. The top of the package covers all of this delicate assemblage without crushing the bond wires, protecting it from contamination by foreign materials.Usually, a company logo, alphanumeric codes and sometimes words are printed on top of the package to identify its manufacturer and type, when it was made (usually as a year and a week number), sometimes where it was made, and other proprietary information (perhaps revision numbers, manufacturing plant codes, or stepping ID codes.)The necessity of laying out all of the leads in a basically radial pattern in a single plane from the die perimeter to two rows on the periphery of the package is the main reason that DIP packages with higher lead counts must have wider spacing between the lead rows, and it effectively limits the number of leads which a practical DIP package may have. Even for a very small die with many bond pads (e.g. a chip with 15 inverters, requiring 32 leads), a wider DIP would still be required to accommodate the radiating leads internally. This is one of the reasons that four-sided and multiple rowed packages, such as PGAs, were introduced (around the early 1980s).A large DIP package (such as the DIP64 used for the Motorola 68000 CPU) has long leads inside the package between pins and the die, making such a package unsuitable for high speed devices.Some other types of DIP devices are built very differently. Most of these have molded plastic housings and straight leads or leads that extend directly out of the bottom of the package. For some, LED displays particularly, the housing is usually a hollow plastic box with the bottom/back open, filled (around the contained electronic components) with a hard translucent epoxy material from which the leads emerge. Others, such as DIP switches, are composed of two (or more) plastic housing parts snapped, welded, or glued together around a set of contacts and tiny mechanical parts, with the leads emerging through molded-in holes or notches in the plastic.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nec8080.png"},{"link_name":"Intel 8080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"mil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thousandth_of_an_inch"},{"link_name":"EPROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_light"},{"link_name":"one-time programmable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM#Details"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Variants","text":"Several PDIPs and CERDIPs. The large CERDIP in the foreground is an NEC 8080AF (Intel 8080-compatible) microprocessor.Several DIP variants for ICs exist, mostly distinguished by packaging material:Ceramic dual in-line package (CERDIP or CDIP)\nPlastic dual in-line package (PDIP)\nShrink plastic dual in-line package (SPDIP) – A denser version of the PDIP with a 0.07 in (1.778 mm) lead pitch.\nSkinny dual in-line package (SDIP or SPDIP[6]) – Sometimes used to refer to a \"narrow\" 0.300 in. (or 300 mil) wide DIP, normally when clarification is needed e.g. for DIP with 24 pins or more, which usually come in \"wide\" 0.600 in wide DIP package. An example of a typical proper full spec for a \"narrow\" DIP package would be 300 mil body width, 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin pitch.EPROMs were sold in ceramic DIPs manufactured with a circular window of clear quartz over the chip die to allow the part to be erased by ultraviolet light. Often, the same chips were also sold in less expensive windowless PDIP or CERDIP packages as one-time programmable (OTP) versions. Windowed and windowless packages were also used for microcontrollers, and other devices, containing EPROM memory. Windowed CERDIP-packaged EPROMs were used for the BIOS ROM of many early IBM PC clones with an adhesive label covering the window to prevent inadvertent erasure through exposure to ambient light.Molded plastic DIPs are much lower in cost than ceramic packages; one 1979 study showed that a plastic 14 pin DIP cost around US$0.063 and a ceramic package cost US$0.82.[7]","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SIPP memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIPP_memory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SIL9_ST_TDA4601.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"multi-leaded power package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-leaded_power_package"}],"sub_title":"Single in-line","text":"Not to be confused with SIPP memory.Package sample for single in-line package (SIP or SIL) devicesA single in-line package (SIP or SIL package)[8] has one row of connecting pins. It is not as popular as the DIP, but has been used for packaging RAM chips and multiple resistors with a common pin. As compared to DIPs with a typical maximum pin count of 64, SIPs have a typical maximum pin count of 24 with lower package costs.[9]One variant of the single in-line package uses part of the lead frame for a heat sink tab. This multi-leaded power package is useful for such applications as audio power amplifiers, for example.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:R6511.jpg"},{"link_name":"6502","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6502"},{"link_name":"soldering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soldering"},{"link_name":"bridging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solder_bridge"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"}],"sub_title":"Quad in-line","text":"A Rockwell 6502-based microcontroller in a QIPThe QIP, sometimes called a QIL package, has the same dimensions as a DIL package, but the leads on each side are bent into an alternating zigzag configuration so as to fit four lines of solder pads (instead of two with a DIL). The QIL design increased the spacing between solder pads without increasing package size, for two reasons:It allowed more reliable soldering. This may seem odd today, given the far closer solder pad spacing in use now, but in the 1970s, the heyday of the QIL, bridging of neighbouring solder pads on DIL chips was an issue at times,\nQIL also increased the possibility of running a copper track between 2 solder pads. This was very handy on the then standard single sided single layer PCBs.","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JEDEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDEC"},{"link_name":"not connected","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Not_connected"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NB_NC-10"},{"link_name":"Motorola 68000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68000"},{"link_name":"Zilog Z180","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z180"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CMOS_DI-11"}],"sub_title":"Lead count and spacing","text":"Commonly found DIP packages that conform to JEDEC standards use an inter-lead spacing (lead pitch) of 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) (JEDEC MS-001BA). Row spacing varies depending on lead counts, with 0.3 in. (7.62 mm) (JEDEC MS-001) or 0.6 inch (15.24 mm) (JEDEC MS-011) the most common. Less common standardized row spacings include 0.4 inch (10.16 mm) (JEDEC MS-010) and 0.9 inch (22.86 mm), as well as a row spacing of 0.3 inch, 0.6 inch or 0.75 inch with a 0.07 inch (1.778 mm) lead pitch.The former Soviet Union and Eastern bloc countries used similar packages, but with a metric pin-to-pin spacing of 2.5 mm rather than 0.1 inches (2.54 mm).The number of leads is always even. For 0.3 inch spacing, typical lead counts are 8, 14, 16, 18, and 28; less common are 4, 6, 20, and 24 lead counts. To have an even number of leads some DIPs have unused not connected (NC)[nb 1] leads to the internal chip, or are duplicated, e.g. two ground pins. For 0.6 inch spacing, typical lead counts are 24, 28, 32, and 40; less common are 36, 42, 48, 52, and 64 lead counts. Some microprocessors, such as the Motorola 68000 and Zilog Z180, used lead counts as high as 64; this is typically the maximum number of leads for a DIP package.[10]","title":"Construction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pin_numbering_01_Pengo.svg"},{"link_name":"segmented LED displays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segment_display"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Pin numbering is counter-clockwiseAs shown in the diagram, leads are numbered consecutively from Pin 1. When the identifying notch in the package is at the top, Pin 1 is the top left corner of the device. Sometimes Pin 1 is identified with an indent or paint dot mark.For example, for a 14-lead DIP, with the notch at the top, the left leads are numbered from 1 to 7 (top to bottom) and the right row of leads are numbered 8 to 14 (bottom to top).Leads are skipped on some DIP devices (e.g. segmented LED displays, relays, or devices that replace leads with a heat sink fin). The remaining leads are numbered as if all positions had leads.In addition to providing for human visual identification of the orientation of the package, the notch allows automated chip-insertion machinery to confirm correct orientation of the chip by mechanical sensing.[citation needed]","title":"Orientation and lead numbering"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SOIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small-outline_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Pin grid array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_grid_array"},{"link_name":"80286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80286"},{"link_name":"P5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P5_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_(brand)"},{"link_name":"ZIF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_Insertion_Force"},{"link_name":"motherboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"}],"text":"The SOIC (Small Outline IC), a surface-mount package which is currently[when?] very popular, particularly in consumer electronics and personal computers, is essentially a shrunk version of the standard IC PDIP, the fundamental difference which makes it an SMT device being a second bend in the leads to flatten them parallel to the bottom plane of the plastic housing. The SOJ (Small Outline J-lead) and other SMT packages with \"SOP\" (for \"Small Outline Package\") in their names can be considered further relatives of the DIP, their original ancestor. SOIC packages tend to have half the pitch of DIP, and SOP are half that, a fourth of DIP. (0.1\"/2.54 mm, 0.05\"/1.27 mm, and 0.025\"/0.635 mm, respectively)Pin grid array (PGA) packages may be considered to have evolved from the DIP. PGAs with the same 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) pin centers as most DIPs were popular for microprocessors from the early to mid-1980s through the 1990s. Owners of personal computers containing Intel 80286 through P5 Pentium processors may be most familiar with these PGA packages, which were often inserted into ZIF sockets on motherboards. The similarity is such that a PGA socket may be physically compatible with some DIP devices, though the converse is rarely true.","title":"Descendants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-NB_NC_10-0"},{"link_name":"Normally closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normally_closed"}],"text":"^ The abbreviation N.C. (for \"Not connected\") is also used to mean \"Normally closed\" in the context of switches.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-55512-254-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55512-254-X"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"906673879","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/906673879"}],"text":"Intel (1996). Packaging Databook. Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 1-55512-254-X. OCLC 906673879.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"4000-series logic ICs in 0.3\" wide 14-pin plastic DIP packages (DIP-14N), also known as PDIP (Plastic DIP)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Three_IC_circuit_chips.JPG/220px-Three_IC_circuit_chips.JPG"},{"image_text":"EPROM ICs in 0.6\" wide ceramic DIP-40, DIP-32, DIP-28, DIP-24 packages, also known as CDIP (Ceramic DIP)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/EPROMs_4M%2C_2M%2C_256k%2C_16kbit.jpg/220px-EPROMs_4M%2C_2M%2C_256k%2C_16kbit.jpg"},{"image_text":"Eight-contact DIP switch with 0.3\" wide 16-pin (DIP-16N) footprint","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Nedap_ESD1_-_printer_controller_-_DIP_switch-91833.jpg/220px-Nedap_ESD1_-_printer_controller_-_DIP_switch-91833.jpg"},{"image_text":"An operating prototyped circuit on a solderless breadboard incorporating four DIP ICs, a DIP LED bargraph display (upper left), and a DIP 7-segment LED display (lower left)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Breadboard_counter.jpg/410px-Breadboard_counter.jpg"},{"image_text":"Breadboard prototype: Ultrasonic microphone preamp build with SMD-parts soldered to DIP and SIP breakout boards","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ultrasound-PreAmp-Breadboard.jpg/260px-Ultrasound-PreAmp-Breadboard.jpg"},{"image_text":"Side view of a dual in-line package (DIP) IC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/DIP_Cross-section.svg/180px-DIP_Cross-section.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Dual in-line (DIP) integrated circuit metal tape base with contacts","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/DIP_zagotovka.jpg/220px-DIP_zagotovka.jpg"},{"image_text":"Several PDIPs and CERDIPs. The large CERDIP in the foreground is an NEC 8080AF (Intel 8080-compatible) microprocessor.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Nec8080.png/310px-Nec8080.png"},{"image_text":"Package sample for single in-line package (SIP or SIL) devices","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/SIL9_ST_TDA4601.jpg/220px-SIL9_ST_TDA4601.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Rockwell 6502-based microcontroller in a QIP","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/R6511.jpg/220px-R6511.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pin numbering is counter-clockwise","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pin_numbering_01_Pengo.svg/180px-Pin_numbering_01_Pengo.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"Chip carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_carrier"},{"title":"DIP switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIP_switch"},{"title":"Flatpack (electronics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatpack_(electronics)"},{"title":"List of integrated circuit package dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_integrated_circuit_package_dimensions"},{"title":"NORBIT 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NORBIT_2"},{"title":"Pin grid array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin_grid_array"},{"title":"QFP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QFP"},{"title":"Surface-mount technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-mount_technology"},{"title":"Zig-zag in-line package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zig-zag_in-line_package"}]
[{"reference":"\"see for instance\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-09-30. Retrieved 2010-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200930174735/http://www.conitec.com/xpages/adapter/DS210891.pdf","url_text":"\"see for instance\""},{"url":"http://www.conitec.com/xpages/adapter/DS210891.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Single-in-Line Package (SIP)\". EE Semi. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://eesemi.com/sip-package.htm","url_text":"\"Single-in-Line Package (SIP)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210818201818/https://eesemi.com/sip-package.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Kang, Sung-Mo; Leblebici, Yusuf (2002). CMOS digital integrated circuits (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 42. ISBN 0-07-246053-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-246053-9","url_text":"0-07-246053-9"}]},{"reference":"Federal Standard 1037C. General Services Administration. Archived from the original on 2022-01-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220122224547/https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm","url_text":"Federal Standard 1037C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Services_Administration","url_text":"General Services Administration"},{"url":"https://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Intel (1996). Packaging Databook. Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 1-55512-254-X. OCLC 906673879.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55512-254-X","url_text":"1-55512-254-X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/906673879","url_text":"906673879"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pew_Charitable_Trusts
The Pew Charitable Trusts
["1 History","1.1 20th century","2 Projects","2.1 Maritime protection","2.2 Pew Research Center","2.3 Justice and corrections reform","2.4 Health","3 Finances","4 Controversy","4.1 Barnes Art Collection","4.2 Texas Public Policy Foundation","5 References","6 External links"]
American non-governmental organization The Pew Charitable TrustsEstablishedJanuary 1948; 76 years ago (1948-01)ChairChristopher JonesPresidentSusan K. UrahnFaculty11 (board of directors)Staff969Budget$374 millionEndowment$6.7 billionAddress2005 Market Street,Suite 1700Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19103-7077Websitepewtrusts.org The Pew Charitable Trusts is an independent non-profit, non-governmental organization (NGO), founded in 1948. Pew's stated mission is to serve the public interest by "improving public policy, informing the public, and invigorating civic life". Pew operates projects and conducts research across five main areas: communities, conservation, finance and economy, governing, and health. In addition, the Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan public polling and think tank that operates as a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts. History 20th century Pew was established by the merging of several charitable trusts that had been established between 1948 and 1979. The original trusts were created by J. Howard Pew, Mary Ethel Pew, Joseph N. Pew Jr., and Mabel Pew Myrin, the adult sons and daughters of Sun Oil Company founder Joseph N. Pew and his wife, Mary Anderson Pew. Honoring their parents' religious conviction that good works should be done quietly, the original Pew Memorial Foundation was a grantmaking organization that made donations anonymously. In 1956, the foundation became the Pew Memorial Trust, based in Philadelphia, the donors' hometown. Between 1957 and 1979, six other trusts were created, representing the personal and complementary philanthropic interests of the four siblings. Assets held by the seven trusts totaled $6 billion as of 2020. The Trusts continues to be based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with offices in Washington, D.C., London, and Brussels. Although The Pew Charitable Trusts is non-partisan and non-ideological, Joseph Pew and his sons were politically conservative. The modern day organization works to encourage responsive government and support scientific research on a wide range of issues, including global marine conservation, correction reform, and biomedical research. Pew also conducts research and supports civic and cultural projects in Philadelphia. Early priorities of the Pew Memorial Trust included cancer research, the American Red Cross, and a pioneering project to assist historically black colleges. Later beneficiaries included American Enterprise Institute, Brookings Institution, American Liberty League, John Birch Society, Oceana, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. In 2004, Pew applied to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to change its status from a private foundation to a public charity in order to operate its own programs more efficiently. Since that change it can now raise funds freely and devote up to 5% of its budget to lobbying the public sector. In 2011, the Pew family was awarded the Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy in recognition of its support for The Pew Charitable Trusts. According to the Pew Trusts' website as of 2024, four of the eleven Directors serving on the Board are named Pew. Projects Pew operates several projects focused on specific public policy issues: modernization of the civil legal system, Philadelphia local public policies; justice and public safety; student loans; ocean and fisheries protection; conservation of public lands and rivers; consumer finance and the greater economy; government reform; and public health issues. Maritime protection The Trusts, with other groups, backed an effort to create marine protected areas in the Pacific Ocean, near the Mariana Islands. The protected area was officially designated in January 2009, and includes the Mariana Trench, the deepest ocean canyon in the world. Another marine protected area that the Trusts and other groups sought to protect is Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument which was protected by President Bush in 2006 and expanded by President Obama in 2016. Pew Research Center The Trusts also funds the Pew Research Center, the third-largest think tank in Washington, D.C., after the Brookings Institution and the Center for American Progress. Justice and corrections reform The Trusts have worked closely with the Vera Institute of Justice on issues related to state correction policies in the Public Safety Performance Project. In 2008, Pew reported that more than one in 100 adults in the United States is in jail or prison, an all-time high. The cost to state governments is nearly $50 billion a year and the federal government $5 billion more. The report compiled and analyzed data from the federal Bureau of Justice Statistics and Federal Bureau of Prisons and each state's department of corrections. Pew reported in 2009 that "explosive growth in the number of people on probation or parole has propelled the population of the American corrections system to more than 7.3 million, or 1 in every 31 U.S. adults." "One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections" examined the scale and cost of prison, jail, probation and parole in each of the 50 states, and provides a blueprint for states to cut both crime and spending by reallocating prison expenses to fund stronger supervision of the large number of offenders in the community. Pew supported police reforms enacted by the state of Washington in 2021. Gov. Jay Inslee (D-WA) signed 12 separate police reform bills that would, among other things, require officers to intervene when they see another officer using excessive force. Health "Based on data, science, and non-partisan research, Pew works to reduce hidden risks to the health, safety, and well-being of American consumers." One program, the Pew Scholars Program in the Biomedical Sciences, is intended to support promising early and mid-career scientists investigating human health, both basic and clinical. The awards provide flexible support ($240,000 over a four-year period). Grantees are encouraged to be entrepreneurial and innovative in their research. In October 2020, the Trusts unveiled research on naloxone, the lifesaving overdose reversal drug. Pew researchers concluded that expanded access to naloxone saves lives and put forth several recommendations on how to do so, including options such as co-prescribing naloxone with opioids. During the rollout of vaccines for the COVID-19 pandemic, Pew supported the CDC's determination that it was acceptable to leave some vaccine vials partially unused (potentially "wasting vaccines") in order to vaccinate teenagers, which represented a policy shift by the CDC regarding the efficient use of vaccines. Finances According to the 2019 Consolidated Financial Statements, as of 30 June 2019, the Trusts owned over US$6.7 billion in assets. For the 12 months ending on that date, total revenues were about US$374 million and total expenses were about $341 million, of which about $6.6 million were for fundraising expenses. According to IRS Form 990, filed for 2019 by Pew Charitable Trusts, the organization distributed $142,114,349 in grants in 2019; an increase from 2018, when it distributed $136,947,523 in grants. Controversy Barnes Art Collection The Trusts have supported the relocation of the famed Barnes Art Collection from its longtime home in Lower Merion, PA, to Center City. This has been controversial in the art world. The Barnes Foundation was established by Albert C. Barnes in 1922 to "promote the advancement of education and the appreciation of the fine arts and horticulture." According to the Barnes Foundation: The Barnes is home to one of the world's largest collections of Impressionist, Post-Impressionist and early Modern paintings, with especially deep holdings by Renoir, Matisse, and Picasso", as well as important examples of African art, Native American pottery and jewelry, Pennsylvania German furniture, American avant-garde painting, and wrought-iron metalwork. Opponents of relocating the collection to a new museum along the Benjamin Franklin Parkway said that move violates Barnes's will that the collection stay intact at its original location and not be loaned, transferred or sold. Columnist Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote in 2010, "It is perfectly clear exactly what Barnes specified in his will. It was drawn up by the best legal minds. It is clear that what happened to his collection was against his wishes." Yet the Barnes Foundation prevailed in a series of legal actions and the new museum opened on May 16, 2012. At the opening Barnes trustee and treasurer Stephen Harmelin noted, "There were financial challenges to be faced...questions about how the foundation as it existed could go on with its mission, worries about the safety and integrity of the collection in the long run," he said. "We were convinced that the only change that could save the Barnes was to redouble our commitment to its mission, to reach out more widely than ever before, to build, to expand and to move the collection to a more accessible location." The Trusts became involved with the Barnes Collection when the foundation overseeing the art collection had serious financial trouble, ultimately contributing more than $20 million for a new museum. Reporter Roberta Smith of the New York Times said of the new building, "Against all odds, the museum that opens to the public on Saturday is still very much the old Barnes, only better." The controversy involving Pew, other donors, the Barnes trustees and the collection was the subject of a documentary film The Art of the Steal. The Trusts did not participate in the film. Rebecca Rimel, then head of The Pew Charitable Trusts, said they believed the film would not be fair. Texas Public Policy Foundation Between 2011 and 2015, The Pew Charitable Trusts gave $4.7 million to the Texas Public Policy Foundation (TPPF), earmarked specifically for the foundation's criminal justice reform project. References ^ "The Chronicle of Philanthropy, Big Change Afoot at Pew Trusts". www.philanthropy.com. 2003-11-13. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts". www.inquirer.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. 2019-04-02. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "$50,000,000 IS GIVEN FOR PEW MEMORIAL; Four Children of Late Oil Man Establish a Foundation 'to Promote Public Welfare'". The New York Times. 1948-01-13. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-08-21. ^ "Mission & Values". The Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Pew Charitable Trusts". www.insidephilanthropy.com. Inside Philanthropy. 2021-08-25. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Pew Trusts to Combine Groups That Focus on Policy Research". www.philanthropy.com. The Chronicle of Philanthropy. 2004-05-13. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Pew Charitable Trusts Will Become Public Charity". The New York Times. 2003-11-07. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "History of The Pew Charitable Trusts". Pewtrusts.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24. ^ "Pew Charitable Trusts Extend Reach". The New York Times. 1985-06-09. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ Bushouse, Brenda K. (March 5, 2009). Universal Preschool: Policy Change, Stability, and The Pew Charitable Trusts. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791493878. ^ "J. Howard Pew (1882-1971)". Coat.ncf.ca. 2004-01-22. Retrieved 2013-08-27. ^ "The Chronicle of Philanthropy, Big Change Afoot at Pew Trusts". www.philanthropy.com. 2003-11-13. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Philly's Pew Charitable Trusts, a $6 billion philanthropy, names new CEO". www.inquirer.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. 2020-03-19. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Pew Charitable Trusts". www.insidephilanthropy.com. Inside Philanthropy. 2021-08-25. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts". www.inquirer.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. 2019-04-02. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "The Pew Charitable Trusts: Serving the Public Trust". www.campdenfb.com. Campden FB. 2019-11-18. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ Diamond, Sara (1995). Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States. New York: Guilford Press. ^ Colby, Gerald; Charlotte Dennett (1995). Thy Will Be Done: The Conquest of the Amazon: Nelson Rockefeller and Evangelism in the Age of Oil. New York: Harper Collins. ^ "Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts". www.inquirer.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. 2019-04-02. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Pew Charitable Trusts Will Become Public Charity". The New York Times. 2003-11-07. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Stronger Together". www.philanthropyroundtable.org. Philanthropy Roundtable. 2015-04-01. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "The Pew Family". www.medalofphilanthropy.org. The Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy. 2017-05-22. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "2011 Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy Announced". www.bloomberg.com. Bloomberg. 2011-10-19. Retrieved 2023-05-01. ^ "Leadership". The Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved 2024-01-26. ^ "Community Foundation of Greater Chattanooga Launches Study of Local Civil Legal System". www.chattanoogapulse.com. The Pulse. 21 November 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ "As pandemic bites, U.S. cities use data to fight race and income gaps". www.reuters.com. Reuters. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ Calvert, Scott. "Philadelphia's City Center Sees Resurgence in Housing, Economic Activity". WSJ. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ "Our Views: Prison reforms show bipartisan efforts can lead to real progress". www.nola.com. Times-Picayune. 6 November 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ "Report: Over 100,00 fishing-related deaths occur annually". apnews.com. AP News. 3 November 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ "Wells Fargo launches small-dollar loan as an alternative to overdrafts". www.americanbanker.com. American Banker. 16 November 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ "States have historic amounts of leftover cash". The Economist. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ "Bipartisan bill on antibiotics faces crucial stretch". thehill.com. The Hill. August 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-23. ^ "Projects". www.pewtrusts.org. Retrieved 2021-05-23. ^ Juliet Eilperin, Washington Post Staff Writer (2009-01-06). "Bush to Protect Three Areas in Pacific". Washington Post. Retrieved 2014-04-24. ^ "Global Ocean Legacy". Pewtrusts.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24. ^ Obama creates largest ocean reserve, takes heat for new federal decrees (August 27, 2016). Fox News. Retrieved August 27, 2016. ^ "Pew Charitable Trusts". Ballotpedia. Retrieved 2023-08-01. ^ Public Safety Performance. Retrieved 2010-02-22. ^ New High In U.S. Prison Numbers by N.C. Aizenman. February 29, 2008. Washington Post. Retrieved 2010-02-22. ^ One in 100: Behind Bars in America 2008. Released February 28, 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-22. ^ Corrections and Public Safety. Retrieved 2010-02-22. ^ "Washington State Enacts Far-Reaching Police Accountability Package". pew.org. 21 May 2021. Retrieved 2021-05-23. ^ "Approach - The Pew Charitable Trusts". Pewtrusts.org. Retrieved 2019-11-22. ^ "Pew Scholars Directory - Home". Directory.pewscholars.org. Retrieved 2013-08-27. ^ "Pew Scholars Program in the Biomedical Sciences". Pewtrusts.org. Retrieved 2014-04-24. ^ Carey, Liz (2020-10-22). "PEW researchers: expanded naloxone access can curb opioid deaths". Homeland Preparedness News. Retrieved 2020-10-29. ^ "CDC Urges Docs to Puncture Vaccine Vial—Even for Just One Person". pew.org. 14 May 2021. Retrieved 2021-05-23. ^ "Consolidated Financial Statements and Report of Independent Certified Public Accountants" (PDF). The Pew Charitable Trusts. Retrieved 2020-07-01. ^ "Pew Charitable Trusts IRS Form 990 for 2019" (PDF). ^ "About". Barnes Foundation. 15 August 2017 . Retrieved 22 January 2020. ^ "About the Collection". Barnes Foundation. 14 January 2020 . Retrieved 22 January 2020. ^ "FAQ on The Pew Charitable Trusts' Role in the Barnes Foundation Move". The Pew Charitable Trusts. 2011-01-14. Retrieved 2013-08-27. ^ "Contested Barnes Foundation artworks open in new Philly location". CBC News. 2012-05-17. ^ Smith, Roberta (2012-05-17). "A Museum, Reborn, Remains True to Its Old Self, Only Better". The New York Times. ^ Kennicott, Philip (2010-03-07). "'The Art of the Steal' highlights one-sided nature of some documentaries". The Washington Post. ^ Readfearn, Graham (2017-12-14). "Why Has One of the World's Biggest Funders of Environmental Conservation Also Given $4 Million to a Climate Denial Group?". DeSmogBlog. Retrieved 2017-12-15. ^ Wilder, Forrest (2012-08-24). "Revealed: The Corporations and Billionaires that Fund the Texas Public Policy Foundation". The Texas Observer. Retrieved 2017-12-15. External links Official web site of The Pew Charitable Trusts. Listing of Pew projects Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Israel United States Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"non-profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit_organization"},{"link_name":"non-governmental organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organization"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"public interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_interest"},{"link_name":"public policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Pew Charitable Trusts is an independent non-profit, non-governmental organization (NGO), founded in 1948.[1][2][3]Pew's stated mission is to serve the public interest by \"improving public policy, informing the public, and invigorating civic life\".[4] Pew operates projects and conducts research across five main areas: communities, conservation, finance and economy, governing, and health.[5] In addition, the Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan public polling and think tank that operates as a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts.[6]","title":"The Pew Charitable Trusts"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"J. Howard Pew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Howard_Pew"},{"link_name":"Joseph N. Pew Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_N._Pew_Jr."},{"link_name":"Sun Oil Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunoco"},{"link_name":"Joseph N. Pew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Newton_Pew"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Brussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"marine conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_conservation"},{"link_name":"correction reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Correction_reform"},{"link_name":"biomedical research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_research"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"cancer research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer_research"},{"link_name":"American Red Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Red_Cross"},{"link_name":"historically black colleges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historically_black_colleges"},{"link_name":"American Enterprise Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Enterprise_Institute"},{"link_name":"Brookings Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution"},{"link_name":"American Liberty League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Liberty_League"},{"link_name":"John Birch Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Birch_Society"},{"link_name":"Oceana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceana_(non-profit_group)"},{"link_name":"Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Internal Revenue Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Service"},{"link_name":"private foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_foundation"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Medal_of_Philanthropy"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"20th century","text":"Pew was established by the merging of several charitable trusts that had been established between 1948 and 1979. The original trusts were created by J. Howard Pew, Mary Ethel Pew, Joseph N. Pew Jr., and Mabel Pew Myrin, the adult sons and daughters of Sun Oil Company founder Joseph N. Pew and his wife, Mary Anderson Pew.[7] Honoring their parents' religious conviction that good works should be done quietly, the original Pew Memorial Foundation[8] was a grantmaking organization that made donations anonymously.[9]In 1956, the foundation became the Pew Memorial Trust, based in Philadelphia, the donors' hometown. Between 1957 and 1979, six other trusts were created, representing the personal and complementary philanthropic interests of the four siblings.[10][11][12] Assets held by the seven trusts totaled $6 billion as of 2020.[13] The Trusts continues to be based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, with offices in Washington, D.C., London, and Brussels.[14]Although The Pew Charitable Trusts is non-partisan and non-ideological, Joseph Pew and his sons were politically conservative. The modern day organization works to encourage responsive government and support scientific research on a wide range of issues, including global marine conservation, correction reform, and biomedical research. Pew also conducts research and supports civic and cultural projects in Philadelphia.[15][16]Early priorities of the Pew Memorial Trust included cancer research, the American Red Cross, and a pioneering project to assist historically black colleges. Later beneficiaries included American Enterprise Institute, Brookings Institution, American Liberty League, John Birch Society, Oceana, and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.[17][18]In 2004, Pew applied to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) to change its status from a private foundation to a public charity in order to operate its own programs more efficiently.[19][20][21] Since that change it can now raise funds freely and devote up to 5% of its budget to lobbying the public sector.In 2011, the Pew family was awarded the Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy in recognition of its support for The Pew Charitable Trusts.[22][23]According to the Pew Trusts' website as of 2024, four of the eleven Directors serving on the Board are named Pew.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"Pew operates several projects focused on specific public policy issues: modernization of the civil legal system,[25] Philadelphia local public policies;[26][27] justice and public safety;[28] student loans; ocean and fisheries protection;[29] conservation of public lands and rivers; consumer finance and the greater economy;[30] government reform;[31] and public health issues.[32][33]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"marine protected areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_protected_area"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Mariana Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariana_Islands"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-washpost2009jan7-34"},{"link_name":"Mariana Trench","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariana_Trench"},{"link_name":"Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument"},{"link_name":"President Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pewsite-35"},{"link_name":"President Obama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Maritime protection","text":"The Trusts, with other groups, backed an effort to create marine protected areas in the Pacific Ocean, near the Mariana Islands.[34] The protected area was officially designated in January 2009, and includes the Mariana Trench, the deepest ocean canyon in the world. Another marine protected area that the Trusts and other groups sought to protect is Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument which was protected by President Bush in 2006[35] and expanded by President Obama in 2016.[36]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pew Research Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Research_Center"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"think tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_tank"},{"link_name":"Brookings Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution"},{"link_name":"Center for American Progress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_American_Progress"}],"sub_title":"Pew Research Center","text":"The Trusts also funds the Pew Research Center,[37] the third-largest think tank in Washington, D.C., after the Brookings Institution and the Center for American Progress.","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vera Institute of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_Institute_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Justice Statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Justice_Statistics"},{"link_name":"Federal Bureau of Prisons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Prisons"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-washpost2008feb29-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pewcenterstudy-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Jay Inslee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Inslee"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Justice and corrections reform","text":"The Trusts have worked closely with the Vera Institute of Justice on issues related to state correction policies in the Public Safety Performance Project.[38] In 2008, Pew reported that more than one in 100 adults in the United States is in jail or prison, an all-time high. The cost to state governments is nearly $50 billion a year and the federal government $5 billion more. The report compiled and analyzed data from the federal Bureau of Justice Statistics and Federal Bureau of Prisons and each state's department of corrections.[39][40]Pew reported in 2009 that \"explosive growth in the number of people on probation or parole has propelled the population of the American corrections system to more than 7.3 million, or 1 in every 31 U.S. adults.\" \"One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections\"[41] examined the scale and cost of prison, jail, probation and parole in each of the 50 states, and provides a blueprint for states to cut both crime and spending by reallocating prison expenses to fund stronger supervision of the large number of offenders in the community.Pew supported police reforms enacted by the state of Washington in 2021. Gov. Jay Inslee (D-WA) signed 12 separate police reform bills that would, among other things, require officers to intervene when they see another officer using excessive force.[42]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"naloxone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naloxone"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"CDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Health","text":"\"Based on data, science, and non-partisan research, Pew works to reduce hidden risks to the health, safety, and well-being of American consumers.\"[43] One program, the Pew Scholars Program in the Biomedical Sciences, is intended to support promising early and mid-career scientists investigating human health, both basic and clinical.[44] The awards provide flexible support ($240,000 over a four-year period). Grantees are encouraged to be entrepreneurial and innovative in their research.[45]In October 2020, the Trusts unveiled research on naloxone, the lifesaving overdose reversal drug. Pew researchers concluded that expanded access to naloxone saves lives and put forth several recommendations on how to do so, including options such as co-prescribing naloxone with opioids.[46]During the rollout of vaccines for the COVID-19 pandemic, Pew supported the CDC's determination that it was acceptable to leave some vaccine vials partially unused (potentially \"wasting vaccines\") in order to vaccinate teenagers, which represented a policy shift by the CDC regarding the efficient use of vaccines.[47]","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"IRS Form 990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRS_Form_990"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"text":"According to the 2019 Consolidated Financial Statements, as of 30 June 2019, the Trusts owned over US$6.7 billion in assets. For the 12 months ending on that date, total revenues were about US$374 million and total expenses were about $341 million, of which about $6.6 million were for fundraising expenses.[48]According to IRS Form 990, filed for 2019 by Pew Charitable Trusts, the organization distributed $142,114,349 in grants in 2019; an increase from 2018, when it distributed $136,947,523 in grants.[49]","title":"Finances"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Barnes Art Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnes_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Lower Merion, PA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Merion,_PA"},{"link_name":"Center City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_City,_Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Albert C. Barnes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_C._Barnes"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Impressionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism"},{"link_name":"Post-Impressionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Impressionism"},{"link_name":"Modern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_art"},{"link_name":"Renoir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renoir"},{"link_name":"Matisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matisse"},{"link_name":"Picasso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picasso"},{"link_name":"African art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_art"},{"link_name":"Native American pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_pottery"},{"link_name":"jewelry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_American_jewelry"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania_German"},{"link_name":"avant-garde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avant-garde"},{"link_name":"wrought-iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrought_iron"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Franklin Parkway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Parkway"},{"link_name":"Roger Ebert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Ebert"},{"link_name":"Chicago Sun-Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Sun-Times"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-barnes-52"},{"link_name":"Stephen Harmelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Harmelin"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Roberta Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberta_Smith"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"The Art of the Steal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_the_Steal_(2009_film)"},{"link_name":"Rebecca Rimel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca_Rimel"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"Barnes Art Collection","text":"The Trusts have supported the relocation of the famed Barnes Art Collection from its longtime home in Lower Merion, PA, to Center City. This has been controversial in the art world. The Barnes Foundation was established by Albert C. Barnes in 1922 to \"promote the advancement of education and the appreciation of the fine arts and horticulture.\"[50]According to the Barnes Foundation:[51]The Barnes is home to one of the world's largest collections of Impressionist, Post-Impressionist and early Modern paintings, with especially deep holdings by Renoir, Matisse, and Picasso\", as well as important examples of African art, Native American pottery and jewelry, Pennsylvania German furniture, American avant-garde painting, and wrought-iron metalwork.Opponents of relocating the collection to a new museum along the Benjamin Franklin Parkway said that move violates Barnes's will that the collection stay intact at its original location and not be loaned, transferred or sold. Columnist Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times wrote in 2010, \"It is perfectly clear exactly what Barnes specified in his will. It was drawn up by the best legal minds. It is clear that what happened to his collection was against his wishes.\"[52] Yet the Barnes Foundation prevailed in a series of legal actions and the new museum opened on May 16, 2012. At the opening Barnes trustee and treasurer Stephen Harmelin noted, \"There were financial challenges to be faced...questions about how the foundation as it existed could go on with its mission, worries about the safety and integrity of the collection in the long run,\" he said. \"We were convinced that the only change that could save the Barnes was to redouble our commitment to its mission, to reach out more widely than ever before, to build, to expand and to move the collection to a more accessible location.\"[53]The Trusts became involved with the Barnes Collection when the foundation overseeing the art collection had serious financial trouble, ultimately contributing more than $20 million for a new museum. Reporter Roberta Smith of the New York Times said of the new building, \"Against all odds, the museum that opens to the public on Saturday is still very much the old Barnes, only better.\"[54]The controversy involving Pew, other donors, the Barnes trustees and the collection was the subject of a documentary film The Art of the Steal. The Trusts did not participate in the film. Rebecca Rimel, then head of The Pew Charitable Trusts, said they believed the film would not be fair.[55]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Texas Public Policy Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Public_Policy_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Texas Public Policy Foundation","text":"Between 2011 and 2015, The Pew Charitable Trusts gave $4.7 million to the Texas Public Policy Foundation (TPPF), earmarked specifically for the foundation's criminal justice reform project.[56][57]","title":"Controversy"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"\"The Chronicle of Philanthropy, Big Change Afoot at Pew Trusts\". www.philanthropy.com. 2003-11-13. Retrieved 2023-05-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.philanthropy.com/article/big-change-afoot-at-pew-trusts/","url_text":"\"The Chronicle of Philanthropy, Big Change Afoot at Pew Trusts\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts\". www.inquirer.com. The Philadelphia Inquirer. 2019-04-02. Retrieved 2023-05-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.inquirer.com/business/pew-rebecca-rimel-retiring-20190402.html","url_text":"\"Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts\""}]},{"reference":"\"$50,000,000 IS GIVEN FOR PEW MEMORIAL; Four Children of Late Oil Man Establish a Foundation 'to Promote Public Welfare'\". The New York Times. 1948-01-13. ISSN 0362-4331. 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[{"Link":"https://www.pewtrusts.org/","external_links_name":"pewtrusts.org"},{"Link":"https://www.philanthropy.com/article/big-change-afoot-at-pew-trusts/","external_links_name":"\"The Chronicle of Philanthropy, Big Change Afoot at Pew Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.inquirer.com/business/pew-rebecca-rimel-retiring-20190402.html","external_links_name":"\"Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1948/01/13/archives/50000000-is-given-for-pew-memorial-four-children-of-late-oil-man.html","external_links_name":"\"$50,000,000 IS GIVEN FOR PEW MEMORIAL; Four Children of Late Oil Man Establish a Foundation 'to Promote Public Welfare'\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/about/mission-and-values","external_links_name":"\"Mission & Values\""},{"Link":"https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/p-grants/pew-charitable-trusts","external_links_name":"\"Pew Charitable Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.philanthropy.com/article/pew-trusts-to-combine-groups-that-focus-on-policy-research/","external_links_name":"\"Pew Trusts to Combine Groups That Focus on Policy Research\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/07/us/pew-charitable-trusts-will-become-public-charity.html","external_links_name":"\"Pew Charitable Trusts Will Become Public Charity\""},{"Link":"https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/about/history","external_links_name":"\"History of The Pew Charitable Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1985/06/09/us/pew-charitable-trusts-extend-reach.html","external_links_name":"\"Pew Charitable Trusts Extend Reach\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=U-8e47YCXFYC&q=pew+Memorial+Foundation&pg=PA104","external_links_name":"Universal Preschool: Policy Change, Stability, and The Pew Charitable Trusts"},{"Link":"http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/53/pew.html","external_links_name":"\"J. Howard Pew (1882-1971)\""},{"Link":"https://www.philanthropy.com/article/big-change-afoot-at-pew-trusts/","external_links_name":"\"The Chronicle of Philanthropy, Big Change Afoot at Pew Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.inquirer.com/business/pew-charitable-trusts-susan-urahn-new-ceo-chief-executive-officer-20200319.html","external_links_name":"\"Philly's Pew Charitable Trusts, a $6 billion philanthropy, names new CEO\""},{"Link":"https://www.insidephilanthropy.com/p-grants/pew-charitable-trusts","external_links_name":"\"Pew Charitable Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.inquirer.com/business/pew-rebecca-rimel-retiring-20190402.html","external_links_name":"\"Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.campdenfb.com/article/pew-charitable-trusts-serving-public-trust","external_links_name":"\"The Pew Charitable Trusts: Serving the Public Trust\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/roadstodominionr00diamrich","external_links_name":"Roads to Dominion: Right-Wing Movements and Political Power in the United States"},{"Link":"https://www.inquirer.com/business/pew-rebecca-rimel-retiring-20190402.html","external_links_name":"\"Rimel to Retire as Head of The Pew Charitable Trusts\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/07/us/pew-charitable-trusts-will-become-public-charity.html","external_links_name":"\"Pew Charitable Trusts Will Become Public Charity\""},{"Link":"https://www.philanthropyroundtable.org/magazine/spring-2015-stronger-together/","external_links_name":"\"Stronger Together\""},{"Link":"https://www.medalofphilanthropy.org/the-pew-family/#1486495216507-5143a7a8-01f5f4be-fc318238-8019","external_links_name":"\"The Pew Family\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/press-releases/2011-10-19/2011-carnegie-medal-of-philanthropy-announced","external_links_name":"\"2011 Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carol_Bellamy
Carol Bellamy
["1 Early life and education","2 Business career","3 Political career","3.1 New York State Senate","3.2 New York City Council","3.3 Other positions","3.4 Peace Corps","4 GCERF","5 UNICEF","6 NGOs","7 Other","8 Honors","9 References","10 External links"]
American politician Carol BellamySpeaking in 2008Executive Director of UNICEFIn officeMay 1, 1995 – May 1, 2005Secretary GeneralBoutros Boutros-GhaliKofi AnnanPreceded byRichard Jolly (Acting)Succeeded byAnn Veneman13th Director of the Peace CorpsIn officeOctober 7, 1993 – May 1, 1995PresidentBill ClintonPreceded byElaine ChaoSucceeded byMark GearanPresident of the New York City CouncilIn officeJanuary 1, 1978 – December 31, 1985Preceded byPaul O'DwyerSucceeded byAndrew SteinMember of the New York State SenateIn officeJanuary 1, 1973 – December 31, 1977Preceded byJohn J. MarchiSucceeded byMartin ConnorConstituency23rd district (1973–1974)25th district (1975–1977) Personal detailsBorn (1942-01-14) January 14, 1942 (age 82)Plainfield, New Jersey, U.S.Political partyDemocraticOther politicalaffiliationsLiberal (1985)EducationGettysburg College (BA)New York University (JD) Carol Bellamy (born January 14, 1942) is an American nonprofit executive and former politician. She is chair of the board of the Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund (GCERF). Previously, she was director of the Peace Corps, executive director of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and president and CEO of World Learning. She is also the chair of children's rights advocacy organization ECPAT International, working to end the sexual exploitation of children. After three terms in the New York State Senate, she was the first woman to be elected to any citywide office in NYC as President of the New York City Council, a position she held until her unsuccessful bid for Mayor of New York in 1985; she was the second to last person to hold this position. Early life and education Bellamy was born in Plainfield, New Jersey in 1942, and raised in Scotch Plains, graduating from Scotch Plains-Fanwood High School in 1959. She attended Gettysburg College, where she was a member of Delta Gamma, and graduated in 1963. She earned her J.D. degree from New York University School of Law in 1968, and was a Peace Corps volunteer in Guatemala from 1963 to 1965. Business career Bellamy was a managing director at Bear Stearns from 1990 to 1993, a Principal at Morgan Stanley from 1986 to 1990, and an associate in the New York law firm of Cravath, Swaine & Moore from 1968 to 1971. In 1968, she was to be one of the subjects of Jean-Luc Godard's film One A.M. (later released as One P.M. by D. A. Pennebaker) where she described her philosophy of using business to accomplish social change. Her speech was then satirized by Rip Torn wearing a US Civil War uniform in front of a Brooklyn middle school class. Political career New York State Senate Bellamy was a member of the New York State Senate from 1973 to 1977, sitting in the 180th, 181st and 182nd New York State Legislatures. New York City Council She mounted an uphill campaign for President of the New York City Council in 1977. While her opponents spent hundreds of thousands of dollars in their campaigns, Bellamy carried on with just $90,000 in funds, and, despite her initially low public profile, managed to finish a strong second in the Democratic primary with 25 percent of the vote, behind the incumbent Paul O'Dwyer, who got 30 percent, and ahead of City Councilman Carter Burden, Assemblyman Leonard Stavisky and developer Abe Hirschfeld. Because no candidate had received at least 40 percent, O'Dwyer and Bellamy met in a runoff two weeks later, which she won handily, getting 58 percent of the vote. In the November general election, she easily beat the Republican candidate, Assemblyman John Esposito, by a 5-to-1 margin, becoming the first woman elected to citywide office in New York. She held the Council Presidency until her unsuccessful bid for Mayor of New York in 1985. Other positions Bellamy was a member of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Board until she resigned from the board at the behest of Governor Mario Cuomo in 1985. In 1982 she considered running for Governor of New York. In 1990 she was an unsuccessful candidate for New York State Comptroller. She served on the New York State Board of Regents, which oversees all state education activities and the state Department of Education, from 2005 to 2006. Peace Corps From 1993 to 1995, Bellamy was the director of the Peace Corps. Appointed by then US President Bill Clinton, she was the first director to have previously been a volunteer. GCERF As of 2014 Carol Bellamy is the Chair of the Governing Board of the Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund which is the first global effort to support local, community-level initiatives aimed at strengthening resilience against violent extremist agendas, for example through job creation and empowering women and youth. As a public-private partnership operating in the fields of security and development, the fund works with governments, civil society, and the private sector in beneficiary countries to support national strategies to address the local drivers of violent extremism. UNICEF Bellamy was appointed to the position of executive director of UNICEF in 1995 by Boutros Boutros-Ghali, then the Secretary-General of the United Nations. She was granted a second five-year term in 2000 by Boutros-Ghali's successor, Kofi Annan. UN policy states that agency heads may serve no more than two five-year terms. Bellamy is credited with having left behind a fiscally sound organization with strong internal controls. She increased UNICEF's resources from roughly $800 million ($966 m in 2004 terms) in 1994 to more than $1.8 billion in 2004. NGOs Bellamy was appointed the President and CEO of the Brattleboro, Vermont-based World Learning and president of its School for International Training in 2005. World Learning is a global organization with operations in more than 75 countries that fosters global citizenship through experiential education and community-driven development programs. Organizations that fund World Learning include the Tides Foundation and Rockefeller Financial Services. On July 25, 2007, Bellamy was elected chair of the board of directors of the Fair Labor Association (FLA). The FLA advocates for workers' interests by promoting international labor standards. "For eight years the FLA has been strengthening its capacity to work with companies, factories, civil society organizations and others to end sweatshop labor and protect workers' rights. It is now moving beyond its rigorous monitoring program to focus greater attention on identifying the root causes of these problems and to develop sustainable compliance programs," said Bellamy in accepting the position. Other In April 2009, Bellamy was appointed as chair of the International Baccalaureate (IB) board of governors. Between 2010 and 2013, Carol Bellamy was the chair of the Board of Directors of the Global Partnership for Education. Bellamy is a member of the Board of the American University of Beirut. Honors In 1981, she was selected to be one of the first Young Leaders of the French-American Foundation. Bellamy is a former Fellow of the Harvard Institute of Politics at the John F. Kennedy School of Government and an honorary member of Pi Alpha Alpha. At its 1982 commencement ceremonies, Barnard College awarded Bellamy the college's highest honor, the Medal of Distinction. Bellamy received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Bates College in 2003. She returned to her alma mater, the NYU School of Law, to deliver a commencement day speech in May 2006. For her work with UNICEF, she was awarded Japan's Order of the Rising Sun in 2006. In 2009, she was recognized for her work by France with the Legion of Honour. References ^ a b Singleton, Don (September 11, 1977). "Carol Bellamy: Candidate with Winning Way". New York Daily News. p. 4. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved October 23, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Klein, Joe. "The Woman Who Would Be Mayor", New York (magazine), March 8, 1982. Accessed August 10, 2011. "She grew up in a Protestant, Republican, working-class family in Scotch Plains, New Jersey. Her parents worked – her mother as a nurse, her father for the phone company." ^ Thompson, Clifford. "Carol Bellamy", Current Biography Yearbook, p. 53. H. W. Wilson Company, 1999. ISBN 0-8242-0988-5. Accessed August 10, 2011. "Bellamy acted in student productions of musicals at Scotch Plains-Fanwood High School, from which she graduated in 1959." ^ a b Meisler, Stanley (April 30, 1995). "LOS ANGELES TIMES INTERVIEW: Carol Bellamy: Affirmative Action: From the Peace Corps to UNICEF". LATimes.com. Retrieved November 30, 2019. ^ ""One P.M." All Day". The New Yorker. January 22, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2021. ^ Lynn, Frank (February 9, 1985). "BELLAMY ENTERS RACE FOR MAYOR; BLACK COALITION ENDORSES FARRELL". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 21, 2021. ^ "Koch Wins by Landslide in N.Y. Mayoral Primary; Young Scores Victory in Detroit". Los Angeles Times. September 11, 1985. Archived from the original on May 15, 2021. Retrieved March 21, 2021. ^ "THE CITY; Bellamy Leaving M.T.A. Board". The New York Times. February 15, 1985. Retrieved February 24, 2018. ^ Renteria, Ramon (December 2, 1993). "Peace Corps chief at UTEP graduation". El Paso Times. p. 7B. Retrieved September 30, 2011 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Crossette, Barbara (April 22, 2002). "From City Hall to the World's Stage; Carol Bellamy Uses Her Unicef Perch to Fight for Children". The New York Times. p. B1. Retrieved October 23, 2018. ^ "STAR Network Funders". Worldlearning.org. Archived from the original on March 12, 2010. Retrieved September 25, 2009. ^ "Carol Bellamy". ibo.org. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved July 19, 2009. ^ "Young Leaders: 1981". French-American Foundation. Retrieved October 23, 2018. ^ Nagashima-Hayashi, Michiko. "Former UNICEF Executive Director receives humanitarian award in Japan," Archived June 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine UNICEF web site (2006) ^ "France awards Légion d'honneur to Carol Bellamy and Rima Salah". Unicef.org. July 16, 2008. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2018. ^ Chan, Sewell (April 7, 2009). "Carol Bellamy to Receive French Honor". The New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2018. External links Appearances on C-SPAN The Fales Library Guide to the Carol Bellamy Papers New York State Senate Preceded byJohn J. Marchi Member of the New York Senatefrom the 23rd district 1973–1974 Succeeded byVander L. Beatty Preceded byPaul P. E. Bookson Member of the New York Senatefrom the 25th district 1975–1977 Succeeded byMartin Connor Political offices Preceded byPaul O'Dwyer President of the New York City Council 1978–1985 Succeeded byAndrew Stein Party political offices Preceded byMary Codd Liberal nominee for Mayor of New York City 1985 Succeeded byRudy Giuliani Preceded byHerman Badillo Democratic nominee for Comptroller of New York 1990 Succeeded byCarl McCall Government offices Preceded byElaine Chao Director of the Peace Corps 1993–1995 Succeeded byMark Gearan Diplomatic posts Preceded byRichard JollyActing Executive Director of UNICEF 1995–2005 Succeeded byAnn Veneman Positions in intergovernmental organisations Preceded by??? Chair of the Global Partnership for Education 2010–2013 Succeeded byJulia Gillard vteDirectors of the Peace Corps Shriver Vaughn Blatchford O'Donnell Hess Craw Dellenback Payton Celeste Ruppe Coverdell Chao Bellamy Gearan Schneider Vasquez Tschetter Williams Hessler-Radelet Olsen Spahn Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Israel United States Latvia Japan Netherlands Academics CiNii Artists ULAN Other SNAC IdRef
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Previously, she was director of the Peace Corps, executive director of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), and president and CEO of World Learning. She is also the chair of children's rights advocacy organization ECPAT International, working to end the sexual exploitation of children. After three terms in the New York State Senate, she was the first woman to be elected to any citywide office in NYC as President of the New York City Council, a position she held until her unsuccessful bid for Mayor of New York in 1985; she was the second to last person to hold this position.","title":"Carol Bellamy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Plainfield, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainfield,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singleton-1"},{"link_name":"Scotch Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch_Plains,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Scotch Plains-Fanwood High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch_Plains-Fanwood_High_School"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Gettysburg College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettysburg_College"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Singleton-1"},{"link_name":"Delta Gamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_Gamma"},{"link_name":"J.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juris_Doctor"},{"link_name":"New York University School of Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University_School_of_Law"},{"link_name":"Guatemala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"}],"text":"Bellamy was born in Plainfield, New Jersey in 1942,[1] and raised in Scotch Plains, graduating from Scotch Plains-Fanwood High School in 1959.[2][3] She attended Gettysburg College,[1] where she was a member of Delta Gamma, and graduated in 1963. She earned her J.D. degree from New York University School of Law in 1968, and was a Peace Corps volunteer in Guatemala from 1963 to 1965.[4]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bear Stearns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_Stearns"},{"link_name":"Morgan Stanley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Stanley"},{"link_name":"Cravath, Swaine & Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cravath,_Swaine_%26_Moore"},{"link_name":"Jean-Luc Godard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Luc_Godard"},{"link_name":"One P.M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_P.M."},{"link_name":"D. A. 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Her speech was then satirized by Rip Torn wearing a US Civil War uniform in front of a Brooklyn middle school class.[5]","title":"Business career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York State Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Senate"},{"link_name":"180th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/180th_New_York_State_Legislature"},{"link_name":"181st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/181st_New_York_State_Legislature"},{"link_name":"182nd New York State Legislatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/182nd_New_York_State_Legislature"}],"sub_title":"New York State Senate","text":"Bellamy was a member of the New York State Senate from 1973 to 1977, sitting in the 180th, 181st and 182nd New York State Legislatures.","title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"President of the New York City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City_Council#Presiding_officers_since_1898"},{"link_name":"Paul O'Dwyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_O%27Dwyer"},{"link_name":"Carter Burden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_Burden"},{"link_name":"Leonard Stavisky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leonard_Stavisky&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Abe Hirschfeld.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abe_Hirschfeld.&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"runoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-round_system"},{"link_name":"Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Mayor of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"New York City Council","text":"She mounted an uphill campaign for President of the New York City Council in 1977. While her opponents spent hundreds of thousands of dollars in their campaigns, Bellamy carried on with just $90,000 in funds, and, despite her initially low public profile, managed to finish a strong second in the Democratic primary with 25 percent of the vote, behind the incumbent Paul O'Dwyer, who got 30 percent, and ahead of City Councilman Carter Burden, Assemblyman Leonard Stavisky and developer Abe Hirschfeld. Because no candidate had received at least 40 percent, O'Dwyer and Bellamy met in a runoff two weeks later, which she won handily, getting 58 percent of the vote. In the November general election, she easily beat the Republican candidate, Assemblyman John Esposito, by a 5-to-1 margin, becoming the first woman elected to citywide office in New York. She held the Council Presidency until her unsuccessful bid for Mayor of New York in 1985.[6][7]","title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metropolitan Transportation Authority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Transportation_Authority"},{"link_name":"Mario Cuomo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mario_Cuomo"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Governor of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"New York State Comptroller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Comptroller"},{"link_name":"New York State Board of Regents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Board_of_Regents"},{"link_name":"state Department of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_State_Education_Department"}],"sub_title":"Other positions","text":"Bellamy was a member of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority Board until she resigned from the board at the behest of Governor Mario Cuomo in 1985.[8] In 1982 she considered running for Governor of New York. In 1990 she was an unsuccessful candidate for New York State Comptroller. She served on the New York State Board of Regents, which oversees all state education activities and the state Department of Education, from 2005 to 2006.","title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bill Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Peace Corps","text":"From 1993 to 1995, Bellamy was the director of the Peace Corps. Appointed by then US President Bill Clinton, she was the first director to have previously been a volunteer.[9]","title":"Political career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Community_Engagement_and_Resilience_Fund"},{"link_name":"violent extremist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violent_extremism"},{"link_name":"violent extremism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violent_extremism"}],"text":"As of 2014 Carol Bellamy is the Chair of the Governing Board of the Global Community Engagement and Resilience Fund which is the first global effort to support local, community-level initiatives aimed at strengthening resilience against violent extremist agendas, for example through job creation and empowering women and youth. As a public-private partnership operating in the fields of security and development, the fund works with governments, civil society, and the private sector in beneficiary countries to support national strategies to address the local drivers of violent extremism.","title":"GCERF"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UNICEF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNICEF"},{"link_name":"Boutros Boutros-Ghali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boutros_Boutros-Ghali"},{"link_name":"Secretary-General of the United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"Kofi Annan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kofi_Annan"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Bellamy was appointed to the position of executive director of UNICEF in 1995 by Boutros Boutros-Ghali, then the Secretary-General of the United Nations.[4] She was granted a second five-year term in 2000 by Boutros-Ghali's successor, Kofi Annan.[10] UN policy states that agency heads may serve no more than two five-year terms.[citation needed]Bellamy is credited with having left behind a fiscally sound organization with strong [citation needed] internal controls. She increased UNICEF's resources from roughly $800 million ($966 m in 2004 terms) in 1994 to more than $1.8 billion in 2004.[citation needed]","title":"UNICEF"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brattleboro, Vermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brattleboro,_Vermont"},{"link_name":"School for International Training","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_for_International_Training"},{"link_name":"global citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_citizenship"},{"link_name":"Tides Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tides_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Fair Labor Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_Labor_Association"},{"link_name":"international labor standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_labor_standards"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Bellamy was appointed the President and CEO of the Brattleboro, Vermont-based World Learning and president of its School for International Training in 2005. World Learning is a global organization with operations in more than 75 countries that fosters global citizenship through experiential education and community-driven development programs. Organizations that fund World Learning include the Tides Foundation and Rockefeller Financial Services.[11]On July 25, 2007, Bellamy was elected chair of the board of directors of the Fair Labor Association (FLA). The FLA advocates for workers' interests by promoting international labor standards. \"For eight years the FLA has been strengthening its capacity to work with companies, factories, civil society organizations and others to end sweatshop labor and protect workers' rights. It is now moving beyond its rigorous monitoring program to focus greater attention on identifying the root causes of these problems and to develop sustainable compliance programs,\" said Bellamy in accepting the position. [citation needed]","title":"NGOs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Baccalaureate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Baccalaureate"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Global Partnership for Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Partnership_for_Education"},{"link_name":"American University of Beirut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_University_of_Beirut"}],"text":"In April 2009, Bellamy was appointed as chair of the International Baccalaureate (IB) board of governors.[12] Between 2010 and 2013, Carol Bellamy was the chair of the Board of Directors of the Global Partnership for Education. Bellamy is a member of the Board of the American University of Beirut.","title":"Other"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French-American Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French-American_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Harvard Institute of Politics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Institute_of_Politics"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy School of Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_School_of_Government"},{"link_name":"Pi Alpha Alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi_Alpha_Alpha"},{"link_name":"Barnard College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnard_College"},{"link_name":"Medal of Distinction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Barnard_College_people#Recipients_of_the_Medal_of_Distinction"},{"link_name":"honorary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_degree"},{"link_name":"Doctor of Humane Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Humane_Letters"},{"link_name":"Bates College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bates_College"},{"link_name":"Order of the Rising Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_the_Rising_Sun"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Legion of Honour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_Honour"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In 1981, she was selected to be one of the first Young Leaders of the French-American Foundation.[13]Bellamy is a former Fellow of the Harvard Institute of Politics at the John F. Kennedy School of Government and an honorary member of Pi Alpha Alpha. At its 1982 commencement ceremonies, Barnard College awarded Bellamy the college's highest honor, the Medal of Distinction.Bellamy received an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Bates College in 2003. She returned to her alma mater, the NYU School of Law, to deliver a commencement day speech in May 2006.For her work with UNICEF, she was awarded Japan's Order of the Rising Sun in 2006.[14] In 2009, she was recognized for her work by France with the Legion of Honour.[15][16]","title":"Honors"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Singleton, Don (September 11, 1977). \"Carol Bellamy: Candidate with Winning Way\". New York Daily News. p. 4. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved October 23, 2018 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24648346/carol_bellamy/","url_text":"\"Carol Bellamy: Candidate with Winning Way\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181105224431/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/24648346/carol_bellamy/","url_text":"Archived"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]},{"reference":"Meisler, Stanley (April 30, 1995). \"LOS ANGELES TIMES INTERVIEW: Carol Bellamy: Affirmative Action: From the Peace Corps to UNICEF\". LATimes.com. Retrieved November 30, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-04-30-op-60529-story.html","url_text":"\"LOS ANGELES TIMES INTERVIEW: Carol Bellamy: Affirmative Action: From the Peace Corps to UNICEF\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LATimes.com","url_text":"LATimes.com"}]},{"reference":"\"\"One P.M.\" All Day\". The New Yorker. January 22, 2013. Retrieved March 21, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newyorker.com/culture/richard-brody/one-p-m-all-day","url_text":"\"\"One P.M.\" All Day\""}]},{"reference":"Lynn, Frank (February 9, 1985). \"BELLAMY ENTERS RACE FOR MAYOR; BLACK COALITION ENDORSES FARRELL\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 21, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1985/02/09/nyregion/bellamy-enters-race-for-mayor-black-coalition-endorses-farrell.html","url_text":"\"BELLAMY ENTERS RACE FOR MAYOR; BLACK COALITION ENDORSES FARRELL\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"Koch Wins by Landslide in N.Y. Mayoral Primary; Young Scores Victory in Detroit\". Los Angeles Times. September 11, 1985. Archived from the original on May 15, 2021. Retrieved March 21, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-09-11-mn-7160-story.html","url_text":"\"Koch Wins by Landslide in N.Y. Mayoral Primary; Young Scores Victory in Detroit\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210515183021/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-09-11-mn-7160-story.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"THE CITY; Bellamy Leaving M.T.A. Board\". The New York Times. February 15, 1985. Retrieved February 24, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1985/02/15/nyregion/the-city-bellamy-leaving-mta-board.html","url_text":"\"THE CITY; Bellamy Leaving M.T.A. Board\""}]},{"reference":"Renteria, Ramon (December 2, 1993). \"Peace Corps chief at UTEP graduation\". El Paso Times. p. 7B. Retrieved September 30, 2011 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/clip/110503042/el-paso-times/","url_text":"\"Peace Corps chief at UTEP graduation\""}]},{"reference":"Crossette, Barbara (April 22, 2002). \"From City Hall to the World's Stage; Carol Bellamy Uses Her Unicef Perch to Fight for Children\". The New York Times. p. B1. Retrieved October 23, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/22/nyregion/city-hall-world-s-stage-carol-bellamy-uses-her-unicef-perch-fight-for-children.html","url_text":"\"From City Hall to the World's Stage; Carol Bellamy Uses Her Unicef Perch to Fight for Children\""}]},{"reference":"\"STAR Network Funders\". Worldlearning.org. Archived from the original on March 12, 2010. Retrieved September 25, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100312124953/https://www.worldlearning.org/wlid/star/about/funders.html","url_text":"\"STAR Network Funders\""},{"url":"http://www.worldlearning.org/wlid/star/about/funders.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Carol Bellamy\". ibo.org. Archived from the original on November 25, 2010. Retrieved July 19, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101125054257/http://ibo.org/council/peterson/2009carolbellamy/index.cfm","url_text":"\"Carol Bellamy\""},{"url":"http://www.ibo.org/council/peterson/2009carolbellamy/index.cfm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Young Leaders: 1981\". French-American Foundation. Retrieved October 23, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://frenchamerican.org/young-leaders/earlier-classes/1981/","url_text":"\"Young Leaders: 1981\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French-American_Foundation","url_text":"French-American Foundation"}]},{"reference":"\"France awards Légion d'honneur to Carol Bellamy and Rima Salah\". Unicef.org. July 16, 2008. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved October 23, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200925194104/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/france_44787.html","url_text":"\"France awards Légion d'honneur to Carol Bellamy and Rima Salah\""},{"url":"https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/france_44787.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chan, Sewell (April 7, 2009). \"Carol Bellamy to Receive French Honor\". The New York Times. Retrieved October 23, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/04/07/carol-bellamy-to-receive-french-honor/","url_text":"\"Carol Bellamy to Receive French Honor\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_of_Science_and_Innovation
The Globe of Science and Innovation
["1 History of the Globe","2 Exhibitions","2.1 Second floor","3 References","4 External links"]
Coordinates: 46°14′02″N 6°03′21″E / 46.23389°N 6.05583°E / 46.23389; 6.05583Globe of Science and InnovationLocation within SwitzerlandEstablished2005 (2005)Location385 route de Meyrin – CH 1217 MeyrinCoordinates46°14′02″N 6°03′21″E / 46.233889°N 6.055833°E / 46.233889; 6.055833ArchitectHervé DessimozThomas BüchiWebsiteGlobe of Science and Innovation The Globe of Science and Innovation is a visitor center, designed to inform visitors about the significant research being carried out at CERN. The wooden structure, which is 27 metres (89 ft) high and 40 metres (130 ft) in diameter, is a symbol of planet earth and was originally built for Expo.02 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. In 2004, it was moved to its current location in Meyrin in the Canton of Geneva, Switzerland. History of the Globe The globe started life as the Palais de l'Equilibre at Expo.02 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. It was designed by Geneva architects, Hervé Dessimoz and Thomas Büchi, as a model of sustainable building. It is 27 metres (89 ft) high and 40 metres (130 ft) in diameter, roughly the size of the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. The globe consists of two concentric spheres nested within one another, made up of five different types of timber: Scotch pine, Douglas pine, spruce, larch, and Canadian maple. The outer shell is composed of wooden slats, and two ramps run between the two spheres, allowing visitors to see out. The inner sphere is made of 18 wooden arches, covered by wooden panels; this forms the walls of the globe's interior. This construction model enables the globe to act as a natural carbon sink. After Expo.02 was closed, the Swiss Confederation donated the Palais de l'Equilibre to CERN, and it was renamed the Globe of Science and Innovation. It was moved and re-opened in 2004, in time for the 50th anniversary of CERN. In 2010, the globe was renovated and its new, permanent exhibit, Universe of Particles, was opened. The Globe hosts CERN, private and public events on a regular basis. Exhibitions The Universe of Particles exhibition has permanently closed after the inauguration of the Science Gateway, hosting three new interactive exhibitions. Second floor The second floor, which is reached by a third walking ramp, is a high-ceiling multipurpose space that is used for events such as lectures, films, and press conferences. The walls along the ramp describe the Big Bang. References ^ "Globe du CERN". Genevearchitecture.com. Retrieved June 22, 2016. ^ a b "The Globe of Science and Innovation" (PDF). Visits.web.cern.ch. Retrieved June 22, 2016. ^ a b c d "CERN opens dazzling new public exhibition". Symmetrymagazine.org. June 30, 2010. Retrieved June 22, 2016. ^ Nicolas Merckling (August 21, 2003). "Définitivement propriété du CERN, le Palais de l'équilibre est rebaptisé «Globe de l'innovation". Le Temps. Retrieved June 22, 2016. External links Media related to CERN Globe of Science and Innovation at Wikimedia Commons The Globe of Science and Innovation, museum website Globe of Science and Innovation Brochure EXPO.02 Palais de l'Equilibre brochure vteEuropean Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN)Large Hadron Collider (LHC) List of LHC experiments ALICE ATLAS CMS LHCb LHCf MoEDAL TOTEM FASER Large Electron–Positron Collider (LEP) List of LEP experiments ALEPH DELPHI OPAL L3 Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) List of SPS experiments AWAKE CNGS NA48 NA49 NA58/COMPASS NA60 NA61/SHINE NA62 UA1 UA2 BIBC LEBC HOLEBC Proton Synchrotron (PS) PSB LEIR BEBC PS215/CLOUD Gargamelle 2 m Bubble Chamber 30 cm Bubble Chamber 81 cm Saclay Bubble Chamber Linear accelerators AWAKE CTF3 CLEAR Linac Linac 2 Linac 3 Linac4 Other accelerators AA (part of AAC) AC (part of AAC) AD ISR LEAR PS210 LEIR LPI (LIL and EPA) n-TOF SC SppS ISOLDE facility CERN-MEDICIS COLLAPS CRIS EC-SLI IDS ISS ISOLTRAP LUCRECIA Miniball MIRACLS SEC VITO WISArD WITCH Non-accelerator experiments CAST Future projects High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider Compact Linear Collider Future Circular Collider Related articles LHC@home Safety of high-energy particle collision experiments CERN Courier CERN openlab Worldwide LHC Computing Grid Microcosm exhibition Streets in CERN The Globe of Science and Innovation Particle Fever (2013 documentary) Directors-general of CERN Scientific committees of CERN Category Authority control databases: Geographic Structurae 46°14′02″N 6°03′21″E / 46.23389°N 6.05583°E / 46.23389; 6.05583
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CERN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN"},{"link_name":"Expo.02","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo.02"},{"link_name":"Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"Meyrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyrin"},{"link_name":"Canton of Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva"}],"text":"The Globe of Science and Innovation is a visitor center, designed to inform visitors about the significant research being carried out at CERN. The wooden structure, which is 27 metres (89 ft) high and 40 metres (130 ft) in diameter, is a symbol of planet earth and was originally built for Expo.02 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. In 2004, it was moved to its current location in Meyrin in the Canton of Geneva, Switzerland.","title":"The Globe of Science and Innovation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-geneve-1"},{"link_name":"St. Peter's Basilica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brochure-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symmetry2010-3"},{"link_name":"carbon sink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sink"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symmetry2010-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brochure-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symmetry2010-3"}],"text":"The globe started life as the Palais de l'Equilibre at Expo.02 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. It was designed by Geneva architects, Hervé Dessimoz and Thomas Büchi, as a model of sustainable building.[1] It is 27 metres (89 ft) high and 40 metres (130 ft) in diameter, roughly the size of the dome of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.[2] The globe consists of two concentric spheres nested within one another, made up of five different types of timber: Scotch pine, Douglas pine, spruce, larch, and Canadian maple.[3] The outer shell is composed of wooden slats, and two ramps run between the two spheres, allowing visitors to see out. The inner sphere is made of 18 wooden arches, covered by wooden panels; this forms the walls of the globe's interior. This construction model enables the globe to act as a natural carbon sink.[3]After Expo.02 was closed, the Swiss Confederation donated the Palais de l'Equilibre to CERN,[4] and it was renamed the Globe of Science and Innovation. It was moved and re-opened in 2004, in time for the 50th anniversary of CERN.[2] In 2010, the globe was renovated and its new, permanent exhibit, Universe of Particles, was opened.[3]The Globe hosts CERN, private and public events on a regular basis.","title":"History of the Globe"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The Universe of Particles exhibition has permanently closed after the inauguration of the Science Gateway, hosting three new interactive exhibitions.","title":"Exhibitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-symmetry2010-3"}],"sub_title":"Second floor","text":"The second floor, which is reached by a third walking ramp, is a high-ceiling multipurpose space that is used for events such as lectures, films, and press conferences.[3] The walls along the ramp describe the Big Bang.","title":"Exhibitions"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang_Mach-E
Ford Mustang Mach-E
["1 Overview","2 Trim levels","3 Specifications","4 Special variants","4.1 Mustang Mach-E 1400","4.2 Mustang Mach-E GT Service Vehicles","4.3 Mustang Mach-E Rally","5 Marketing","6 Production","7 Significant recalls","8 Safety","9 Awards","10 Sales","11 References","12 External links"]
Battery electric compact crossover SUV For the unrelated pony/sports car with the same name, see Ford Mustang. "Mach-E" redirects here. Not to be confused with Mache. Motor vehicle Ford Mustang Mach-EOverviewManufacturerFordProduction2021–presentModel years2021–presentAssemblyMexico: Cuautitlán Izcalli (Cuautitlán Assembly)China: Chongqing (Changan Ford)DesignerJason Castriota (chief designer)Chris Walter (exterior design manager)Josh Greiner (interior designer)Body and chassisClassCompact crossover SUVBody style5-door coupe SUVLayoutRear-motor, rear-wheel driveDual-motor, all-wheel-drivePlatformFord GE1PowertrainElectric motorPermanent magnet synchronous motorPower output198–358 kW (266–480 hp; 269–487 PS)Battery68–88 kWhElectric range340–483 km (211–300 mi)Plug-in chargingAC:11 kW DC:115 kW (Standard-range battery)150 kW (Extended-range battery)DimensionsWheelbase2,984 mm (117.5 in)Length4,739 mm (186.6 in)Width1,881 mm (74.1 in)Height1,621 mm (63.8 in)Curb weight4,394–4,890 lb (1,993–2,218 kg) The Ford Mustang Mach-E is a battery electric compact crossover SUV produced by Ford. Introduced on November 17, 2019, it went on sale in December 2020 as a 2021 model. The Mach-E is part of the Mustang series, with its name inspired by the Mach 1 variant of the first-generation Mustang. The car won the 2021 North American SUV of the Year Award. Overview Rear view During development, the Mustang Mach-E was originally teased as the Ford Mach 1, but was retracted after strong public opposition, with Ford CEO Jim Farley describing the name tease as an evaluation. The Mach-E has buttons that open the doors, and a small door handle protruding from the front doors, instead of door handles. Smartphones, or a keypad built into the B-pillar, can be used as a key. The interior has a wide dashboard and built-in soundbar; the dash is equipped with a vertically mounted 15.5 in (39 cm) touchscreen infotainment system fitted with a rotary dial. The majority of the car's systems are controlled through the screen, which uses Ford's recent SYNC 4 operating system, updatable wirelessly. There is a 10.2 in (26 cm) digital cluster for the driver, and the steering wheel has several physical buttons. The Mustang Mach-E uses the Global Electrified 1 (GE1) platform, which is a heavily reworked version of the C2 platform shared with the fourth generation Focus and third generation Kuga/fourth generation Escape. It offers a traditional cargo area at the rear offering a volume of 29 cu ft (821 L), and a 4.8 cu ft (136 L) waterproof trunk under the hood and can be charged by a home AC charger or by DC fast chargers at up to 150 kW. Trim levels The examples and perspective in this section deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (August 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Interior Front trunk Mustang Mach-E GT Performance Edition In the U.S., the Mustang Mach-E is available in four distinct trim levels: base Select, mid-level California Route 1 Edition, well-equipped Premium, and performance-oriented GT. A limited-production First Edition trim was also available at launch for the 2021 model year, and was based on the Premium trim. A GT Performance Package is also available for the GT trim. The model was launched with two battery pack sizes and three power outputs. The entry-level rear-wheel drive version is offered with either a 68 kWh battery pack driving a 266-horsepower (198 kW; 270 PS) motor or an 88 kWh extended battery pack driving a 290-horsepower (216 kW; 294 PS) motor. Both battery packs have a claimed 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 6.1 seconds or less and an EPA range of around 230 and 300 miles (370 and 480 km) respectively. Both the SR and the ER models use the same Motors the output difference is due to the power from the battery. The larger 210-kilowatt (282 hp; 286 PS) motor is used in the rear of all models with the smaller 50-kilowatt (67 hp; 68 PS) motor used in the front of the AWD models (Select and Premium). The GT Performance gets the same 210-kilowatt (282 hp; 286 PS) motor in both front and rear. A dual-motor all-wheel-drive version is also offered with either the same 68 kWh battery pack driving a 266-horsepower (198 kW; 270 PS) motor, or the 88 kWh extended battery pack driving a 346-horsepower (258 kW; 351 PS) motor. They have estimated EPA ranges of 211 and 270 miles (340 and 435 km), respectively. Testing by Edmunds Automotive indicated an actual range of 304 miles (489 km) with the extended-range battery pack version; they said that "Every Tesla we've tested has failed to hit its EPA range estimate". Car and Driver achieved a 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 5.1 seconds with the extended-range model. An all-wheel-drive GT trim is offered with the 88 kWh pack, producing 480 horsepower (358 kW; 487 PS), a targeted 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 3.8 seconds, and a targeted driving range of 250 miles (400 km). Edmunds's testing found that the Mach-E GT's peak acceleration is curtailed after 5 seconds of hard acceleration; Ford confirmed this. The GT trim's Unbridled Extend Mode attempts to ameliorate this limitation by increasing cooling and limiting peak motor output. The Mach-E GT Performance Edition was revealed on December 2, 2020. It is equipped with 20" alloy wheels with Pirelli tires, red Brembo calipers, and black accents on the bodywork. It is equipped with a 480-horsepower (358 kW; 487 PS) motor that can generate 634 lb⋅ft (860 N⋅m) of torque, and has a range of 235 miles (378 km). Specifications Specifications Battery Standard Range (68 kWh) Extended Range (88 kWh) Powertrain RWD AWD RWD AWD Model Select Premium Select Premium Premium California Route 1 Premium First Edition GT Base price (US market) $42,895 $47,000 $45,595 $49,700 $52,000 $49,800 $54,700 $58,300 $59,900 Availability Late 2020 Late 2020/Limited Quantity Late Summer 2021 Range (EPA) 230 miles (370 km) 211 miles (340 km) 300 miles (483 km) 270 miles (435 km) 270 miles (435 km) (GT) 260 miles (418 km) (GT Performance Edition) Range (WLTP) 440 kilometres (273 mi) 400 kilometres (249 mi) 610 kilometres (379 mi) 540 kilometres (336 mi) 500 kilometres (311 mi) (GT) Acceleration0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) 5.8s 5.2s 6.1s 4.8s 3.8s (GT)3.5s (GT Performance Edition) Power Output 266 hp (270 PS; 198 kW) 290 hp (294 PS; 216 kW) 346 hp (351 PS; 258 kW) 480 hp (487 PS; 358 kW) Peak Torque 317 lb⋅ft (430 N⋅m) 428 lb⋅ft (580 N⋅m) 317 lb⋅ft (430 N⋅m) 428 lb⋅ft (580 N⋅m) 600 lb⋅ft (813 N⋅m) (GT)634 lb⋅ft (860 N⋅m) (GT Performance Edition) Top Speed 180 km/h/ 111.847 MPH 200 km/h / 124 mph DC Fast Charge (DCFC) Speed Up to 115 kW (Select)Up to 150 kW (Premium) Up to 150 kW Cargo Space 64.4 cu ft (1,820 L) max volume with rear seats folded, rear trunk, and front trunk ("frunk"). (59.6 cu ft (1,690 L) including rear trunk + 4.8 cu ft (140 L) frunk) In May 2023, Ford announced integration of the North American Charging Standard (NACS) DC fast charging system into their electric vehicles. New built Ford electrics after 2024 will have native NACS charge ports on the vehicle. Existing Ford electric models will be able to connect to the NACS system and its chargers by use of an adapter. Both will thus have access to the extensive NACS charging network with more than 12,000 chargers worldwide. Special variants Mustang Mach-E 1400 This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A Ford Mustang Mach-E 1400 on display at the L.A. Coliseum. The Ford Mustang Mach-E 1400 is a test-bed prototype, first tested by Vaughn Gittin Jr., developed in over 10,000 hours of collaboration between RTR Vehicles and Ford Performance. It is made mostly from composite fiber, saving more weight over carbon fiber. Based on the performance figures of the upcoming Ford Mustang Mach-E GT, the power of the Mach-E 1400 has been increased to 1,400 hp (1,044 kW; 1,419 PS) and over 2,300 lbf⋅ft (3,118 N⋅m) of torque, powered by a total of 7 electric motors from a 56.8 kWh nickel-manganese-cobalt alloy battery, for high performance and discharge rate, cooled by a di-electric coolant. The power of each electric motor can be adjusted individually within very small margins, and could allow for switching between all-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive, and front-wheel drive. The aerodynamics of the prototype allow it to get up to 2,600 lbf (12 kN) of downforce. Regenerative braking is achieved through an electric booster system, accompanied by ABS and stability control to optimize the braking system. The electric prototype also contains Brembo brakes like the Ford Mustang GT4 racecar. The public debut will occur at a NASCAR race, serving as a test-bed for new materials. Mustang Mach-E GT Service Vehicles In December 2021, New York City announced it was buying 184 Mustang Mach-E SUVs as emergency vehicles. During 2022 these vehicles would replace gasoline-powered cars already in use. This model could accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 3.8 seconds and had a range of 270 miles (430 km). Mustang Mach-E Rally Ford Mustang Mach-E Rally (front view) At the Goodwood Festival of Speed in July 2023, Ford unveiled the Rally concept car, which will be put in production. In September 2023, Ford introduced the production version of the Mustang Mach-E Rally, which has two electric motors on each axle with a total of 358 kW (480 hp). Marketing Ford Mustang Mach-E on display at IAA 2021. Ford hired British actor Idris Elba (who once worked for Ford of Britain along with his father) to star in several teaser commercials for the car and host the Mustang Mach-E's official debut on November 17, 2019. On July 9, 2021, Paul Clifton, Kevin Booker, and Fergal McGrath set a Guinness World Record by driving from John O'Groats to Land's End. They covered the 840 miles (1,350 km) route with three charges. Later, a team consisting of Booker, McGrath, and Adam Wood beat this record with one charge stop of 43 minutes 13 seconds, gaining an additional two Guinness World Records. Production Unlike the internal combustion engine (ICE) Mustang models, the Mach-E is assembled at Cuautitlán Assembly in Cuautitlán Izcalli, Mexico. According to former Ford CEO Jim Hackett, assembling the vehicle in Mexico allows Ford to make a profit from the first vehicle, unlike other electric vehicles, adding that as Ford develops factory capacity for electric vehicle production in the United States, some production may be moved there. In February 2021, Ford announced the vehicle would be produced in China by the Changan Ford joint venture for the Chinese domestic market in order to penetrate the nation's electric vehicle market. In April 2022, Ford stopped accepting new orders for the 2022 model year Mustang Mach-E due to its popularity. In June 2022, the CFO of Ford Motor announced that the profitability of the Mustang Mach-E has been wiped out due to increases in the cost of raw materials. Significant recalls In May 2022, Ford initiated a select recall for 2021 Mach-E AWD models over "an issue with unintended acceleration, deceleration, and/or a loss of power" resulting from functional safety software failing to detect a software error during operation leading to unintended acceleration, unintended deceleration, or a loss of drive power. Safety The 2021 Mustang Mach-E top trim was awarded the "Top Safety Pick" by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. IIHS scores Small overlap front (Driver) Good Small overlap front (Passenger) Good Moderate overlap front Good Side (original test) Good Roof strength Good Head restraints and seats Good Headlights Good Marginal varies by trim/option Front crash prevention (Vehicle-to-Vehicle) Superior Front crash prevention (Vehicle-to-Pedestrian, day) Superior Front crash prevention (Vehicle-to-Pedestrian, night) Superior Child seat anchors (LATCH) ease of use Acceptable The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration opened an investigation after a crash where advanced driver assistance system was in use. Awards In 2021, the Mustang Mach-E won Car and Driver's first "EV of the Year" award. It was up against 10 other vehicles including three Tesla models, Audi e-tron, Volvo XC40 Recharge, and Porsche Taycan. All vehicles were tested on how far they could travel at 70 miles-per-hour, performance tests, subjective feel tests on public roads and finally a 1,000-mile road trip from Michigan to Virginia and back. The magazine stated that: "The Mach-E has the driving dynamics and design to push new buyers past mere acceptance of EVs to excitement." They also made note of the premium materials and build quality in their scoring. Sales Year U.S. Europe Mexico China 2020 3 185 2021 27,140 23,054 108 2022 39,458 25,217 66 4,860 2023 40,771 66 2,062 References ^ a b Abuelsamid, Sam (November 17, 2019). "2021 Ford Mustang Mach E – The Pony Goes Electric". Forbes. Retrieved November 18, 2019. ^ "Chinese 2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Is Now Available To Order". ^ Bell, Sebastian (April 23, 2021). "Ford Didn't Initially Plan To Add A High Performance GT Version To Mach-E's Lineup". Car Scoops. ^ "Mustang Mach-E Takes Aim at Tesla Model Y". www.thedetroitbureau.com. Retrieved November 17, 2019. ^ "Iconic Detroit midcentury modern design themes inspire Mustang Mach-E". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved January 5, 2020. ^ "Ford unveils all-electric Mustang Mach E compact SUV". WABC-TV. November 19, 2019. Retrieved May 22, 2022. ^ a b c d e f g h "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Technical Specifications" (PDF). ford.com. Retrieved December 6, 2020. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E EV charging guide - Zapmap". www.zap-map.com. ^ "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Can Charge Just Over Half as Fast as Tesla". Car and Driver. May 15, 2020. ^ Krok, Andrew (November 18, 2019). "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E vs. Audi E-Tron, Jaguar I-Pace and Tesla Model 3". Roadshow by CNET. Retrieved November 18, 2019. ^ Gilboy, James (February 18, 2020). "2021 Ford Mach-E Weighs Up to 1,065 Pounds More Than the Heaviest Mustang". The Drive. ^ Cole, Craig (November 17, 2019). "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E electric SUV officially revealed". Roadshow by CNET. Retrieved November 17, 2019. ^ Hoffman, Connor (November 17, 2019). "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Will Please EV Fans, Perplex Mustang Loyalists". Car and Driver. Retrieved November 17, 2019. ^ Lyons, Kim (January 16, 2021). "Ford reportedly delays some deliveries of its Mustang Mach-E". The Verge. Retrieved February 8, 2021. ^ Berk, Brett (December 22, 2020). "Why Ford Put the Mustang Name on the Mach-E Electric Crossover". Road & Track. Retrieved July 12, 2021. ^ Valdes-Dapena, Peter (January 11, 2021). "Ford Mustang Mach-E wins SUV of the Year award". CNN. Retrieved January 12, 2021. ^ Martinez, Michael (August 24, 2018). "Ford aims to spread Mustang's DNA". Automotive News. Retrieved August 16, 2021. ^ O'Kane, Sean (November 17, 2019). "Ford's Mustang Mach-E is an electric SUV with up to 300 miles of range". The Verge. Retrieved November 18, 2019. ^ "2021 Ford® Mustang Mach-E SUV | All-Electric & Exhilarating". Ford Motor Company. Retrieved November 18, 2019. ^ Elfalan, Jonathan (April 26, 2023) . "Electric Car Range and Consumption (table)". Edmunds Automotive. Archived from the original on February 10, 2021. ^ White, Annie (February 1, 2021). "Tested: 2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Lives up to the Hype, If Not the Name". Car and Driver. Retrieved February 4, 2021. ^ ZumMallen, Ryan (November 15, 2021). "Ford Mustang Mach-E GT vs. Tesla Model Y Performance: The Mustang Has a Power Problem". Edmunds. Retrieved November 16, 2021. ^ Wasef, Basem (October 11, 2021). "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E GT First Drive: A Beloved Badge Goes Electric". Forbes Wheels. Retrieved November 16, 2021. ^ "Ford Mach-E Build and Price". www.ford.com. Ford. Retrieved March 22, 2020. ^ "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E". ford.com. Retrieved December 6, 2020. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E SR RWD price and specifications – EV Database". ev-database.org. Retrieved March 18, 2021. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E SR AWD price and specifications – EV Database". ev-database.org. Retrieved March 18, 2021. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E ER RWD price and specifications – EV Database". ev-database.org. Retrieved March 18, 2021. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E ER AWD price and specifications – EV Database". ev-database.org. Retrieved March 18, 2021. ^ a b "Ford Mustang Mach-E GT price and specifications – EV Database". ev-database.org. Retrieved March 18, 2021. ^ Ford Motor Company (September 24, 2020). "Ford Reveals Blisteringly Quick Mustang Mach-E GT for Europe: Nothing in its Class Accelerates Faster". Ford of Europe. Retrieved January 22, 2021. ^ "Ford EVs will get access to Tesla's Supercharger network in 2024". Ars Technica. May 25, 2023. Retrieved May 26, 2023. ^ "All-Electric Mustang Mach-E 1400 Prototype by Ford Performance and RTR Takes Racing, Drifting to New Levels | Ford Media Center". media.ford.com. Retrieved September 3, 2020. ^ Howard, Phoebe Wall (December 20, 2021). "New York City just spent $11.5M on 184 Mustang Mach-E GT SUVs". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved May 15, 2022. ^ Chilton, Chris (July 14, 2023). "2024 Ford Mustang Mach-E Rally Is Coming To Your Favorite Dirt Road This Fall". Carscoops. ^ Pappas, Thanos (September 13, 2023). "New Ford Mustang Mach-E Rally Is A $65,000 Off-Roader That Just Landed In Detroit". Carscoops. ^ Smith, Christopher (November 4, 2019). "Ford Hires Idris Elba To Help Launch Mustang-Inspired EV Crossover". Motorsport Network. Retrieved November 18, 2019. ^ Hoffman, Connor (November 4, 2019). "Ford and Idris Elba Partnering to Promote New Mustang-Inspired Electric Crossover". Car and Driver. Retrieved November 18, 2019. ^ Clifton, Paul (July 9, 2021). "John O'Groats to Land's End electric car journey confirmed as record". BBC. Retrieved October 14, 2021. ^ Naughton, Keith (November 18, 2019). "Ford bets Mustang Mach-E will be the electric that actually makes a profit". financialpost.com. Postmedia. Bloomberg News. ^ Wayland, Michael (June 22, 2022). "Raw material costs for electric vehicles have doubled during the pandemic". CNBC. Retrieved June 22, 2022. ^ Foote, Brett (May 20, 2022). "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Recalled Over Unintended Acceleration Issue". fordauthority. Retrieved May 22, 2022. ^ "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E 4-door SUV". IIHS-HLDI crash testing and highway safety. ^ Safety regulators probe Ford driver assist features after fatal crash ^ Tingwall, Eric (July 7, 2021). "Presenting Car and Driver's 2021 EV of the Year". Car and Driver. Retrieved October 14, 2021. ^ Valdes-Dapena, Peter (July 7, 2021). "Ford Mustang Mach-E wins Car and Driver EV of the Year award". CNN. Retrieved October 14, 2021. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E US car sales figures". carsalesbase.com. January 5, 2021. Retrieved April 11, 2022. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E European sales figures". carsalesbase.com. January 28, 2021. Retrieved May 8, 2023. ^ "Ford Mustang Mach-E European sales figures". carsalesbase.com. April 28, 2024. Retrieved May 8, 2023. ^ García, Gerardo (January 7, 2023). "Los 371 autos más vendidos de México en 2022: el ranking completo con todos los modelos". Motorpasión México (in Spanish). ^ García, Gerardo (January 10, 2024). "Los autos más vendidos en México en 2023: así queda el ranking con los 389 modelos". Motorpasión México (in Spanish). External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ford Mustang Mach-E. Official website "Ford Mustang Mach-E First Drive: Vehicle Review" on YouTube by Fully Charged vteFord Mustang production models and variantsFord Mustang generations 1964½–1973 1974–1978 1979–1993 1994–2004 2005–2014 2015–2024 2024 Ford in-house variants SVO SVT Cobra Special Service Package California Special Mach 1 Boss 429 Boss 302 Boss 351 Bullitt FR500C GT500/KR Mustang I Giugiaro McLaren M81 Third-party models Shelby Mustang Roush Mustang Steeda Mustang Saleen Mustang Iacocca Mustang RTR Mustang Hennessey Mustang Galpin Rocket Mustang VLF Rocket V8 Other related vehicles Ford Mustang Mach-E Mercury Cougar (1967–1973) Ford Pinto Mercury Capri (1979–1986) Ford Probe (1989–1997) vteFord vehiclesCurrentmodelsCars Focus Mondeo/Taurus Mustang Pickup trucks F-Series Super Duty Maverick Ranger SUVs/crossovers Bronco Bronco Sport Edge L Equator/Equator Sport Escape/Kuga Everest Expedition Explorer Explorer EV Mondeo Sport Mustang Mach-E Puma (crossover) Territory Vans Transit Courier 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ford Mustang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang"},{"link_name":"Mache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mache_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"battery electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_electric_vehicle"},{"link_name":"compact crossover SUV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_crossover_SUV"},{"link_name":"Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Mustang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Mach 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang_Mach_1"},{"link_name":"first-generation Mustang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang_(first_generation)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"For the unrelated pony/sports car with the same name, see Ford Mustang.\"Mach-E\" redirects here. Not to be confused with Mache.Motor vehicleThe Ford Mustang Mach-E is a battery electric compact crossover SUV produced by Ford.[12] Introduced on November 17, 2019, it went on sale in December 2020 as a 2021 model.[13][14] The Mach-E is part of the Mustang series,[15] with its name inspired by the Mach 1 variant of the first-generation Mustang. The car won the 2021 North American SUV of the Year Award.[16]","title":"Ford Mustang Mach-E"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Standard_Range_Rear.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jim Farley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Farley_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"SYNC 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Sync"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Global Electrified 1 (GE1)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_GE1_platform"},{"link_name":"C2 platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_C2_platform"},{"link_name":"fourth generation Focus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Focus_(fourth_generation)"},{"link_name":"third generation Kuga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Kuga#Third_generation_(2019%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"fourth generation Escape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Escape#Fourth_generation_(2020)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Technical_Specifications-7"}],"text":"Rear viewDuring development, the Mustang Mach-E was originally teased as the Ford Mach 1, but was retracted after strong public opposition, with Ford CEO Jim Farley describing the name tease as an evaluation.[17]The Mach-E has buttons that open the doors, and a small door handle protruding from the front doors, instead of door handles. Smartphones, or a keypad built into the B-pillar, can be used as a key.The interior has a wide dashboard and built-in soundbar; the dash is equipped with a vertically mounted 15.5 in (39 cm) touchscreen infotainment system fitted with a rotary dial. The majority of the car's systems are controlled through the screen, which uses Ford's recent SYNC 4 operating system, updatable wirelessly. There is a 10.2 in (26 cm) digital cluster for the driver, and the steering wheel has several physical buttons.[18]The Mustang Mach-E uses the Global Electrified 1 (GE1) platform, which is a heavily reworked version of the C2 platform shared with the fourth generation Focus and third generation Kuga/fourth generation Escape. It offers a traditional cargo area at the rear offering a volume of 29 cu ft (821 L), and a 4.8 cu ft (136 L) waterproof trunk under the hood[19] and can be charged by a home AC charger or by DC fast chargers at up to 150 kW.[7]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Standard_Range_Interior.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2023_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_GT_Front_Compartment.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_GT.jpg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Technical_Specifications-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Technical_Specifications-7"},{"link_name":"Edmunds Automotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmunds_(company)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Car and Driver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_and_Driver"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Technical_Specifications-7"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Pirelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirelli"},{"link_name":"Brembo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brembo"}],"text":"InteriorFront trunkMustang Mach-E GT Performance EditionIn the U.S., the Mustang Mach-E is available in four distinct trim levels: base Select, mid-level California Route 1 Edition, well-equipped Premium, and performance-oriented GT. A limited-production First Edition trim was also available at launch for the 2021 model year, and was based on the Premium trim. A GT Performance Package is also available for the GT trim.The model was launched with two battery pack sizes and three power outputs. The entry-level rear-wheel drive version is offered with either a 68 kWh battery pack driving a 266-horsepower (198 kW; 270 PS) motor or an 88 kWh extended battery pack driving a 290-horsepower (216 kW; 294 PS) motor. Both battery packs have a claimed 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 6.1 seconds or less and an EPA range of around 230 and 300 miles (370 and 480 km) respectively.[7] Both the SR and the ER models use the same Motors the output difference is due to the power from the battery. The larger 210-kilowatt (282 hp; 286 PS) motor is used in the rear of all models with the smaller 50-kilowatt (67 hp; 68 PS) motor used in the front of the AWD models (Select and Premium). The GT Performance gets the same 210-kilowatt (282 hp; 286 PS) motor in both front and rear.A dual-motor all-wheel-drive version is also offered with either the same 68 kWh battery pack driving a 266-horsepower (198 kW; 270 PS) motor, or the 88 kWh extended battery pack driving a 346-horsepower (258 kW; 351 PS) motor. They have estimated EPA ranges of 211 and 270 miles (340 and 435 km), respectively.[7] Testing by Edmunds Automotive indicated an actual range of 304 miles (489 km) with the extended-range battery pack version; they said that \"Every Tesla we've tested has failed to hit its EPA range estimate\".[20] Car and Driver achieved a 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 5.1 seconds with the extended-range model.[21]An all-wheel-drive GT trim is offered with the 88 kWh pack, producing 480 horsepower (358 kW; 487 PS), a targeted 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) time of 3.8 seconds, and a targeted driving range of 250 miles (400 km).[7] Edmunds's testing found that the Mach-E GT's peak acceleration is curtailed after 5 seconds of hard acceleration; Ford confirmed this.[22] The GT trim's Unbridled Extend Mode attempts to ameliorate this limitation by increasing cooling and limiting peak motor output.[23]The Mach-E GT Performance Edition was revealed on December 2, 2020. It is equipped with 20\" alloy wheels with Pirelli tires, red Brembo calipers, and black accents on the bodywork. It is equipped with a 480-horsepower (358 kW; 487 PS) motor that can generate 634 lb⋅ft (860 N⋅m) of torque, and has a range of 235 miles (378 km).","title":"Trim levels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"North American Charging Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Charging_Standard"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars20230525-32"}],"text":"In May 2023, Ford announced integration of the North American Charging Standard (NACS) DC fast charging system into their electric vehicles. New built Ford electrics after 2024 will have native NACS charge ports on the vehicle. Existing Ford electric models will be able to connect to the NACS system and its chargers by use of an adapter. Both will thus have access to the extensive NACS charging network with more than 12,000 chargers worldwide.[32]","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Special variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ford_Performance_Mustang_Mach_E_1400.jpg"},{"link_name":"L.A. Coliseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Memorial_Coliseum"},{"link_name":"Vaughn Gittin Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaughn_Gittin,_Jr."},{"link_name":"RTR Vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTR_Vehicles"},{"link_name":"Ford Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Performance"},{"link_name":"Ford Mustang GT4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang_(sixth_generation)#Motorsport"},{"link_name":"NASCAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASCAR"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Mustang Mach-E 1400","text":"A Ford Mustang Mach-E 1400 on display at the L.A. Coliseum.The Ford Mustang Mach-E 1400 is a test-bed prototype, first tested by Vaughn Gittin Jr., developed in over 10,000 hours of collaboration between RTR Vehicles and Ford Performance. It is made mostly from composite fiber, saving more weight over carbon fiber. Based on the performance figures of the upcoming Ford Mustang Mach-E GT, the power of the Mach-E 1400 has been increased to 1,400 hp (1,044 kW; 1,419 PS) and over 2,300 lbf⋅ft (3,118 N⋅m) of torque, powered by a total of 7 electric motors from a 56.8 kWh nickel-manganese-cobalt alloy battery, for high performance and discharge rate, cooled by a di-electric coolant. The power of each electric motor can be adjusted individually within very small margins, and could allow for switching between all-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive, and front-wheel drive.The aerodynamics of the prototype allow it to get up to 2,600 lbf (12 kN) of downforce. Regenerative braking is achieved through an electric booster system, accompanied by ABS and stability control to optimize the braking system. The electric prototype also contains Brembo brakes like the Ford Mustang GT4 racecar. The public debut will occur at a NASCAR race, serving as a test-bed for new materials.[33]","title":"Special variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Mustang Mach-E GT Service Vehicles","text":"In December 2021, New York City announced it was buying 184 Mustang Mach-E SUVs as emergency vehicles. During 2022 these vehicles would replace gasoline-powered cars already in use. This model could accelerate from 0 to 60 mph (0 to 97 km/h) in 3.8 seconds and had a range of 270 miles (430 km).[34]","title":"Special variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Rally_Auto_Zuerich_2023_1X7A1182.jpg"},{"link_name":"Goodwood Festival of Speed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodwood_Festival_of_Speed"},{"link_name":"concept car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_car"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Mustang Mach-E Rally","text":"Ford Mustang Mach-E Rally (front view)At the Goodwood Festival of Speed in July 2023, Ford unveiled the Rally concept car, which will be put in production.[35] In September 2023, Ford introduced the production version of the Mustang Mach-E Rally, which has two electric motors on each axle with a total of 358 kW (480 hp).[36]","title":"Special variants"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_IAA_2021_1X7A0236.jpg"},{"link_name":"IAA 2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Motor_Show_Germany"},{"link_name":"Idris Elba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idris_Elba"},{"link_name":"Ford of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Guinness World Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Record"},{"link_name":"John O'Groats to Land's End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land%27s_End_to_John_o%27_Groats"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"Ford Mustang Mach-E on display at IAA 2021.Ford hired British actor Idris Elba (who once worked for Ford of Britain along with his father) to star in several teaser commercials for the car and host the Mustang Mach-E's official debut on November 17, 2019.[37][38]On July 9, 2021, Paul Clifton, Kevin Booker, and Fergal McGrath set a Guinness World Record by driving from John O'Groats to Land's End. They covered the 840 miles (1,350 km) route with three charges. Later, a team consisting of Booker, McGrath, and Adam Wood beat this record with one charge stop of 43 minutes 13 seconds, gaining an additional two Guinness World Records.[39]","title":"Marketing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"internal combustion engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"},{"link_name":"Cuautitlán Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuautitl%C3%A1n_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Cuautitlán Izcalli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuautitl%C3%A1n_Izcalli"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-forbes1-1"},{"link_name":"Changan Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changan_Ford"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"model year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_year"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"Unlike the internal combustion engine (ICE) Mustang models, the Mach-E is assembled at Cuautitlán Assembly in Cuautitlán Izcalli, Mexico.[1] According to former Ford CEO Jim Hackett, assembling the vehicle in Mexico allows Ford to make a profit from the first vehicle, unlike other electric vehicles, adding that as Ford develops factory capacity for electric vehicle production in the United States, some production may be moved there.In February 2021, Ford announced the vehicle would be produced in China by the Changan Ford joint venture for the Chinese domestic market in order to penetrate the nation's electric vehicle market.[40]In April 2022, Ford stopped accepting new orders for the 2022 model year Mustang Mach-E due to its popularity.In June 2022, the CFO of Ford Motor announced that the profitability of the Mustang Mach-E has been wiped out due to increases in the cost of raw materials.[41]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"unintended acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_unintended_acceleration"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"text":"In May 2022, Ford initiated a select recall for 2021 Mach-E AWD models over \"an issue with unintended acceleration, deceleration, and/or a loss of power\" resulting from functional safety software failing to detect a software error during operation leading to unintended acceleration, unintended deceleration, or a loss of drive power.[42]","title":"Significant recalls"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Insurance Institute for Highway Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_Institute_for_Highway_Safety"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Highway_Traffic_Safety_Administration"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"text":"The 2021 Mustang Mach-E top trim was awarded the \"Top Safety Pick\" by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety.[43]The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration opened an investigation after a crash where advanced driver assistance system was in use.[44]","title":"Safety"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Audi e-tron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_e-tron_(2018)"},{"link_name":"Volvo XC40 Recharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo_XC40"},{"link_name":"Porsche Taycan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche_Taycan"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"text":"In 2021, the Mustang Mach-E won Car and Driver's first \"EV of the Year\" award. It was up against 10 other vehicles including three Tesla models, Audi e-tron, Volvo XC40 Recharge, and Porsche Taycan.[45] All vehicles were tested on how far they could travel at 70 miles-per-hour, performance tests, subjective feel tests on public roads and finally a 1,000-mile road trip from Michigan to Virginia and back. The magazine stated that: \"The Mach-E has the driving dynamics and design to push new buyers past mere acceptance of EVs to excitement.\" They also made note of the premium materials and build quality in their scoring.[46]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Sales"}]
[{"image_text":"Rear view","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Standard_Range_Rear.jpg/220px-2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Standard_Range_Rear.jpg"},{"image_text":"Interior","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Standard_Range_Interior.jpg/220px-2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Standard_Range_Interior.jpg"},{"image_text":"Front trunk","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/2023_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_GT_Front_Compartment.jpg/220px-2023_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_GT_Front_Compartment.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mustang Mach-E GT Performance Edition","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_GT.jpg/220px-2021_Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_GT.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Ford Mustang Mach-E 1400 on display at the L.A. Coliseum.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ford_Performance_Mustang_Mach_E_1400.jpg/220px-Ford_Performance_Mustang_Mach_E_1400.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ford Mustang Mach-E Rally (front view)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Rally_Auto_Zuerich_2023_1X7A1182.jpg/220px-Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_Rally_Auto_Zuerich_2023_1X7A1182.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ford Mustang Mach-E on display at IAA 2021.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_IAA_2021_1X7A0236.jpg/280px-Ford_Mustang_Mach-E_IAA_2021_1X7A0236.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"Abuelsamid, Sam (November 17, 2019). \"2021 Ford Mustang Mach E – The Pony Goes Electric\". Forbes. Retrieved November 18, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/samabuelsamid/2019/11/17/2021-ford-mustang-mach-ethe-pony-goes-electric/","url_text":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach E – The Pony Goes Electric\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes","url_text":"Forbes"}]},{"reference":"\"Chinese 2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Is Now Available To Order\".","urls":[{"url":"https://fordauthority.com/2021/04/chinese-2021-ford-mustang-mach-e-is-now-available-to-order-via-direct-sales-model/","url_text":"\"Chinese 2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Is Now Available To Order\""}]},{"reference":"Bell, Sebastian (April 23, 2021). \"Ford Didn't Initially Plan To Add A High Performance GT Version To Mach-E's Lineup\". Car Scoops.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.carscoops.com/2021/04/ford-didnt-initially-plan-to-add-a-high-performance-gt-version-to-mach-es-lineup/","url_text":"\"Ford Didn't Initially Plan To Add A High Performance GT Version To Mach-E's Lineup\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mustang Mach-E Takes Aim at Tesla Model Y\". www.thedetroitbureau.com. Retrieved November 17, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thedetroitbureau.com/reviews/mustang-mach-e-takes-aim-at-tesla-model-y/","url_text":"\"Mustang Mach-E Takes Aim at Tesla Model Y\""}]},{"reference":"\"Iconic Detroit midcentury modern design themes inspire Mustang Mach-E\". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved January 5, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.freep.com/story/money/cars/ford/2020/12/05/ford-mustang-mach-e-detroit-architecture-eames/3808550001/","url_text":"\"Iconic Detroit midcentury modern design themes inspire Mustang Mach-E\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ford unveils all-electric Mustang Mach E compact SUV\". WABC-TV. November 19, 2019. Retrieved May 22, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://abc7ny.com/automotive/ford-unveils-all-electric-mustang-compact-suv/5704814/","url_text":"\"Ford unveils all-electric Mustang Mach E compact SUV\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WABC-TV","url_text":"WABC-TV"}]},{"reference":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Technical Specifications\" (PDF). ford.com. Retrieved December 6, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://media.ford.com/content/dam/fordmedia/North%20America/US/2020/12/01/Mustang-Mach-E-GT-Performance-Edition-spec-sheet.pdf","url_text":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Technical Specifications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford.com","url_text":"ford.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Ford Mustang Mach-E EV charging guide - Zapmap\". www.zap-map.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zap-map.com/ev-guides/model-charging/ford-mustang-mach-e/","url_text":"\"Ford Mustang Mach-E EV charging guide - Zapmap\""}]},{"reference":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Can Charge Just Over Half as Fast as Tesla\". Car and Driver. May 15, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a32491050/2021-ford-mustang-mach-e-charging-time/","url_text":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Can Charge Just Over Half as Fast as Tesla\""}]},{"reference":"Krok, Andrew (November 18, 2019). \"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E vs. Audi E-Tron, Jaguar I-Pace and Tesla Model 3\". Roadshow by CNET. Retrieved November 18, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ford-mustang-mach-e-audi-jaguar-tesla-comparison/","url_text":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E vs. Audi E-Tron, Jaguar I-Pace and Tesla Model 3\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET","url_text":"Roadshow by CNET"}]},{"reference":"Gilboy, James (February 18, 2020). \"2021 Ford Mach-E Weighs Up to 1,065 Pounds More Than the Heaviest Mustang\". 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Tesla\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ford-mustang-mach-e-audi-jaguar-tesla-comparison/","external_links_name":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E vs. Audi E-Tron, Jaguar I-Pace and Tesla Model 3\""},{"Link":"https://www.thedrive.com/news/32262/2021-ford-mach-e-weighs-up-to-1065-pounds-more-than-the-heaviest-mustang","external_links_name":"\"2021 Ford Mach-E Weighs Up to 1,065 Pounds More Than the Heaviest Mustang\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/ford-mustang-mach-e/","external_links_name":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E electric SUV officially revealed\""},{"Link":"https://www.caranddriver.com/news/a29810295/2021-ford-mustang-mach-e-photos-info/","external_links_name":"\"2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Will Please EV Fans, Perplex Mustang Loyalists\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2021/1/16/22234668/ford-delays-deliveries-mustang-mach-e-quality-checks","external_links_name":"\"Ford reportedly delays some deliveries of its Mustang Mach-E\""},{"Link":"https://www.roadandtrack.com/news/a35033513/why-ford-put-the-mustang-name-on-the-mach-e-electric-crossover/","external_links_name":"\"Why Ford Put the Mustang Name on the Mach-E Electric Crossover\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnn.com/2021/01/11/business/mustang-mach-e-suv-of-the-year/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Ford Mustang Mach-E wins SUV of the Year award\""},{"Link":"https://www.autonews.com/article/20180827/OEM04/180829810/ford-aims-to-spread-mustang-s-dna","external_links_name":"\"Ford aims to spread Mustang's DNA\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/transportation/2019/11/17/20967565/ford-mustang-mach-e-electric-suv-specs-price-la-auto-show-2019","external_links_name":"\"Ford's Mustang Mach-E is an electric SUV with up to 300 miles of range\""},{"Link":"https://www.ford.com/suvs/mach-e/2021/","external_links_name":"\"2021 Ford® Mustang Mach-E SUV | All-Electric & 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figures\""},{"Link":"https://www.motorpasion.com.mx/industria/autos-vendidos-mexico-2022","external_links_name":"\"Los 371 autos más vendidos de México en 2022: el ranking completo con todos los modelos\""},{"Link":"https://www.motorpasion.com.mx/industria/autos-vendidos-mexico-2023","external_links_name":"\"Los autos más vendidos en México en 2023: así queda el ranking con los 389 modelos\""},{"Link":"https://www.ford.com/suvs/mach-e/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=76Wdzh2qc78","external_links_name":"\"Ford Mustang Mach-E First Drive: Vehicle Review\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penthouse_Forum
Penthouse Forum
["1 History and profile","2 Notable contributors","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
Erotic magazine ForumFirst issueMarch 1968; 56 years ago (1968-03)CompanyPenthouse World MediaCountryUnited KingdomUnited StatesLanguageEnglishISSN1043-0210OCLC19252232 Penthouse Forum, sometimes simply Forum, is a magazine owned by Penthouse World Media, the publishers of Penthouse magazine. History and profile Penthouse Forum was started in March 1968 in the UK and featured letters, articles on health, medicine psychology and social relationships. Its subtitle was International Journal of Human Relations. The first American edition of Penthouse Forum was published in 1971 and became the fastest-growing national magazine by 1978. In the 1970s, Forum was one of the most-sold magazines in America. In 1996, Forum had 400,000 subscribers. The "letters" section of the magazine became popular, resulting in the creation of another Penthouse publication, Penthouse Letters. Notable contributors Many of the editorial staff and half of the letterwriters whose contributions were published were women. Alastair Campbell, a journalist and Tony Blair's former director of communications, was a contributor to the magazine, as was Chad Varah, the founder of The Samaritans charity and an Anglican priest, who was a consultant on sex education for the magazine. In July 2006 the rights to the UK edition were licensed to Trojan Publishing. See also Penthouse (magazine) Outline of British pornography References ^ a b c d McEntire, Dee L. (1992). "Erotic Storytelling: Sexual Experience and Fantasy Letters in Forum Magazine". Western Folklore. 51 (1): 81–96. doi:10.2307/1499646. ISSN 0043-373X. JSTOR 1499646. ^ Lupton, David Walker (1979-03-20). "Newsstand Magazines and the Public Library". Public Library Quarterly. 1 (1): 69–79. doi:10.1300/J118v01n01_07. ISSN 0161-6846. ^ Russell, Diana E. H. (1998-05-14). Dangerous Relationships: Pornography, Misogyny and Rape. SAGE. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-7619-0525-7. ^ Jenkins, Henry (2006). ""He's in the Closet but He's Not Gay": Male-Male Desire in Penthouse Letters". In Lehman, Peter (ed.). Pornography: Film and Culture. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-3871-6. ^ Maev Kennedy (30 November 2010). "Bad sex award goes to novelist Rowan Somerville". the Guardian. Retrieved 6 January 2015. ^ Rocha, Leon Antonio (2012-09-01). "The way of sex: Joseph Needham and Jolan Chang". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. Centre and Periphery in the Eighteenth-Century Habsburg 'Medical Empire'. 43 (3): 611–626. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2012.04.002. ISSN 1369-8486. PMID 22652507. ^ Simon Bowers, "Flotation for porn publisher", The Guardian, 12 February 2008 External links Official website Betsy Andrews "Happily married couples gone wild!", Salon.com June 1976, full article featuring McLaren and Vivienne Westwood’s shop SEX vtePornography in the United KingdomLegislation Obscene Publications Acts Video Recordings Act 1984 Section 63 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 Audiovisual Media Services Regulations 2014 Digital Economy Act 2017 Regulation British Board of Film Classification History of British film certificates R18 certificate PhonepayPlus Proposed age verification system Book censorship Fanny Hill Lady Chatterley's Lover R v Penguin Books Ltd Pornography channels 40+ The Adult Channel Babes and Brazzers Babestation Babeworld Blue Hustler GAYtv Hustler TV Playboy One Portland TV Sex Station SmileTV Television X Vivid TV Television shows Babestation Babeworld Electric Blue Sex Station TVX Callgirls Live UK Raw! Pornographic actors Yasmeena Ali Sophie Anderson Cathy Barry Paul Baxendale-Walker Samantha Bentley John T. Bone Nicky Crane Eileen Daly Mark Davis Belle Delphine Ben Dover Linzi Drew Derek Hay Sahara Knite Keiran Lee Linsey Dawn McKenzie Mary Millington Rebecca More Poppy Morgan Wilde Oscar Tuppy Owens Kay Parker Fiona Richmond Aiden Shaw Long Dong Silver Tanya Tate Michelle Thorne Eve Vorley Taylor Wane Others Film directors Paul Baxendale-Walker Kristen Bjorn John T. Bone Mark Davis Ben Dover Jasper Duncombe Keiran Lee John Lindsay Poppy Morgan Anna Span Tanya Tate Viv Thomas Eve Vorley Taylor Wane Awards Sexual Freedom Awards SHAFTA Awards UK Adult Film and Television Awards Magazine publishers Paul Raymond David Sullivan Richard Desmond Gold Star Publications Russell Gay Harrison Marks Magazines Mayfair Knave Men Only Club International The Cremorne Escort Filament Razzle Fiesta Forum Asian Babes Men's World The Pearl Photo Bits Quim Suck Whitehouse Zoo Weekly Daily Sport / Sunday Sport (newspapers) Opposition Mary Whitehouse Lord Longford Mediawatch-UK UK anti-pornography movement Outline of British pornography - Pornography in Europe This pornographic magazine or journal–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.See tips for writing articles about magazines. Further suggestions might be found on the article's talk page.vte
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_quark
Up quark
["1 History","2 Mass","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]
Type of quark Up quarkCompositionelementary particleStatisticsfermionicFamilyquarkGenerationfirstInteractionsstrong, weak, electromagnetic, gravitySymboluAntiparticleup antiquark (u)TheorizedMurray Gell-Mann (1964)George Zweig (1964)DiscoveredSLAC (1968)Mass2.2+0.5−0.4 MeV/c2Decays intostable or down quark + positron + electron neutrinoElectric charge+2/3 eColor chargeYesSpin1/2 ħWeak isospinLH: +1/2, RH: 0Weak hyperchargeLH: +1/3, RH: +4/3 The up quark or u quark (symbol: u) is the lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle, and a significant constituent of matter. It, along with the down quark, forms the neutrons (one up quark, two down quarks) and protons (two up quarks, one down quark) of atomic nuclei. It is part of the first generation of matter, has an electric charge of +2/3 e and a bare mass of 2.2+0.5−0.4 MeV/c2. Like all quarks, the up quark is an elementary fermion with spin 1/2, and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the up quark is the up antiquark (sometimes called antiup quark or simply antiup), which differs from it only in that some of its properties, such as charge have equal magnitude but opposite sign. Its existence (along with that of the down and strange quarks) was postulated in 1964 by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig to explain the Eightfold Way classification scheme of hadrons. The up quark was first observed by experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968. History Standard Model of particle physicsElementary particles of the Standard Model BackgroundParticle physicsStandard ModelQuantum field theory Gauge theory Spontaneous symmetry breaking Higgs mechanism ConstituentsElectroweak interaction Quantum chromodynamics CKM matrixStandard Model mathematics LimitationsStrong CP problemHierarchy problemNeutrino oscillationsPhysics beyond the Standard Model Scientists Rutherford Thomson Chadwick Bose Sudarshan Davis Jr Anderson Fermi Dirac Feynman Rubbia Gell-Mann Kendall Taylor Friedman Powell Anderson Glashow Iliopoulos Lederman Maiani Meer Cowan Nambu Chamberlain Cabibbo Schwartz Perl Majorana Weinberg Lee Ward Salam Kobayashi Maskawa Mills Yang Yukawa 't Hooft Veltman Gross Pais Pauli Politzer Reines Schwinger Wilczek Cronin Fitch Vleck Higgs Englert Brout Hagen Guralnik Kibble de Mayolo Lattes Zweig vte In the beginnings of particle physics (first half of the 20th century), hadrons such as protons, neutrons and pions were thought to be elementary particles. However, as new hadrons were discovered, the 'particle zoo' grew from a few particles in the early 1930s and 1940s to several dozens of them in the 1950s. The relationships between each of them were unclear until 1961, when Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman (independently of each other) proposed a hadron classification scheme called the Eightfold Way, or in more technical terms, SU(3) flavor symmetry. This classification scheme organized the hadrons into isospin multiplets, but the physical basis behind it was still unclear. In 1964, Gell-Mann and George Zweig (independently of each other) proposed the quark model, then consisting only of up, down, and strange quarks. However, while the quark model explained the Eightfold Way, no direct evidence of the existence of quarks was found until 1968 at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Deep inelastic scattering experiments indicated that protons had substructure, and that protons made of three more-fundamental particles explained the data (thus confirming the quark model). At first people were reluctant to describe the three bodies as quarks, instead preferring Richard Feynman's parton description, but over time the quark theory became accepted (see November Revolution). Mass Despite being extremely common, the bare mass of the up quark is not well determined, but probably lies between 1.8 and 3.0 MeV/c2. Lattice QCD calculations give a more precise value: 2.01±0.14 MeV/c2. When found in mesons (particles made of one quark and one antiquark) or baryons (particles made of three quarks), the 'effective mass' (or 'dressed' mass) of quarks becomes greater because of the binding energy caused by the gluon field between each quark (see mass–energy equivalence). The bare mass of up quarks is so light, it cannot be straightforwardly calculated because relativistic effects have to be taken into account. See also Down quark Isospin Quark model Quantum Mechanics References ^ a b M. Tanabashi et al. (Particle Data Group) (2018). "Review of Particle Physics". Physical Review D. 98 (3): 1–708. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..98c0001T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001. hdl:10044/1/68623. PMID 10020536. ^ M. Gell-Mann (2000) . "The Eightfold Way: A theory of strong interaction symmetry". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.). The Eightfold Way. Westview Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7382-0299-0.Original: M. Gell-Mann (1961). "The Eightfold Way: A theory of strong interaction symmetry". Synchrotron Laboratory Report CTSL-20. California Institute of Technology. ^ Y. Ne'eman (2000) . "Derivation of strong interactions from gauge invariance". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.). The Eightfold Way. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-7382-0299-0.Original Y. Ne'eman (1961). "Derivation of strong interactions from gauge invariance". Nuclear Physics. 26 (2): 222–229. Bibcode:1961NucPh..26..222N. doi:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90134-1. ^ M. Gell-Mann (1964). "A Schematic Model of Baryons and Mesons". Physics Letters. 8 (3): 214–215. Bibcode:1964PhL.....8..214G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3. ^ G. Zweig (1964). "An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking". Cern-Th-401. doi:10.17181/CERN-TH-401. ^ G. Zweig (1964). "An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking: II". Cern-Th-412. doi:10.17181/CERN-TH-412. ^ B. Carithers, P. Grannis (1995). "Discovery of the Top Quark" (PDF). Beam Line. 25 (3): 4–16. Retrieved 2008-09-23. ^ Bloom, E. D.; Coward, D.; Destaebler, H.; Drees, J.; Miller, G.; Mo, L.; Taylor, R.; Breidenbach, M.; et al. (1969). "High-Energy Inelastic e–p Scattering at 6° and 10°". Physical Review Letters. 23 (16): 930–934. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23..930B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.930. ^ M. Breidenbach; Friedman, J.; Kendall, H.; Bloom, E.; Coward, D.; Destaebler, H.; Drees, J.; Mo, L.; Taylor, R.; et al. (1969). "Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron–Proton Scattering". Physical Review Letters. 23 (16): 935–939. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23..935B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.935. OSTI 1444731. S2CID 2575595. ^ J. I. Friedman. "The Road to the Nobel Prize". Hue University. Archived from the original on 2008-12-25. Retrieved 2008-09-29. ^ R. P. Feynman (1969). "Very High-Energy Collisions of Hadrons" (PDF). Physical Review Letters. 23 (24): 1415–1417. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23.1415F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1415. ^ S. Kretzer; Lai, H.; Olness, Fredrick; Tung, W.; et al. (2004). "CTEQ6 Parton Distributions with Heavy Quark Mass Effects". Physical Review D. 69 (11): 114005. arXiv:hep-ph/0307022. Bibcode:2004PhRvD..69k4005K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.114005. S2CID 119379329. ^ D. J. Griffiths (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-471-60386-3. ^ M. E. Peskin, D. V. Schroeder (1995). An introduction to quantum field theory. Addison–Wesley. p. 556. ISBN 978-0-201-50397-5. ^ J. Beringer (Particle Data Group); et al. (2012). "PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)'" (PDF). Particle Data Group. Retrieved 2013-02-21. ^ Cho, Adrian (April 2010). "Mass of the Common Quark Finally Nailed Down". Science Magazine. Further reading A. Ali, G. Kramer; Kramer (2011). "JETS and QCD: A historical review of the discovery of the quark and gluon jets and its impact on QCD". European Physical Journal H. 36 (2): 245. arXiv:1012.2288. Bibcode:2011EPJH...36..245A. doi:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1. S2CID 54062126. R. Nave. "Quarks". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 2008-06-29. A. Pickering (1984). Constructing Quarks. University of Chicago Press. pp. 114–125. ISBN 978-0-226-66799-7. vteParticles in physicsElementaryFermionsQuarks Up (quark antiquark) Down (quark antiquark) Charm (quark antiquark) Strange (quark antiquark) Top (quark antiquark) Bottom (quark antiquark) Leptons Electron Positron Muon Antimuon Tau Antitau Neutrino Electron neutrino Electron antineutrino Muon neutrino Muon antineutrino Tau neutrino Tau antineutrino BosonsGauge Photon Gluon W and Z bosons Scalar Higgs boson Ghost fields Faddeev–Popov ghosts HypotheticalSuperpartnersGauginos Gluino Gravitino Photino Others Axino Chargino Higgsino Neutralino Sfermion (Stop squark) Others Axion Curvaton Dilaton Dual graviton Graviphoton Graviton Inflaton Leptoquark Magnetic monopole Majoron Majorana fermion Dark photon Preon Sterile neutrino Tachyon W′ and Z′ bosons X and Y bosons CompositeHadronsBaryons Nucleon Proton Antiproton Neutron Antineutron Delta baryon Lambda baryon Sigma baryon Xi baryon Omega baryon Mesons Pion Rho meson Eta and eta prime mesons Bottom eta meson Phi meson J/psi meson Omega meson Upsilon meson Kaon B meson D meson Quarkonium Exotic hadrons Tetraquark (Double-charm tetraquark) Pentaquark Others Atomic nuclei Atoms Exotic atoms Positronium Muonium Tauonium Onia Pionium Protonium Superatoms Molecules HypotheticalBaryons Hexaquark Heptaquark Skyrmion Mesons Glueball Theta meson T meson Others Mesonic molecule Pomeron Diquark R-hadron Quasiparticles Anyon Davydov soliton Dropleton Exciton Fracton Hole Magnon Phonon Plasmaron Plasmon Polariton Polaron Roton Trion Lists Baryons Mesons Particles Quasiparticles Timeline of particle discoveries Related History of subatomic physics timeline Standard Model mathematical formulation Subatomic particles Particles Antiparticles Nuclear physics Eightfold way Quark model Exotic matter Massless particle Relativistic particle Virtual particle Wave–particle duality Particle chauvinism Physics portal Authority control databases: National Germany
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark"},{"link_name":"elementary particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"down quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_quark"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"protons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"atomic nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"first generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generation_(physics)"},{"link_name":"electric charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_charge"},{"link_name":"bare mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark#Mass"},{"link_name":"MeV/c2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PDG2018-1"},{"link_name":"quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark"},{"link_name":"elementary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle"},{"link_name":"fermion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion"},{"link_name":"spin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)"},{"link_name":"1/2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin-1/2"},{"link_name":"fundamental interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction"},{"link_name":"gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitation"},{"link_name":"electromagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism"},{"link_name":"weak interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_interaction"},{"link_name":"strong interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_interaction"},{"link_name":"antiparticle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"link_name":"charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"equal magnitude but opposite sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Additive_inverse"},{"link_name":"down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_quark"},{"link_name":"strange quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_quark"},{"link_name":"Murray Gell-Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann"},{"link_name":"George Zweig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Zweig"},{"link_name":"Eightfold Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eightfold_Way_(physics)"},{"link_name":"hadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron"},{"link_name":"Stanford Linear Accelerator Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator_Center"}],"text":"The up quark or u quark (symbol: u) is the lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle, and a significant constituent of matter. It, along with the down quark, forms the neutrons (one up quark, two down quarks) and protons (two up quarks, one down quark) of atomic nuclei. It is part of the first generation of matter, has an electric charge of +2/3 e and a bare mass of 2.2+0.5−0.4 MeV/c2.[1] Like all quarks, the up quark is an elementary fermion with spin 1/2, and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the up quark is the up antiquark (sometimes called antiup quark or simply antiup), which differs from it only in that some of its properties, such as charge have equal magnitude but opposite sign.Its existence (along with that of the down and strange quarks) was postulated in 1964 by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig to explain the Eightfold Way classification scheme of hadrons. The up quark was first observed by experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.","title":"Up quark"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrons"},{"link_name":"protons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"pions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pion"},{"link_name":"elementary particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle"},{"link_name":"particle zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_zoo"},{"link_name":"Murray Gell-Mann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Yuval Ne'eman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuval_Ne%27eman"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Eightfold Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)"},{"link_name":"SU(3)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SU(3)"},{"link_name":"flavor symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavor_symmetry"},{"link_name":"isospin multiplets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isospin"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gell-Man1964-4"},{"link_name":"George Zweig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Zweig"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zweig1964a-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zweig1964b-6"},{"link_name":"quark model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_model"},{"link_name":"down","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_quark"},{"link_name":"strange quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_quark"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carithers-7"},{"link_name":"Stanford Linear Accelerator Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Linear_Accelerator_Center"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bloom-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Breidenbach-9"},{"link_name":"Deep inelastic scattering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_inelastic_scattering"},{"link_name":"quark model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_model"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Richard Feynman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Feynman"},{"link_name":"parton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parton_(particle_physics)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Griffiths-13"},{"link_name":"November Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_Revolution_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"In the beginnings of particle physics (first half of the 20th century), hadrons such as protons, neutrons and pions were thought to be elementary particles. However, as new hadrons were discovered, the 'particle zoo' grew from a few particles in the early 1930s and 1940s to several dozens of them in the 1950s. The relationships between each of them were unclear until 1961, when Murray Gell-Mann[2] and Yuval Ne'eman[3] (independently of each other) proposed a hadron classification scheme called the Eightfold Way, or in more technical terms, SU(3) flavor symmetry.This classification scheme organized the hadrons into isospin multiplets, but the physical basis behind it was still unclear. In 1964, Gell-Mann[4] and George Zweig[5][6] (independently of each other) proposed the quark model, then consisting only of up, down, and strange quarks.[7] However, while the quark model explained the Eightfold Way, no direct evidence of the existence of quarks was found until 1968 at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center.[8][9] Deep inelastic scattering experiments indicated that protons had substructure, and that protons made of three more-fundamental particles explained the data (thus confirming the quark model).[10]At first people were reluctant to describe the three bodies as quarks, instead preferring Richard Feynman's parton description,[11][12][13] but over time the quark theory became accepted (see November Revolution).[14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bare mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark#Mass"},{"link_name":"MeV/c2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PDG2012-15"},{"link_name":"Lattice QCD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_QCD"},{"link_name":"MeV/c2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronvolt#Mass"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lqcd-16"},{"link_name":"mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meson"},{"link_name":"antiquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"link_name":"baryons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon"},{"link_name":"becomes greater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark#Mass"},{"link_name":"binding energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics_binding_energy"},{"link_name":"gluon field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluon"},{"link_name":"mass–energy equivalence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence"}],"text":"Despite being extremely common, the bare mass of the up quark is not well determined, but probably lies between 1.8 and 3.0 MeV/c2.[15] Lattice QCD calculations give a more precise value: 2.01±0.14 MeV/c2.[16]When found in mesons (particles made of one quark and one antiquark) or baryons (particles made of three quarks), the 'effective mass' (or 'dressed' mass) of quarks becomes greater because of the binding energy caused by the gluon field between each quark (see mass–energy equivalence). The bare mass of up quarks is so light, it cannot be straightforwardly calculated because relativistic effects have to be taken into account.","title":"Mass"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Physical Journal H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Physical_Journal_H"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1012.2288","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/1012.2288"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2011EPJH...36..245A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EPJH...36..245A"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1140%2Fepjh%2Fe2011-10047-1"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"54062126","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54062126"},{"link_name":"\"Quarks\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Particles/quark.html"},{"link_name":"HyperPhysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperPhysics"},{"link_name":"Georgia State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_State_University"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-226-66799-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66799-7"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Particles"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Particles"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Particles"},{"link_name":"Particles in physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics"},{"link_name":"Elementary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle"},{"link_name":"Fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion"},{"link_name":"Quarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark"},{"link_name":"Up (quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"antiquark)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_antiquark"},{"link_name":"Down (quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_quark"},{"link_name":"antiquark)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_antiquark"},{"link_name":"Charm (quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm_quark"},{"link_name":"antiquark)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm_antiquark"},{"link_name":"Strange (quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_quark"},{"link_name":"antiquark)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_antiquark"},{"link_name":"Top (quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_quark"},{"link_name":"antiquark)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_antiquark"},{"link_name":"Bottom (quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_quark"},{"link_name":"antiquark)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_antiquark"},{"link_name":"Leptons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepton"},{"link_name":"Electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"Positron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron"},{"link_name":"Muon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon"},{"link_name":"Antimuon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon"},{"link_name":"Tau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau_(particle)"},{"link_name":"Antitau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau_(particle)"},{"link_name":"Neutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"Electron neutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_neutrino"},{"link_name":"Electron antineutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos"},{"link_name":"Muon neutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon_neutrino"},{"link_name":"Muon antineutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos"},{"link_name":"Tau neutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau_neutrino"},{"link_name":"Tau antineutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos"},{"link_name":"Bosons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boson"},{"link_name":"Gauge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_boson"},{"link_name":"Photon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon"},{"link_name":"Gluon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluon"},{"link_name":"W and Z bosons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons"},{"link_name":"Scalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_boson"},{"link_name":"Higgs boson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_boson"},{"link_name":"Ghost fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Faddeev–Popov ghosts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost"},{"link_name":"Hypothetical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_particles"},{"link_name":"Superpartners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpartner"},{"link_name":"Gauginos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaugino"},{"link_name":"Gluino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluino"},{"link_name":"Gravitino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitino"},{"link_name":"Photino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photino"},{"link_name":"Axino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axino"},{"link_name":"Chargino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chargino"},{"link_name":"Higgsino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgsino"},{"link_name":"Neutralino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralino"},{"link_name":"Sfermion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sfermion"},{"link_name":"Stop squark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_squark"},{"link_name":"Axion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axion"},{"link_name":"Curvaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curvaton"},{"link_name":"Dilaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilaton"},{"link_name":"Dual graviton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_graviton"},{"link_name":"Graviphoton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviphoton"},{"link_name":"Graviton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graviton"},{"link_name":"Inflaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflaton"},{"link_name":"Leptoquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptoquark"},{"link_name":"Magnetic monopole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_monopole"},{"link_name":"Majoron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majoron"},{"link_name":"Majorana fermion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majorana_fermion"},{"link_name":"Dark photon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_photon"},{"link_name":"Preon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preon"},{"link_name":"Sterile neutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterile_neutrino"},{"link_name":"Tachyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachyon"},{"link_name":"W′ and Z′ bosons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons"},{"link_name":"X and Y bosons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons"},{"link_name":"Composite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bound_state"},{"link_name":"Hadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadron"},{"link_name":"Baryons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baryon"},{"link_name":"Nucleon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleon"},{"link_name":"Proton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"Antiproton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiproton"},{"link_name":"Neutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"Antineutron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antineutron"},{"link_name":"Delta baryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_baryon"},{"link_name":"Lambda baryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_baryon"},{"link_name":"Sigma baryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigma_baryon"},{"link_name":"Xi baryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xi_baryon"},{"link_name":"Omega baryon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_baryon"},{"link_name":"Mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meson"},{"link_name":"Pion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pion"},{"link_name":"Rho meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rho_meson"},{"link_name":"Eta and eta prime mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eta_meson"},{"link_name":"Bottom eta meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson"},{"link_name":"Phi meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi_meson"},{"link_name":"J/psi meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J/psi_meson"},{"link_name":"Omega meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega_meson"},{"link_name":"Upsilon meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upsilon_meson"},{"link_name":"Kaon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaon"},{"link_name":"B meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_meson"},{"link_name":"D meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_meson"},{"link_name":"Quarkonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarkonium"},{"link_name":"Exotic hadrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_hadron"},{"link_name":"Tetraquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraquark"},{"link_name":"Double-charm tetraquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark"},{"link_name":"Pentaquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentaquark"},{"link_name":"Atomic nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"Atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"Exotic atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_atom"},{"link_name":"Positronium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positronium"},{"link_name":"Muonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muonium"},{"link_name":"Tauonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauonium"},{"link_name":"Onia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onium"},{"link_name":"Pionium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pionium"},{"link_name":"Protonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protonium"},{"link_name":"Superatoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superatom"},{"link_name":"Molecules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule"},{"link_name":"Hypothetical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hypothetical_composite_particles"},{"link_name":"Hexaquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexaquark"},{"link_name":"Heptaquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptaquark"},{"link_name":"Skyrmion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyrmion"},{"link_name":"Glueball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glueball"},{"link_name":"Theta meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theta_meson"},{"link_name":"T meson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T_meson"},{"link_name":"Mesonic molecule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesonic_molecule"},{"link_name":"Pomeron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomeron"},{"link_name":"Diquark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diquark"},{"link_name":"R-hadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-hadron"},{"link_name":"Quasiparticles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasiparticle"},{"link_name":"Anyon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyon"},{"link_name":"Davydov soliton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davydov_soliton"},{"link_name":"Dropleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dropleton"},{"link_name":"Exciton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exciton"},{"link_name":"Fracton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)"},{"link_name":"Hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_hole"},{"link_name":"Magnon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnon"},{"link_name":"Phonon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon"},{"link_name":"Plasmaron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmaron"},{"link_name":"Plasmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmon"},{"link_name":"Polariton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polariton"},{"link_name":"Polaron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaron"},{"link_name":"Roton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roton"},{"link_name":"Trion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trion_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Baryons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons"},{"link_name":"Mesons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons"},{"link_name":"Particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles"},{"link_name":"Quasiparticles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles"},{"link_name":"Timeline of particle discoveries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries"},{"link_name":"History of subatomic physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics"},{"link_name":"timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics"},{"link_name":"Standard Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model"},{"link_name":"mathematical formulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model"},{"link_name":"Subatomic particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particle"},{"link_name":"Particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle"},{"link_name":"Antiparticles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiparticle"},{"link_name":"Nuclear physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics"},{"link_name":"Eightfold way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)"},{"link_name":"Quark model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_model"},{"link_name":"Exotic matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exotic_matter"},{"link_name":"Massless particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massless_particle"},{"link_name":"Relativistic particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativistic_particle"},{"link_name":"Virtual particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_particle"},{"link_name":"Wave–particle duality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality"},{"link_name":"Particle chauvinism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_chauvinism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg"},{"link_name":"Physics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Physics"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q6732#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4608216-5"}],"text":"A. Ali, G. Kramer; Kramer (2011). \"JETS and QCD: A historical review of the discovery of the quark and gluon jets and its impact on QCD\". European Physical Journal H. 36 (2): 245. arXiv:1012.2288. Bibcode:2011EPJH...36..245A. doi:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1. S2CID 54062126.\nR. Nave. \"Quarks\". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 2008-06-29.\nA. Pickering (1984). Constructing Quarks. University of Chicago Press. pp. 114–125. ISBN 978-0-226-66799-7.vteParticles in physicsElementaryFermionsQuarks\nUp (quark\nantiquark)\nDown (quark\nantiquark)\nCharm (quark\nantiquark)\nStrange (quark\nantiquark)\nTop (quark\nantiquark)\nBottom (quark\nantiquark)\nLeptons\nElectron\nPositron\nMuon\nAntimuon\nTau\nAntitau\nNeutrino\nElectron neutrino\nElectron antineutrino\nMuon neutrino\nMuon antineutrino\nTau neutrino\nTau antineutrino\nBosonsGauge\nPhoton\nGluon\nW and Z bosons\nScalar\nHiggs boson \nGhost fields\nFaddeev–Popov ghosts\nHypotheticalSuperpartnersGauginos\nGluino\nGravitino\nPhotino\nOthers\nAxino\nChargino\nHiggsino\nNeutralino\nSfermion (Stop squark)\nOthers\nAxion\nCurvaton\nDilaton\nDual graviton\nGraviphoton\nGraviton\nInflaton\nLeptoquark\nMagnetic monopole\nMajoron\nMajorana fermion\nDark photon\nPreon\nSterile neutrino\nTachyon\nW′ and Z′ bosons\nX and Y bosons\nCompositeHadronsBaryons\nNucleon\nProton\nAntiproton\nNeutron\nAntineutron\nDelta baryon\nLambda baryon\nSigma baryon\nXi baryon\nOmega baryon\nMesons\nPion\nRho meson\nEta and eta prime mesons\nBottom eta meson\nPhi meson\nJ/psi meson\nOmega meson\nUpsilon meson\nKaon\nB meson\nD meson\nQuarkonium\nExotic hadrons\nTetraquark (Double-charm tetraquark)\nPentaquark\nOthers\nAtomic nuclei\nAtoms\nExotic atoms\nPositronium\nMuonium\nTauonium\nOnia\nPionium\nProtonium\nSuperatoms\nMolecules\nHypotheticalBaryons\nHexaquark\nHeptaquark\nSkyrmion\nMesons\nGlueball\nTheta meson\nT meson\nOthers\nMesonic molecule\nPomeron\nDiquark\nR-hadron\nQuasiparticles\nAnyon\nDavydov soliton\nDropleton\nExciton\nFracton\nHole\nMagnon\nPhonon\nPlasmaron\nPlasmon\nPolariton\nPolaron\nRoton\nTrion\nLists\nBaryons\nMesons\nParticles\nQuasiparticles\nTimeline of particle discoveries\nRelated\nHistory of subatomic physics\ntimeline\nStandard Model\nmathematical formulation\nSubatomic particles\nParticles\nAntiparticles\nNuclear physics\nEightfold way\nQuark model\nExotic matter\nMassless particle\nRelativistic particle\nVirtual particle\nWave–particle duality\nParticle chauvinism\n Physics portalAuthority control databases: National \nGermany","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg/240px-Standard_Model_of_Elementary_Particles.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"Down quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down_quark"},{"title":"Isospin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isospin"},{"title":"Quark model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quark_model"},{"title":"Quantum Mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Mechanics"}]
[{"reference":"M. Tanabashi et al. (Particle Data Group) (2018). \"Review of Particle Physics\". Physical Review D. 98 (3): 1–708. Bibcode:2018PhRvD..98c0001T. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001. hdl:10044/1/68623. PMID 10020536.","urls":[{"url":"http://pdglive.lbl.gov/DataBlock.action?node=Q123UM","url_text":"\"Review of Particle Physics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PhRvD..98c0001T","url_text":"2018PhRvD..98c0001T"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.98.030001","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.98.030001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10044%2F1%2F68623","url_text":"10044/1/68623"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10020536","url_text":"10020536"}]},{"reference":"M. Gell-Mann (2000) [1964]. \"The Eightfold Way: A theory of strong interaction symmetry\". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.). The Eightfold Way. Westview Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7382-0299-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westview_Press","url_text":"Westview Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0299-0","url_text":"978-0-7382-0299-0"}]},{"reference":"M. Gell-Mann (1961). \"The Eightfold Way: A theory of strong interaction symmetry\". Synchrotron Laboratory Report CTSL-20. California Institute of Technology.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology","url_text":"California Institute of Technology"}]},{"reference":"Y. Ne'eman (2000) [1964]. \"Derivation of strong interactions from gauge invariance\". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.). The Eightfold Way. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-7382-0299-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westview_Press","url_text":"Westview Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0299-0","url_text":"978-0-7382-0299-0"}]},{"reference":"Y. Ne'eman (1961). \"Derivation of strong interactions from gauge invariance\". Nuclear Physics. 26 (2): 222–229. Bibcode:1961NucPh..26..222N. doi:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90134-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Physics_(journal)","url_text":"Nuclear Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961NucPh..26..222N","url_text":"1961NucPh..26..222N"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0029-5582%2861%2990134-1","url_text":"10.1016/0029-5582(61)90134-1"}]},{"reference":"M. Gell-Mann (1964). \"A Schematic Model of Baryons and Mesons\". Physics Letters. 8 (3): 214–215. Bibcode:1964PhL.....8..214G. doi:10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics_Letters","url_text":"Physics Letters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964PhL.....8..214G","url_text":"1964PhL.....8..214G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0031-9163%2864%2992001-3","url_text":"10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3"}]},{"reference":"G. Zweig (1964). \"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking\". Cern-Th-401. doi:10.17181/CERN-TH-401.","urls":[{"url":"https://cds.cern.ch/record/352337","url_text":"\"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17181%2FCERN-TH-401","url_text":"10.17181/CERN-TH-401"}]},{"reference":"G. Zweig (1964). \"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking: II\". Cern-Th-412. doi:10.17181/CERN-TH-412.","urls":[{"url":"https://cds.cern.ch/record/570209","url_text":"\"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking: II\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17181%2FCERN-TH-412","url_text":"10.17181/CERN-TH-412"}]},{"reference":"B. Carithers, P. Grannis (1995). \"Discovery of the Top Quark\" (PDF). Beam Line. 25 (3): 4–16. Retrieved 2008-09-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/25/3/25-3-carithers.pdf","url_text":"\"Discovery of the Top Quark\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Beam_Line_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Beam Line"}]},{"reference":"Bloom, E. D.; Coward, D.; Destaebler, H.; Drees, J.; Miller, G.; Mo, L.; Taylor, R.; Breidenbach, M.; et al. (1969). \"High-Energy Inelastic e–p Scattering at 6° and 10°\". Physical Review Letters. 23 (16): 930–934. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23..930B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.930.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.23.930","url_text":"\"High-Energy Inelastic e–p Scattering at 6° and 10°\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters","url_text":"Physical Review Letters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PhRvL..23..930B","url_text":"1969PhRvL..23..930B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.23.930","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.930"}]},{"reference":"M. Breidenbach; Friedman, J.; Kendall, H.; Bloom, E.; Coward, D.; Destaebler, H.; Drees, J.; Mo, L.; Taylor, R.; et al. (1969). \"Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic Electron–Proton Scattering\". Physical Review Letters. 23 (16): 935–939. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23..935B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.935. OSTI 1444731. S2CID 2575595.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters","url_text":"Physical Review Letters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PhRvL..23..935B","url_text":"1969PhRvL..23..935B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.23.935","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.935"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSTI_(identifier)","url_text":"OSTI"},{"url":"https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1444731","url_text":"1444731"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2575595","url_text":"2575595"}]},{"reference":"J. I. Friedman. \"The Road to the Nobel Prize\". Hue University. Archived from the original on 2008-12-25. Retrieved 2008-09-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081225093044/http://www.hueuni.edu.vn/hueuni/en/news_detail.php?NewsID=1606&PHPSESSID=909807ffc5b9c0288cc8d137ff063c72","url_text":"\"The Road to the Nobel Prize\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hue_University","url_text":"Hue University"},{"url":"http://www.hueuni.edu.vn/hueuni/en/news_detail.php?NewsID=1606&PHPSESSID=909807ffc5b9c0288cc8d137ff063c72","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"R. P. Feynman (1969). \"Very High-Energy Collisions of Hadrons\" (PDF). Physical Review Letters. 23 (24): 1415–1417. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23.1415F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1415.","urls":[{"url":"http://authors.library.caltech.edu/3871/1/FEYprl69.pdf","url_text":"\"Very High-Energy Collisions of Hadrons\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters","url_text":"Physical Review Letters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PhRvL..23.1415F","url_text":"1969PhRvL..23.1415F"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.23.1415","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1415"}]},{"reference":"S. Kretzer; Lai, H.; Olness, Fredrick; Tung, W.; et al. (2004). \"CTEQ6 Parton Distributions with Heavy Quark Mass Effects\". Physical Review D. 69 (11): 114005. arXiv:hep-ph/0307022. Bibcode:2004PhRvD..69k4005K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.114005. S2CID 119379329.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_D","url_text":"Physical Review D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0307022","url_text":"hep-ph/0307022"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhRvD..69k4005K","url_text":"2004PhRvD..69k4005K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.69.114005","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevD.69.114005"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119379329","url_text":"119379329"}]},{"reference":"D. J. Griffiths (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-471-60386-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-60386-3","url_text":"978-0-471-60386-3"}]},{"reference":"M. E. Peskin, D. V. Schroeder (1995). An introduction to quantum field theory. Addison–Wesley. p. 556. ISBN 978-0-201-50397-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductiontoqu0000pesk","url_text":"An introduction to quantum field theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison%E2%80%93Wesley","url_text":"Addison–Wesley"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductiontoqu0000pesk/page/556","url_text":"556"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-50397-5","url_text":"978-0-201-50397-5"}]},{"reference":"J. Beringer (Particle Data Group); et al. (2012). \"PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)'\" (PDF). Particle Data Group. Retrieved 2013-02-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_Data_Group","url_text":"Particle Data Group"},{"url":"http://pdg.lbl.gov/2012/tables/rpp2012-sum-quarks.pdf","url_text":"\"PDGLive Particle Summary 'Quarks (u, d, s, c, b, t, b', t', Free)'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_Data_Group","url_text":"Particle Data Group"}]},{"reference":"Cho, Adrian (April 2010). \"Mass of the Common Quark Finally Nailed Down\". Science Magazine.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.science.org/content/article/mass-common-quark-finally-nailed-down","url_text":"\"Mass of the Common Quark Finally Nailed Down\""}]},{"reference":"A. Ali, G. Kramer; Kramer (2011). \"JETS and QCD: A historical review of the discovery of the quark and gluon jets and its impact on QCD\". European Physical Journal H. 36 (2): 245. arXiv:1012.2288. Bibcode:2011EPJH...36..245A. doi:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1. S2CID 54062126.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Physical_Journal_H","url_text":"European Physical Journal H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1012.2288","url_text":"1012.2288"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EPJH...36..245A","url_text":"2011EPJH...36..245A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1140%2Fepjh%2Fe2011-10047-1","url_text":"10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54062126","url_text":"54062126"}]},{"reference":"R. Nave. \"Quarks\". HyperPhysics. Georgia State University, Department of Physics and Astronomy. Retrieved 2008-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Particles/quark.html","url_text":"\"Quarks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperPhysics","url_text":"HyperPhysics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_State_University","url_text":"Georgia State University"}]},{"reference":"A. Pickering (1984). Constructing Quarks. University of Chicago Press. pp. 114–125. ISBN 978-0-226-66799-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press","url_text":"University of Chicago Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-66799-7","url_text":"978-0-226-66799-7"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPL_(benchmark)
LINPACK benchmarks
["1 History","2 The benchmarks","2.1 LINPACK 100","2.2 LINPACK 1000","2.3 HPLinpack","3 LINPACK benchmark implementations","3.1 HPL","4 Criticism","4.1 The running time issue","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
Measure of a systems floating point architecture For the software library, see LINPACK. LINPACK benchmarksOriginal author(s)Jack Dongarra, Jim Bunch, Cleve Moler, and Gilbert StewartInitial release1979 (1979)Websitenetlib.org/benchmark/hpl/ The LINPACK Benchmarks are a measure of a system's floating-point computing power. Introduced by Jack Dongarra, they measure how fast a computer solves a dense n by n system of linear equations Ax = b, which is a common task in engineering. The latest version of these benchmarks is used to build the TOP500 list, ranking the world's most powerful supercomputers. The aim is to approximate how fast a computer will perform when solving real problems. It is a simplification, since no single computational task can reflect the overall performance of a computer system. Nevertheless, the LINPACK benchmark performance can provide a good correction over the peak performance provided by the manufacturer. The peak performance is the maximal theoretical performance a computer can achieve, calculated as the machine's frequency, in cycles per second, times the number of operations per cycle it can perform. The actual performance will always be lower than the peak performance. The performance of a computer is a complex issue that depends on many interconnected variables. The performance measured by the LINPACK benchmark consists of the number of 64-bit floating-point operations, generally additions and multiplications, a computer can perform per second, also known as FLOPS. However, a computer's performance when running actual applications is likely to be far behind the maximal performance it achieves running the appropriate LINPACK benchmark. The name of these benchmarks comes from the LINPACK package, a collection of algebra Fortran subroutines widely used in the 1980s, and initially tightly linked to the LINPACK benchmark. The LINPACK package has since been replaced by other libraries. History The LINPACK benchmark report appeared first in 1979 as an appendix to the LINPACK user's manual. LINPACK was designed to help users estimate the time required by their systems to solve a problem using the LINPACK package, by extrapolating the performance results obtained by 23 different computers solving a matrix problem of size 100. This matrix size was chosen due to memory and CPU limitations at that time: 10,000 floating-point entries from -1 to 1 are randomly generated to fill in a general, dense matrix, then, LU decomposition with partial pivoting is used for the timing. Over the years, additional versions with different problem sizes, like matrices of order 300 and 1000, and constraints were released, allowing new optimization opportunities as hardware architectures started to implement matrix-vector and matrix-matrix operations. Parallel processing was also introduced in the LINPACK Parallel benchmark in the late 1980s. In 1991, the LINPACK was modified for solving problems of arbitrary size, enabling high performance computers (HPC) to get near to their asymptotic performance. Two years later this benchmark was used for measuring the performance of the first TOP500 list. The benchmarks LINPACK 100 LINPACK 100 is very similar to the original benchmark published in 1979 along with the LINPACK users' manual. The solution is obtained by Gaussian elimination with partial pivoting, with 2/3n3 + 2n2 floating-point operations where n is 100, the order of the dense matrix A that defines the problem. Its small size and the lack of software flexibility doesn't allow most modern computers to reach their performance limits. However, it can still be useful to predict performances in numerically intensive user written code using compiler optimization. LINPACK 1000 LINPACK 1000 can provide a performance nearer to the machine's limit because in addition to offering a bigger problem size, a matrix of order 1000, changes in the algorithm are possible. The only constraints are that the relative accuracy can't be reduced and the number of operations will always be considered to be 2/3 n3 + 2 n2, with n = 1000. HPLinpack The previous benchmarks are not suitable for testing parallel computers, and the so-called Linpack's Highly Parallel Computing benchmark, or HPLinpack benchmark, was introduced. In HPLinpack the size n of the problem can be made as large as it is needed to optimize the performance results of the machine. Once again, 2/3n3 + 2n2 will be taken as the operation count, with independence of the algorithm used. Use of the Strassen algorithm is not allowed because it distorts the real execution rate. The accuracy must be such that the following expression is satisfied: ‖ A x − b ‖ ∞ ( ‖ A ‖ ∞ ‖ x ‖ ∞ + ‖ b ‖ ∞ ) n ϵ ≤ O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle {\|Ax-b\|_{\infty } \over (\|A\|_{\infty }\|x\|_{\infty }+\|b\|_{\infty })n\epsilon }\leq O(1)} , where ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } is the machine's precision, and n is the size of the problem, ‖ ⋅ ‖ ∞ {\displaystyle \|\cdot \|_{\infty }} is a matrix norm (largest row sum ) and O ( 1 ) {\displaystyle O(1)} corresponds to the big-O notation. For each computer system, the following quantities are reported: Rmax: the performance in GFLOPS for the largest problem run on a machine. Nmax: the size of the largest problem run on a machine. N1/2: the size where half the Rmax execution rate is achieved. Rpeak: the theoretical peak performance GFLOPS for the machine. These results are used to compile the TOP500 list twice a year, with the world's most powerful computers. TOP500 measures these in double-precision floating-point format (FP64). The ratio of Rmax to Rpeak is called parallel efficiency or HPL efficiency. It is typically lower the more nodes a system has due to communication overhead. For example, a 1990s Cray Y-MP achieves about 90% HPL efficiency, while Frontier achieves about 70% in 2023. LINPACK benchmark implementations The previous section describes the ground rules for the benchmarks. The actual implementation of the program can diverge, with some examples being available in Fortran, C or Java. HPL HPL is a portable implementation of HPLinpack that was written in C, originally as a guideline, but that is now widely used to provide data for the TOP500 list, though other technologies and packages can be used. HPL generates a linear system of equations of order n and solves it using LU decomposition with partial row pivoting. It requires installed implementations of MPI and either BLAS or VSIPL to run. Coarsely, the algorithm has the following characteristics: cyclic data distribution in 2D blocks LU factorization using the right-looking variant with various depths of look-ahead recursive panel factorization six different panel broadcasting variants bandwidth reducing swap-broadcast algorithm backward substitution with look-ahead of depth 1 Criticism The LINPACK benchmark is said to have succeeded because of the scalability of HPLinpack, the fact that it generates a single number, making the results easily comparable and the extensive historical data base it has associated. However, soon after its release, the LINPACK benchmark was criticized for providing performance levels "generally unobtainable by all but a very few programmers who tediously optimize their code for that machine and that machine alone", because it only tests the resolution of dense linear systems, which are not representative of all the operations usually performed in scientific computing. Jack Dongarra, the main driving force behind the LINPACK benchmarks, said that, while they only emphasize "peak" CPU speed and number of CPUs, not enough stress is given to local bandwidth and the network. Thom Dunning, Jr., director of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, had this to say about the LINPACK benchmark: "The Linpack benchmark is one of those interesting phenomena -- almost anyone who knows about it will deride its utility. They understand its limitations but it has mindshare because it's the one number we've all bought into over the years." According to Dongarra, "the organizers of the Top500 are actively looking to expand the scope of the benchmark reporting" because "it is important to include more performance characteristic and signatures for a given system". One of the possibilities that is being considered to extend the benchmark for the TOP500 is the HPC Challenge Benchmark Suite. With the advent of petascale computers, traversed edges per second have started to emerge as a complementary metric to FLOPS measured by LINPACK. Another such metric is the HPCG benchmark, proposed by Dongarra. The running time issue According to Jack Dongarra, the running time required to obtain good performance results with HPLinpack is expected to increase. At a conference held in 2010, he said he expects running times of 2.5 days in "a few years". See also LAPACK References ^ a b "The Linpack Benchmark, TOP500 Supercomputing Sites". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ a b c d e Dongarra, Jack J.; Luszczek, Piotr; Petitet, Antoine (2003), "The LINPACK Benchmark: past, present and future" (PDF), Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience, 15 (9), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 803–820, doi:10.1002/cpe.728, S2CID 1900724 ^ Jack Dongarra interview by Sander Olson, archived from the original on 2016-03-04, retrieved 2012-01-13 ^ Dongarra, J.J.; Moler, C.B.; Bunch, J.R.; Stewart, G.W. (1979), LINPACK: users' guide, SIAM, ISBN 9780898711721 ^ Dongarra, Jack (1988), "The LINPACK Benchmark: An explanation", Supercomputing (PDF), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 297, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, pp. 456–474, doi:10.1007/3-540-18991-2_27, ISBN 978-3-540-18991-6 ^ High Performance Linpack Benchmark (PDF), retrieved 2015-02-10 ^ Bailey, D.H.; Barszcz, E.; Barton, J.T.; Browning, D.S.; Carter, R.L.; Dagum, L.; Fatoohi, R.A.; Frederickson, P.O.; Lasinski, T.A.; Schreiber, R.S.; Simon, H.D.; Venkatakrishnan, V.; Weeratunga, S.K. (1991). "The NAS parallel benchmarks---summary and preliminary results". Proceedings of the 1991 ACM/IEEE conference on Supercomputing - Supercomputing '91. Supercomputing '91. Proceedings of the 1991 ACM/IEEE Conference. pp. 158–165. doi:10.1145/125826.125925. ISBN 0897914597. S2CID 18046345. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ "LINPACK FAQ - Can I use Strassen's Method when doing the matrix multiples in the HPL benchmark or for the Top500 run?". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ "LINPACK FAQ - To what accuracy must be the solution conform?". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ "LINPACK dlange". Retrieved 2024-03-09. ^ "High-Performance Linpack (HPL) benchmarking - Theoretical Peak Performance Rpeak". Retrieved 2023-11-15. ^ "Y-MP C916/12256". TOP500. 1995-12-01. Retrieved 2023-11-15. ^ "Frontier - HPE Cray EX235a, AMD Optimized 3rd Generation EPYC 64C 2GHz, AMD Instinct MI250X, Slingshot-11". TOP500. 2023-11-12. Retrieved 2023-11-15. ^ "Linpack benchmark program in Fortran". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ "Linpack benchmark program in C". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ "Linpack benchmark program in Java". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ "HPL - A Portable Implementation of the High-Performance Linpack Benchmark for Distributed-Memory Computers". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ "HPL algorithm". ^ "HPL overview". Retrieved 2015-02-10. ^ "AN INTERVIEW WITH SUPERCOMPUTING LEGEND JACK DONGARRA". 2002-05-24. ^ Haigh, Thomas (2004). "An interview with Jack J. Dongarra" (PDF). LINPACK is a benchmark that people often cite because there's such a historical data base of information there, because it's fairly easy to run, it's fairly easy to understand, and it captures in some sense the best and worst of programming. ^ Hammond, Steven (1995), Beyond Machoflops: Getting MPPs Into the Production Environment ^ Gahvari, Hormozd; Hoemmen, Mark; Demmel, James; Yelick, Katherine (2006), "Benchmarking Sparse Matrix-Vector Multiply in Five Minutes", SPEC Benchmark Workshop (PDF) ^ Dongarra, Jack J. (2007), "The HPC Challenge Benchmark: A Candidate for Replacing Linpack in the Top500?", SPEC Benchmark Workshop (PDF) ^ Christopher Mims (2010-11-08). "Why China's New Supercomputer Is Only Technically the World's Fastest". Retrieved 2011-09-22. ^ Meuer, Martin (2002-05-24). "AN INTERVIEW WITH SUPERCOMPUTING LEGEND JACK DONGARRA". Retrieved 2022-12-01. ^ Luszczek, Piotr; Dongarra, Jack J.; Koester, David; Rabenseifner, Rolf; Lucas, Bob; Kepner, Jeremy; Mccalpin, John; Bailey, David; Takahashi, Daisuke (2005), Introduction to the HPC Challenge Benchmark Suite (PDF) ^ Hemsoth, Nicole (June 26, 2014). "New HPC Benchmark Delivers Promising Results". HPCWire. Retrieved 2022-12-01. ^ Dongarra, Jack J. (2010). LINPACK Benchmark with Time Limits on Multicore & GPU Based Accelerators (PDF). International Supercomputing Conference. External links TOP500 LINPACK a web-based LINPACK benchmark Intel Optimized LINPACK Benchmark
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The performance measured by the LINPACK benchmark consists of the number of 64-bit floating-point operations, generally additions and multiplications, a computer can perform per second, also known as FLOPS. However, a computer's performance when running actual applications is likely to be far behind the maximal performance it achieves running the appropriate LINPACK benchmark.[3]The name of these benchmarks comes from the LINPACK package, a collection of algebra Fortran subroutines widely used in the 1980s, and initially tightly linked to the LINPACK benchmark. The LINPACK package has since been replaced by other libraries.","title":"LINPACK benchmarks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LINPACK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LINPACK"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"LU decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LU_decomposition"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hplpaper-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"high performance computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer"},{"link_name":"TOP500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500"}],"text":"The LINPACK benchmark report appeared first in 1979 as an appendix to the LINPACK user's manual.[4]LINPACK was designed to help users estimate the time required by their systems to solve a problem using the LINPACK package, by extrapolating the performance results obtained by 23 different computers solving a matrix problem of size 100.This matrix size was chosen due to memory and CPU limitations at that time:10,000 floating-point entries from -1 to 1 are randomly generated to fill in a general, dense matrix,\nthen, LU decomposition with partial pivoting is used for the timing.Over the years, additional versions with different problem sizes, like matrices of order 300 and 1000, and constraints were released, allowing new optimization opportunities as hardware architectures started to implement matrix-vector and matrix-matrix operations.[5]Parallel processing was also introduced in the LINPACK Parallel benchmark in the late 1980s.[2]In 1991, the LINPACK was modified for[6]\nsolving problems of arbitrary size, enabling high performance computers (HPC) to get near to their asymptotic performance.Two years later this benchmark was used for measuring the performance of the first TOP500 list.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"The benchmarks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LINPACK users' manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=AmSm1n3Vw0cC&dq=info%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fs3da3171290b34600.scholar.google.com%2F0&pg=SL2-PA1"},{"link_name":"Gaussian elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_elimination"},{"link_name":"partial pivoting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pivot_element"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hplpaper-2"}],"sub_title":"LINPACK 100","text":"LINPACK 100 is very similar to the original benchmark published in 1979 along with the LINPACK users' manual.\nThe solution is obtained by Gaussian elimination with partial pivoting, with 2/3n3 + 2n2 floating-point operations where n is 100, the order of the dense matrix A that defines the problem. 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The only constraints are that the relative accuracy can't be reduced and the number of operations will always be considered to be 2/3 n3 + 2 n2, with n = 1000.[2]","title":"The benchmarks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Strassen algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strassen_algorithm"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"matrix norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_norm"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"big-O notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-O_notation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hplpaper-2"},{"link_name":"TOP500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-top500-1"},{"link_name":"double-precision floating-point format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-precision_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Frontier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontier_(supercomputer)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"HPLinpack","text":"The previous benchmarks are not suitable for testing parallel computers,[7] and the so-called Linpack's Highly Parallel Computing benchmark, or HPLinpack benchmark, was introduced. In HPLinpack the size n of the problem can be made as large as it is needed to optimize the performance results of the machine. Once again, 2/3n3 + 2n2 will be taken as the operation count, with independence of the algorithm used. Use of the Strassen algorithm is not allowed because it distorts the real execution rate.[8]\nThe accuracy must be such that the following expression is satisfied:‖\n A\n x\n −\n b\n \n ‖\n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n (\n ‖\n A\n \n ‖\n \n ∞\n \n \n ‖\n x\n \n ‖\n \n ∞\n \n \n +\n ‖\n b\n \n ‖\n \n ∞\n \n \n )\n n\n ϵ\n \n \n \n ≤\n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\|Ax-b\\|_{\\infty } \\over (\\|A\\|_{\\infty }\\|x\\|_{\\infty }+\\|b\\|_{\\infty })n\\epsilon }\\leq O(1)}\n \n,whereϵ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\epsilon }\n \n is the machine's precision, and\nn is the size of the problem,[9]\n\n \n \n \n ‖\n ⋅\n \n ‖\n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|\\cdot \\|_{\\infty }}\n \n is a matrix norm (largest row sum [10]) and\n\n \n \n \n O\n (\n 1\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle O(1)}\n \n corresponds to the big-O notation.For each computer system, the following quantities are reported:[2]Rmax: the performance in GFLOPS for the largest problem run on a machine.\nNmax: the size of the largest problem run on a machine.\nN1/2: the size where half the Rmax execution rate is achieved.\nRpeak: the theoretical peak performance GFLOPS for the machine.These results are used to compile the TOP500 list twice a year, with the world's most powerful computers.[1] TOP500 measures these in double-precision floating-point format (FP64). The ratio of Rmax to Rpeak is called parallel efficiency or HPL efficiency.[11] It is typically lower the more nodes a system has due to communication overhead. For example, a 1990s Cray Y-MP achieves about 90% HPL efficiency,[12] while Frontier achieves about 70% in 2023.[13]","title":"The benchmarks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"implementation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementation"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The previous section describes the ground rules for the benchmarks. The actual implementation of the program can diverge, with some examples being available in Fortran,[14] C\n[15] or Java.[16]","title":"LINPACK benchmark implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MPI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_Passing_Interface"},{"link_name":"BLAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BLAS"},{"link_name":"VSIPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_Management_Group"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"LU factorization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LU_factorization"},{"link_name":"look-ahead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Look-ahead_(LU_factorization)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting_(computing)"}],"sub_title":"HPL","text":"HPL is a portable implementation of HPLinpack that was written in C, originally as a guideline, but that is now widely used to provide data for the TOP500 list, though other technologies and packages can be used. HPL generates a linear system of equations of order n and solves it using LU decomposition with partial row pivoting. It requires installed implementations of MPI and either BLAS or VSIPL to run.[17]Coarsely, the algorithm has the following characteristics:[18][19]cyclic data distribution in 2D blocks\nLU factorization using the right-looking variant with various depths of look-ahead\nrecursive panel factorization\nsix different panel broadcasting variants\nbandwidth reducing swap-broadcast algorithm\nbackward substitution with look-ahead of depth 1","title":"LINPACK benchmark implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"dense linear systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dense_linear_system&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Jack Dongarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Dongarra"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Thom Dunning, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thom_Dunning,_Jr."},{"link_name":"National Center for Supercomputing Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Supercomputing_Applications"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"HPC Challenge Benchmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPC_Challenge_Benchmark"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"petascale computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petascale_computing"},{"link_name":"traversed edges per second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traversed_edges_per_second"},{"link_name":"HPCG benchmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPCG_benchmark"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"The LINPACK benchmark is said to have succeeded because of the scalability[20] of HPLinpack, the fact that it generates a single number, making the results easily comparable and the extensive historical data base it has associated.[21]\nHowever, soon after its release, the LINPACK benchmark was criticized for providing performance levels \"generally unobtainable by all but a very few programmers who tediously optimize their code for that machine and that machine alone\",[22] because it only tests the resolution of dense linear systems, which are not representative of all the operations usually performed in scientific computing.[23]\nJack Dongarra, the main driving force behind the LINPACK benchmarks, said that, while they only emphasize \"peak\" CPU speed and number of CPUs, not enough stress is given to local bandwidth and the network.[24]Thom Dunning, Jr., director of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, had this to say about the LINPACK benchmark: \"The Linpack benchmark is one of those interesting phenomena -- almost anyone who knows about it will deride its utility. They understand its limitations but it has mindshare because it's the one number we've all bought into over the years.\"[25]According to Dongarra, \"the organizers of the Top500 are actively looking to expand the scope of the benchmark reporting\" because \"it is important to include more performance characteristic and signatures for a given system\".[26]\nOne of the possibilities that is being considered to extend the benchmark for the TOP500 is the HPC Challenge Benchmark Suite.[27] With the advent of petascale computers, traversed edges per second have started to emerge as a complementary metric to FLOPS measured by LINPACK. Another such metric is the HPCG benchmark, proposed by Dongarra.[28]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jack Dongarra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Dongarra"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"The running time issue","text":"According to Jack Dongarra, the running time required to obtain good performance results with HPLinpack is expected to increase. At a conference held in 2010, he said he expects running times of 2.5 days in \"a few years\".[29]","title":"Criticism"}]
[]
[{"title":"LAPACK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LAPACK"}]
[{"reference":"\"The Linpack Benchmark, TOP500 Supercomputing Sites\". Retrieved 2015-02-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.top500.org/project/linpack","url_text":"\"The Linpack Benchmark, TOP500 Supercomputing Sites\""}]},{"reference":"Dongarra, Jack J.; Luszczek, Piotr; Petitet, Antoine (2003), \"The LINPACK Benchmark: past, present and future\" (PDF), Concurrency and Computation: Practice and Experience, 15 (9), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.: 803–820, doi:10.1002/cpe.728, S2CID 1900724","urls":[{"url":"http://www.netlib.org/utk/people/JackDongarra/PAPERS/hplpaper.pdf","url_text":"\"The LINPACK Benchmark: past, present and future\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcpe.728","url_text":"10.1002/cpe.728"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1900724","url_text":"1900724"}]},{"reference":"Jack Dongarra interview by Sander Olson, archived from the original on 2016-03-04, retrieved 2012-01-13","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304083728/http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/06/jack-dongarra-interview-by-sander-olson.html","url_text":"Jack Dongarra interview by Sander Olson"},{"url":"http://nextbigfuture.com/2010/06/jack-dongarra-interview-by-sander-olson.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dongarra, J.J.; Moler, C.B.; Bunch, J.R.; Stewart, G.W. (1979), LINPACK: users' guide, SIAM, ISBN 9780898711721","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AmSm1n3Vw0cC&q=info%3Ahttp%3A%2F%2Fs3da3171290b34600.scholar.google.com%2F0&pg=SL2-PA1","url_text":"LINPACK: users' guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Industrial_and_Applied_Mathematics","url_text":"SIAM"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780898711721","url_text":"9780898711721"}]},{"reference":"Dongarra, Jack (1988), \"The LINPACK Benchmark: An explanation\", Supercomputing (PDF), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 297, Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, pp. 456–474, doi:10.1007/3-540-18991-2_27, ISBN 978-3-540-18991-6","urls":[{"url":"http://www.netlib.org/utk/people/JackDongarra/PAPERS/The-LINPACK-Benchmark-An-Explanation.pdf","url_text":"Supercomputing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F3-540-18991-2_27","url_text":"10.1007/3-540-18991-2_27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-18991-6","url_text":"978-3-540-18991-6"}]},{"reference":"High Performance Linpack Benchmark (PDF), retrieved 2015-02-10","urls":[{"url":"http://icl.cs.utk.edu/graphics/posters/files/SC2010-HPL.pdf","url_text":"High Performance Linpack Benchmark"}]},{"reference":"Bailey, D.H.; Barszcz, E.; Barton, J.T.; Browning, D.S.; Carter, R.L.; Dagum, L.; Fatoohi, R.A.; Frederickson, P.O.; Lasinski, T.A.; Schreiber, R.S.; Simon, H.D.; Venkatakrishnan, V.; Weeratunga, S.K. (1991). \"The NAS parallel benchmarks---summary and preliminary results\". Proceedings of the 1991 ACM/IEEE conference on Supercomputing - Supercomputing '91. Supercomputing '91. Proceedings of the 1991 ACM/IEEE Conference. pp. 158–165. doi:10.1145/125826.125925. ISBN 0897914597. S2CID 18046345.","urls":[{"url":"https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5348941","url_text":"Proceedings of the 1991 ACM/IEEE conference on Supercomputing - Supercomputing '91"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F125826.125925","url_text":"10.1145/125826.125925"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0897914597","url_text":"0897914597"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18046345","url_text":"18046345"}]},{"reference":"\"LINPACK FAQ - Can I use Strassen's Method when doing the matrix multiples in the HPL benchmark or for the Top500 run?\". Retrieved 2015-02-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.netlib.org/utk/people/JackDongarra/faq-linpack.html#_Can_I_use","url_text":"\"LINPACK FAQ - Can I use Strassen's Method when doing the matrix multiples in the HPL benchmark or for the Top500 run?\""}]},{"reference":"\"LINPACK FAQ - To what accuracy must be the solution conform?\". Retrieved 2015-02-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.netlib.org/utk/people/JackDongarra/faq-linpack.html#_Toc27885722","url_text":"\"LINPACK FAQ - To what accuracy must be the solution conform?\""}]},{"reference":"\"LINPACK dlange\". Retrieved 2024-03-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://netlib.org/lapack/explore-html/d8/d2e/group__lange_ga8581d687290b36c6e24fe76b3be7caa3.html#ga8581d687290b36c6e24fe76b3be7caa3","url_text":"\"LINPACK dlange\""}]},{"reference":"\"High-Performance Linpack (HPL) benchmarking - Theoretical Peak Performance Rpeak\". 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LINPACK is a benchmark that people often cite because there's such a historical data base of information there, because it's fairly easy to run, it's fairly easy to understand, and it captures in some sense the best and worst of programming.","urls":[{"url":"http://history.siam.org/pdfs2/Dongarra_%20returned_SIAM_copy.pdf","url_text":"\"An interview with Jack J. Dongarra\""}]},{"reference":"Hammond, Steven (1995), Beyond Machoflops: Getting MPPs Into the Production Environment","urls":[{"url":"https://opensky.ucar.edu/islandora/object/technotes:183","url_text":"Beyond Machoflops: Getting MPPs Into the Production Environment"}]},{"reference":"Gahvari, Hormozd; Hoemmen, Mark; Demmel, James; Yelick, Katherine (2006), \"Benchmarking Sparse Matrix-Vector Multiply in Five Minutes\", SPEC Benchmark Workshop (PDF)","urls":[{"url":"https://bebop.cs.berkeley.edu/pubs/gahvari2007-spmvbench-spec.pdf","url_text":"SPEC Benchmark Workshop"}]},{"reference":"Dongarra, Jack J. (2007), \"The HPC Challenge Benchmark: A Candidate for Replacing Linpack in the Top500?\", SPEC Benchmark Workshop (PDF)","urls":[{"url":"https://www.spec.org/workshops/2007/austin/slides/Keynote_Jack_Dongarra.pdf","url_text":"SPEC Benchmark Workshop"}]},{"reference":"Christopher Mims (2010-11-08). \"Why China's New Supercomputer Is Only Technically the World's Fastest\". Retrieved 2011-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.technologyreview.com/2010/11/08/199100/why-chinas-new-supercomputer-is-only-technically-the-worlds-fastest/","url_text":"\"Why China's New Supercomputer Is Only Technically the World's Fastest\""}]},{"reference":"Meuer, Martin (2002-05-24). \"AN INTERVIEW WITH SUPERCOMPUTING LEGEND JACK DONGARRA\". Retrieved 2022-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpcwire.com/2002/05/24/an-interview-with-supercomputing-legend-jack-dongarra/","url_text":"\"AN INTERVIEW WITH SUPERCOMPUTING LEGEND JACK DONGARRA\""}]},{"reference":"Luszczek, Piotr; Dongarra, Jack J.; Koester, David; Rabenseifner, Rolf; Lucas, Bob; Kepner, Jeremy; Mccalpin, John; Bailey, David; Takahashi, Daisuke (2005), Introduction to the HPC Challenge Benchmark Suite (PDF)","urls":[{"url":"http://icl.cs.utk.edu/projectsfiles/hpcc/pubs/hpcc-challenge-benchmark05.pdf","url_text":"Introduction to the HPC Challenge Benchmark Suite"}]},{"reference":"Hemsoth, Nicole (June 26, 2014). \"New HPC Benchmark Delivers Promising Results\". HPCWire. Retrieved 2022-12-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpcwire.com/2014/06/26/development-pushes-ahead-new-hpc-benchmark/","url_text":"\"New HPC Benchmark Delivers Promising Results\""}]},{"reference":"Dongarra, Jack J. (2010). LINPACK Benchmark with Time Limits on Multicore & GPU Based Accelerators (PDF). International Supercomputing Conference.","urls":[{"url":"https://netlib.org/utk/people/JackDongarra/SLIDES/isc-talk-06102.pdf","url_text":"LINPACK Benchmark with Time Limits on Multicore & GPU Based Accelerators"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequence
Nucleic acid sequence
["1 Nucleotides","1.1 Notation","2 Biological significance","3 Sequence determination","3.1 Digital representation","4 Sequence analysis","4.1 Genetic testing","4.2 Sequence alignment","4.3 Sequence motifs","4.4 Sequence entropy","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
Succession of nucleotides in a nucleic acid This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Nucleic acid sequence" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The image above contains clickable links Interactive image of nucleic acid structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) using DNA helices and examples from the VS ribozyme and telomerase and nucleosome. (PDB: ADNA, 1BNA, 4OCB, 4R4V, 1YMO, 1EQZ​) A nucleic acid sequence is a succession of bases within the nucleotides forming alleles within a DNA (using GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule. This succession is denoted by a series of a set of five different letters that indicate the order of the nucleotides. By convention, sequences are usually presented from the 5' end to the 3' end. For DNA, with its double helix, there are two possible directions for the notated sequence; of these two, the sense strand is used. Because nucleic acids are normally linear (unbranched) polymers, specifying the sequence is equivalent to defining the covalent structure of the entire molecule. For this reason, the nucleic acid sequence is also termed the primary structure. The sequence represents genetic information. Biological deoxyribonucleic acid represents the information which directs the functions of an organism. Nucleic acids also have a secondary structure and tertiary structure. Primary structure is sometimes mistakenly referred to as "primary sequence". However there is no parallel concept of secondary or tertiary sequence. Nucleotides Chemical structure of RNA A series of codons in part of a mRNA molecule. Each codon consists of three nucleotides, usually representing a single amino acid. Main article: Nucleotide Nucleic acids consist of a chain of linked units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three subunits: a phosphate group and a sugar (ribose in the case of RNA, deoxyribose in DNA) make up the backbone of the nucleic acid strand, and attached to the sugar is one of a set of nucleobases. The nucleobases are important in base pairing of strands to form higher-level secondary and tertiary structures such as the famed double helix. The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand – adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine – covalently linked to a phosphodiester backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the 5' to 3' direction. With regards to transcription, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA. One sequence can be complementary to another sequence, meaning that they have the base on each position in the complementary (i.e., A to T, C to G) and in the reverse order. For example, the complementary sequence to TTAC is GTAA. If one strand of the double-stranded DNA is considered the sense strand, then the other strand, considered the antisense strand, will have the complementary sequence to the sense strand. Notation Main article: Nucleic acid notation While A, T, C, and G represent a particular nucleotide at a position, there are also letters that represent ambiguity which are used when more than one kind of nucleotide could occur at that position. The rules of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) are as follows: For example, W means that either an adenine or a thymine could occur in that position without impairing the sequence's functionality. List of symbols Symbol Meaning/derivation Possible bases Complement A Adenine A 1 T (or U) C Cytosine C G G Guanine G C T Thymine T A U Uracil U A W Weak A T 2 W S Strong C G S M aMino A C K K Keto G T M R puRine A G Y Y pYrimidine C T R B not A (B comes after A) C G T 3 V D not C (D comes after C) A G T H H not G (H comes after G) A C T D V not T (V comes after T and U) A C G B N any Nucleotide (not a gap) A C G T 4 N Z Zero 0 Z These symbols are also valid for RNA, except with U (uracil) replacing T (thymine). Apart from adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U), DNA and RNA also contain bases that have been modified after the nucleic acid chain has been formed. In DNA, the most common modified base is 5-methylcytidine (m5C). In RNA, there are many modified bases, including pseudouridine (Ψ), dihydrouridine (D), inosine (I), ribothymidine (rT) and 7-methylguanosine (m7G). Hypoxanthine and xanthine are two of the many bases created through mutagen presence, both of them through deamination (replacement of the amine-group with a carbonyl-group). Hypoxanthine is produced from adenine, and xanthine is produced from guanine. Similarly, deamination of cytosine results in uracil. Example of comparing and determining the % difference between two nucleotide sequences AATCCGCTAG AAACCCTTAG Given the two 10-nucleotide sequences, line them up and compare the differences between them. Calculate the percent difference by taking the number of differences between the DNA bases divided by the total number of nucleotides. In this case there are three differences in the 10 nucleotide sequence. Thus there is a 30% difference. Biological significance A depiction of the genetic code, by which the information contained in nucleic acids are translated into amino acid sequences in proteins. Further information: Genetic code and Central dogma of molecular biology In biological systems, nucleic acids contain information which is used by a living cell to construct specific proteins. The sequence of nucleobases on a nucleic acid strand is translated by cell machinery into a sequence of amino acids making up a protein strand. Each group of three bases, called a codon, corresponds to a single amino acid, and there is a specific genetic code by which each possible combination of three bases corresponds to a specific amino acid. The central dogma of molecular biology outlines the mechanism by which proteins are constructed using information contained in nucleic acids. DNA is transcribed into mRNA molecules, which travel to the ribosome where the mRNA is used as a template for the construction of the protein strand. Since nucleic acids can bind to molecules with complementary sequences, there is a distinction between "sense" sequences which code for proteins, and the complementary "antisense" sequence, which is by itself nonfunctional, but can bind to the sense strand. Sequence determination Electropherogram printout from automated sequencer for determining part of a DNA sequence Main article: DNA sequencing DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleotide sequence of a given DNA fragment. The sequence of the DNA of a living thing encodes the necessary information for that living thing to survive and reproduce. Therefore, determining the sequence is useful in fundamental research into why and how organisms live, as well as in applied subjects. Because of the importance of DNA to living things, knowledge of a DNA sequence may be useful in practically any biological research. For example, in medicine it can be used to identify, diagnose and potentially develop treatments for genetic diseases. Similarly, research into pathogens may lead to treatments for contagious diseases. Biotechnology is a burgeoning discipline, with the potential for many useful products and services. RNA is not sequenced directly. Instead, it is copied to a DNA by reverse transcriptase, and this DNA is then sequenced. Current sequencing methods rely on the discriminatory ability of DNA polymerases, and therefore can only distinguish four bases. An inosine (created from adenosine during RNA editing) is read as a G, and 5-methyl-cytosine (created from cytosine by DNA methylation) is read as a C. With current technology, it is difficult to sequence small amounts of DNA, as the signal is too weak to measure. This is overcome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification. Digital representation Genetic sequence in digital format. Once a nucleic acid sequence has been obtained from an organism, it is stored in silico in digital format. Digital genetic sequences may be stored in sequence databases, be analyzed (see Sequence analysis below), be digitally altered and be used as templates for creating new actual DNA using artificial gene synthesis. Sequence analysis Main article: Sequence analysis Digital genetic sequences may be analyzed using the tools of bioinformatics to attempt to determine its function. Genetic testing Main article: Genetic testing The DNA in an organism's genome can be analyzed to diagnose vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's paternity (genetic father) or a person's ancestry. Normally, every person carries two variations of every gene, one inherited from their mother, the other inherited from their father. The human genome is believed to contain around 20,000–25,000 genes. In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders. Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins. Usually, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are being developed. Sequence alignment Main article: Sequence alignment In bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the sequences of DNA, RNA, or protein to identify regions of similarity that may be due to functional, structural, or evolutionary relationships between the sequences. If two sequences in an alignment share a common ancestor, mismatches can be interpreted as point mutations and gaps as insertion or deletion mutations (indels) introduced in one or both lineages in the time since they diverged from one another. In sequence alignments of proteins, the degree of similarity between amino acids occupying a particular position in the sequence can be interpreted as a rough measure of how conserved a particular region or sequence motif is among lineages. The absence of substitutions, or the presence of only very conservative substitutions (that is, the substitution of amino acids whose side chains have similar biochemical properties) in a particular region of the sequence, suggest that this region has structural or functional importance. Although DNA and RNA nucleotide bases are more similar to each other than are amino acids, the conservation of base pairs can indicate a similar functional or structural role. Computational phylogenetics makes extensive use of sequence alignments in the construction and interpretation of phylogenetic trees, which are used to classify the evolutionary relationships between homologous genes represented in the genomes of divergent species. The degree to which sequences in a query set differ is qualitatively related to the sequences' evolutionary distance from one another. Roughly speaking, high sequence identity suggests that the sequences in question have a comparatively young most recent common ancestor, while low identity suggests that the divergence is more ancient. This approximation, which reflects the "molecular clock" hypothesis that a roughly constant rate of evolutionary change can be used to extrapolate the elapsed time since two genes first diverged (that is, the coalescence time), assumes that the effects of mutation and selection are constant across sequence lineages. Therefore, it does not account for possible differences among organisms or species in the rates of DNA repair or the possible functional conservation of specific regions in a sequence. (In the case of nucleotide sequences, the molecular clock hypothesis in its most basic form also discounts the difference in acceptance rates between silent mutations that do not alter the meaning of a given codon and other mutations that result in a different amino acid being incorporated into the protein.) More statistically accurate methods allow the evolutionary rate on each branch of the phylogenetic tree to vary, thus producing better estimates of coalescence times for genes. Sequence motifs Main article: Sequence motif Frequently the primary structure encodes motifs that are of functional importance. Some examples of sequence motifs are: the C/D and H/ACA boxes of snoRNAs, Sm binding site found in spliceosomal RNAs such as U1, U2, U4, U5, U6, U12 and U3, the Shine-Dalgarno sequence, the Kozak consensus sequence and the RNA polymerase III terminator. Sequence entropy In bioinformatics, a sequence entropy, also known as sequence complexity or information profile, is a numerical sequence providing a quantitative measure of the local complexity of a DNA sequence, independently of the direction of processing. The manipulations of the information profiles enable the analysis of the sequences using alignment-free techniques, such as for example in motif and rearrangements detection. See also Gene structure Nucleic acid structure determination Quaternary numeral system Single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) References ^ a b "Nomenclature for incompletely specified bases in nucleic acid sequences. Recommendations 1984. Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 83 (1): 4–8. 1986. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.1.4. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 322779. PMID 2417239. ^ Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB) (1984). "Nomenclature for Incompletely Specified Bases in Nucleic Acid Sequences". Retrieved 2008-02-04. ^ "BIOL2060: Translation". mun.ca. ^ "Research". uw.edu.pl. ^ Nguyen, T; Brunson, D; Crespi, C L; Penman, B W; Wishnok, J S; Tannenbaum, S R (April 1992). "DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in vitro". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 89 (7): 3030–034. Bibcode:1992PNAS...89.3030N. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.7.3030. PMC 48797. PMID 1557408. ^ "What is genetic testing?". Genetics Home Reference. 16 March 2015. Archived from the original on 29 May 2006. Retrieved 19 May 2010. ^ "Genetic Testing". nih.gov. ^ "Definitions of Genetic Testing". Definitions of Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães). EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project. 2008-09-11. Archived from the original on February 4, 2009. Retrieved 2008-08-10. ^ Mount DM. (2004). Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis (2nd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Cold Spring Harbor, NY. ISBN 0-87969-608-7. ^ Ng, P. C.; Henikoff, S. (2001). "Predicting Deleterious Amino Acid Substitutions". Genome Research. 11 (5): 863–74. doi:10.1101/gr.176601. PMC 311071. PMID 11337480. ^ Witzany, G (2016). "Crucial steps to life: From chemical reactions to code using agents". Biosystems. 140: 49–57. Bibcode:2016BiSys.140...49W. doi:10.1016/j.biosystems.2015.12.007. PMID 26723230. S2CID 30962295. ^ Samarsky, DA; Fournier MJ; Singer RH; Bertrand E (1998). "The snoRNA box C/D motif directs nucleolar targeting and also couples snoRNA synthesis and localization". The EMBO Journal. 17 (13): 3747–57. doi:10.1093/emboj/17.13.3747. PMC 1170710. PMID 9649444. ^ Ganot, Philippe; Caizergues-Ferrer, Michèle; Kiss, Tamás (1 April 1997). "The family of box ACA small nucleolar RNAs is defined by an evolutionarily conserved secondary structure and ubiquitous sequence elements essential for RNA accumulation". Genes & Development. 11 (7): 941–56. doi:10.1101/gad.11.7.941. PMID 9106664. ^ Shine J, Dalgarno L (1975). "Determinant of cistron specificity in bacterial ribosomes". Nature. 254 (5495): 34–38. Bibcode:1975Natur.254...34S. doi:10.1038/254034a0. PMID 803646. S2CID 4162567. ^ Kozak M (October 1987). "An analysis of 5'-noncoding sequences from 699 vertebrate messenger RNAs". Nucleic Acids Res. 15 (20): 8125–48. doi:10.1093/nar/15.20.8125. PMC 306349. PMID 3313277. ^ Bogenhagen DF, Brown DD (1981). "Nucleotide sequences in Xenopus 5S DNA required for transcription termination". Cell. 24 (1): 261–70. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(81)90522-5. PMID 6263489. S2CID 9982829. ^ a b Pinho, A; Garcia, S; Pratas, D; Ferreira, P (Nov 21, 2013). "DNA Sequences at a Glance". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e79922. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...879922P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079922. PMC 3836782. PMID 24278218. ^ Pratas, D; Silva, R; Pinho, A; Ferreira, P (May 18, 2015). "An alignment-free method to find and visualise rearrangements between pairs of DNA sequences". Scientific Reports. 5: 10203. Bibcode:2015NatSR...510203P. doi:10.1038/srep10203. PMC 4434998. PMID 25984837. ^ Troyanskaya, O; Arbell, O; Koren, Y; Landau, G; Bolshoy, A (2002). "Sequence complexity profiles of prokaryotic genomic sequences: A fast algorithm for calculating linguistic complexity". Bioinformatics. 18 (5): 679–88. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/18.5.679. PMID 12050064. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nucleic acid sequence. A bibliography on features, patterns, correlations in DNA and protein texts vteBiomolecular structureProtein structure Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Determination Prediction Design Thermodynamics Nucleic acid structure Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary Determination Prediction Design Thermodynamics See also Protein Protein domain Protein engineering Proteasome Nucleic acid DNA RNA Structural motif Nucleic acid double helix Authority control databases: National Israel United States
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(PDB: ADNA, 1BNA, 4OCB, 4R4V, 1YMO, 1EQZ​)A nucleic acid sequence is a succession of bases within the nucleotides forming alleles within a DNA (using GACT) or RNA (GACU) molecule. This succession is denoted by a series of a set of five different letters that indicate the order of the nucleotides. By convention, sequences are usually presented from the 5' end to the 3' end. For DNA, with its double helix, there are two possible directions for the notated sequence; of these two, the sense strand is used. Because nucleic acids are normally linear (unbranched) polymers, specifying the sequence is equivalent to defining the covalent structure of the entire molecule. For this reason, the nucleic acid sequence is also termed the primary structure.The sequence represents genetic information. Biological deoxyribonucleic acid represents the information which directs the functions of an organism.Nucleic acids also have a secondary structure and tertiary structure. Primary structure is sometimes mistakenly referred to as \"primary sequence\". However there is no parallel concept of secondary or tertiary sequence.","title":"Nucleic acid sequence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RNA_chemical_structure.GIF"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RNA-codons.svg"},{"link_name":"mRNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA"},{"link_name":"nucleotides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"phosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate"},{"link_name":"sugar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar"},{"link_name":"ribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribose"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"deoxyribose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deoxyribose"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"nucleobases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleobase"},{"link_name":"base pairing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_pair"},{"link_name":"secondary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_secondary_structure"},{"link_name":"tertiary structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_tertiary_structure"},{"link_name":"double helix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_double_helix"},{"link_name":"nucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"bases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleobase"},{"link_name":"adenine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenine"},{"link_name":"cytosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosine"},{"link_name":"guanine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanine"},{"link_name":"thymine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thymine"},{"link_name":"covalently","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent"},{"link_name":"phosphodiester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphodiester_bond"},{"link_name":"5' to 3'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directionality_(molecular_biology)"},{"link_name":"transcription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(biology)"},{"link_name":"complementary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementarity_(molecular_biology)"}],"text":"Chemical structure of RNAA series of codons in part of a mRNA molecule. Each codon consists of three nucleotides, usually representing a single amino acid.Nucleic acids consist of a chain of linked units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three subunits: a phosphate group and a sugar (ribose in the case of RNA, deoxyribose in DNA) make up the backbone of the nucleic acid strand, and attached to the sugar is one of a set of nucleobases. The nucleobases are important in base pairing of strands to form higher-level secondary and tertiary structures such as the famed double helix.The possible letters are A, C, G, and T, representing the four nucleotide bases of a DNA strand – adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine – covalently linked to a phosphodiester backbone. In the typical case, the sequences are printed abutting one another without gaps, as in the sequence AAAGTCTGAC, read left to right in the 5' to 3' direction. With regards to transcription, a sequence is on the coding strand if it has the same order as the transcribed RNA.One sequence can be complementary to another sequence, meaning that they have the base on each position in the complementary (i.e., A to T, C to G) and in the reverse order. For example, the complementary sequence to TTAC is GTAA. If one strand of the double-stranded DNA is considered the sense strand, then the other strand, considered the antisense strand, will have the complementary sequence to the sense strand.","title":"Nucleotides"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IUPAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"5-methylcytidine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Methylcytidine"},{"link_name":"7-methylguanosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-methylguanosine"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Hypoxanthine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxanthine"},{"link_name":"xanthine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xanthine"},{"link_name":"mutagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutagen"},{"link_name":"adenine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenine"},{"link_name":"guanine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"cytosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosine"},{"link_name":"uracil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uracil"}],"sub_title":"Notation","text":"While A, T, C, and G represent a particular nucleotide at a position, there are also letters that represent ambiguity which are used when more than one kind of nucleotide could occur at that position. The rules of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) are as follows:[1]For example, W means that either an adenine or a thymine could occur in that position without impairing the sequence's functionality.These symbols are also valid for RNA, except with U (uracil) replacing T (thymine).[1]Apart from adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) and uracil (U), DNA and RNA also contain bases that have been modified after the nucleic acid chain has been formed. In DNA, the most common modified base is 5-methylcytidine (m5C). In RNA, there are many modified bases, including pseudouridine (Ψ), dihydrouridine (D), inosine (I), ribothymidine (rT) and 7-methylguanosine (m7G).[3][4] Hypoxanthine and xanthine are two of the many bases created through mutagen presence, both of them through deamination (replacement of the amine-group with a carbonyl-group). Hypoxanthine is produced from adenine, and xanthine is produced from guanine.[5] Similarly, deamination of cytosine results in uracil.Example of comparing and determining the % difference between two nucleotide sequencesAATCCGCTAG\nAAACCCTTAGGiven the two 10-nucleotide sequences, line them up and compare the differences between them. Calculate the percent difference by taking the number of differences between the DNA bases divided by the total number of nucleotides. In this case there are three differences in the 10 nucleotide sequence. Thus there is a 30% difference.","title":"Nucleotides"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kooditabel.png"},{"link_name":"genetic code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code"},{"link_name":"nucleic acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"translated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"Genetic code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code"},{"link_name":"Central dogma of molecular biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology"},{"link_name":"cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"nucleobases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleobase"},{"link_name":"translated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"codon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codon"},{"link_name":"genetic code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code"},{"link_name":"central dogma of molecular biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"transcribed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"mRNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA"},{"link_name":"ribosome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome"},{"link_name":"complementary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complementarity_(molecular_biology)"},{"link_name":"sense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)"}],"text":"A depiction of the genetic code, by which the information contained in nucleic acids are translated into amino acid sequences in proteins.Further information: Genetic code and Central dogma of molecular biologyIn biological systems, nucleic acids contain information which is used by a living cell to construct specific proteins. The sequence of nucleobases on a nucleic acid strand is translated by cell machinery into a sequence of amino acids making up a protein strand. Each group of three bases, called a codon, corresponds to a single amino acid, and there is a specific genetic code by which each possible combination of three bases corresponds to a specific amino acid.The central dogma of molecular biology outlines the mechanism by which proteins are constructed using information contained in nucleic acids. DNA is transcribed into mRNA molecules, which travel to the ribosome where the mRNA is used as a template for the construction of the protein strand. Since nucleic acids can bind to molecules with complementary sequences, there is a distinction between \"sense\" sequences which code for proteins, and the complementary \"antisense\" sequence, which is by itself nonfunctional, but can bind to the sense strand.","title":"Biological significance"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DNA_sequence.svg"},{"link_name":"Electropherogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electropherogram"},{"link_name":"nucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research"},{"link_name":"medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"},{"link_name":"diagnose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis"},{"link_name":"treatments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapy"},{"link_name":"genetic diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disease"},{"link_name":"pathogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathogens"},{"link_name":"Biotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotechnology"},{"link_name":"reverse transcriptase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcriptase"},{"link_name":"RNA editing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_editing"},{"link_name":"DNA methylation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_methylation"},{"link_name":"polymerase chain reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction"}],"text":"Electropherogram printout from automated sequencer for determining part of a DNA sequenceDNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleotide sequence of a given DNA fragment. The sequence of the DNA of a living thing encodes the necessary information for that living thing to survive and reproduce. Therefore, determining the sequence is useful in fundamental research into why and how organisms live, as well as in applied subjects. Because of the importance of DNA to living things, knowledge of a DNA sequence may be useful in practically any biological research. For example, in medicine it can be used to identify, diagnose and potentially develop treatments for genetic diseases. Similarly, research into pathogens may lead to treatments for contagious diseases. Biotechnology is a burgeoning discipline, with the potential for many useful products and services.RNA is not sequenced directly. Instead, it is copied to a DNA by reverse transcriptase, and this DNA is then sequenced.Current sequencing methods rely on the discriminatory ability of DNA polymerases, and therefore can only distinguish four bases. An inosine (created from adenosine during RNA editing) is read as a G, and 5-methyl-cytosine (created from cytosine by DNA methylation) is read as a C. With current technology, it is difficult to sequence small amounts of DNA, as the signal is too weak to measure. This is overcome by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification.","title":"Sequence determination"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AMY1gene.png"},{"link_name":"in silico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_silico"},{"link_name":"sequence databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_database"},{"link_name":"artificial gene synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gene_synthesis"}],"sub_title":"Digital representation","text":"Genetic sequence in digital format.Once a nucleic acid sequence has been obtained from an organism, it is stored in silico in digital format. Digital genetic sequences may be stored in sequence databases, be analyzed (see Sequence analysis below), be digitally altered and be used as templates for creating new actual DNA using artificial gene synthesis.","title":"Sequence determination"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bioinformatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics"}],"text":"Digital genetic sequences may be analyzed using the tools of bioinformatics to attempt to determine its function.","title":"Sequence analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"diagnose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis"},{"link_name":"diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease"},{"link_name":"ancestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestry"},{"link_name":"gene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene"},{"link_name":"human genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genome"},{"link_name":"chromosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome"},{"link_name":"biochemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical"},{"link_name":"genetic diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disease"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Genetic testing","text":"The DNA in an organism's genome can be analyzed to diagnose vulnerabilities to inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a child's paternity (genetic father) or a person's ancestry. Normally, every person carries two variations of every gene, one inherited from their mother, the other inherited from their father. The human genome is believed to contain around 20,000–25,000 genes. In addition to studying chromosomes to the level of individual genes, genetic testing in a broader sense includes biochemical tests for the possible presence of genetic diseases, or mutant forms of genes associated with increased risk of developing genetic disorders.Genetic testing identifies changes in chromosomes, genes, or proteins.[6] Usually, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. Several hundred genetic tests are currently in use, and more are being developed.[7][8]","title":"Sequence analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA"},{"link_name":"protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"structural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_biology"},{"link_name":"evolutionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mount-9"},{"link_name":"point mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_mutation"},{"link_name":"insertion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insertion_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"deletion mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deletion_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"indels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indel"},{"link_name":"amino acids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"conserved","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"sequence motif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_motif"},{"link_name":"side chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_chain"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-predict-10"},{"link_name":"nucleotide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleotide"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Computational phylogenetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_phylogenetics"},{"link_name":"phylogenetic trees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree"},{"link_name":"most recent common ancestor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor"},{"link_name":"molecular clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_clock"},{"link_name":"rate of evolutionary change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_evolution"},{"link_name":"coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coalescence_(genetics)"},{"link_name":"selection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection"},{"link_name":"DNA repair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_repair"},{"link_name":"silent mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_mutation"},{"link_name":"codon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codon"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"}],"sub_title":"Sequence alignment","text":"In bioinformatics, a sequence alignment is a way of arranging the sequences of DNA, RNA, or protein to identify regions of similarity that may be due to functional, structural, or evolutionary relationships between the sequences.[9] If two sequences in an alignment share a common ancestor, mismatches can be interpreted as point mutations and gaps as insertion or deletion mutations (indels) introduced in one or both lineages in the time since they diverged from one another. In sequence alignments of proteins, the degree of similarity between amino acids occupying a particular position in the sequence can be interpreted as a rough measure of how conserved a particular region or sequence motif is among lineages. The absence of substitutions, or the presence of only very conservative substitutions (that is, the substitution of amino acids whose side chains have similar biochemical properties) in a particular region of the sequence, suggest[10] that this region has structural or functional importance. Although DNA and RNA nucleotide bases are more similar to each other than are amino acids, the conservation of base pairs can indicate a similar functional or structural role.[11]Computational phylogenetics makes extensive use of sequence alignments in the construction and interpretation of phylogenetic trees, which are used to classify the evolutionary relationships between homologous genes represented in the genomes of divergent species. The degree to which sequences in a query set differ is qualitatively related to the sequences' evolutionary distance from one another. Roughly speaking, high sequence identity suggests that the sequences in question have a comparatively young most recent common ancestor, while low identity suggests that the divergence is more ancient. This approximation, which reflects the \"molecular clock\" hypothesis that a roughly constant rate of evolutionary change can be used to extrapolate the elapsed time since two genes first diverged (that is, the coalescence time), assumes that the effects of mutation and selection are constant across sequence lineages. Therefore, it does not account for possible differences among organisms or species in the rates of DNA repair or the possible functional conservation of specific regions in a sequence. (In the case of nucleotide sequences, the molecular clock hypothesis in its most basic form also discounts the difference in acceptance rates between silent mutations that do not alter the meaning of a given codon and other mutations that result in a different amino acid being incorporated into the protein.) More statistically accurate methods allow the evolutionary rate on each branch of the phylogenetic tree to vary, thus producing better estimates of coalescence times for genes.","title":"Sequence analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"snoRNAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SnoRNA"},{"link_name":"Sm binding site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSm"},{"link_name":"U1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U1_spliceosomal_RNA"},{"link_name":"U2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U2_spliceosomal_RNA"},{"link_name":"U4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U4_spliceosomal_RNA"},{"link_name":"U5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U5_spliceosomal_RNA"},{"link_name":"U6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U6_spliceosomal_RNA"},{"link_name":"U12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U12_minor_spliceosomal_RNA"},{"link_name":"U3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_nucleolar_RNA_U3"},{"link_name":"Shine-Dalgarno sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shine-Dalgarno_sequence"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Kozak consensus sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozak_consensus_sequence"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kozak1987-15"},{"link_name":"RNA polymerase III terminator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_polymerase_III"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid6263489-16"}],"sub_title":"Sequence motifs","text":"Frequently the primary structure encodes motifs that are of functional importance. Some examples of sequence motifs are: the C/D[12]\nand H/ACA boxes[13]\nof snoRNAs, Sm binding site found in spliceosomal RNAs such as U1, U2, U4, U5, U6, U12 and U3, the Shine-Dalgarno sequence,[14]\nthe Kozak consensus sequence[15]\nand the RNA polymerase III terminator.[16]","title":"Sequence analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bioinformatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glance-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glance-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rearrang-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-troy-19"}],"sub_title":"Sequence entropy","text":"In bioinformatics, a sequence entropy, also known as sequence complexity or information profile,[17] is a numerical sequence providing a quantitative measure of the local complexity of a DNA sequence, independently of the direction of processing. The manipulations of the information profiles enable the analysis of the sequences using alignment-free techniques, such as for example in motif and rearrangements detection.[17][18]\n[19]","title":"Sequence analysis"}]
[{"image_text":"The image above contains clickable links Interactive image of nucleic acid structure (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) using DNA helices and examples from the VS ribozyme and telomerase and nucleosome. (PDB: ADNA, 1BNA, 4OCB, 4R4V, 1YMO, 1EQZ​)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/DNA_RNA_structure_%281%29.png/270px-DNA_RNA_structure_%281%29.png"},{"image_text":"The image above contains clickable links","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/18px-Interactive_icon.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Chemical structure of RNA","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/RNA_chemical_structure.GIF/220px-RNA_chemical_structure.GIF"},{"image_text":"A series of codons in part of a mRNA molecule. Each codon consists of three nucleotides, usually representing a single amino acid.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/RNA-codons.svg/220px-RNA-codons.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A depiction of the genetic code, by which the information contained in nucleic acids are translated into amino acid sequences in proteins.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Kooditabel.png/200px-Kooditabel.png"},{"image_text":"Electropherogram printout from automated sequencer for determining part of a DNA sequence","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/DNA_sequence.svg/268px-DNA_sequence.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Genetic sequence in digital format.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/AMY1gene.png/370px-AMY1gene.png"}]
[{"title":"Gene structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_structure"},{"title":"Nucleic acid structure determination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid_structure_determination"},{"title":"Quaternary numeral system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_numeral_system"},{"title":"Single-nucleotide polymorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-nucleotide_polymorphism"}]
[{"reference":"\"Nomenclature for incompletely specified bases in nucleic acid sequences. Recommendations 1984. Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB)\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 83 (1): 4–8. 1986. doi:10.1073/pnas.83.1.4. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 322779. PMID 2417239.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC322779","url_text":"\"Nomenclature for incompletely specified bases in nucleic acid sequences. Recommendations 1984. Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.83.1.4","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.83.1.4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424","url_text":"0027-8424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC322779","url_text":"322779"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2417239","url_text":"2417239"}]},{"reference":"Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry (NC-IUB) (1984). \"Nomenclature for Incompletely Specified Bases in Nucleic Acid Sequences\". Retrieved 2008-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/misc/naseq.html","url_text":"\"Nomenclature for Incompletely Specified Bases in Nucleic Acid Sequences\""}]},{"reference":"\"BIOL2060: Translation\". mun.ca.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mun.ca/biology/desmid/brian/BIOL2060/BIOL2060-22/CB22.html","url_text":"\"BIOL2060: Translation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Research\". uw.edu.pl.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.biogeo.uw.edu.pl/research/grupaC_en.html","url_text":"\"Research\""}]},{"reference":"Nguyen, T; Brunson, D; Crespi, C L; Penman, B W; Wishnok, J S; Tannenbaum, S R (April 1992). \"DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in vitro\". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 89 (7): 3030–034. Bibcode:1992PNAS...89.3030N. doi:10.1073/pnas.89.7.3030. PMC 48797. PMID 1557408.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC48797","url_text":"\"DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in vitro\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992PNAS...89.3030N","url_text":"1992PNAS...89.3030N"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.89.7.3030","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.89.7.3030"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC48797","url_text":"48797"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1557408","url_text":"1557408"}]},{"reference":"\"What is genetic testing?\". Genetics Home Reference. 16 March 2015. Archived from the original on 29 May 2006. Retrieved 19 May 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060529002711/http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting","url_text":"\"What is genetic testing?\""},{"url":"http://www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/testing/genetictesting","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Genetic Testing\". nih.gov.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/genetictesting.html","url_text":"\"Genetic Testing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definitions of Genetic Testing\". Definitions of Genetic Testing (Jorge Sequeiros and Bárbara Guimarães). EuroGentest Network of Excellence Project. 2008-09-11. Archived from the original on February 4, 2009. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context-adaptive_variable-length_coding
Context-adaptive variable-length coding
["1 Coded elements","2 CAVLC examples","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Context-adaptive variable-length coding" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Context-adaptive variable-length coding" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Context-adaptive variable-length coding (CAVLC) is a form of entropy coding used in H.264/MPEG-4 AVC video encoding. It is an inherently lossless compression technique, like almost all entropy-coders. In H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, it is used to encode residual, zig-zag order, blocks of transform coefficients. It is an alternative to context-based adaptive binary arithmetic coding (CABAC). CAVLC requires considerably less processing to decode than CABAC, although it does not compress the data quite as effectively. CAVLC is supported in all H.264 profiles, unlike CABAC which is not supported in Baseline and Extended profiles. CAVLC is used to encode residual, zig-zag ordered 4×4 (and 2×2) blocks of transform coefficients. CAVLC is designed to take advantage of several characteristics of quantized 4×4 blocks: After prediction, transformation and quantization, blocks are typically sparse (containing mostly zeros). The highest non-zero coefficients after zig-zag scan are often sequences of +/− 1. CAVLC signals the number of high-frequency +/−1 coefficients in a compact way. The number of non-zero coefficients in neighbouring blocks is correlated. The number of coefficients is encoded using a look-up table; the choice of look-up table depends on the number of non-zero coefficients in neighbouring blocks. The level (magnitude) of non-zero coefficients tends to be higher at the start of the reordered array (near the DC coefficient) and lower towards the higher frequencies. CAVLC takes advantage of this by adapting the choice of VLC look-up table for the “level” parameter depending on recently coded level magnitudes. Coded elements Parameters that required to be encoded and transmitted include the following table: Parameters Description Macroblock type Prediction method for each coded macroblock Coded block pattern Indicates which blocks within a macroblock contain coded coefficients Quantizer parameter reference frame Transmitted as a delta value from the previous value of QP Reference frame index Identify reference frame(s) for inter prediction Motion vector Transmitted as a difference (mvd) from predicted motion vector Residual data Coefficient data for each 4×4 or 2×2 block CAVLC examples Element Value Code coeff_token TotalCoeffs=5, T1s=3 0000100 T1 sign (4) + 0 T1 sign (3) - 1 T1 sign (2) - 1 Level (1) +1 (use Level_VLC0) 1 Level (0) +3 (use Level_VLC1) 0010 TotalZeros 3 111 run_before(4) ZerosLeft=3; run_before=1 10 run_before(3) ZerosLeft=2; run_before=0 1 run_before(2) ZerosLeft=2; run_before=0 1 run_before(1) ZerosLeft=2; run_before=1 01 run_before(0) ZerosLeft=1; run_before=1 No code required; last coefficient. Code Element Value Output array 0000100 coeff_token Total Coeffs=5, T1s=3 Empty 0 T1 sign + 1 1 T1 sign - −1, 1 1 T1 sign - −1, −1, 1 1 Level +1 1, −1, −1, 1 0010 Level +3 3, 1, −1, −1, 1 111 TotalZeros 3 3, 1, −1, −1, 1 10 run_before 1 3, 1, −1, −1, 0, 1 1 run_before 0 3, 1, −1, −1, 0, 1 1 run_before 0 3, 1, −1, −1, 0, 1 01 run_before 1 3, 0, 1, −1, −1, 0, 1 In all following examples, we assume that table Num-VLC0 is used to encode coeff_token. 0, 3, 0, 1, −1, −1, 0, 1, 0… TotalCoeffs = 5 (indexed from highest frequency to lowest frequency ) TotalZeros = 3 T1s = 3 (in fact there are 4 trailing ones but only 3 can be encoded as a “special case”) Encoding: The transmitted bitstream for this block is 000010001110010111101101. Decoding: The output array is “built up” from the decoded values as shown below. Values added to the output array at each stage are underlined. The decoder has inserted two zeros; however, TotalZeros is equal to 3 and so another 1 zero is inserted before the lowest coefficient, making the final output array: 0, 3, 0, 1, −1, −1, 0, 1 See also H.264 (entropy coding) Data compression Lossless compression References External links Context adaptive variable length coding tutorial This computer science article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_Shechtman
Dan Shechtman
["1 Biography","2 Academic career","3 Work on quasicrystals","4 Presidential bid","5 Awards","6 Published works","7 See also","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]
Israeli Nobel laureate in chemistry Dan Shechtmanדן שכטמן‎Dan Shechtman, Nobel Prize 2011 press conference.Born (1941-01-24) January 24, 1941 (age 83)Tel Aviv, Mandatory PalestineEducationTechnion – Israel Institute of TechnologyAlma materTechnionKnown forQuasicrystalsSpouseTzipora ShechtmanChildrenYoav ShechtmanAwardsWeizmann Prize(1993) Israel Prize (1998)Wolf Prize in Physics (1999)Gregori Aminoff Prize (2000)Nobel Prize in Chemistry (2011)Scientific careerFieldsMaterials scienceInstitutionsWright-Patterson Air Force BaseJohns Hopkins UniversityNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyIowa State UniversityTechnionTohoku University Dan Shechtman (Hebrew: דן שכטמן; born January 24, 1941) is the Philip Tobias Professor of Materials Science at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, an Associate of the US Department of Energy's Ames National Laboratory, and Professor of Materials Science at Iowa State University. On April 8, 1982, while on sabbatical at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C., Shechtman discovered the icosahedral phase, which opened the new field of quasiperiodic crystals. He was awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of quasicrystals, making him one of six Israelis who have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Biography Dan Shechtman was born in 1941 in Tel Aviv, in what was then Mandatory Palestine; the city became part of the new state of Israel in 1948. He grew up in Petah Tikva and Ramat Gan in a Jewish family. His grandparents had immigrated to Palestine during the Second Aliyah (1904–1914) and founded a printing house. As a child Shechtman was fascinated by Jules Verne's The Mysterious Island (1874), which he read many times. His childhood dream was to become an engineer like the main protagonist, Cyrus Smith. I thought that was the best thing a person could do. The engineer in the book knows mechanics and physics, and he creates a whole way of life on the island out of nothing. I wanted to be like that.— Dan Shechtman Shechtman is married to Prof. Tzipora Shechtman, Head of the Department of Counseling and Human Development at Haifa University, and author of two books on psychotherapy. They have a son Yoav Shechtman (a postdoctoral researcher in the lab of W. E. Moerner) and three daughters: Tamar Finkelstein (an organizational psychologist at the Israeli police leadership center), Ella Shechtman-Cory (a PhD in clinical psychology), and Ruth Dougoud-Nevo (also a PhD in clinical psychology). Academic career Meeting at NIST in 1985 where Shechtman (left) explains the atomic structure of quasicrystals After receiving his Ph.D. in Materials Engineering from the Technion in 1972, where he also obtained his B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering in 1966 and M.Sc. in Materials Engineering in 1968, Shechtman was an NRC fellow at the Aerospace Research Laboratories at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio, where he studied for three years the microstructure and physical metallurgy of titanium aluminides. In 1975, he joined the department of materials engineering at Technion. In 1981–1983 he was on sabbatical at Johns Hopkins University, where he studied rapidly solidified aluminum transition metal alloys, in a joint program with NBS. During this study he discovered the icosahedral phase which opened the new field of quasiperiodic crystals. In 1992–1994 he was on sabbatical at National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), where he studied the effect of the defect structure of CVD diamond on its growth and properties. Shechtman's Technion research is conducted in the Louis Edelstein Center, and in the Wolfson Centre which is headed by him. He served on several Technion Senate Committees and headed one of them. Shechtman joined the Iowa State faculty in 2004. He currently spends about five months a year in Ames on a part-time appointment. Since 2014 he has been the head of the International Scientific Council of Tomsk Polytechnic University. Work on quasicrystals Shechtman's Nobel Prize–winning work was in the area of quasicrystals, ordered crystalline materials lacking repeating structures, such as this Al-Pd-Mn alloy. Interview with Dan Shechtman after his Nobel lecture From the day Shechtman published his findings on quasicrystals in 1984 to the day Linus Pauling died in 1994, Shechtman experienced hostility from him toward the non-periodic interpretation. "For a long time it was me against the world," he said. "I was a subject of ridicule and lectures about the basics of crystallography. The leader of the opposition to my findings was the two-time Nobel Laureate Linus Pauling, the idol of the American Chemical Society and one of the most famous scientists in the world. For years, 'til his last day, he fought against quasi-periodicity in crystals. He was wrong, and after a while, I enjoyed every moment of this scientific battle, knowing that he was wrong." Linus Pauling is noted saying "There is no such thing as quasicrystals, only quasi-scientists." Pauling was apparently unaware of a paper in 1981 by H. Kleinert and K. Maki which had pointed out the possibility of a non-periodic Icosahedral Phase in quasicrystals (see the historical notes). The head of Shechtman's research group told him to "go back and read the textbook" and a couple of days later "asked him to leave for 'bringing disgrace' on the team." Shechtman felt rejected. On publication of his paper, other scientists began to confirm and accept empirical findings of the existence of quasicrystals. The Nobel Committee at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said that "his discovery was extremely controversial," but that his work "eventually forced scientists to reconsider their conception of the very nature of matter." Through Shechtman's discovery, several other groups were able to form similar quasicrystals by 1987, finding these materials to have low thermal and electrical conductivity, while possessing high structural stability. Quasicrystals have also been found naturally. A quasiperiodic crystal, or, in short, quasicrystal, is a structure that is ordered but not periodic. A quasicrystalline pattern can continuously fill all available space, but it lacks translational symmetry. "Aperiodic mosaics, such as those found in the medieval Islamic mosaics of the Alhambra palace in Spain and the Darb-i Imam shrine in Iran, have helped scientists understand what quasicrystals look like at the atomic level. In those mosaics, as in quasicrystals, the patterns are regular – they follow mathematical rules – but they never repeat themselves.""An intriguing feature of such patterns, also found in Arab mosaics, is that the mathematical constant known as the Greek letters phi or tau, or the "golden ratio", occurs over and over again. Underlying it is a sequence worked out by Fibonacci in the 13th century, where each number is the sum of the preceding two." Quasicrystalline materials could be used in a large number of applications, including the formation of durable steel used for fine instrumentation, and non-stick insulation for electrical wires and cooking equipment., but presently have no technological applications. The Nobel prize was 10 million Swedish krona (approximately US$1.5 million). Presidential bid On January 17, 2014, in an interview with Israel's Channel One, Shechtman announced his candidacy for President of Israel. Shechtman received the endorsement of the ten Members of Knesset required to run. In the elections, held on June 10, 2014, he was awarded only one vote. This led Israeli press and Israeli humorists to qualify Shechtman as "quasi-president" in reference to the "quasi-scientist" quote. Awards Shechtman in Stockholm, June 2016 2019 Honorary John von Neumann Professor title 2014 Fray International Sustainability Award, SIPS 2014 2013 Honorary doctorate from Bar-Ilan University 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of quasicrystals 2008 European Materials Research Society (E-MRS) 25th Anniversary Award 2002 EMET Prize in Chemistry 2000 Muriel & David Jacknow Technion Award for Excellence in Teaching 2000 Gregori Aminoff Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 1999 Wolf Prize in Physics. 1998 Israel Prize, for Physics. 1993 Weizmann Science Award 1990 Rothschild Prize in Engineering 1988 New England Academic Award of the Technion 1988 International Award for New Materials of the American Physical Society 1986 Physics Award of the Friedenberg Fund for the Advancement of Science and Education Published works Shechtman, D.; Blech, I.; Gratias, D.; Cahn, J.W. (1984). "Metallic Phase with Long-Range Orientational Order and No Translational Symmetry". Physical Review Letters. 53 (20): 1951. Bibcode:1984PhRvL..53.1951S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.53.1951. Swartzendruber, L.; Shechtman, D.; Bendersky, L.; Cahn, J.W. (1985). "Nuclear γ-ray resonance observations in an aluminum-based icosahedral quasicrystal". Physical Review B. 32 (2): 1383–1385. Bibcode:1985PhRvB..32.1383S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.32.1383. PMID 9937171. Cahn, John W.; Gratias, Denis; Shechtman, Dan (1986). "Pauling's model not universally accepted". Nature. 319 (6049): 102. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..102C. doi:10.1038/319102a0. S2CID 4372556. Shechtman, Dan (1988). "The Icosahedral Quasiperiodic Phase". Physica Scripta. T23: 49. Bibcode:1988PhST...23...49S. doi:10.1088/0031-8949/1988/T23/008. S2CID 250844166. Cahn, John W.; Shechtman, Dan; Gratias, Denis (1986). "Indexing of icosahedral quasiperiodic crystals". Journal of Materials Research. 1 (1): 13. Bibcode:1986JMatR...1...13C. doi:10.1557/JMR.1986.0013. S2CID 138068389. See also Biography portalChemistry portalIsrael portal List of Israel Prize recipients List of Israeli Nobel laureates List of Jewish Nobel laureates Science and technology in Israel References ^ a b Dan Shechtman Archived November 10, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. (PDF). Retrieved on January 28, 2012. ^ "Israeli Wins Chemistry Nobel For Quasicrystals". npr.org. Retrieved October 5, 2011. ^ a b Iowa State, Ames Laboratory, Technion Scientist Wins Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Newswise.com (October 5, 2011). Retrieved on January 28, 2012. ^ Multiple sources: Tiny Israel a Nobel heavyweight, especially in chemistry Times of Israel Israel’s Shechtman vindicated with Nobel for chemistry AFP (in Al Arabiya News) Thursday, October 6, 2011 Fiske, Gavriel (October 9, 2013). "Tiny Israel a Nobel heavyweight, especially in chemistry". Times of Israel. Retrieved October 13, 2013. ^ JINFO. "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry". www.jinfo.org. Retrieved March 30, 2023. ^ "Clear as crystal". Haaretz. April 1, 2011. Retrieved October 6, 2011. ^ Professor Zipora Shechtman Archived April 1, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Edu.haifa.ac.il. Retrieved on January 28, 2012. ^ He deserves it, wife of 2011 Nobel Chemistry laureate says Archived October 26, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Monstersandcritics.com (October 5, 2011). Retrieved on January 28, 2012. ^ Shechtman Wins Chemistry Nobel for Crystal Find Archived December 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Mobile.bloomberg.com (October 5, 2011). Retrieved on January 28, 2012. ^ Genealogy of the Shechtman family. Geni.com (August 12, 2010). Retrieved on January 28, 2012. ^ Iowa State prof wins Nobel in chemistry (Chicago Tribune, October 5, 2011) ^ "В ТПУ впервые прошло заседание Международного научного совета". Archived from the original on September 3, 2014. Retrieved September 1, 2014. ^ Ünal, B; V. Fournée; K.J. Schnitzenbaumer; C. Ghosh; C.J. Jenks; A.R. Ross; T.A. Lograsso; J.W. Evans; P.A. Thiel (2007). "Nucleation and growth of Ag islands on fivefold Al-Pd-Mn quasicrystal surfaces: Dependence of island density on temperature and flux" (PDF). Physical Review B. 75 (6): 064205. Bibcode:2007PhRvB..75f4205U. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.75.064205. S2CID 53382207. ^ "Iowa State, Ames Laboratory, Technion scientist wins Nobel Prize in Chemistry" (Press release). Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University. October 5, 2011. ^ a b c d e f Lannin, Patrick (October 5, 2011). "Ridiculed crystal work wins Nobel for Israeli". Reuters. Retrieved October 22, 2011. ^ Kleinert H., Maki K. (1981). "Lattice Textures in Cholesteric Liquid Crystals" (PDF). Fortschritte der Physik. 29 (5): 219–259. Bibcode:1981ForPh..29..219K. doi:10.1002/prop.19810290503. ^ Jha, Alok (January 5, 2013). "Dan Shechtman: 'Linus Pauling said I was talking nonsense'". Guardian. ^ Bradley, David (October 5, 2011). "Dan Shechtman discusses quasicrystals". ScienceBase. Retrieved October 5, 2011. Shechtman video interview ^ "Clear as crystal". Haaretz. April 1, 2011. Retrieved October 6, 2011. ^ Day, Charles (February 1, 2001). "Binary Quasicrystals Discovered That Are Stable and Icosahedral". Physics Today. 54 (2): 17–18. Bibcode:2001PhT....54b..17D. doi:10.1063/1.1359699. ISSN 0031-9228. ^ Wang, N.; Chen, H.; Kuo, K. H. (August 31, 1987). "Two-dimensional quasicrystal with eightfold rotational symmetry". Physical Review Letters. 59 (9): 1010–1013. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..59.1010W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1010. PMID 10035936. ^ Bancel, Peter A.; Heiney, Paul A. (June 15, 1986). "Icosahedral aluminum--transition-metal alloys". Physical Review B. 33 (12): 7917–7922. Bibcode:1986PhRvB..33.7917B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.33.7917. PMID 9938181. ^ Crane, Leah (December 8, 2016). "Third-ever natural quasicrystal found in Siberian meteorite". New Scientist. Retrieved January 28, 2022. ^ Bindi, Luca; Eiler, John M.; Guan, Yunbin; Hollister, Lincoln S.; MacPherson, Glenn; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Yao, Nan (January 31, 2012). "Evidence for the extraterrestrial origin of a natural quasicrystal". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (5): 1396–1401. doi:10.1073/pnas.1111115109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3277151. PMID 22215583. ^ Janot, Christian (1997). Quasicrystals – a primer, 2nd ed. Oxford University Publishing. ISBN 0-19-856551-8. ^ Van Noorden, Richard (October 5, 2011). "Impossible crystals snag chemistry Nobel". nature. doi:10.1038/news.2011.572. Retrieved October 5, 2011. ^ Carpenter, Jennifer (October 5, 2011). "Nobel win for crystal discovery". BBC. Retrieved October 5, 2011. ^ "Nobel Prize winning professor announces run for president of Israel". ^ Recipients are listed on Budapest University of Technology and Economics website: "John von Neumann Professors". Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Archived from the original on September 12, 2022. Retrieved September 12, 2022. ^ "Dan Shechtman Winner of the Fray Award". www.flogen.org. ^ "Honorary Doctorate Recipients, Bar-Ilan University". Archived from the original on May 24, 2017. Retrieved September 3, 2019. ^ "Wolf Prize Recipients in Physics". Wolffund.org.il. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006. Retrieved October 5, 2011. ^ "Israel Prize Official Site – Recipients in 1998 (in Hebrew)". Archived from the original on October 6, 2014. ^ "פרס ויצמן למדעים מדויקים יוענק לפרופ' מיקי אלעד – Technion – Israel Institute of Technology". Technion – Israel Institute of Technology – (in Hebrew). July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 5, 2022. ^ Ziv, Jacob (2010). "Engineering". Rothschild Prizes 2010: Fifty Years (PDF). Jerusalem. pp. 26, 32.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Further reading D. P. DiVincenzo and P. J. Steinhardt, eds. 1991. Quasicrystals: The State of the Art. Directions in Condensed Matter Physics, Vol 11. ISBN 981-02-0522-8. T. Janssen. 2007. Quasicrystals: Comparative dynamics. Nature Materials, Vol 6., 925–926. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dan Shechtman. Dan Shechtman on Nobelprize.org Nobel Laureates from Technion – Israel Institute of Technology. Story of quasicrystals as told by Shechtman to APS News in 2002. Biography/CV Page – Technion TechnionLIVE e-newsletter Archived November 25, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Dan Shechtman (Iowa State faculty page) 2012 interview with The Times of Israel Awards Preceded byRichard HeckEi-ichi NegishiAkira Suzuki Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Succeeded byBrian KobilkaRobert Lefkowitz vteLaureates of the Wolf Prize in Physics1970s Chien-Shiung Wu (1978) George Uhlenbeck / Giuseppe Occhialini (1979) 1980s Michael Fisher / Leo Kadanoff / Kenneth G. Wilson (1980) Freeman Dyson / Gerardus 't Hooft / Victor Weisskopf (1981) Leon M. Lederman / Martin Lewis Perl (1982) Erwin Hahn / Peter Hirsch / Theodore Maiman (1983–84) Conyers Herring / Philippe Nozières (1984–85) Mitchell Feigenbaum / Albert J. Libchaber (1986) Herbert Friedman / Bruno Rossi / Riccardo Giacconi (1987) Roger Penrose / Stephen Hawking (1988) 1990s Pierre-Gilles de Gennes / David J. Thouless (1990) Maurice Goldhaber / Valentine Telegdi (1991) Joseph H. Taylor Jr. (1992) Benoît Mandelbrot (1993) Vitaly Ginzburg / Yoichiro Nambu (1994–95) John Wheeler (1996–97) Yakir Aharonov / Michael Berry (1998) Dan Shechtman (1999) 2000s Raymond Davis Jr. / Masatoshi Koshiba (2000) Bertrand Halperin / Anthony Leggett (2002–03) Robert Brout / François Englert / Peter Higgs (2004) Daniel Kleppner (2005) Albert Fert / Peter Grünberg (2006–07) 2010s John F. Clauser / Alain Aspect / Anton Zeilinger (2010) Maximilian Haider / Harald Rose / Knut Urban (2011) Jacob Bekenstein (2012) Peter Zoller / Juan Ignacio Cirac (2013) James D. Bjorken / Robert P. Kirshner (2015) Yoseph Imry (2016) Michel Mayor / Didier Queloz (2017) Charles H. Bennett / Gilles Brassard (2018) 2020s Rafi Bistritzer / Pablo Jarillo-Herrero / Allan H. MacDonald (2020) Giorgio Parisi (2021) Anne L'Huillier / Paul Corkum / Ferenc Krausz (2022) Agriculture Arts Chemistry Mathematics Medicine Physics vte Israeli Nobel laureates 1966: Shmuel Yosef Agnon (Literature) 1978: Menachem Begin (Peace) 1994: Shimon Peres / Yitzhak Rabin (Peace) 2002: Daniel Kahneman (Economics) 2004: Aaron Ciechanover / Avram Hershko (Chemistry) 2005: Robert Aumann (Economics) 2009: Ada Yonath (Chemistry) 2011: Dan Shechtman (Chemistry) 2013: Michael Levitt / Arieh Warshel (Chemistry) 2021: Joshua Angrist (Economics) Italics indicate a Nobel Memorial Prize, i.e. not one of the original Prizes bequested by Alfred Nobel. vteLaureates of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry1901–1925 1901: Jacobus van 't Hoff 1902: Emil Fischer 1903: Svante Arrhenius 1904: William Ramsay 1905: Adolf von Baeyer 1906: Henri Moissan 1907: Eduard Buchner 1908: Ernest Rutherford 1909: Wilhelm Ostwald 1910: Otto Wallach 1911: Marie Curie 1912: Victor Grignard / Paul Sabatier 1913: Alfred Werner 1914: Theodore Richards 1915: Richard Willstätter 1916 1917 1918: Fritz Haber 1919 1920: Walther Nernst 1921: Frederick Soddy 1922: Francis Aston 1923: Fritz Pregl 1924 1925: Richard Zsigmondy 1926–1950 1926: Theodor Svedberg 1927: Heinrich Wieland 1928: Adolf Windaus 1929: Arthur Harden / Hans von Euler-Chelpin 1930: Hans Fischer 1931: Carl Bosch / Friedrich Bergius 1932: Irving Langmuir 1933 1934: Harold Urey 1935: Frédéric Joliot-Curie / Irène Joliot-Curie 1936: Peter Debye 1937: Norman Haworth / Paul Karrer 1938: Richard Kuhn 1939: Adolf Butenandt / Leopold Ružička 1940 1941 1942 1943: George de Hevesy 1944: Otto Hahn 1945: Artturi Virtanen 1946: James B. Sumner / John Northrop / Wendell Meredith Stanley 1947: Robert Robinson 1948: Arne Tiselius 1949: William Giauque 1950: Otto Diels / Kurt Alder 1951–1975 1951: Edwin McMillan / Glenn T. Seaborg 1952: Archer Martin / Richard Synge 1953: Hermann Staudinger 1954: Linus Pauling 1955: Vincent du Vigneaud 1956: Cyril Hinshelwood / Nikolay Semyonov 1957: Alexander Todd 1958: Frederick Sanger 1959: Jaroslav Heyrovský 1960: Willard Libby 1961: Melvin Calvin 1962: Max Perutz / John Kendrew 1963: Karl Ziegler / Giulio Natta 1964: Dorothy Hodgkin 1965: Robert Woodward 1966: Robert S. Mulliken 1967: Manfred Eigen / Ronald Norrish / George Porter 1968: Lars Onsager 1969: Derek Barton / Odd Hassel 1970: Luis Federico Leloir 1971: Gerhard Herzberg 1972: Christian B. Anfinsen / Stanford Moore / William Stein 1973: Ernst Otto Fischer / Geoffrey Wilkinson 1974: Paul Flory 1975: John Cornforth / Vladimir Prelog 1976–2000 1976: William Lipscomb 1977: Ilya Prigogine 1978: Peter D. Mitchell 1979: Herbert C. Brown / Georg Wittig 1980: Paul Berg / Walter Gilbert / Frederick Sanger 1981: Kenichi Fukui / Roald Hoffmann 1982: Aaron Klug 1983: Henry Taube 1984: Robert Merrifield 1985: Herbert A. Hauptman / Jerome Karle 1986: Dudley R. Herschbach / Yuan T. Lee / John Polanyi 1987: Donald J. Cram / Jean-Marie Lehn / Charles J. Pedersen 1988: Johann Deisenhofer / Robert Huber / Hartmut Michel 1989: Sidney Altman / Thomas Cech 1990: Elias Corey 1991: Richard R. Ernst 1992: Rudolph A. Marcus 1993: Kary Mullis / Michael Smith 1994: George Olah 1995: Paul J. Crutzen / Mario Molina / F. Sherwood Rowland 1996: Robert Curl / Harold Kroto / Richard Smalley 1997: Paul D. Boyer / John E. Walker / Jens Christian Skou 1998: Walter Kohn / John Pople 1999: Ahmed Zewail 2000: Alan J. Heeger / Alan MacDiarmid / Hideki Shirakawa 2001–present 2001: William Knowles / Ryoji Noyori / K. Barry Sharpless 2002: John B. Fenn / Koichi Tanaka / Kurt Wüthrich 2003: Peter Agre / Roderick MacKinnon 2004: Aaron Ciechanover / Avram Hershko / Irwin Rose 2005: Robert H. Grubbs / Richard R. Schrock / Yves Chauvin 2006: Roger D. Kornberg 2007: Gerhard Ertl 2008: Osamu Shimomura / Martin Chalfie / Roger Y. Tsien 2009: Venkatraman Ramakrishnan / Thomas A. Steitz / Ada E. Yonath 2010: Richard F. Heck / Akira Suzuki / Ei-ichi Negishi 2011: Dan Shechtman 2012: Robert Lefkowitz / Brian Kobilka 2013: Martin Karplus / Michael Levitt / Arieh Warshel 2014: Eric Betzig / Stefan Hell / William E. Moerner 2015: Tomas Lindahl / Paul L. Modrich / Aziz Sancar 2016: Jean-Pierre Sauvage / Fraser Stoddart / Ben Feringa 2017: Jacques Dubochet / Joachim Frank / Richard Henderson 2018: Frances Arnold / Gregory Winter / George Smith 2019: John B. Goodenough / M. Stanley Whittingham / Akira Yoshino 2020: Emmanuelle Charpentier / Jennifer Doudna 2021: David MacMillan / Benjamin List 2022: Carolyn R. Bertozzi / Morten P. Meldal / Karl Barry Sharpless 2023: Moungi G. Bawendi / Louis E. Brus / Alexei I. Ekimov vte2011 Nobel Prize laureatesChemistry Dan Shechtman (Israel) Literature (2011) Tomas Tranströmer (Sweden) Peace (2011) Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Liberia) Leymah Gbowee (Liberia) Tawakkul Karman (Yemen) Physics Saul Perlmutter (United States) Adam Riess (United States) Brian P. Schmidt (Australia/United States) Physiology or Medicine Bruce A. Beutler (United States) Jules A. Hoffmann (France) Ralph M. Steinman (Canada/United States) Economic Sciences Christopher A. Sims (United States) Thomas J. Sargent (United States) Nobel Prize recipients 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Germany Israel United States Other IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oldcv-1"},{"link_name":"Technion – Israel Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion_%E2%80%93_Israel_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"US Department of Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy"},{"link_name":"Ames National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Iowa State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_University"},{"link_name":"U.S. National Bureau of Standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"icosahedral phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedral_phase"},{"link_name":"quasiperiodic crystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasicrystal"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-discovery-2"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newswise1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Israeli Nobel laureate in chemistryDan Shechtman (Hebrew: דן שכטמן; born January 24, 1941)[1] is the Philip Tobias Professor of Materials Science at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, an Associate of the US Department of Energy's Ames National Laboratory, and Professor of Materials Science at Iowa State University. On April 8, 1982, while on sabbatical at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C., Shechtman discovered the icosahedral phase, which opened the new field of quasiperiodic crystals.[2]He was awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of quasicrystals, making him one of six Israelis who have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[3][4]","title":"Dan Shechtman"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tel Aviv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv"},{"link_name":"Mandatory Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine"},{"link_name":"Petah Tikva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petah_Tikva"},{"link_name":"Ramat Gan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramat_Gan"},{"link_name":"Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Second Aliyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Aliyah"},{"link_name":"The Mysterious Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mysterious_Island"},{"link_name":"Cyrus Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrus_Smith"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haaretz-6"},{"link_name":"Haifa University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haifa_University"},{"link_name":"psychotherapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychotherapy"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Yoav Shechtman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoav_Shechtman"},{"link_name":"W. E. Moerner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_E._Moerner"},{"link_name":"clinical psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Dan Shechtman was born in 1941 in Tel Aviv, in what was then Mandatory Palestine; the city became part of the new state of Israel in 1948. He grew up in Petah Tikva and Ramat Gan in a Jewish family.[5] His grandparents had immigrated to Palestine during the Second Aliyah (1904–1914) and founded a printing house. As a child Shechtman was fascinated by Jules Verne's The Mysterious Island (1874), which he read many times. His childhood dream was to become an engineer like the main protagonist, Cyrus Smith.I thought that was the best thing a person could do. The engineer in the book knows mechanics and physics, and he creates a whole way of life on the island out of nothing. I wanted to be like that.— Dan Shechtman[6]Shechtman is married to Prof. Tzipora Shechtman, Head of the Department of Counseling and Human Development at Haifa University, and author of two books on psychotherapy.[7][8] They have a son Yoav Shechtman (a postdoctoral researcher in the lab of W. E. Moerner) and three daughters: Tamar Finkelstein (an organizational psychologist at the Israeli police leadership center), Ella Shechtman-Cory (a PhD in clinical psychology), and Ruth Dougoud-Nevo (also a PhD in clinical psychology).[9][10]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dan_Shechtman_in_1985.jpg"},{"link_name":"Materials Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_Engineering"},{"link_name":"Technion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technion"},{"link_name":"Mechanical Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_Engineering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oldcv-1"},{"link_name":"NRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council"},{"link_name":"Aerospace Research Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Research_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Wright Patterson AFB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Patterson_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"metallurgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy"},{"link_name":"titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium"},{"link_name":"Johns Hopkins University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University"},{"link_name":"aluminum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum"},{"link_name":"NBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"icosahedral phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedral_phase"},{"link_name":"quasiperiodic crystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasicrystal"},{"link_name":"National Institute of Standards and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"CVD diamond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition_of_diamond"},{"link_name":"Ames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames,_Iowa"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newswise1-3"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Tomsk Polytechnic University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomsk_Polytechnic_University"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Meeting at NIST in 1985 where Shechtman (left) explains the atomic structure of quasicrystalsAfter receiving his Ph.D. in Materials Engineering from the Technion in 1972, where he also obtained his B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering in 1966 and M.Sc. in Materials Engineering in 1968,[1] Shechtman was an NRC fellow at the Aerospace Research Laboratories at Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio, where he studied for three years the microstructure and physical metallurgy of titanium aluminides. In 1975, he joined the department of materials engineering at Technion. In 1981–1983 he was on sabbatical at Johns Hopkins University, where he studied rapidly solidified aluminum transition metal alloys, in a joint program with NBS. During this study he discovered the icosahedral phase which opened the new field of quasiperiodic crystals.In 1992–1994 he was on sabbatical at National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), where he studied the effect of the defect structure of CVD diamond on its growth and properties. Shechtman's Technion research is conducted in the Louis Edelstein Center, and in the Wolfson Centre which is headed by him. He served on several Technion Senate Committees and headed one of them.Shechtman joined the Iowa State faculty in 2004. He currently spends about five months a year in Ames on a part-time appointment.[3][11]Since 2014 he has been the head of the International Scientific Council of Tomsk Polytechnic University.[12]","title":"Academic career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Quasicrystal1.jpg"},{"link_name":"quasicrystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasicrystal"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Linus Pauling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Linus Pauling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Pauling"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters20111005-15"},{"link_name":"H. Kleinert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagen_Kleinert"},{"link_name":"Icosahedral Phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icosahedral_Phase"},{"link_name":"quasicrystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasicrystal"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"historical notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//users.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/icosahedral/index.html"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters20111005-15"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SB-DB-100511-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters20111005-15"},{"link_name":"electrical conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductivity"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"quasiperiodic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasiperiodic"},{"link_name":"quasicrystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasicrystal"},{"link_name":"structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure"},{"link_name":"ordered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_and_disorder_(physics)"},{"link_name":"periodic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bravais_lattice"},{"link_name":"translational symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_symmetry"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-janot1997-25"},{"link_name":"Alhambra palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra_palace"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Darb-i Imam shrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darb-e_Imam"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters20111005-15"},{"link_name":"phi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi#In_lowercase"},{"link_name":"tau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tau#Mathematics"},{"link_name":"golden ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_ratio"},{"link_name":"Fibonacci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters20111005-15"},{"link_name":"needs update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nature_nobel-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc_nobel-27"},{"link_name":"Swedish krona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_krona"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters20111005-15"}],"text":"Shechtman's Nobel Prize–winning work was in the area of quasicrystals, ordered crystalline materials lacking repeating structures, such as this Al-Pd-Mn alloy.[13]Interview with Dan Shechtman after his Nobel lectureFrom the day Shechtman published his findings on quasicrystals in 1984 to the day Linus Pauling died in 1994, Shechtman experienced hostility from him toward the non-periodic interpretation. \"For a long time it was me against the world,\" he said. \"I was a subject of ridicule and lectures about the basics of crystallography. The leader of the opposition to my findings was the two-time Nobel Laureate Linus Pauling, the idol of the American Chemical Society and one of the most famous scientists in the world. For years, 'til his last day, he fought against quasi-periodicity in crystals. He was wrong, and after a while, I enjoyed every moment of this scientific battle, knowing that he was wrong.\"[14]Linus Pauling is noted saying \"There is no such thing as quasicrystals, only quasi-scientists.\"[15] Pauling was apparently unaware of a paper in 1981 by H. Kleinert and K. Maki which had pointed out the possibility of a non-periodic Icosahedral Phase in quasicrystals[16] (see the\nhistorical notes). The head of Shechtman's research group told him to \"go back and read the textbook\" and a couple of days later \"asked him to leave for 'bringing disgrace' on the team.\"[17] Shechtman felt rejected.[15] On publication of his paper, other scientists began to confirm and accept empirical findings of the existence of quasicrystals.[18][19]The Nobel Committee at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences said that \"his discovery was extremely controversial,\" but that his work \"eventually forced scientists to reconsider their conception of the very nature of matter.\"[15]\nThrough Shechtman's discovery, several other groups were able to form similar quasicrystals by 1987, finding these materials to have low thermal and electrical conductivity, while possessing high structural stability.[20][21][22] Quasicrystals have also been found naturally.[23][24]A quasiperiodic crystal, or, in short, quasicrystal, is a structure that is ordered but not periodic. A quasicrystalline pattern can continuously fill all available space, but it lacks translational symmetry.[25] \"Aperiodic mosaics, such as those found in the medieval Islamic mosaics of the Alhambra palace in Spain and the Darb-i Imam shrine in Iran, have helped scientists understand what quasicrystals look like at the atomic level. In those mosaics, as in quasicrystals, the patterns are regular – they follow mathematical rules – but they never repeat themselves.\"[15]\"An intriguing feature of such patterns, [which are] also found in Arab mosaics, is that the mathematical constant known as the Greek letters phi or tau, or the \"golden ratio\", occurs over and over again. Underlying it is a sequence worked out by Fibonacci in the 13th century, where each number is the sum of the preceding two.\"[15]Quasicrystalline materials could be[needs update] used in a large number of applications, including the formation of durable steel used for fine instrumentation, and non-stick insulation for electrical wires and cooking equipment.,[26][27] but presently have no technological applications.The Nobel prize was 10 million Swedish krona (approximately US$1.5 million).[15]","title":"Work on quasicrystals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Channel One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_1_(Israel)"},{"link_name":"President of Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Israel"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Israeli_presidential_election"}],"text":"On January 17, 2014, in an interview with Israel's Channel One, Shechtman announced his candidacy for President of Israel.[28] Shechtman received the endorsement of the ten Members of Knesset required to run. In the elections, held on June 10, 2014, he was awarded only one vote. This led Israeli press and Israeli humorists to qualify Shechtman as \"quasi-president\" in reference to the \"quasi-scientist\" quote.","title":"Presidential bid"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dan_Shechtman_(Nobel_Chemistry_2011)_in_Stockholm,_June_2016.jpg"},{"link_name":"John von Neumann Professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_von_Neumann_Professor&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-John_von_Neumann_Professor-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Bar-Ilan University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar-Ilan_University"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry"},{"link_name":"EMET Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_EMET_Prize_for_Art,_Science_and_Culture"},{"link_name":"Gregori Aminoff Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregori_Aminoff_Prize"},{"link_name":"Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Wolf Prize in Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Israel Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Prize"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prize-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Rothschild Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yad_Hanadiv"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"American Physical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Physical_Society"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Shechtman in Stockholm, June 20162019 Honorary John von Neumann Professor title [29]\n2014 Fray International Sustainability Award, SIPS 2014 [30]\n2013 Honorary doctorate from Bar-Ilan University[31]\n2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of quasicrystals\n2008 European Materials Research Society (E-MRS) 25th Anniversary Award\n2002 EMET Prize in Chemistry\n2000 Muriel & David Jacknow Technion Award for Excellence in Teaching\n2000 Gregori Aminoff Prize of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences\n1999 Wolf Prize in Physics.[32]\n1998 Israel Prize, for Physics.[33]\n1993 Weizmann Science Award[34]\n1990 Rothschild Prize in Engineering[35]\n1988 New England Academic Award of the Technion[citation needed]\n1988 International Award for New Materials[citation needed] of the American Physical Society\n1986 Physics Award of the Friedenberg Fund for the Advancement of Science and Education[citation needed]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cahn, J.W.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Cahn"},{"link_name":"\"Metallic Phase with Long-Range Orientational Order and No Translational Symmetry\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.53.1951"},{"link_name":"Physical Review Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_Letters"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1984PhRvL..53.1951S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984PhRvL..53.1951S"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.53.1951","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.53.1951"},{"link_name":"Physical Review B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Review_B"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1985PhRvB..32.1383S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985PhRvB..32.1383S"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1103/PhysRevB.32.1383","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.32.1383"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9937171","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9937171"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1986Natur.319..102C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986Natur.319..102C"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/319102a0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2F319102a0"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4372556","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4372556"},{"link_name":"Physica Scripta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_Scripta"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1988PhST...23...49S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988PhST...23...49S"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1088/0031-8949/1988/T23/008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1088%2F0031-8949%2F1988%2FT23%2F008"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"250844166","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250844166"},{"link_name":"\"Indexing of icosahedral quasiperiodic crystals\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zenodo.org/record/1236375"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1986JMatR...1...13C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986JMatR...1...13C"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1557/JMR.1986.0013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1557%2FJMR.1986.0013"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"138068389","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:138068389"}],"text":"Shechtman, D.; Blech, I.; Gratias, D.; Cahn, J.W. (1984). \"Metallic Phase with Long-Range Orientational Order and No Translational Symmetry\". Physical Review Letters. 53 (20): 1951. Bibcode:1984PhRvL..53.1951S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.53.1951.\nSwartzendruber, L.; Shechtman, D.; Bendersky, L.; Cahn, J.W. (1985). \"Nuclear γ-ray resonance observations in an aluminum-based icosahedral quasicrystal\". Physical Review B. 32 (2): 1383–1385. Bibcode:1985PhRvB..32.1383S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.32.1383. PMID 9937171.\nCahn, John W.; Gratias, Denis; Shechtman, Dan (1986). \"Pauling's model not universally accepted\". Nature. 319 (6049): 102. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..102C. doi:10.1038/319102a0. S2CID 4372556.\nShechtman, Dan (1988). \"The Icosahedral Quasiperiodic Phase\". Physica Scripta. T23: 49. Bibcode:1988PhST...23...49S. doi:10.1088/0031-8949/1988/T23/008. S2CID 250844166.\nCahn, John W.; Shechtman, Dan; Gratias, Denis (1986). \"Indexing of icosahedral quasiperiodic crystals\". Journal of Materials Research. 1 (1): 13. Bibcode:1986JMatR...1...13C. doi:10.1557/JMR.1986.0013. S2CID 138068389.","title":"Published works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"981-02-0522-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-02-0522-8"},{"link_name":"Nature Materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Materials"}],"text":"D. P. DiVincenzo and P. J. Steinhardt, eds. 1991. Quasicrystals: The State of the Art. Directions in Condensed Matter Physics, Vol 11. ISBN 981-02-0522-8.\nT. Janssen. 2007. Quasicrystals: Comparative dynamics. Nature Materials, Vol 6., 925–926.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Meeting at NIST in 1985 where Shechtman (left) explains the atomic structure of quasicrystals","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Dan_Shechtman_in_1985.jpg/170px-Dan_Shechtman_in_1985.jpg"},{"image_text":"Shechtman's Nobel Prize–winning work was in the area of quasicrystals, ordered crystalline materials lacking repeating structures, such as this Al-Pd-Mn alloy.[13]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Quasicrystal1.jpg/220px-Quasicrystal1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Interview with Dan Shechtman after his Nobel lecture"},{"image_text":"Shechtman in Stockholm, June 2016","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Dan_Shechtman_%28Nobel_Chemistry_2011%29_in_Stockholm%2C_June_2016.jpg/220px-Dan_Shechtman_%28Nobel_Chemistry_2011%29_in_Stockholm%2C_June_2016.jpg"}]
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S2CID 138068389.","urls":[{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1236375","url_text":"\"Indexing of icosahedral quasiperiodic crystals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986JMatR...1...13C","url_text":"1986JMatR...1...13C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1557%2FJMR.1986.0013","url_text":"10.1557/JMR.1986.0013"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:138068389","url_text":"138068389"}]},{"reference":"\"Israeli Wins Chemistry Nobel For Quasicrystals\". npr.org. Retrieved October 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=141067724","url_text":"\"Israeli Wins Chemistry Nobel For Quasicrystals\""}]},{"reference":"Fiske, Gavriel (October 9, 2013). \"Tiny Israel a Nobel heavyweight, especially in chemistry\". Times of Israel. Retrieved October 13, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.timesofisrael.com/tiny-israel-a-nobel-heavyweight-especially-in-chemistry/","url_text":"\"Tiny Israel a Nobel heavyweight, especially in chemistry\""}]},{"reference":"JINFO. \"Jewish Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry\". www.jinfo.org. Retrieved March 30, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jinfo.org/Nobels_Chemistry.html","url_text":"\"Jewish Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry\""}]},{"reference":"\"Clear as crystal\". Haaretz. April 1, 2011. Retrieved October 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/clear-as-crystal-1.353504","url_text":"\"Clear as crystal\""}]},{"reference":"\"В ТПУ впервые прошло заседание Международного научного совета\". Archived from the original on September 3, 2014. Retrieved September 1, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140903100623/http://news.tpu.ru/news/2014/04/04/21422-inter-union.html","url_text":"\"В ТПУ впервые прошло заседание Международного научного совета\""},{"url":"http://news.tpu.ru/news/2014/04/04/21422-inter-union.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ünal, B; V. Fournée; K.J. Schnitzenbaumer; C. Ghosh; C.J. Jenks; A.R. Ross; T.A. Lograsso; J.W. Evans; P.A. Thiel (2007). \"Nucleation and growth of Ag islands on fivefold Al-Pd-Mn quasicrystal surfaces: Dependence of island density on temperature and flux\" (PDF). Physical Review B. 75 (6): 064205. Bibcode:2007PhRvB..75f4205U. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.75.064205. S2CID 53382207.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia_Jenks","url_text":"C.J. 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October 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2011/oct/dannynobel","url_text":"\"Iowa State, Ames Laboratory, Technion scientist wins Nobel Prize in Chemistry\""}]},{"reference":"Lannin, Patrick (October 5, 2011). \"Ridiculed crystal work wins Nobel for Israeli\". Reuters. Retrieved October 22, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/nobel-chemistry-idUSL5E7L51U620111005","url_text":"\"Ridiculed crystal work wins Nobel for Israeli\""}]},{"reference":"Kleinert H., Maki K. (1981). \"Lattice Textures in Cholesteric Liquid Crystals\" (PDF). Fortschritte der Physik. 29 (5): 219–259. Bibcode:1981ForPh..29..219K. doi:10.1002/prop.19810290503.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/75/75.pdf","url_text":"\"Lattice Textures in Cholesteric Liquid Crystals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981ForPh..29..219K","url_text":"1981ForPh..29..219K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fprop.19810290503","url_text":"10.1002/prop.19810290503"}]},{"reference":"Jha, Alok (January 5, 2013). \"Dan Shechtman: 'Linus Pauling said I was talking nonsense'\". Guardian.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/jan/06/dan-shechtman-nobel-prize-chemistry-interview","url_text":"\"Dan Shechtman: 'Linus Pauling said I was talking nonsense'\""}]},{"reference":"Bradley, David (October 5, 2011). \"Dan Shechtman discusses quasicrystals\". ScienceBase. Retrieved October 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sciencebase.com/science-blog/dan-shechtman-discusses-quasicrystals-nobelprize.html","url_text":"\"Dan Shechtman discusses quasicrystals\""}]},{"reference":"\"Clear as crystal\". Haaretz. April 1, 2011. Retrieved October 6, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/magazine/clear-as-crystal-1.353504","url_text":"\"Clear as crystal\""}]},{"reference":"Day, Charles (February 1, 2001). \"Binary Quasicrystals Discovered That Are Stable and Icosahedral\". Physics Today. 54 (2): 17–18. Bibcode:2001PhT....54b..17D. doi:10.1063/1.1359699. ISSN 0031-9228.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.1359699","url_text":"\"Binary Quasicrystals Discovered That Are Stable and Icosahedral\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PhT....54b..17D","url_text":"2001PhT....54b..17D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1359699","url_text":"10.1063/1.1359699"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228","url_text":"0031-9228"}]},{"reference":"Wang, N.; Chen, H.; Kuo, K. H. (August 31, 1987). \"Two-dimensional quasicrystal with eightfold rotational symmetry\". Physical Review Letters. 59 (9): 1010–1013. Bibcode:1987PhRvL..59.1010W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1010. PMID 10035936.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1010","url_text":"\"Two-dimensional quasicrystal with eightfold rotational symmetry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987PhRvL..59.1010W","url_text":"1987PhRvL..59.1010W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.59.1010","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.59.1010"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10035936","url_text":"10035936"}]},{"reference":"Bancel, Peter A.; Heiney, Paul A. (June 15, 1986). \"Icosahedral aluminum--transition-metal alloys\". Physical Review B. 33 (12): 7917–7922. Bibcode:1986PhRvB..33.7917B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.33.7917. PMID 9938181.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.33.7917","url_text":"\"Icosahedral aluminum--transition-metal alloys\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986PhRvB..33.7917B","url_text":"1986PhRvB..33.7917B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.33.7917","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevB.33.7917"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9938181","url_text":"9938181"}]},{"reference":"Crane, Leah (December 8, 2016). \"Third-ever natural quasicrystal found in Siberian meteorite\". New Scientist. Retrieved January 28, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newscientist.com/article/2115570-third-ever-natural-quasicrystal-found-in-siberian-meteorite/","url_text":"\"Third-ever natural quasicrystal found in Siberian meteorite\""}]},{"reference":"Bindi, Luca; Eiler, John M.; Guan, Yunbin; Hollister, Lincoln S.; MacPherson, Glenn; Steinhardt, Paul J.; Yao, Nan (January 31, 2012). \"Evidence for the extraterrestrial origin of a natural quasicrystal\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (5): 1396–1401. doi:10.1073/pnas.1111115109. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3277151. PMID 22215583.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3277151","url_text":"\"Evidence for the extraterrestrial origin of a natural quasicrystal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1111115109","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.1111115109"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424","url_text":"0027-8424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3277151","url_text":"3277151"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22215583","url_text":"22215583"}]},{"reference":"Janot, Christian (1997). Quasicrystals – a primer, 2nd ed. Oxford University Publishing. ISBN 0-19-856551-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dpPePU-xs2oC","url_text":"Quasicrystals – a primer, 2nd ed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-856551-8","url_text":"0-19-856551-8"}]},{"reference":"Van Noorden, Richard (October 5, 2011). \"Impossible crystals snag chemistry Nobel\". nature. doi:10.1038/news.2011.572. Retrieved October 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nature.com/news/2011/111005/full/news.2011.572.html","url_text":"\"Impossible crystals snag chemistry Nobel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)","url_text":"nature"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2011.572","url_text":"10.1038/news.2011.572"}]},{"reference":"Carpenter, Jennifer (October 5, 2011). \"Nobel win for crystal discovery\". BBC. Retrieved October 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15181187","url_text":"\"Nobel win for crystal discovery\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nobel Prize winning professor announces run for president of Israel\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jpost.com/National-News/Nobel-Prize-winning-professor-announces-run-for-President-of-Israel-338551","url_text":"\"Nobel Prize winning professor announces run for president of Israel\""}]},{"reference":"\"John von Neumann Professors\". Budapest University of Technology and Economics. Archived from the original on September 12, 2022. Retrieved September 12, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220912204535/https://www.bme.hu/John-von-Neumann-Professors","url_text":"\"John von Neumann Professors\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest_University_of_Technology_and_Economics","url_text":"Budapest University of Technology and Economics"},{"url":"https://www.bme.hu/John-von-Neumann-Professors","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Dan Shechtman Winner of the Fray Award\". www.flogen.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.flogen.org/?p=38&bio=Shechtman","url_text":"\"Dan Shechtman Winner of the Fray Award\""}]},{"reference":"\"Honorary Doctorate Recipients, Bar-Ilan University\". Archived from the original on May 24, 2017. Retrieved September 3, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170524133245/http://www1.biu.ac.il/en-about_doctorate","url_text":"\"Honorary Doctorate Recipients, Bar-Ilan University\""},{"url":"https://www1.biu.ac.il/en-about_doctorate","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Wolf Prize Recipients in Physics\". Wolffund.org.il. Archived from the original on October 2, 2006. Retrieved October 5, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061002121105/http://www.wolffund.org.il/cat.asp?id=25&cat_title=PHYSICS","url_text":"\"Wolf Prize Recipients in Physics\""},{"url":"http://www.wolffund.org.il/cat.asp?id=25&cat_title=PHYSICS","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Israel Prize Official Site – Recipients in 1998 (in Hebrew)\". Archived from the original on October 6, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141006094109/http://cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Units/PrasIsrael/TashnagTashsab/TASNAG_TASNAT_Rikuz.htm?DictionaryKey=Tashnach","url_text":"\"Israel Prize Official Site – Recipients in 1998 (in Hebrew)\""},{"url":"http://cms.education.gov.il/EducationCMS/Units/PrasIsrael/TashnagTashsab/TASNAG_TASNAT_Rikuz.htm?DictionaryKey=Tashnach","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"פרס ויצמן למדעים מדויקים יוענק לפרופ' מיקי אלעד – Technion – Israel Institute of Technology\". Technion – Israel Institute of Technology – (in Hebrew). July 26, 2021. Retrieved May 5, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.technion.ac.il/2021/07/%d7%a4%d7%a8%d7%a1-%d7%95%d7%99%d7%a6%d7%9e%d7%9f-%d7%9c%d7%9e%d7%93%d7%a2%d7%99%d7%9d-%d7%9e%d7%93%d7%95%d7%99%d7%a7%d7%99%d7%9d-%d7%99%d7%95%d7%a2%d7%a0%d7%a7-%d7%9c%d7%a4%d7%a8%d7%95%d7%a4/","url_text":"\"פרס ויצמן למדעים מדויקים יוענק לפרופ' מיקי אלעד – Technion – Israel Institute of Technology\""}]},{"reference":"Ziv, Jacob (2010). \"Engineering\". Rothschild Prizes 2010: Fifty Years (PDF). Jerusalem. pp. 26, 32.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Ziv","url_text":"Ziv, Jacob"},{"url":"https://www.yadhanadiv.org.il/sites/default/files/media/document/2018-12/Rothschild%20Prizes%C2%A0%20-%2050%20Years%20-%20A%20Collection%20of%20Essays.pdf","url_text":"Rothschild Prizes 2010: Fifty Years"}]}]
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of icosahedral quasiperiodic crystals\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986JMatR...1...13C","external_links_name":"1986JMatR...1...13C"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1557%2FJMR.1986.0013","external_links_name":"10.1557/JMR.1986.0013"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:138068389","external_links_name":"138068389"},{"Link":"http://www.academy.ac.il/data/persons_data/34/DshechtmanCV3.pdf","external_links_name":"Dan Shechtman"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111110224144/http://www.academy.ac.il/data/persons_data/34/DshechtmanCV3.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=141067724","external_links_name":"\"Israeli Wins Chemistry Nobel For Quasicrystals\""},{"Link":"http://www.newswise.com/articles/iowa-state-ames-laboratory-technion-scientist-wins-nobel-prize-in-chemistry","external_links_name":"Iowa State, Ames Laboratory, Technion Scientist Wins Nobel Prize in 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Find"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111218234522/http://mobile.bloomberg.com/news/2011-10-05/technion-s-shechtman-wins-chemistry-nobel-for-discovery-of-quasicrystals?category=%2Fnews%2Fmostread","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.geni.com/people/Tzipora-Shechtman/286048103530004020","external_links_name":"Genealogy of the Shechtman family"},{"Link":"http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/local/breaking/chi-iowa-state-prof-wins-nobel-in-chemistry-20111005,0,6056569.story","external_links_name":"Iowa State prof wins Nobel in chemistry"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140903100623/http://news.tpu.ru/news/2014/04/04/21422-inter-union.html","external_links_name":"\"В ТПУ впервые прошло заседание Международного научного совета\""},{"Link":"http://news.tpu.ru/news/2014/04/04/21422-inter-union.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01665118/file/Baris-REA.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Nucleation and growth of Ag islands on fivefold Al-Pd-Mn quasicrystal surfaces: Dependence of island density on temperature and flux\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvB..75f4205U","external_links_name":"2007PhRvB..75f4205U"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.75.064205","external_links_name":"10.1103/PhysRevB.75.064205"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53382207","external_links_name":"53382207"},{"Link":"https://www.news.iastate.edu/news/2011/oct/dannynobel","external_links_name":"\"Iowa State, Ames Laboratory, Technion scientist wins Nobel Prize in Chemistry\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/article/nobel-chemistry-idUSL5E7L51U620111005","external_links_name":"\"Ridiculed crystal work wins Nobel for Israeli\""},{"Link":"http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/75/75.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Lattice Textures in Cholesteric Liquid 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quasicrystal\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1111115109","external_links_name":"10.1073/pnas.1111115109"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424","external_links_name":"0027-8424"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3277151","external_links_name":"3277151"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22215583","external_links_name":"22215583"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dpPePU-xs2oC","external_links_name":"Quasicrystals – a primer, 2nd ed"},{"Link":"http://www.nature.com/news/2011/111005/full/news.2011.572.html","external_links_name":"\"Impossible crystals snag chemistry Nobel\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2011.572","external_links_name":"10.1038/news.2011.572"},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15181187","external_links_name":"\"Nobel win for crystal 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_timelines_of_World_War_II
List of timelines of World War II
["1 Main timelines","1.1 Wars, campaigns, and battles","2 Others","3 See also","4 External links"]
World War II Navigation CampaignsCountriesEquipment TimelineOutlineListsHistoriography CategoryBibliography vte Timelines of World War II Chronological Prelude (in Asiain Europe) 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 onwards By topic Diplomacy Declarations of war BattlesOperations By theatre Battle of Europe air operations Eastern FrontManhattan Project United Kingdom home front Surrender of the Axis armies vte This is a list of timelines of events over the period of World War II. Main timelines Timeline of events preceding World War II Timeline of World War II (1939) Timeline of World War II (1940) Timeline of World War II (1941) Timeline of World War II (1942) Timeline of World War II (1943) Timeline of World War II (1944) Timeline of World War II (1945–1991) Wars, campaigns, and battles Timeline of the invasion of Poland (1939) Timeline of the Battle of France (1939–1940) Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945) Timeline of the Winter War (1939–1940) Timeline of the Norwegian campaign (1940) Timeline of the North African campaign (1940–1943) Timeline of the Eastern Front of World War II (1941–1945) Others Timeline of declarations of war during World War II Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II (1939–1945) Timeline of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1918–1941) Timeline of Sweden during World War II (1939–1945) Timeline of the Netherlands during World War II (1939–1945) Chronology of the liberation of Dutch cities and towns during World War II Chronology of the liberation of Belgian cities and towns during World War II Timeline of the Manhattan Project (1939–1947) Timeline of air operations during the Battle of Europe Timeline of the Holocaust Timeline of the Holocaust in Norway Timeline of Treblinka extermination camp Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps Timeline of Allied World War II conferences Timeline of Irish maritime events during World War II Timeline of Winston Churchill's first premiership See also Timeline of World War I (1914–1918) Timeline of the Weimar Republic Timeline of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War Timeline of the Spanish Civil War External links WW2DB: Day-by-Day Timeline HistoryOrb.com vteWorld War II Outline Battles Operations Leaders Allied Axis Commanders Casualties Conferences GeneralTopics Air warfare of World War II In Europe Blitzkrieg Comparative military ranks Cryptography Declarations of war Diplomacy Governments in exile Home front Australian United Kingdom United States Lend-Lease Manhattan Project British contribution Military awards Military equipment Military production Naval history Nazi plunder Opposition Technology Allied cooperation Mulberry harbour Total war Strategic bombing Puppet states Women Art and World War II Music in World War II Theaters Asia and Pacific China South-East Asia Pacific North and Central Pacific South-West Pacific Indian Ocean Europe Western Front Eastern Front Mediterranean and Middle East North Africa East Africa Italy West Africa Atlantic timeline Americas Aftermath Chinese Civil War Cold War Decolonization Division of Korea First Indochina War Expulsion of Germans Greek Civil War Indonesian National Revolution Keelhaul Marshall Plan Occupation of Germany Occupation of Japan Osoaviakhim Paperclip Soviet occupations Baltic Hungary Poland Romania Territorial changes of Germany Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany United Nations War crimes Allied war crimes Soviet war crimes British war crimes United States war crimes German war crimes forced labour Wehrmacht war crimes The Holocaust Aftermath Response Nuremberg trials Italian war crimes Japanese war crimes Nanjing Massacre Unit 731 Prosecution Croatian war crimes Genocide of Serbs Persecution of Jews Romanian war crimes Sexual violence German military brothels Camp brothels Rape during the occupation of Germany  / Japan  / Poland Rape during the liberation of France  / Serbia Sook Ching Comfort women Rape of Manila Marocchinate ParticipantsAllies Algeria Australia Belgium Brazil Bulgaria (from September 1944) Canada China Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Ethiopia Eswatini (formerly Swaziland) Finland (from September 1944) France Free France Greece India Italy (from September 1943) Luxembourg Mexico Netherlands Newfoundland New Zealand Norway Philippines Poland Romania (from August 1944) Sierra Leone South Africa Southern Rhodesia Soviet Union Tuva United Kingdom British Empire United States Puerto Rico Yugoslavia Axis Albania protectorate Bulgaria (until September 1944) Wang Jingwei regime Independent State of Croatia Finland (until September 1944) German Reich Hungary Azad Hind French Indochina Iraq Italy (until September 1943) Italian Social Republic Empire of Japan Manchukuo Philippines Romania (until August 1944) Slovak Republic Thailand Vichy France Neutral Afghanistan Andorra Bhutan Ireland Liechtenstein Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland Tibet Vatican City Resistance Albania Austria Belgium Bulgaria Czech lands Denmark Dutch East Indies Estonia Ethiopia France Germany Greece Hong Kong Italy Japan Jews Korea Korean Liberation Army Korean Volunteer Army Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malaya Netherlands Northeast China Norway Philippines Poland Romania Thailand Soviet Union Slovakia Western Ukraine Vietnam Quốc dân Đảng Viet Minh Yugoslavia POWs Finnish prisoners in the Soviet Union German prisoners Soviet Union Azerbaijan United States United Kingdom Italian prisoners in the Soviet Union Japanese prisoners Soviet Union Soviet prisoners Finland atrocities by Germans Polish prisoners in the Soviet Union Romanian prisoners in the Soviet Union TimelinePrelude Africa Second Italo-Ethiopian War Asia Second Sino-Japanese War Battles of Khalkhin Gol Europe Anschluss Munich Agreement Occupation of Czechoslovakia Operation Himmler Italian invasion of Albania 1939 Invasion of Poland Battle of the Atlantic Phoney War First Battle of Changsha Battle of South Guangxi Winter War 1939–1940 Winter Offensive 1940 Norwegian campaign German invasion of Denmark Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang German invasion of Luxembourg German invasion of the Netherlands German invasion of Belgium Battle of France Dunkirk evacuation Battle of Britain Battle of the Mediterranean North Africa West Africa British Somaliland Hundred Regiments Offensive Baltic states Eastern Romania Japanese invasion of French Indochina Italian invasion of Greece Compass 1941 Battle of South Henan Battle of Shanggao Invasion of Yugoslavia German invasion of Greece Battle of Crete Anglo-Iraqi War Battle of South Shanxi Syria–Lebanon campaign East African campaign Invasion of the Soviet Union Summer War Finland (Silver Fox) Lithuania Battle of Kiev Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Second Battle of Changsha Siege of Leningrad Battle of Moscow Bombing of Gorky Siege of Sevastopol Attack on Pearl Harbor Japanese invasion of Thailand Fall of Hong Kong Fall of the Philippines Battle of Guam Battle of Wake Island Malayan campaign Battle of Borneo Japanese invasion of Burma Third Battle of Changsha Greek famine of 1941–1944 1942 Fall of Singapore Battle of the Java Sea St Nazaire Raid Battle of Christmas Island Battle of the Coral Sea Battle of Madagascar Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign Battle of Gazala Battle of Dutch Harbor Battle of Midway Aleutian Islands campaign Kiska Attu Blue First Battle of El Alamein Battle of Stalingrad Rzhev Jubilee Second Battle of El Alamein Guadalcanal campaign Torch Chinese famine of 1942–1943 1943 Tunisian campaign Battle of West Hubei Battle of Attu Bombing of Gorky Battle of Kursk Allied invasion of Sicily Smolensk Solomon Islands campaign Cottage Battle of the Dnieper Allied invasion of Italy Armistice of Cassibile Burma Northern Burma and Western Yunnan Changde Second Battle of Kiev Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign Tarawa Makin Bengal famine of 1943 1944 Tempest Monte Cassino / Anzio Korsun–Cherkassy Narva Ichi-Go Overlord Neptune Mariana and Palau Bagration Western Ukraine Second Battle of Guam Tannenberg Line Warsaw Uprising Eastern Romania Liberation of Paris Dragoon Gothic Line Belgrade offensive Lapland Market Garden Estonia Crossbow Pointblank Vietnamese famine of 1944–1945 Philippines (1944–1945) Leyte Syrmian Front Hungary Budapest Burma (1944–1945) Ardennes Bodenplatte Dutch famine of 1944–1945 1945 Vistula–Oder Battle of Manila Battle of Iwo Jima Indochina Vienna offensive Project Hula Western invasion of Germany Bratislava–Brno offensive Battle of Okinawa Second Guangxi campaign West Hunan Italy (Spring 1945) Battle of Berlin Prague offensive Surrender of Germany document Borneo Taipei Naval bombardment of Japan Manchuria Atomic bombings Debate South Sakhalin Kuril Islands Shumshu Surrender of Japan Potsdam Declaration document End of World War II in Asia World portal Bibliography Category Authority control databases: National Israel United States Index of articles associated with the same name This article includes a list of related items that share the same name (or similar names).
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"}],"text":"This is a list of timelines of events over the period of World War II.","title":"List of timelines of World War II"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of events preceding World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_events_preceding_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Timeline of World War II (1939)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1939)"},{"link_name":"Timeline of World War II (1940)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1940)"},{"link_name":"Timeline of World War II (1941)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1941)"},{"link_name":"Timeline of World War II (1942)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1942)"},{"link_name":"Timeline of World War II (1943)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1943)"},{"link_name":"Timeline of World War II (1944)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1944)"},{"link_name":"Timeline of World War II (1945–1991)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_II_(1945%E2%80%931991)"}],"text":"Timeline of events preceding World War II\nTimeline of World War II (1939)\nTimeline of World War II (1940)\nTimeline of World War II (1941)\nTimeline of World War II (1942)\nTimeline of World War II (1943)\nTimeline of World War II (1944)\nTimeline of World War II (1945–1991)","title":"Main timelines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of the invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Battle of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_France"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Battle of the Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Battle_of_the_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Winter War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Winter_War"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Norwegian campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Norwegian_campaign"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the North African campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_North_African_campaign"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Eastern Front of World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Eastern_Front_of_World_War_II"}],"sub_title":"Wars, campaigns, and battles","text":"Timeline of the invasion of Poland (1939)\nTimeline of the Battle of France (1939–1940)\nTimeline of the Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945)\nTimeline of the Winter War (1939–1940)\nTimeline of the Norwegian campaign (1940)\nTimeline of the North African campaign (1940–1943)\nTimeline of the Eastern Front of World War II (1941–1945)","title":"Main timelines"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Timeline of declarations of war during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_United_Kingdom_home_front_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact"},{"link_name":"Timeline of Sweden during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Sweden_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Netherlands during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Netherlands_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Chronology of the liberation of Dutch cities and towns during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_liberation_of_Dutch_cities_and_towns_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Chronology of the liberation of Belgian cities and towns during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_the_liberation_of_Belgian_cities_and_towns_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Manhattan Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project"},{"link_name":"Timeline of air operations during the Battle of Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_air_operations_during_the_Battle_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Holocaust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust"},{"link_name":"Timeline of the Holocaust in Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Holocaust_in_Norway"},{"link_name":"Timeline of Treblinka extermination camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Treblinka_extermination_camp"},{"link_name":"Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_deportations_of_French_Jews_to_death_camps"},{"link_name":"Timeline of Allied World War II conferences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Allied_World_War_II_conferences"},{"link_name":"Timeline of Irish maritime events during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_maritime_events_during_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Timeline of Winston Churchill's first premiership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Winston_Churchill%27s_first_premiership"}],"text":"Timeline of declarations of war during World War II\nTimeline of the United Kingdom home front during World War II (1939–1945)\nTimeline of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1918–1941)\nTimeline of Sweden during World War II (1939–1945)\nTimeline of the Netherlands during World War II (1939–1945)\nChronology of the liberation of Dutch cities and towns during World War II\nChronology of the liberation of Belgian cities and towns during World War II\nTimeline of the Manhattan Project (1939–1947)\nTimeline of air operations during the Battle of Europe\nTimeline of the Holocaust\nTimeline of the Holocaust in Norway\nTimeline of Treblinka extermination camp\nTimeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps\nTimeline of Allied World War II conferences\nTimeline of Irish maritime events during World War II\nTimeline of Winston Churchill's first premiership","title":"Others"}]
[]
[{"title":"Timeline of World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_World_War_I"},{"title":"Timeline of the Weimar Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Weimar_Republic"},{"title":"Timeline of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War"},{"title":"Timeline of the Spanish Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Spanish_Civil_War"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_geometric_method
Matrix geometric method
["1 Method description","2 Computation of R","3 Matrix analytic method","4 External links","5 References"]
Method of analysis in probability theory In probability theory, the matrix geometric method is a method for the analysis of quasi-birth–death processes, continuous-time Markov chain whose transition rate matrices with a repetitive block structure. The method was developed "largely by Marcel F. Neuts and his students starting around 1975." Method description The method requires a transition rate matrix with tridiagonal block structure as follows Q = ( B 00 B 01 B 10 A 1 A 2 A 0 A 1 A 2 A 0 A 1 A 2 A 0 A 1 A 2 ⋱ ⋱ ⋱ ) {\displaystyle Q={\begin{pmatrix}B_{00}&B_{01}\\B_{10}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\&A_{0}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\&&A_{0}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\&&&A_{0}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\&&&&\ddots &\ddots &\ddots \end{pmatrix}}} where each of B00, B01, B10, A0, A1 and A2 are matrices. To compute the stationary distribution π writing π Q = 0 the balance equations are considered for sub-vectors πi π 0 B 00 + π 1 B 10 = 0 π 0 B 01 + π 1 A 1 + π 2 A 0 = 0 π 1 A 2 + π 2 A 1 + π 3 A 0 = 0 ⋮ π i − 1 A 2 + π i A 1 + π i + 1 A 0 = 0 ⋮ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\pi _{0}B_{00}+\pi _{1}B_{10}&=0\\\pi _{0}B_{01}+\pi _{1}A_{1}+\pi _{2}A_{0}&=0\\\pi _{1}A_{2}+\pi _{2}A_{1}+\pi _{3}A_{0}&=0\\&\vdots \\\pi _{i-1}A_{2}+\pi _{i}A_{1}+\pi _{i+1}A_{0}&=0\\&\vdots \\\end{aligned}}} Observe that the relationship π i = π 1 R i − 1 {\displaystyle \pi _{i}=\pi _{1}R^{i-1}} holds where R is the Neut's rate matrix, which can be computed numerically. Using this we write ( π 0 π 1 ) ( B 00 B 01 B 10 A 1 + R A 0 ) = ( 0 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\begin{pmatrix}\pi _{0}&\pi _{1}\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}B_{00}&B_{01}\\B_{10}&A_{1}+RA_{0}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}0&0\end{pmatrix}}\end{aligned}}} which can be solve to find π0 and π1 and therefore iteratively all the πi. Computation of R The matrix R can be computed using cyclic reduction or logarithmic reduction. Matrix analytic method Main article: Matrix analytic method The matrix analytic method is a more complicated version of the matrix geometric solution method used to analyse models with block M/G/1 matrices. Such models are harder because no relationship like πi = π1 Ri – 1 used above holds. External links Performance Modelling and Markov Chains (part 2) by William J. Stewart at 7th International School on Formal Methods for the Design of Computer, Communication and Software Systems: Performance Evaluation References ^ Harrison, Peter G.; Patel, Naresh M. (1992). Performance Modelling of Communication Networks and Computer Architectures. Addison-Wesley. pp. 317–322. ISBN 0-201-54419-9. ^ Asmussen, S. R. (2003). "Random Walks". Applied Probability and Queues. Stochastic Modelling and Applied Probability. Vol. 51. pp. 220–243. doi:10.1007/0-387-21525-5_8. ISBN 978-0-387-00211-8. ^ Ramaswami, V. (1990). "A duality theorem for the matrix paradigms in queueing theory". Communications in Statistics. Stochastic Models. 6: 151–161. doi:10.1080/15326349908807141. ^ Bini, D.; Meini, B. (1996). "On the Solution of a Nonlinear Matrix Equation Arising in Queueing Problems". SIAM Journal on Matrix Analysis and Applications. 17 (4): 906. doi:10.1137/S0895479895284804. ^ Latouche, Guy; Ramaswami, V. (1993). "A Logarithmic Reduction Algorithm for Quasi-Birth-Death Processes". Journal of Applied Probability. 30 (3). Applied Probability Trust: 650–674. JSTOR 3214773. ^ Pérez, J. F.; Van Houdt, B. (2011). "Quasi-birth-and-death processes with restricted transitions and its applications" (PDF). Performance Evaluation. 68 (2): 126. doi:10.1016/j.peva.2010.04.003. hdl:10067/859850151162165141. ^ Alfa, A. S.; Ramaswami, V. (2011). "Matrix Analytic Method: Overview and History". Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. doi:10.1002/9780470400531.eorms0631. ISBN 9780470400531. ^ Bolch, Gunter; Greiner, Stefan; de Meer, Hermann; Trivedi, Kishor Shridharbhai (2006). Queueing Networks and Markov Chains: Modeling and Performance Evaluation with Computer Science Applications (2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 259. ISBN 0471565253. vteQueueing theorySingle queueing nodes D/M/1 queue M/D/1 queue M/D/c queue M/M/1 queue Burke's theorem M/M/c queue M/M/∞ queue M/G/1 queue Pollaczek–Khinchine formula Matrix analytic method M/G/k queue G/M/1 queue G/G/1 queue Kingman's formula Lindley equation Fork–join queue Bulk queue Arrival processes Poisson point process Markovian arrival process Rational arrival process Queueing networks Jackson network Traffic equations Gordon–Newell theorem Mean value analysis Buzen's algorithm Kelly network G-network BCMP network Service policies FIFO LIFO Processor sharing Round-robin Shortest job next Shortest remaining time Key concepts Continuous-time Markov chain Kendall's notation Little's law Product-form solution Balance equation Quasireversibility Flow-equivalent server method Arrival theorem Decomposition method Beneš method Limit theorems Fluid limit Mean-field theory Heavy traffic approximation Reflected Brownian motion Extensions Fluid queue Layered queueing network Polling system Adversarial queueing network Loss network Retrial queue Information systems Data buffer Erlang (unit) Erlang distribution Flow control (data) Message queue Network congestion Network scheduler Pipeline (software) Quality of service Scheduling (computing) Teletraffic engineering Category This probability-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"probability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory"},{"link_name":"quasi-birth–death processes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-birth%E2%80%93death_process"},{"link_name":"continuous-time Markov chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous-time_Markov_chain"},{"link_name":"transition rate matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_rate_matrices"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Marcel F. Neuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_F._Neuts"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"In probability theory, the matrix geometric method is a method for the analysis of quasi-birth–death processes, continuous-time Markov chain whose transition rate matrices with a repetitive block structure.[1] The method was developed \"largely by Marcel F. Neuts and his students starting around 1975.\"[2]","title":"Matrix geometric method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tridiagonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridiagonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"balance equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance_equation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The method requires a transition rate matrix with tridiagonal block structure as followsQ\n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n 00\n \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n 01\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋱\n \n \n ⋱\n \n \n ⋱\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q={\\begin{pmatrix}B_{00}&B_{01}\\\\B_{10}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\\\&A_{0}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\\\&&A_{0}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\\\&&&A_{0}&A_{1}&A_{2}\\\\&&&&\\ddots &\\ddots &\\ddots \\end{pmatrix}}}where each of B00, B01, B10, A0, A1 and A2 are matrices. To compute the stationary distribution π writing π Q = 0 the balance equations are considered for sub-vectors πiπ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n B\n \n 00\n \n \n +\n \n π\n \n 1\n \n \n \n B\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n π\n \n 0\n \n \n \n B\n \n 01\n \n \n +\n \n π\n \n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n π\n \n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n π\n \n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n π\n \n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n π\n \n 3\n \n \n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n π\n \n i\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n π\n \n i\n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n π\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\pi _{0}B_{00}+\\pi _{1}B_{10}&=0\\\\\\pi _{0}B_{01}+\\pi _{1}A_{1}+\\pi _{2}A_{0}&=0\\\\\\pi _{1}A_{2}+\\pi _{2}A_{1}+\\pi _{3}A_{0}&=0\\\\&\\vdots \\\\\\pi _{i-1}A_{2}+\\pi _{i}A_{1}+\\pi _{i+1}A_{0}&=0\\\\&\\vdots \\\\\\end{aligned}}}Observe that the relationshipπ\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n π\n \n 1\n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\pi _{i}=\\pi _{1}R^{i-1}}holds where R is the Neut's rate matrix,[3] which can be computed numerically. Using this we write(\n \n \n \n \n π\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n π\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n 00\n \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n 01\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n 10\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n R\n \n A\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}{\\begin{pmatrix}\\pi _{0}&\\pi _{1}\\end{pmatrix}}{\\begin{pmatrix}B_{00}&B_{01}\\\\B_{10}&A_{1}+RA_{0}\\end{pmatrix}}={\\begin{pmatrix}0&0\\end{pmatrix}}\\end{aligned}}}which can be solve to find π0 and π1 and therefore iteratively all the πi.","title":"Method description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cyclic reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_reduction"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The matrix R can be computed using cyclic reduction[4] or logarithmic reduction.[5][6]","title":"Computation of R"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"M/G/1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M/G/1_queue"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The matrix analytic method is a more complicated version of the matrix geometric solution method used to analyse models with block M/G/1 matrices.[7] Such models are harder because no relationship like πi = π1 Ri – 1 used above holds.[8]","title":"Matrix analytic method"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Harrison, Peter G.; Patel, Naresh M. (1992). Performance Modelling of Communication Networks and Computer Architectures. Addison-Wesley. pp. 317–322. ISBN 0-201-54419-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_G._Harrison","url_text":"Harrison, Peter G."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/performancemodel0000harr/page/317","url_text":"Performance Modelling of Communication Networks and Computer Architectures"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/performancemodel0000harr/page/317","url_text":"317–322"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-201-54419-9","url_text":"0-201-54419-9"}]},{"reference":"Asmussen, S. R. (2003). \"Random Walks\". Applied Probability and Queues. Stochastic Modelling and Applied Probability. Vol. 51. pp. 220–243. doi:10.1007/0-387-21525-5_8. ISBN 978-0-387-00211-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F0-387-21525-5_8","url_text":"10.1007/0-387-21525-5_8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-00211-8","url_text":"978-0-387-00211-8"}]},{"reference":"Ramaswami, V. (1990). \"A duality theorem for the matrix paradigms in queueing theory\". Communications in Statistics. Stochastic Models. 6: 151–161. doi:10.1080/15326349908807141.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15326349908807141","url_text":"10.1080/15326349908807141"}]},{"reference":"Bini, D.; Meini, B. (1996). \"On the Solution of a Nonlinear Matrix Equation Arising in Queueing Problems\". SIAM Journal on Matrix Analysis and Applications. 17 (4): 906. doi:10.1137/S0895479895284804.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatrice_Meini","url_text":"Meini, B."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1137%2FS0895479895284804","url_text":"10.1137/S0895479895284804"}]},{"reference":"Latouche, Guy; Ramaswami, V. (1993). \"A Logarithmic Reduction Algorithm for Quasi-Birth-Death Processes\". Journal of Applied Probability. 30 (3). Applied Probability Trust: 650–674. JSTOR 3214773.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3214773","url_text":"3214773"}]},{"reference":"Pérez, J. F.; Van Houdt, B. (2011). \"Quasi-birth-and-death processes with restricted transitions and its applications\" (PDF). Performance Evaluation. 68 (2): 126. doi:10.1016/j.peva.2010.04.003. hdl:10067/859850151162165141.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~jperezbe/data/PerezVanHoudt_PEVA_2011.pdf","url_text":"\"Quasi-birth-and-death processes with restricted transitions and its applications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_Evaluation","url_text":"Performance Evaluation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.peva.2010.04.003","url_text":"10.1016/j.peva.2010.04.003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10067%2F859850151162165141","url_text":"10067/859850151162165141"}]},{"reference":"Alfa, A. S.; Ramaswami, V. (2011). \"Matrix Analytic Method: Overview and History\". Wiley Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. doi:10.1002/9780470400531.eorms0631. ISBN 9780470400531.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470400531.eorms0631","url_text":"10.1002/9780470400531.eorms0631"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470400531","url_text":"9780470400531"}]},{"reference":"Bolch, Gunter; Greiner, Stefan; de Meer, Hermann; Trivedi, Kishor Shridharbhai (2006). Queueing Networks and Markov Chains: Modeling and Performance Evaluation with Computer Science Applications (2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 259. ISBN 0471565253.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kishor_S._Trivedi","url_text":"Trivedi, Kishor Shridharbhai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471565253","url_text":"0471565253"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_(abelian_group)
Height (abelian group)
["1 Definition of height","2 Ulm subgroups","3 Ulm's theorem","3.1 Alternative formulation","4 References"]
In mathematics, the height of an element g of an abelian group A is an invariant that captures its divisibility properties: it is the largest natural number N such that the equation Nx = g has a solution x ∈ A, or the symbol ∞ if there is no such N. The p-height considers only divisibility properties by the powers of a fixed prime number p. The notion of height admits a refinement so that the p-height becomes an ordinal number. Height plays an important role in Prüfer theorems and also in Ulm's theorem, which describes the classification of certain infinite abelian groups in terms of their Ulm factors or Ulm invariants. Definition of height Let A be an abelian group and g an element of A. The p-height of g in A, denoted hp(g), is the largest natural number n such that the equation pnx = g has a solution in x ∈ A, or the symbol ∞ if a solution exists for all n. Thus hp(g) = n if and only if g ∈ pnA and g ∉ pn+1A. This allows one to refine the notion of height. For any ordinal α, there is a subgroup pαA of A which is the image of the multiplication map by p iterated α times, defined using transfinite induction: p 0 A = A ; {\displaystyle p^{0}A=A;} p α + 1 A = p ( p α A ) ; {\displaystyle p^{\alpha +1}A=p(p^{\alpha }A);} p β A = ⋂ α < β p α ( A ) {\displaystyle p^{\beta }A=\bigcap _{\alpha <\beta }p^{\alpha }(A)} if β is a limit ordinal. The subgroups pαA form a decreasing filtration of the group A, and their intersection is the subgroup of the p-divisible elements of A, whose elements are assigned height ∞. The modified p-height hp∗(g) = α if g ∈ pαA, but g ∉ pα+1A. The construction of pαA is functorial in A; in particular, subquotients of the filtration are isomorphism invariants of A. Ulm subgroups Let p be a fixed prime number. The (first) Ulm subgroup of an abelian group A, denoted U(A) or A1, is pωA = ∩n pnA, where ω is the smallest infinite ordinal. It consists of all elements of A of infinite height. The family {Uσ(A)} of Ulm subgroups indexed by ordinals σ is defined by transfinite induction: U 0 ( A ) = A ; {\displaystyle U^{0}(A)=A;} U σ + 1 ( A ) = U ( U σ ( A ) ) ; {\displaystyle U^{\sigma +1}(A)=U(U^{\sigma }(A));} U τ ( A ) = ⋂ σ < τ U σ ( A ) {\displaystyle U^{\tau }(A)=\bigcap _{\sigma <\tau }U^{\sigma }(A)} if τ is a limit ordinal. Equivalently, Uσ(A) = pωσA, where ωσ is the product of ordinals ω and σ. Ulm subgroups form a decreasing filtration of A whose quotients Uσ(A) = Uσ(A)/Uσ+1(A) are called the Ulm factors of A. This filtration stabilizes and the smallest ordinal τ such that Uτ(A) = Uτ+1(A) is the Ulm length of A. The smallest Ulm subgroup Uτ(A), also denoted U∞(A) and p∞A, is the largest p-divisible subgroup of A; if A is a p-group, then U∞(A) is divisible, and as such it is a direct summand of A. For every Ulm factor Uσ(A) the p-heights of its elements are finite and they are unbounded for every Ulm factor except possibly the last one, namely Uτ−1(A) when the Ulm length τ is a successor ordinal. Ulm's theorem The second Prüfer theorem provides a straightforward extension of the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups to countable abelian p-groups without elements of infinite height: each such group is isomorphic to a direct sum of cyclic groups whose orders are powers of p. Moreover, the cardinality of the set of summands of order pn is uniquely determined by the group and each sequence of at most countable cardinalities is realized. Helmut Ulm (1933) found an extension of this classification theory to general countable p-groups: their isomorphism class is determined by the isomorphism classes of the Ulm factors and the p-divisible part. Ulm's theorem. Let A and B be countable abelian p-groups such that for every ordinal σ their Ulm factors are isomorphic, Uσ(A) ≅ Uσ(B) and the p-divisible parts of A and B are isomorphic, U∞(A) ≅ U∞(B). Then A and B are isomorphic. There is a complement to this theorem, first stated by Leo Zippin (1935) and proved in Kurosh (1960), which addresses the existence of an abelian p-group with given Ulm factors. Let τ be an ordinal and {Aσ} be a family of countable abelian p-groups indexed by the ordinals σ < τ such that the p-heights of elements of each Aσ are finite and, except possibly for the last one, are unbounded. Then there exists a reduced abelian p-group A of Ulm length τ whose Ulm factors are isomorphic to these p-groups, Uσ(A) ≅ Aσ. Ulm's original proof was based on an extension of the theory of elementary divisors to infinite matrices. Alternative formulation George Mackey and Irving Kaplansky generalized Ulm's theorem to certain modules over a complete discrete valuation ring. They introduced invariants of abelian groups that lead to a direct statement of the classification of countable periodic abelian groups: given an abelian group A, a prime p, and an ordinal α, the corresponding αth Ulm invariant is the dimension of the quotient pαA/pα+1A, where B denotes the p-torsion of an abelian group B, i.e. the subgroup of elements of order p, viewed as a vector space over the finite field with p elements. A countable periodic reduced abelian group is determined uniquely up to isomorphism by its Ulm invariants for all prime numbers p and countable ordinals α. Their simplified proof of Ulm's theorem served as a model for many further generalizations to other classes of abelian groups and modules. References László Fuchs (1970), Infinite abelian groups, Vol. I. Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 36. New York–London: Academic Press MR0255673 Irving Kaplansky and George Mackey, A generalization of Ulm's theorem. Summa Brasil. Math. 2, (1951), 195–202 MR0049165 Kurosh, A. G. (1960), The theory of groups, New York: Chelsea, MR 0109842 Ulm, H (1933). "Zur Theorie der abzählbar-unendlichen Abelschen Gruppen". Math. Ann. 107: 774–803. doi:10.1007/bf01448919. JFM 59.0143.03. S2CID 122867558.
[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Height (abelian group)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"transfinite induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfinite_induction"},{"link_name":"limit ordinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_ordinal"},{"link_name":"functorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functorial"}],"text":"Let A be an abelian group and g an element of A. The p-height of g in A, denoted hp(g), is the largest natural number n such that the equation pnx = g has a solution in x ∈ A, or the symbol ∞ if a solution exists for all n. Thus hp(g) = n if and only if g ∈ pnA and g ∉ pn+1A. \nThis allows one to refine the notion of height.For any ordinal α, there is a subgroup pαA of A which is the image of the multiplication map by p iterated α times, defined using\ntransfinite induction:p\n \n 0\n \n \n A\n =\n A\n ;\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p^{0}A=A;}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n α\n +\n 1\n \n \n A\n =\n p\n (\n \n p\n \n α\n \n \n A\n )\n ;\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p^{\\alpha +1}A=p(p^{\\alpha }A);}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n p\n \n β\n \n \n A\n =\n \n ⋂\n \n α\n <\n β\n \n \n \n p\n \n α\n \n \n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p^{\\beta }A=\\bigcap _{\\alpha <\\beta }p^{\\alpha }(A)}\n \n if β is a limit ordinal.The subgroups pαA form a decreasing filtration of the group A, and their intersection is the subgroup of the p-divisible elements of A, whose elements are assigned height ∞. The modified p-height hp∗(g) = α if g ∈ pαA, but g ∉ pα+1A. The construction of pαA is functorial in A; in particular, subquotients of the filtration are isomorphism invariants of A.","title":"Definition of height"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"smallest infinite ordinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_ordinal"},{"link_name":"limit ordinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limit_ordinal"},{"link_name":"divisible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisible_group"},{"link_name":"successor ordinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Successor_ordinal"}],"text":"Let p be a fixed prime number. The (first) Ulm subgroup of an abelian group A, denoted U(A) or A1, is pωA = ∩n pnA, where ω is the smallest infinite ordinal. It consists of all elements of A of infinite height. The family {Uσ(A)} of Ulm subgroups indexed by ordinals σ is defined by transfinite induction:U\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n A\n )\n =\n A\n ;\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U^{0}(A)=A;}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n σ\n +\n 1\n \n \n (\n A\n )\n =\n U\n (\n \n U\n \n σ\n \n \n (\n A\n )\n )\n ;\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U^{\\sigma +1}(A)=U(U^{\\sigma }(A));}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n U\n \n τ\n \n \n (\n A\n )\n =\n \n ⋂\n \n σ\n <\n τ\n \n \n \n U\n \n σ\n \n \n (\n A\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U^{\\tau }(A)=\\bigcap _{\\sigma <\\tau }U^{\\sigma }(A)}\n \n if τ is a limit ordinal.Equivalently, Uσ(A) = pωσA, where ωσ is the product of ordinals ω and σ.Ulm subgroups form a decreasing filtration of A whose quotients Uσ(A) = Uσ(A)/Uσ+1(A) are called the Ulm factors of A. This filtration stabilizes and the smallest ordinal τ such that Uτ(A) = Uτ+1(A) is the Ulm length of A. The smallest Ulm subgroup Uτ(A), also denoted U∞(A) and p∞A, is the largest p-divisible subgroup of A; if A is a p-group, then U∞(A) is divisible, and as such it is a direct summand of A.For every Ulm factor Uσ(A) the p-heights of its elements are finite and they are unbounded for every Ulm factor except possibly the last one, namely Uτ−1(A) when the Ulm length τ is a successor ordinal.","title":"Ulm subgroups"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"second Prüfer theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%BCfer_theorems"},{"link_name":"fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_theorem_of_finitely_generated_abelian_groups"},{"link_name":"Helmut Ulm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Ulm"},{"link_name":"elementary divisors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_divisors"},{"link_name":"matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"}],"text":"The second Prüfer theorem provides a straightforward extension of the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups to countable abelian p-groups without elements of infinite height: each such group is isomorphic to a direct sum of cyclic groups whose orders are powers of p. Moreover, the cardinality of the set of summands of order pn is uniquely determined by the group and each sequence of at most countable cardinalities is realized. Helmut Ulm (1933) found an extension of this classification theory to general countable p-groups: their isomorphism class is determined by the isomorphism classes of the Ulm factors and the p-divisible part.Ulm's theorem. Let A and B be countable abelian p-groups such that for every ordinal σ their Ulm factors are isomorphic, Uσ(A) ≅ Uσ(B) and the p-divisible parts of A and B are isomorphic, U∞(A) ≅ U∞(B). Then A and B are isomorphic.There is a complement to this theorem, first stated by Leo Zippin (1935) and proved in Kurosh (1960), which addresses the existence of an abelian p-group with given Ulm factors.Let τ be an ordinal and {Aσ} be a family of countable abelian p-groups indexed by the ordinals σ < τ such that the p-heights of elements of each Aσ are finite and, except possibly for the last one, are unbounded. Then there exists a reduced abelian p-group A of Ulm length τ whose Ulm factors are isomorphic to these p-groups, Uσ(A) ≅ Aσ.Ulm's original proof was based on an extension of the theory of elementary divisors to infinite matrices.","title":"Ulm's theorem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Mackey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mackey"},{"link_name":"Irving Kaplansky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irving_Kaplansky"},{"link_name":"modules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Module_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_ring"},{"link_name":"discrete valuation ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_valuation_ring"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"finite field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field"}],"sub_title":"Alternative formulation","text":"George Mackey and Irving Kaplansky generalized Ulm's theorem to certain modules over a complete discrete valuation ring. They introduced invariants of abelian groups that lead to a direct statement of the classification of countable periodic abelian groups: given an abelian group A, a prime p, and an ordinal α, the corresponding αth Ulm invariant is the dimension of the quotientpαA[p]/pα+1A[p],where B[p] denotes the p-torsion of an abelian group B, i.e. the subgroup of elements of order p, viewed as a vector space over the finite field with p elements.A countable periodic reduced abelian group is determined uniquely up to isomorphism by its Ulm invariants for all prime numbers p and countable ordinals α.Their simplified proof of Ulm's theorem served as a model for many further generalizations to other classes of abelian groups and modules.","title":"Ulm's theorem"}]
[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Samuel_Walker
J. Samuel Walker
["1 Employment with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission","1.1 Prompt and Utter Destruction","1.2 Three Mile Island","1.3 The Road to Yucca Mountain","2 Books","3 External links","4 References"]
American historian J. Samuel WalkerJ. Samuel Walker in 2008Born (1946-06-08) June 8, 1946 (age 78)EducationPh.D., University of MarylandOccupation(s)Historian, retiredEmployerUnited States Nuclear Regulatory Commission J. Samuel Walker is an American historian and author based in Maryland, most notable for his research and writing on the nuclear age, both weaponry and atomic energy. Several of his books have earned broad-based critical acclaim and advanced novel viewpoints. Despite affiliation with government and the nuclear industry, he is cited by the peace movement and parties who are highly critical of nuclear energy. Employment with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission Walker was a history instructor at the University of Maryland in the mid-seventies but was hired by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) in June, 1979, working under the chief historian, George T. Mazuzan. Walker was able to write in a lucid manner applauded in popular science press. Prompt and Utter Destruction Roger Chapman, writing in Bowling Green's university press, characterized the book on the atomic bombing of Japan as "a brave attempt to bridge two diametrically opposed positions" about whether the bombings were necessary, justified or humane. David Hendrickson, writing in Foreign Affairs, stated that Walker's position was "that some officials saw diplomatic benefits 'vis-a-vis' the Soviets from the use of the bomb but insists that such motivations were of decidedly secondary importance." Three Mile Island He also authored a comprehensive review of the Three Mile Island accident. According to his own account, Walker's work debunked the "grievous misconstructions were portrayals of the bubble issue that were central features of at least two books that came out shortly after the accident (in 1982) and in three television programs..." Walker disputed the alleged imminence of an explosion; a central point of his argument was that if the situation was as dangerous as previous writers contended, that Jimmy Carter would not have been permitted to visit the TMI power plant. The Road to Yucca Mountain In The Road to Yucca Mountain, Walker covers the U.S. government's controversial attempts to address the engineering and social issues associated with high-level radioactive waste repository (HLRWR) management and spent reactor fuel (SRF). He starts with the Manhattan Project and works through the policy debate. In 1987, Yucca Mountain, Nevada emerged as the most likely candidate for a repository. He explicates the United States Atomic Energy Commission's flop with its first attempt to build a HLRWR in a Kansas salt mine. He addresses deep geological disposal and surface storage of HLRW and SRF as well as fuel reprocessing. The Organization of American Historians awarded the book the 2010 Richard W. Leopold Prize for historical work being done by historians outside academia. Books Walker, J. Samuel (1997). Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2361-3. — (2006). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520246836. — (2009). The Road to Yucca Mountain: The Development of Radioactive Waste Policy in the United States. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26045-0. External links 2016 Video Interview with J. Samuel Walker by Atomic Heritage Foundation Voices of the Manhattan Project Bibliography of, and library access to, publications by J. Samuel Walker, at WorldCat References ^ Reviewed by Roger Chapman (American Culture Studies Program, Bowling Green State University) Published on H-US-Japan (November, 1999) ^ Young, Kevin (2008-08-03). "The Atomic Bombs: Tsuyoshi Hasegawa Reexamines the Japanese Surrender Reexamining the Japanese Surrender, 63 Years Later" (PDF). Zdnet.com. ^ "Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Dump - The Road to Disaster". Earthmountainview.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-28. Retrieved 2011-02-04. ^ Lewis, George N. "Documenting Three Mile Island | Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists". Thebulletin.org. Retrieved 2011-02-04. ^ Edwards, Rob (2004-03-20). "Three Mile Island by J. Samuel Walker, Reviewed by Rob Edwards issue 2439". newscientist.com. ^ Chapman, Roger (November 1999). "Demythologizing Truman's Decision to Drop Atomic Bombs". ^ Hendrickson, David (March–April 1998). "Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan by J. Samuel Walker - Reviewed by David C.Hendrickson". ^ "Leopold Winners". Organization of American Historians. 2010. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Israel Belgium United States Netherlands Academics CiNii Other IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"J. Samuel Walker is an American historian and author based in Maryland, most notable for his research and writing on the nuclear age, both weaponry and atomic energy. Several of his books have earned broad-based critical acclaim and advanced novel viewpoints.[1] Despite affiliation with government and the nuclear industry, he is cited by the peace movement[2]\nand parties who are highly critical of nuclear energy.[3]","title":"J. Samuel Walker"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Maryland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Maryland"},{"link_name":"Nuclear Regulatory Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Walker was a history instructor at the University of Maryland in the mid-seventies but was hired by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)[4] in June, 1979, working under the chief historian, George T. Mazuzan. Walker was able to write in a lucid manner applauded in popular science press.[5]","title":"Employment with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"atomic bombing of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_bombing_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Foreign Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Prompt and Utter Destruction","text":"Roger Chapman, writing in Bowling Green's university press, characterized the book on the atomic bombing of Japan as \"a brave attempt to bridge two diametrically opposed positions\"[6] about whether the bombings were necessary, justified or humane. David Hendrickson, writing in Foreign Affairs, stated that Walker's position was \"that some officials saw diplomatic benefits 'vis-a-vis' the Soviets from the use of the bomb but insists that such motivations were of decidedly secondary importance.\"[7]","title":"Employment with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Three Mile Island accident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carter"}],"sub_title":"Three Mile Island","text":"He also authored a comprehensive review of the Three Mile Island accident. According to his own account, Walker's work debunked the \"grievous misconstructions [which] were portrayals of the bubble issue that were central features of at least two books that came out shortly after the accident (in 1982) and in three television programs...\" Walker disputed the alleged imminence of an explosion; a central point of his argument was that if the situation was as dangerous as previous writers contended, that Jimmy Carter would not have been permitted to visit the TMI power plant.","title":"Employment with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"high-level radioactive waste repository","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_radioactive_waste_repository"},{"link_name":"spent reactor fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spent_reactor_fuel"},{"link_name":"Manhattan Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project"},{"link_name":"Yucca Mountain, Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yucca_Mountain,_Nevada"},{"link_name":"United States Atomic Energy Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission"},{"link_name":"Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas"},{"link_name":"deep geological disposal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repository"},{"link_name":"Organization of American Historians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_American_Historians"},{"link_name":"Richard W. Leopold Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_W._Leopold_Prize"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"The Road to Yucca Mountain","text":"In The Road to Yucca Mountain, Walker covers the U.S. government's controversial attempts to address the engineering and social issues associated with high-level radioactive waste repository (HLRWR) management and spent reactor fuel (SRF). He starts with the Manhattan Project and works through the policy debate. In 1987, Yucca Mountain, Nevada emerged as the most likely candidate for a repository. He explicates the United States Atomic Energy Commission's flop with its first attempt to build a HLRWR in a Kansas salt mine. He addresses deep geological disposal and surface storage of HLRW and SRF as well as fuel reprocessing.The Organization of American Historians awarded the book the 2010 Richard W. Leopold Prize for historical work being done by historians outside academia.[8]","title":"Employment with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8078-2361-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2361-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780520246836","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520246836"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-520-26045-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26045-0"}],"text":"Walker, J. Samuel (1997). Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2361-3.\n— (2006). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520246836.\n— (2009). The Road to Yucca Mountain: The Development of Radioactive Waste Policy in the United States. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26045-0.","title":"Books"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Walker, J. Samuel (1997). Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-2361-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-2361-3","url_text":"978-0-8078-2361-3"}]},{"reference":"— (2006). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520246836.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520246836","url_text":"9780520246836"}]},{"reference":"— (2009). The Road to Yucca Mountain: The Development of Radioactive Waste Policy in the United States. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26045-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26045-0","url_text":"978-0-520-26045-0"}]},{"reference":"Young, Kevin (2008-08-03). \"The Atomic Bombs: Tsuyoshi Hasegawa Reexamines the Japanese Surrender Reexamining the Japanese Surrender, 63 Years Later\" (PDF). Zdnet.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nonukes-nowar.org/files/TsuyoshiHasegawa.pdf","url_text":"\"The Atomic Bombs: Tsuyoshi Hasegawa Reexamines the Japanese Surrender Reexamining the Japanese Surrender, 63 Years Later\""}]},{"reference":"\"Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Dump - The Road to Disaster\". Earthmountainview.com. Archived from the original on 2017-06-28. Retrieved 2011-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170628112512/http://www.earthmountainview.com/yucca/yucca.htm","url_text":"\"Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Dump - The Road to Disaster\""},{"url":"http://www.earthmountainview.com/yucca/yucca.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lewis, George N. \"Documenting Three Mile Island | Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists\". Thebulletin.org. Retrieved 2011-02-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thebulletin.org/web-edition/op-eds/documenting-three-mile-island","url_text":"\"Documenting Three Mile Island | Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists\""}]},{"reference":"Edwards, Rob (2004-03-20). \"Three Mile Island by J. Samuel Walker, Reviewed by Rob Edwards issue 2439\". newscientist.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg18124395.900-ithree-mile-islandi-by-j-samuel-walker.html","url_text":"\"Three Mile Island by J. Samuel Walker, Reviewed by Rob Edwards issue 2439\""}]},{"reference":"Chapman, Roger (November 1999). \"Demythologizing Truman's Decision to Drop Atomic Bombs\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=3577","url_text":"\"Demythologizing Truman's Decision to Drop Atomic Bombs\""}]},{"reference":"Hendrickson, David (March–April 1998). \"Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan by J. Samuel Walker - Reviewed by David C.Hendrickson\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/53679/david-c-hendrickson/prompt-and-utter-destruction-truman-and-the-use-of-atomic-bombs-","url_text":"\"Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan by J. Samuel Walker - Reviewed by David C.Hendrickson\""}]},{"reference":"\"Leopold Winners\". Organization of American Historians. 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oah.org/awards/awards.leopold.winners.html","url_text":"\"Leopold Winners\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax_tablet
Wax tablet
["1 Use in antiquity","2 Use in medieval to modern times","3 References","4 Further reading"]
Writing implement in antiquity Wax tablet and a Roman stylus A wax tablet is a tablet made of wood and covered with a layer of wax, often linked loosely to a cover tablet, as a "double-leaved" diptych. It was used as a reusable and portable writing surface in antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages. Cicero's letters make passing reference to the use of cerae, and some examples of wax-tablets have been preserved in waterlogged deposits in the Roman fort at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall. Medieval wax tablet books are on display in several European museums. Writing on the wax surface was performed with a pointed instrument, a stylus. A straight-edged spatula-like implement (often placed on the opposite end of the stylus tip) would be used as an eraser. The modern expression of "a clean slate" equates to the Latin expression "tabula rasa". Writing with stylus and folding wax tablet. painter, Douris, c. 500 BC (Berlin). Wax tablets were used for a variety of purposes, from taking down students' or secretaries' notes to recording business accounts. Early forms of shorthand were used too. Use in antiquity The earliest surviving exemplar of a boxwood writing tablet with an ivory hinge was among the finds recovered from the 14th-century BC Uluburun Shipwreck near Kaş in modern Turkey in 1986. This find further confirmed that the reference to writing tablets in Homer was far from anachronistic. An archaeological discovery in 1979 in Durrës, Albania found two wax tablets made of ivory in a grave believed to belong to a money lender from the 2nd century AD. The Greeks probably started using the folding pair of wax tablets, along with the leather scroll in the mid-8th century BC. Liddell & Scott, 1925 edition gives the etymology of the word for the writing-tablet, deltos (δέλτος), from the letter delta (Δ) based on ancient Greek and Roman authors and scripts, due to the shape of tablets to account for it. An alternative theory holds that it has retained its Semitic designation, daltu, which originally signified "door" but was being used for writing tablets in Ugarit in the 13th century BC. In Hebrew the term evolved into daleth. In the first millennium BC writing tablets were in use in Mesopotamia as well as Syria and Southern Levant. A carved stone panel dating to between 640–615 BC that was excavated from the South-West Palace of the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib, at Nineveh in Iraq (British Museum, ME 124955) depicts two figures, one clearly clasping a scroll and the other bearing what is thought to be an open diptych. Berthe van Regemorter identified a similar figure in the Neo-Hittite Stela of Tarhunpiyas (Musée du Louvre, AO 1922.), dating to the late 8th century BC, who is seen holding what may be a form of tablature with a unique button closure. Writing tablets of ivory were found in the ruins of Sargon's palace in Nimrud. Margaret Howard surmised that these tablets might have once been connected together using an ingenious hinging system with cut pieces of leather resembling the letter “H” inserted into slots along the edges to form a concertina structure. Use in medieval to modern times Roman scribe with his stylus and tablets on his tomb stele at Flavia Solva in Noricum Hermann of Reichenau (1013–1054), a monk and mathematician, used wax tablets "He had requested that his disciple, Berthold of Reichenau, should take wax tablets on which his writings were recorded and have these made into manuscripts. " Hériman of Tournai (1095–1147), a monk at the abbey of St Martin of Tournai, wrote "I even wrote down a certain amount on tablets". An example of a wax tablet book are the servitude records which the hospital of Austria's oldest city, Enns, established in 1500. Ten wooden plates, sized 375 x 207 mm (14.76 x 8.15 inches) and arranged in a 90 mm (3.54 inch) stack, are each divided into two halves along their long axis. The annual payables due are written on parchment or paper glued to the left sides. Payables received were recorded for deduction (and subsequently erased) on the respective right sides, which are covered with brownish-black writing wax. The material is based on beeswax, and contains 5–10% plant oils and carbon pigments; its melting point is about 65 °C. This volume is the continuation of an earlier one, which was begun in 1447. Wax tablets were used for high-volume business records of transient importance until the 19th century. For instance, the salt mining authority at Schwäbisch Hall employed wax records until 1812. The fish market in Rouen used them even until the 1860s, where their construction and use had been well documented in 1849. References ^ Payton, Robert (1991). "The Ulu Burun Writing-Board Set". Anatolian Studies. 41: 99–106. doi:10.2307/3642932. JSTOR 3642932. S2CID 129794402. ^ "Wax Tablets Reveal Secrets of Ancient Illyria - Albanian Economy News". Albanian Economy News. ^ Εntry δέλτος (deltos) at Liddell & Scott ^ Walter, Burkert (1995). The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the early archaic age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 30. ^ "Stone Panel from the South-West Palace of Sennacherib (Room 28, Panel 9)". British Museum. Retrieved 8 January 2011. ^ Van Regemorter, Berthe (1958). "Le Codex Relié À L'époque Néo-Hittite". Scriptorium. 12 (2): 177–81. doi:10.3406/scrip.1958.2971. ^ Szirmai, J.A. (1990). "Wooden Writing Tablets and the Birth of the Codex". Gazette du Livre Médèvale. 17: 31–32. doi:10.3406/galim.1990.1144. ^ Wiseman, D.J. (1955). "Assyrian Writing Boards". Iraq. 17 (1): 3–13. doi:10.2307/4241713. JSTOR 4241713. S2CID 163198708. ^ Howard, Margaret (1955). "Technical Description of the Ivory Writing-Boards from Nimrud". Iraq. 17 (1): 14–20, Fig. 7–11. doi:10.2307/4241714. JSTOR 4241714. S2CID 131127416. ^ "Hermann of Reichenau - Biography". ^ Herman of Tournai, Lynn Harry Nelson, ed. and tr. The Restoration of the Monastery of Saint Martin of Tournai "Prologue" p. 11. ^ Wilflingseder, F., 1964. "Die Urbare des Ennser Bürgerspitals aus den Jahren 1447 und 1500". Biblos 13, 134-45 ^ Büll, R., 1977. Wachs als Beschreib- und Siegelstoff. Wachstafeln und ihre Verwendung. In: Das große Buch vom Wachs. Vol. 2, 785-894 ^ Lalou E., 1992. "Inventaire des tablettes médiévales et présentation genérale". In: Les Tablettes à écrire de l'Antiquité à l'Epoque Moderne, pp. 233-288; esp. p. 280 and Fig. 13 Further reading Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wax tablets. Galling, K., 1971. "Tafel, Buch und Blatt" in Near Eastern Studies in Honour of W. F. Albright (Baltimore), pp 207–23. vteWriting and writing materialEnduringPlant-based Amate Trema micrantha Ficus aurea Bamboo and wooden slips Birch bark (Betula) Folding-book manuscript Streblus asper Broussonetia papyrifera Ola leaf (Corypha umbraculifera) Palm leaf (Borassus) Paper Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) Other materials Animal skin Parchment Vellum Ink Metals Intaglio Stamping Oracle bone Photographic film Stone Geoglyph Petroglyph Tablets Clay tablet Slate Wax tablet Textile printing Silk text Impermanent Electronic paper Screen Skywriting Carrier objects Book Codex Notebook Electronic media Hu/Shaku (baton) Inscription Bas-relief Manuscript Palimpsest Microform Scroll Sign Related topics Writing systems History of writing List of writing systems Written language Authority control databases: National Germany Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg"},{"link_name":"stylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylus"},{"link_name":"tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"wax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax"},{"link_name":"diptych","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diptych"},{"link_name":"writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing"},{"link_name":"antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Cicero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Britain"},{"link_name":"Vindolanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vindolanda"},{"link_name":"Hadrian's Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall"},{"link_name":"stylus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylus"},{"link_name":"spatula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatula"},{"link_name":"slate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_(writing)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"\"tabula rasa\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabula_rasa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Douris_Man_with_wax_tablet.jpg"},{"link_name":"painter, Douris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douris_(vase_painter)"},{"link_name":"shorthand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stenography"}],"text":"Wax tablet and a Roman stylusA wax tablet is a tablet made of wood and covered with a layer of wax, often linked loosely to a cover tablet, as a \"double-leaved\" diptych. It was used as a reusable and portable writing surface in antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages. Cicero's letters make passing reference to the use of cerae, and some examples of wax-tablets have been preserved in waterlogged deposits in the Roman fort at Vindolanda on Hadrian's Wall. Medieval wax tablet books are on display in several European museums.Writing on the wax surface was performed with a pointed instrument, a stylus. A straight-edged spatula-like implement (often placed on the opposite end of the stylus tip) would be used as an eraser. The modern expression of \"a clean slate\" equates to the Latin expression \"tabula rasa\".Writing with stylus and folding wax tablet. painter, Douris, c. 500 BC (Berlin).Wax tablets were used for a variety of purposes, from taking down students' or secretaries' notes to recording business accounts. Early forms of shorthand were used too.","title":"Wax tablet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Uluburun Shipwreck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uluburun_Shipwreck"},{"link_name":"Kaş","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%C5%9F"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Liddell & Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liddell_%26_Scott"},{"link_name":"etymology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology"},{"link_name":"delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_(letter)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Semitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_languages"},{"link_name":"Ugarit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugarit"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Assyrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"Sennacherib","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sennacherib"},{"link_name":"Nineveh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nineveh"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Sargon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargon_II"},{"link_name":"Nimrud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrud"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The earliest surviving exemplar of a boxwood writing tablet with an ivory hinge was among the finds recovered from the 14th-century BC Uluburun Shipwreck near Kaş in modern Turkey in 1986.[1] This find further confirmed that the reference to writing tablets in Homer was far from anachronistic.\nAn archaeological discovery in 1979 in Durrës, Albania found two wax tablets made of ivory in a grave believed to belong to a money lender from the 2nd century AD.[2]The Greeks probably started using the folding pair of wax tablets, along with the leather scroll in the mid-8th century BC. Liddell & Scott, 1925 edition gives the etymology of the word for the writing-tablet, deltos (δέλτος), from the letter delta (Δ) based on ancient Greek and Roman authors and scripts, due to the shape of tablets to account for it.[3] An alternative theory holds that it has retained its Semitic designation, daltu, which originally signified \"door\" but was being used for writing tablets in Ugarit in the 13th century BC. In Hebrew the term evolved into daleth.[4]In the first millennium BC writing tablets were in use in Mesopotamia as well as Syria and Southern Levant. A carved stone panel dating to between 640–615 BC that was excavated from the South-West Palace of the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib, at Nineveh in Iraq (British Museum, ME 124955) depicts two figures, one clearly clasping a scroll and the other bearing what is thought to be an open diptych.[5] Berthe van Regemorter identified a similar figure in the Neo-Hittite Stela of Tarhunpiyas (Musée du Louvre, AO 1922.), dating to the late 8th century BC, who is seen holding what may be a form of tablature with a unique button closure.[6][7] Writing tablets of ivory were found in the ruins of Sargon's palace in Nimrud.[8] Margaret Howard surmised that these tablets might have once been connected together using an ingenious hinging system with cut pieces of leather resembling the letter “H” inserted into slots along the edges to form a concertina structure.[9]","title":"Use in antiquity"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scribe_tomb_relief_Flavia_Solva.jpg"},{"link_name":"Flavia Solva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavia_Solva"},{"link_name":"Noricum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noricum"},{"link_name":"Hermann of Reichenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_of_Reichenau"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Hériman of Tournai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9riman_of_Tournai"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Enns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enns_(city)"},{"link_name":"beeswax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeswax"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Schwäbisch Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schw%C3%A4bisch_Hall"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Rouen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouen"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Roman scribe with his stylus and tablets on his tomb stele at Flavia Solva in NoricumHermann of Reichenau (1013–1054), a monk and mathematician, used wax tablets \"He had requested that his disciple, Berthold of Reichenau, should take wax tablets on which his writings were recorded and have these made into manuscripts. \"[10]Hériman of Tournai (1095–1147), a monk at the abbey of St Martin of Tournai, wrote \"I even wrote down a certain amount on tablets\".[11]An example of a wax tablet book are the servitude records which the hospital of Austria's oldest city, Enns, established in 1500. Ten wooden plates, sized 375 x 207 mm (14.76 x 8.15 inches) and arranged in a 90 mm (3.54 inch) stack, are each divided into two halves along their long axis. The annual payables due are written on parchment or paper glued to the left sides. Payables received were recorded for deduction (and subsequently erased) on the respective right sides, which are covered with brownish-black writing wax. The material is based on beeswax, and contains 5–10% plant oils and carbon pigments; its melting point is about 65 °C.[12] This volume is the continuation of an earlier one, which was begun in 1447.Wax tablets were used for high-volume business records of transient importance until the 19th century. For instance, the salt mining authority at Schwäbisch Hall employed wax records until 1812.[13] The fish market in Rouen used them even until the 1860s, where their construction and use had been well documented in 1849.[14]","title":"Use in medieval to modern times"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wax tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Wax_tablets"},{"link_name":"W. F. Albright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_F._Albright"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Writing"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Writing"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Writing"},{"link_name":"Writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing"},{"link_name":"writing material","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_material"},{"link_name":"Amate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amate"},{"link_name":"Trema micrantha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trema_micrantha"},{"link_name":"Ficus aurea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_aurea"},{"link_name":"Bamboo and wooden slips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips"},{"link_name":"Birch bark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_bark_manuscript"},{"link_name":"Betula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_bark"},{"link_name":"Folding-book manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folding-book_manuscript"},{"link_name":"Streblus asper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streblus_asper"},{"link_name":"Broussonetia papyrifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_mulberry"},{"link_name":"Ola leaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ola_leaf"},{"link_name":"Corypha umbraculifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corypha_umbraculifera"},{"link_name":"Palm leaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript"},{"link_name":"Borassus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borassus"},{"link_name":"Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"Papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus"},{"link_name":"Cyperus papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus"},{"link_name":"Parchment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment"},{"link_name":"Vellum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellum"},{"link_name":"Ink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink"},{"link_name":"Intaglio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intaglio_(printmaking)"},{"link_name":"Stamping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamping_(metalworking)"},{"link_name":"Oracle bone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone"},{"link_name":"Photographic film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film"},{"link_name":"Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy"},{"link_name":"Geoglyph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoglyph"},{"link_name":"Petroglyph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroglyph"},{"link_name":"Clay tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet"},{"link_name":"Slate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_(writing)"},{"link_name":"Wax tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Textile printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_printing"},{"link_name":"Silk text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts"},{"link_name":"Electronic paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_paper"},{"link_name":"Screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visual_display"},{"link_name":"Skywriting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skywriting"},{"link_name":"Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book"},{"link_name":"Codex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex"},{"link_name":"Notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook"},{"link_name":"Electronic media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_media"},{"link_name":"Hu/Shaku (baton)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_(ritual_baton)"},{"link_name":"Inscription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy"},{"link_name":"Bas-relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief"},{"link_name":"Manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscript"},{"link_name":"Palimpsest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palimpsest"},{"link_name":"Microform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microform"},{"link_name":"Scroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll"},{"link_name":"Sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign"},{"link_name":"Writing systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system"},{"link_name":"History of writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_writing"},{"link_name":"List of writing systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_writing_systems"},{"link_name":"Written language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_language"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1428312#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4188801-7"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph115937&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wax tablets.Galling, K., 1971. \"Tafel, Buch und Blatt\" in Near Eastern Studies in Honour of W. F. Albright (Baltimore), pp 207–23.vteWriting and writing materialEnduringPlant-based\nAmate\nTrema micrantha\nFicus aurea\nBamboo and wooden slips\nBirch bark (Betula)\nFolding-book manuscript\nStreblus asper\nBroussonetia papyrifera\nOla leaf (Corypha umbraculifera)\nPalm leaf (Borassus)\nPaper\nPapyrus (Cyperus papyrus)\nOther materials\nAnimal skin\nParchment\nVellum\nInk\nMetals\nIntaglio\nStamping\nOracle bone\nPhotographic film\nStone\nGeoglyph\nPetroglyph\nTablets\nClay tablet\nSlate\nWax tablet\nTextile printing\nSilk text\nImpermanent\nElectronic paper\nScreen\nSkywriting\nCarrier objects\nBook\nCodex\nNotebook\nElectronic media\nHu/Shaku (baton)\nInscription\nBas-relief\nManuscript\nPalimpsest\nMicroform\nScroll\nSign\nRelated topics\nWriting systems\nHistory of writing\nList of writing systems\nWritten languageAuthority control databases: National \nGermany\nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Wax tablet and a Roman stylus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg/220px-Table_with_was_and_stylus_Roman_times.jpg"},{"image_text":"Writing with stylus and folding wax tablet. painter, Douris, c. 500 BC (Berlin).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Douris_Man_with_wax_tablet.jpg/220px-Douris_Man_with_wax_tablet.jpg"},{"image_text":"Roman scribe with his stylus and tablets on his tomb stele at Flavia Solva in Noricum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Scribe_tomb_relief_Flavia_Solva.jpg/220px-Scribe_tomb_relief_Flavia_Solva.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"Payton, Robert (1991). \"The Ulu Burun Writing-Board Set\". Anatolian Studies. 41: 99–106. doi:10.2307/3642932. JSTOR 3642932. S2CID 129794402.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3642932","url_text":"10.2307/3642932"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3642932","url_text":"3642932"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129794402","url_text":"129794402"}]},{"reference":"\"Wax Tablets Reveal Secrets of Ancient Illyria - Albanian Economy News\". Albanian Economy News.","urls":[{"url":"https://albanianeconomy.com/2014/10/27/wax-tablets-reveal-secrets-ancient-illyria/","url_text":"\"Wax Tablets Reveal Secrets of Ancient Illyria - Albanian Economy News\""}]},{"reference":"Walter, Burkert (1995). The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the early archaic age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 30.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Stone Panel from the South-West Palace of Sennacherib (Room 28, Panel 9)\". British Museum. Retrieved 8 January 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/me/s/panel,_palace_of_sennacherib-3.aspx","url_text":"\"Stone Panel from the South-West Palace of Sennacherib (Room 28, Panel 9)\""}]},{"reference":"Van Regemorter, Berthe (1958). \"Le Codex Relié À L'époque Néo-Hittite\". Scriptorium. 12 (2): 177–81. doi:10.3406/scrip.1958.2971.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fscrip.1958.2971","url_text":"10.3406/scrip.1958.2971"}]},{"reference":"Szirmai, J.A. (1990). \"Wooden Writing Tablets and the Birth of the Codex\". Gazette du Livre Médèvale. 17: 31–32. doi:10.3406/galim.1990.1144.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fgalim.1990.1144","url_text":"10.3406/galim.1990.1144"}]},{"reference":"Wiseman, D.J. (1955). \"Assyrian Writing Boards\". Iraq. 17 (1): 3–13. doi:10.2307/4241713. JSTOR 4241713. S2CID 163198708.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4241713","url_text":"10.2307/4241713"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4241713","url_text":"4241713"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163198708","url_text":"163198708"}]},{"reference":"Howard, Margaret (1955). \"Technical Description of the Ivory Writing-Boards from Nimrud\". Iraq. 17 (1): 14–20, Fig. 7–11. doi:10.2307/4241714. JSTOR 4241714. S2CID 131127416.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4241714","url_text":"10.2307/4241714"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4241714","url_text":"4241714"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131127416","url_text":"131127416"}]},{"reference":"\"Hermann of Reichenau - Biography\".","urls":[{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Hermann_of_Reichenau/","url_text":"\"Hermann of Reichenau - Biography\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Helsinki
University of Helsinki
["1 History","1.1 Royal Academy of Åbo 1640–1828","1.2 Imperial Alexander University in Finland 1828–1919","1.3 University of Helsinki 1919–present","2 Organization","2.1 Faculties","3 Academics","3.1 University rankings","3.2 International Master's Degree Programmes","3.3 Research","4 Campuses","4.1 City Centre Campus","4.2 Kumpula Campus","4.3 Meilahti Campus","4.4 Viikki Campus","5 Libraries and museums","5.1 The National Library of Finland","5.2 The Helsinki University Main Library","5.3 The Helsinki University Museum","5.4 Finnish Museum of Natural History","6 Student life","6.1 Student Union","6.2 Student nations","7 Notable alumni, faculty, and staff","8 Chancellors","9 Rectors","10 See also","11 References","12 External links"]
Coordinates: 60°10′10″N 024°57′00″E / 60.16944°N 24.95000°E / 60.16944; 24.95000University in Helsinki, Finland This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this article. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "University of Helsinki" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article contains academic boosterism which primarily serves to praise or promote the subject and may be a sign of a conflict of interest. Please improve this article by removing peacock terms, weasel words, and other promotional material. (October 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) University of HelsinkiHelsingin yliopisto Helsingfors universitetLatin: Universitas HelsingiensisMottoOpiskelu ja opettaminen – yliopiston sydänMotto in EnglishStudying and teaching - The heart of a universityTypePublicEstablished1640; 384 years ago (1640)Endowment€ c. 2 billionChancellorKaarle HämeriRectorSari LindblomAcademic staff4,717 (2020)Total staff8,120 (2020)Students31,600 (total, 2020)Undergraduates16,090 (2020)Postgraduates10,673 (2020)Doctoral students4,548 (2020)LocationHelsinki, Finland60°10′10″N 024°57′00″E / 60.16944°N 24.95000°E / 60.16944; 24.95000CampusUrbanColours    Black and whiteAffiliationsEuropaeumLERUUArcticUna EuropaUnicaUtrecht NetworkWebsitewww.helsinki.fi/en The University of Helsinki (Finnish: Helsingin yliopisto, Swedish: Helsingfors universitet; UH) is a public university in Helsinki, Finland. The university was founded in Turku in 1640 as the Royal Academy of Åbo under the Swedish Empire, and moved to Helsinki in 1828 under the sponsorship of Tsar Alexander I. The University of Helsinki is the oldest and largest university in Finland with the widest range of disciplines available. In 2020, around 31,600 students were enrolled in the degree programs of the university spread across 11 faculties and 11 research institutes. As of 1 August 2005, the university complies with the harmonized structure of the Europe-wide Bologna Process and offers bachelor, master, licenciate, and doctoral degrees. Admission to degree programmes is usually determined by entrance examinations, in the case of bachelor's degrees, and by prior degree results, in the case of master and postgraduate degrees. The university is bilingual, with teaching by law provided both in Finnish and Swedish. Since Swedish, albeit an official language of Finland, is a minority language, Finnish is by far the dominating language at the university. Teaching in English is extensive throughout the university at master, licentiate, and doctoral levels, making it a de facto third language of instruction. It is a member of various prominent international university networks, such as Europaeum, UNICA, the Utrecht Network, and is a founding member of the League of European Research Universities. The university has also received international financial support for global welfare; for example, in September 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense provided the university with more than four million euros in funding for the treatment of MYC genes and breast cancer. History Queen Christina of Sweden, University Founder and Patron For the early history (1640-1809), see Royal Academy of Turku. Royal Academy of Åbo 1640–1828 The Royal Academy of Åbo Main article: Royal Academy of Turku The first predecessor of the university, The Cathedral School of Åbo, was presumably founded in 1276 for education of boys to become servants of the Church. As the university was founded in 1640 by Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–1689) in Turku (Sw. Åbo), as the Åbo Kungliga Akademi (Latin: Regia Academia Aboensis), the senior part of the school formed the core of the new university, while the junior year courses formed a grammar school. It was the third university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University and the Academia Gustaviana in Dorpat (predecessor to the University of Tartu in Estonia). Imperial Alexander University in Finland 1828–1919 Coat of arms of the University of Helsinki The second period of the university's history covers the period when Finland was a Grand Duchy, a state ruled by the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1917. When Grand Duchy of Finland was established in 1809, the Grand Duke Alexander I expanded the university and allocated substantial funds to it. Following the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, higher education within the country was moved to Helsinki, the new administrative heart and the capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland, in 1828, and renamed the Imperial Alexander University in Finland in honour of the late benefactor of the university. In the capital the primary task of the university was to educate the Grand Duchy's civil servants. The university became a community subscribing to the new Humboldtian ideals of science and culture, studying humanity and its living environment by means of scientific methods. The new statutes of the university enacted in 1828 defined the task of the university as promoting the development of "the Sciences and Humanities within Finland and, furthermore, educating the youth for the service of the Emperor and the Fatherland". The Alexander University was a centre of national life that promoted the birth of a fully independent Finnish State and the development of Finnish identity. The great men of 19th century Finland, Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Elias Lönnrot and Zachris Topelius, were all involved in the activities of the university. The university became a major center of Finnish cultural, political, and legal life in 19th century Finland, and became a remarkable primum mobile of the nationalist and liberal cultural movements, political parties, and student organisations. In the 19th century university research changed from being collection-centred to being experimental, empirical, and analytical. The more scientific approach of the university led to specialisation and created new disciplines. As the scientific disciplines developed, Finland received ever more scholarly knowledge and highly educated people, some of whom entered rapidly evolving industry or the government. National Library of Finland/Kansalliskirjasto University of Helsinki 1919–present University of Helsinki (Main Building) The third period of the university's history began with the creation of a fully independent Republic of Finland in 1917, and with the renaming of the university as the University of Helsinki. Once Finland declared its full independence in 1917, the university was given a crucial role in building the nation state and, after World War II, the welfare state. Members of the academic community promoted the international relations of the new state and the development of its economic life. Furthermore, they were actively involved in national politics and the struggle for equality. In the interwar period the university was the scene of a conflict between those who wanted to advance the usage of Finnish language in the university, to the detriment of Swedish and those who opposed such move. Geographer Väinö Tanner was one of the most vocal defenders of Swedish language usage. Swedish People's Party of Finland initiated a campaign collecting 153 914 signatures in defense of the Swedish language that were handed to the parliament and government in October 1934. On an international front academics from Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland sent letters to the diplomatic representations of Finland in their respective countries warning about a weakening of the Nordic unity that would result from diminishing the role of Swedish in the University of Helsinki. In the 20th century, scholarly research at the University of Helsinki reached the level of the European elite in many disciplines. This was manifested, among other things, by international recognitions granted to its professors, such as the Fields Medal received by the mathematician Lars Ahlfors (1936), the Nobel Prize in Chemistry granted to Professor A.I. Virtanen (1945) and the Nobel Prize in Medicine shared by Professor Ragnar Granit (1967). In the Continuation War the university was heavily damaged by bombs during a soviet air raid on 27 February 1944. After World War II, university research focused on improving Finnish living conditions and supporting major changes in the structure of society and business. The university also contributed to the breakthrough of modern technology. The progress of scientific development created many new disciplines and faculties at the University of Helsinki. At present the university comprises 11 faculties, 500 professors and almost 40,000 students. The university has established as its goal to further its position as one of Europe's top multidisciplinary research universities. In March 2014, two people were arrested and in June 2014 sentenced to prison for three years for plotting a mass murder at the university. Organization Aleksanteri Institute, University of Helsinki Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki Faculties The university is divided into eleven faculties. They are listed below in the official order used by the university, reflecting both the history of the university and the hierarchy of disciplines at the time when the university was established: Faculty of Theology (established 1640) Faculty of Law (established 1640) Faculty of Medicine (established 1640) Faculty of Arts (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640 and split 1852, independent Arts section 1863, independent faculty 1992) Faculty of Science (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640 and split 1852, independent Science section 1863, independent faculty 1992) Faculty of Pharmacy (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640, split from the Faculty of Science 2004) Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640, split from the Faculty of Science 2004) Faculty of Educational Sciences (independent section 1974, independent faculty 1992, reorganized and renamed 2004, reorganized and renamed 2017) Faculty of Social Sciences (established 1945) Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry (established 1898, independent faculty 1924) Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (established as an independent college in 1945, incorporated into the University of Helsinki in 1995) The university also has several independent institutes, such as research centres and libraries, the most notable of which are perhaps the National Library of Finland and Helsinki University Library. Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies is another independent institute within the University of Helsinki, an Institute for Advanced Study, which is modeled upon the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Previous directors include Raimo Väyrynen (2002–2004) and Juha Sihvola (2004–2009). Academics University rankingsGlobal – OverallARWU World101–150 (2023)QS World115 (2024)THE World121 (2024)USNWR Global99 (2023) University rankings University of Helsinki is ranked at 101-150st in the world by the 2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for 2023, the University of Helsinki is ranked at 121st overall in the world. In 2024 THE–QS World University Rankings list, the University of Helsinki was ranked 115th. International Master's Degree Programmes The University of Helsinki offers a wide range of master's degree programmes, taught entirely in English. The scope of the programmes is 120 ECTS credits, completed with two years of full-time study. Some programmes are organised by the University of Helsinki along with other Finnish and foreign universities. All programmes comply with the national legislation governing university education and are, therefore, recognised globally. Research University of Helsinki Botanical Garden. Research institutes within the university include the following: Aleksanteri Institute – A national centre of research, study and expertise pertaining to Russia and East Europe Christina Institute for Gender Studies Environmental Change Research Unit Erik Castrén Institute of International Law and Human Rights Helsinki Center of Economic Research (HECER) – A joint initiative of the University of Helsinki, the Helsinki School of Economics and the Hanken School of Economics Helsinki Institute for Information Technology (HIIT) – A joint research institute of the University of Helsinki and the Aalto University Helsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE) - supports and coordinates life science research across the university. HiLIFE oversees three operative units: Institute of Biotechnology (BI) Finnish Institute for Molecular Medicine (FIMM) Neuroscience Center (NC) Helsinki Institute of Physics Rolf Nevanlinna Institute – Research institute of mathematics, computer science, and statistics Campuses Main Auditorium, University of Helsinki The university is located on four main campuses. Originally, the entire university was located in the very centre of Helsinki, but due to the rapid growth of the university since the 1930s, premises have been built and acquired in other areas. City Centre Campus The historical City Centre Campus has been the hub of activity ever since the university moved from Turku to Helsinki in the early 19th century. The campus has a central location and reflects the architectural style of this part of the city. The university buildings in the city center house the Faculties of Theology, Law, Arts, Behavioural Sciences and Social Sciences plus administrative functions. Most of the buildings on the campus have a major architectural significance ranging from the dominating Neo-Classical, through the Jugendstil, to 20th century Modernism. Minerva, Department of Teacher Education The City Centre Campus, extending around the historical centre of Helsinki, Senate Square, and Kruununhaka city district, is the administrative heart of the University of Helsinki and has the largest concentration of faculties in Helsinki. After the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, Emperor Nicholas I ordered the Royal Academy of Turku be moved to the new capital city of the Grand Duchy of Finland, Helsinki, where the Imperial Alexander University in Finland began to operate the next year. Helsinki was to become Finland's window to the world; a European city to which the university belonged as an integral part. Carl Ludvig Engel, architect, was given the assignment of designing an Empire-style main building next to Senate Square, facing the Imperial Senate. The main building was completed in 1832. Thanks to the lessons learnt from the fire of Turku, the library was built separate from other premises. The library and several faculty buildings in the campus were also designed by Engel. University Main Building on fire after Soviet bombings in 1944. The main building as well as other buildings of the campus were badly damaged during the Soviet bombings in World War II but rebuilt after the war. The plan concerning the concentration of university facilities dating back to the 1980s, aimed to achieve a closer unity between facilities. The City Centre Campus does not stand out from the rest of the urban environment but is a part of the city, in line with the old university tradition. The university facilities still form a functional and coherent whole, consisting not only of historically valuable buildings, but also of facilities for 20,000 students and 3,000 teachers and other staff. Kumpula Campus The Kumpula Campus, housing the Faculty of Science, is located four kilometers north from the centre of Helsinki near tram lines 6 and 8. The campus houses the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Statistics, Computer Science, and Geosciences and Geography. The university departments were located in Kumpula for the first time in 1978 when the City of Helsinki leased the area for the university. A planning competition for the city plan for the area was held a year earlier. In the 1980s, the Accelerator Laboratory of the Department of Physics was quarried into Kumpula rock and the construction of Kumpula Botanical Garden began in 1987. It was not, however, until the 1990s when the construction work proper began, transforming the area into a significant campus. Kumpula Campus Physicum The Chemicum, the building housing the Department of Chemistry and VERIFIN (Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention), and the Physicum, which provides facilities for physics, geology and geography are located on Kumpula campus surrounding a square named after the Finnish Nobel prize winner, A. I. Virtanen. Kumpula Campus Library is also located in the Physicum. The Kumpula Sports Centre is planned for the recreational use of both university staff and students and citizens of Helsinki alike. Completed in 2004, the Exactum provides facilities for seismology, computer science and mathematical subjects, as well as administrative services. The campus comprises two main parts: the Botanical Garden, surrounding the old building stock of Kumpula manor and the modern new building stock located a couple of hundred metres north of the manor. The greenness of the area makes the dynamic campus stand out as a unique, distinctive complex. The campus offers study and research facilities for 6,000 students and 1,000 teachers. The Finnish Meteorological Institute moved to the area in 2005. That building is known as Dynamicum. Meilahti Campus The Meilahti Campus, with the Faculty of Medicine, is a part of the Meilahti Hospital District on the edge of the city centre. Just a few kilometres from the City Centre Campus, the Meilahti area has been transformed into a cradle of top research on medicine, 'Medilahti'. Established in the 1930s, the Women's Clinic was accompanied by Finland's leading hospital, Helsinki University Central Hospital (HUCH) in 1966. The same year saw the completion of facilities for theoretical subject departments on Haartmaninkatu street. The building is now being renovated and extended. The latest completed facilities in the campus include the National Library of Health Sciences (Terkko) and the research and teaching centre Biomedicum that houses several research institutes including the Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), Neuroscience Center (NC), and Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research. The Ruskeasuo premises, including the Department of Dentistry, Institute for Oral Health, Department of Public Health and Department of Forensic Medicine, also belong to the Meilahti campus. The Meilahti and Ruskeasuo areas form a close-knit complex providing a meeting place for medical education, international top-level research and nursing. The campus is a workplace for 2,000 students and 1,500 teachers. Thanks to the years-long project to combine the teaching facilities of the Faculty of Medicine, Meilahti is now a functional unity of medicine and health care. The atmosphere in the campus inspires people in their studies, research and international co-operation. Although the Meilahti campus is intertwined with the rest of Meilahti district, it succeeds in forming a clear-cut campus area with its hospital-type building stock. Viikki Campus The Viikki Campus is located in the semi-suburban greenspace of the Viikki area, some 8 kilometres north-east of the city centre. It houses the Faculties of Agriculture and Forestry, Biosciences, Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy. It is an important concentration in the field of biosciences, even by European standards. Indeed, it is often called the bioscience campus or the "green campus". In addition to biosciences, the campus is home to a wide range of other life science researchers and students in such fields as environmental science, veterinary medicine, food research and economics. Numerous international research groups also work on the Viikki Campus. The Viikki Campus is the location of four faculties, three independent research institutes (Institute of Biotechnology (BI), Natural Resources Institute Finland (LUKE) and Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE)) and the Viikki Science Library. It also attracts an increasing number of businesses to the Helsinki Business and Science Park. The Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute and the Finnish Food Safety Authority, Evira, have also moved to Viikki and negotiations are under way to relocate MTT Agrifood Research Finland to Viikki to complement the Department of Economics and Management. The Viikki Campus unites a multidisciplinary science community of more than 6,500 students and 1,600 teachers, a residential area emphasising ecological values and the natural surroundings, including recreational areas and nature reserves, and forms a unique whole. The campus also has the Viikinlahti conservation area, which is particularly popular among bird watchers. Libraries and museums The National Library of Finland Interior of the National Library of Finland The National Library of Finland is the foremost research library in Finland and the main branch of the University of Helsinki's library system. The National Library of Finland is the oldest and largest scholarly library in Finland as well as one of the largest independent institutes at the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the collection, description, preservation and accessibility of Finland's printed national heritage and the unique collections under its care. The National Library also serves as a national service and development centre for the library sector and promotes national and international cooperation in the field. The Helsinki University Main Library The new Main Library in Kaisa House. The Main Library of the university is used by students for research and studying. Located a few blocks down the street from the university's main building in the city center, the new Main Library was opened in 2012 in the Kaisa House. The new library merged the undergraduate library and four dispersed faculty libraries of the city center campus to a collection of approximately 1.5 million books. The architecture of the new building, designed by Anttinen Oiva Architects, has been praised and received several awards. The Helsinki University Museum The Helsinki University Museum is the museum of the University of Helsinki and was located until June 2014 on Snellmanninkatu off the north-east corner of Senate Square. Museums main exhibition moved to the University Main Building in 2015. Helsinki University Museum was established in 2003 by merging the former University Museum specialising in the history of the University of Helsinki, the Museum of Medical History, the Museum of the History of Veterinary Medicine, the Museum of the History of Dentistry and the Collections of Craft Science. To complement the new conglomeration of museums, the Mineral Cabinet, which today belongs to the Finnish Museum of Natural History, returned to its original location in the Arppeanum building. Each year the museum also holds one or two temporary exhibitions in a specially designed area. Museums exhibition in Arppeanum Building was closed in June 2014. New main exhibition was opened in the Main Building in March 2015. The University Museum is in charge of the preservation and conservation of the university's valuable museum collections and property: old tuition and research equipment, furniture and works of art. The museum maintains an index register of all valuables that are kept in the facilities of the university. The museum also provides library, archive and photographic services pertaining to the history of the university and the history of medical science. Finnish Museum of Natural History Museum of Natural History. The Finnish Museum of Natural History is a research institution under the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the national botanical, zoological, geological and paleontological collections consisting of samples from around the world. The collections serve scientific, public informational and educational purposes. Student life Student Union The Old Student House (Student Union), Aleksanterinkatu. The Student Union of the University of Helsinki (Helsingin yliopiston ylioppilaskunta, HYY) was founded in 1868. It currently has 32,000 members and is one of the world's wealthiest student organizations, with assets of several hundred million euros. Among other things, it owns a good deal of property in the city centre of Helsinki. The union has been at the centre of student politics from the 19th Century nationalist movements, through the actions of the New Left in the 1960s, up to the present. Its governing assembly consists of parties which are connected to faculty organisations, the Student Nations, and the mainstream political parties. Student nations The student nations are student organisations that provide extra-curricular activities to students. Along with the faculty-based organisations, the nations provide one of the main nodes of student social life. The nations at University of Helsinki have a special legal status in the Universities Act. There are 15 nations at the university, each one representing a historic region or province of Finland, with four of these representing Swedish-speaking regions. Membership is optional. Nylands Nation North Ostrobothnian Nation Panorama of the Senate Square. University main building on left. Notable alumni, faculty, and staff Name Life Details Elli Saurio (1899–1966) Professor of household economics Jukka Nevakivi (1931-) Professor of political history Derek Fewster (1962-) Historian Joy Wolfram (1989-) Nanoscientist, BS and MS Bengt Holmström (1949–) Nobel Laureate (Economics, 2016) Liisa Ahtee (1937—) Pharmacology, pioneer developer of pharmacological research in Finland. Albert Wuokko Award recipient in 1999. Pauli Kettunen (1953-) professor of political history Lars Ahlfors (1907–1996) Mathematician, one of two first to be awarded the Fields Medal in 1936 Emma Irene Åström (1847–1934) First female university graduate in Finland Tancred Borenius (1885–1948) Art historian and diplomat Anders Chydenius (1729–1803) Priest, economist, and politician Anders Donner (1854–1938) Astronomer Fredrik Elfving (1854–1942) Botanist and plant physiologist Gustav Elfving (1908–1984) Mathematician and statistician. Pioneer in the optimal design of experiments Elsa Enäjärvi-Haavio (1918–1951) PhD (1932), docent, writer, politician. Chairwoman in many institutions. Elin Kallio (1859–1927) Considered the founder of the women's gymnastic movement in Finland Ragnar Granit (1900–1991) Nobel Laureate (Medicine, 1967) Hugo Gyldén (1841–1896) Astronomer Tarja Halonen (1943–) Lawyer (LL.M.) and the former President of Finland (2000–2012) Rosina Heikel (1842–1929) First Finnish woman physician, feminist Jaakko Hintikka (1929–2015) Philosopher and logician Harri Holkeri (1937–2011) Former Prime minister of Finland (1987–1991) Riitta Jallinoja (1943–) Sociologist, academic Jukka Jernvall (1963–) Evolutionary developmental biologist Vesa Kanniainen (1948–) Economist Kari Karhunen (1915–1992) Mathematician Urho Kaleva Kekkonen (1900–1986) Former Prime Minister of Finland (1950–1953, 1954–1956) and former President of Finland (1956–1982) Elina Kahla (1960) Academic, writer Aleksis Kivi (1834–1872) Writer Nils Kock (1924–2011) Surgeon and developer of the Kock pouch procedure for ileostomits Björn Kurtén (1924–1988) Palaeontologist Werner Krieglstein (1941–) University of Chicago fellow and Fulbright Scholar, as well as being a philosopher, author, and actor Jarl Lindeberg (1876–1932) Mathematician Ernst Lindelöf (1870–1946) Mathematician Elias Lönnrot (1802–1884) Collector of Kalevala Rolf Nevanlinna (1895–1980) Mathematician Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1832–1901) Geologist and Arctic explorer Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1868–1895) Donor of the Mesa Verde artifacts to the National Museum of Finland Jorma Ollila (1950–) Former chairman of Nokia and non-executive chairman of Royal Dutch Shell Juho Kusti Paasikivi (1870–1956) Former Prime Minister of Finland (1918 & 1944–1946) and President of Finland (1946–1956) Lauri Kristian Relander (1883–1942) Former President of Finland (1925–1931) Risto Ryti (1889–1956) Former Prime Minister of Finland (1939–1940) and President of Finland (1940–1944) Esa Saarinen (1953–) Philosopher Päivi Setälä (1943–2014) Historian and professor Jean Sibelius (1865–1957) Composer Juha Sihvola (1957–2012) Philosopher and historian Frans Emil Sillanpää (1888–1964) Nobel Laureate (Literature, 1939) Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg (1865–1952) Former President of Finland (1919–1925) Karl Fritiof Sundman (1873–1949) Astronomer Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1861–1944) Former Prime Minister of Finland (1930–1931) and President of Finland (1931–1937) Teivo Teivainen (1970–) Professor of world politics Jaana Toivari-Viitala (1964-2017) Chair of the Finnish Egyptology Society Zacharias Topelius (1818–1898) Writer and historian Linus Torvalds (1969–) Creator of Linux and Git, and the main developer of the Linux kernel Artturi Ilmari Virtanen (1895–1973) Nobel Laureate (Chemistry, 1945) Jussi V. Koivisto (1965–) Economist and educator Edvard August Vainio (1853–1929) Lichenologist; student from 1870 to 1880; associate professor of botany 1880–1906 Bror-Erik Wallenius (1943–) Sports commentator Mika Waltari (1908–1979) Novelist Georg Henrik von Wright (1916–2003) Philosopher and president of the Academy of Finland Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis (1949–) Minister of Foreign Affairs of Cyprus Juha Hernesniemi (1947–2023) Neurosurgeon Helvi Poutasuo (1943–2017) Teacher, translator, editor, politician Eeva-Kaarina Aronen (1948–2015) Author, journalist Pigga Keskitalo (1972-) Sámi politician and academic Jaakko Suolahti (1918–1987) Classicists scholar and Professor in History Derrick Rossi (1966–) Stem cell biologist and co-founder of Moderna Klaus Suomela (1888–1962) Dramatic arts and gymnastics (Olympic gymnastics silver medallist 1912) Laura Maria Harmaja (1881–1954) Economist Chancellors The chancellor is the highest representative of the University of Helsinki. He is elected by the college, the highest body of staff representation at the university. According to the University Act, the chancellor's task is to promote the sciences and monitor the interests of the university. The chancellor has the right to attend meetings of the Government of Finland on matters concerning the University of Helsinki. Chancellors Edvard Hjelt 1917–1921 Anders Donner 1921–1926 Hugo Suolahti 1926–1944 Antti Tulenheimo 1944–1952 Pekka Myrberg 1952–1962 Edwin Linkomies 1962–1963 Paavo Ravila 1963–1968 Pentti Renvall 1968–1973 Mikko Juva 1973–1978 Ernst Palmén 1978–1983 Nils Oker-Blom 1983–1988 Olli Lehto 1988–1993 Lauri Saxén 1993–1996 Risto Ihamuotila 1996–2003 Kari Raivio 2003–2008 Ilkka Niiniluoto 2008–2013 Thomas Wilhelmsson 2013–2017 Kaarle Hämeri 2017– Rectors Rectors Waldemar Ruin 1915–1920 Ivar August Heikel 1920–1922 Hugo Suolahti 1923–1926 Antti Tulenheimo 1926–1931 Robert Brotherus 1931–1938 Kaarlo Linkola 1938–1941 Rolf Nevanlinna 1941–1945 Arthur Långfors 1945–1950 Erik Lönnroth 1950–1953 Paavo Ravila 1953–1956 Edwin Linkomies 1956–1962 Erkki Kivinen 1962–1971 Mikko Juva 1971–1973 Ernst Palmén 1973–1978 Nils Oker-Blom 1978–1983 Olli Lehto 1983–1988 Päiviö Tommila 1988–1992 Risto Ihamuotila 1992–1996 Kari Raivio 1996–2003 Ilkka Niiniluoto 2003–2008 Thomas Wilhelmsson 2008–2013 Jukka Kola 2013–2018 Jari Niemelä 2018-2022 Sari Lindblom 2022– See also History of Finland Helsinki Senate Square List of universities in Finland Education in Finland Helsinki University of Technology Europaeum Bologna Process References ^ "Helsingin yliopiston opetuksen ja opintojen eettiset periaatteet" (PDF). 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2021. ^ "University Management, University of Helsinki". 28 March 2022. ^ a b c d e f g "The University of Helsinki in numbers". 22 July 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021. ^ "Styleguide". universityofhelsinki.github.io. Retrieved 16 September 2022. ^ "Bologna Process at the University of Helsinki" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2017. ^ UNICA = "Institutional Network of the Universities from the Capitals of Europe". ^ Pentagonilta jättirahoitus Helsingin yliopiston johtamaan syöpätutkimushankkeeseen – Ilta-Sanomat (in Finnish) ^ a b c Sundman, Lasse (24 April 2011). "Universitetsadresserna". Uppslagsverket Finland (in Swedish). Retrieved 30 November 2017. ^ Lindberg, Johan (5 August 2011). "Tanner, Väinö". Uppslagsverket Finland (in Swedish). Retrieved 30 November 2017. ^ "Natten när Helsingfors skulle förintas". Hbl.fi | Finlands ledande nyhetssajt på svenska. Retrieved 12 August 2019. ^ "University of Helsinki". Retrieved 16 March 2015. ^ Hänninen, Jyri: Toinen epäillyistä: Iskua yliopistoon ei oikeasti aiottu tehdä, Helsingin Sanomat, 26 May 2014. Accessed on 26 May 2014. ^ Aleksi (29 June 2014). "Duo jailed for plotting killing spree at University of Helsinki". Retrieved 16 March 2015. ^ "Historioitsija ja filosofi Juha Sihvola on kuollut". Helsingin Sanomat. ^ "Juha Sihvola". Helsingin Sanomat. Archived from the original on 31 March 2013. ^ "ARWU World University Rankings 2034". www.shanghairanking.com. Retrieved 26 August 2022. ^ "QS World University Rankings 2024". topuniversities.com. 19 June 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023. ^ "World University Rankings". timeshighereducation.com. 6 August 2023. Retrieved 26 August 2023. ^ "U.S. News Education: Best Global Universities 2022-23". Retrieved 23 November 2023. ^ Academic Ranking of World Universities 2023 ^ "World University Rankings 2016". Retrieved 16 March 2015. ^ "QS World University Rankings® 2023/24". Top Universities. 11 September 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024. ^ "Master's Programmes". University of Helsinki. 15 November 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2019. ^ Kati Heinämies. "Helsingin suurpommitukset ja yliopisto" (in Finnish). Helsinki University Museum Arppeanum. Retrieved 9 April 2014. ^ a b "New university library a wonder of design and learning". Helsinki Times. 15 November 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2014. ^ Salmela, Marja (16 August 2012). "Valo tulvii Kaisa-kirjastoon" . Helsingin Sanomat (in Finnish). Retrieved 7 April 2014. ^ "Pääkirjasto Kaisa-talossa". Helsinki University Library. Retrieved 7 April 2014. ^ James, Barry (25 May 1998). "HYY of Helsinki Runs a $200 Million Enterprise : University Student Union Plays Business Tycoon". New York Times. ^ Vuolteenaho, Katriina, ed. (April 2008). "Suomen Farmakologiyhdistyksen jäsenlehti" (PDF). Transmitteri (in Finnish). 25 (88). Finland: 5. Retrieved 15 July 2015. ^ "Helsingin yliopiston rehtoriksi Jukka Kola". Retrieved 16 March 2015. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to University of Helsinki. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Finnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_language"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Turku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turku"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Åbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_%C3%85bo"},{"link_name":"Swedish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Tsar Alexander I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-university-in-numbers-3"},{"link_name":"Bologna Process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna_Process"},{"link_name":"licenciate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licenciate"},{"link_name":"doctoral degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctorate"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Europaeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europaeum"},{"link_name":"UNICA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_Network_of_the_Universities_from_the_Capitals_of_Europe"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Utrecht Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_Network"},{"link_name":"League of European Research Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_European_Research_Universities"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"MYC genes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MYC"},{"link_name":"breast cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_cancer"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"University in Helsinki, FinlandThe University of Helsinki (Finnish: Helsingin yliopisto, Swedish: Helsingfors universitet; UH) is a public university in Helsinki, Finland. The university was founded in Turku in 1640 as the Royal Academy of Åbo under the Swedish Empire, and moved to Helsinki in 1828 under the sponsorship of Tsar Alexander I. The University of Helsinki is the oldest and largest university in Finland with the widest range of disciplines available. In 2020, around 31,600 students were enrolled in the degree programs of the university spread across 11 faculties and 11 research institutes.[3]As of 1 August 2005, the university complies with the harmonized structure of the Europe-wide Bologna Process and offers bachelor, master, licenciate, and doctoral degrees.[5] Admission to degree programmes is usually determined by entrance examinations, in the case of bachelor's degrees, and by prior degree results, in the case of master and postgraduate degrees.The university is bilingual, with teaching by law provided both in Finnish and Swedish. Since Swedish, albeit an official language of Finland, is a minority language, Finnish is by far the dominating language at the university. Teaching in English is extensive throughout the university at master, licentiate, and doctoral levels, making it a de facto third language of instruction.It is a member of various prominent international university networks, such as Europaeum, UNICA,[6] the Utrecht Network, and is a founding member of the League of European Research Universities. The university has also received international financial support for global welfare; for example, in September 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense provided the university with more than four million euros in funding for the treatment of MYC genes and breast cancer.[7]","title":"University of Helsinki"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cristina_de_Suecia_a_caballo_(Bourdon).jpg"},{"link_name":"Queen Christina of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Christina_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Turku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Turku"}],"text":"Queen Christina of Sweden, University Founder and PatronFor the early history (1640-1809), see Royal Academy of Turku.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Turun_hovioikeus_talvella.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Cathedral School of Åbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katedralskolan_i_%C3%85bo"},{"link_name":"Queen Christina of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Christina_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Turku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turku"},{"link_name":"Åbo Kungliga Akademi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Turku"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"university","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University"},{"link_name":"Swedish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Uppsala University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_University"},{"link_name":"Academia Gustaviana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academia_Gustaviana"},{"link_name":"Dorpat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartu"},{"link_name":"University of Tartu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tartu"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia"}],"sub_title":"Royal Academy of Åbo 1640–1828","text":"The Royal Academy of ÅboThe first predecessor of the university, The Cathedral School of Åbo, was presumably founded in 1276 for education of boys to become servants of the Church. As the university was founded in 1640 by Queen Christina of Sweden (1626–1689) in Turku (Sw. Åbo), as the Åbo Kungliga Akademi (Latin: Regia Academia Aboensis), the senior part of the school formed the core of the new university, while the junior year courses formed a grammar school. It was the third university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University and the Academia Gustaviana in Dorpat (predecessor to the University of Tartu in Estonia).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Helsinki.png"},{"link_name":"Grand Duchy of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"Alexander I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Great Fire of Turku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Fire_of_Turku"},{"link_name":"Humboldtian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt"},{"link_name":"Johan Vilhelm Snellman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Vilhelm_Snellman"},{"link_name":"Johan Ludvig Runeberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Runeberg"},{"link_name":"Elias Lönnrot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elias_L%C3%B6nnrot"},{"link_name":"Zachris Topelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zachris_Topelius"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kansalliskirjasto_-_National_Library_of_Finland,_Helsinki_(52890137262).jpg"}],"sub_title":"Imperial Alexander University in Finland 1828–1919","text":"Coat of arms of the University of HelsinkiThe second period of the university's history covers the period when Finland was a Grand Duchy, a state ruled by the Russian Empire from 1809 to 1917. When Grand Duchy of Finland was established in 1809, the Grand Duke Alexander I expanded the university and allocated substantial funds to it. Following the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, higher education within the country was moved to Helsinki, the new administrative heart and the capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland, in 1828, and renamed the Imperial Alexander University in Finland in honour of the late benefactor of the university. In the capital the primary task of the university was to educate the Grand Duchy's civil servants.The university became a community subscribing to the new Humboldtian ideals of science and culture, studying humanity and its living environment by means of scientific methods. The new statutes of the university enacted in 1828 defined the task of the university as promoting the development of \"the Sciences and Humanities within Finland and, furthermore, educating the youth for the service of the Emperor and the Fatherland\".The Alexander University was a centre of national life that promoted the birth of a fully independent Finnish State and the development of Finnish identity. The great men of 19th century Finland, Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Johan Ludvig Runeberg, Elias Lönnrot and Zachris Topelius, were all involved in the activities of the university. The university became a major center of Finnish cultural, political, and legal life in 19th century Finland, and became a remarkable primum mobile of the nationalist and liberal cultural movements, political parties, and student organisations.In the 19th century university research changed from being collection-centred to being experimental, empirical, and analytical. The more scientific approach of the university led to specialisation and created new disciplines. As the scientific disciplines developed, Finland received ever more scholarly knowledge and highly educated people, some of whom entered rapidly evolving industry or the government.National Library of Finland/Kansalliskirjasto","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:University_of_Helsinki,_Main_Building_(52890870759).jpg"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"interwar period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interwar_period"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UppslagsFiUniv-8"},{"link_name":"Väinö Tanner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4in%C3%B6_Tanner_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UppslagsverketFi-9"},{"link_name":"Swedish People's Party of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_People%27s_Party_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UppslagsFiUniv-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UppslagsFiUniv-8"},{"link_name":"Fields Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Medal"},{"link_name":"Lars Ahlfors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars_Ahlfors"},{"link_name":"A.I. Virtanen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.I._Virtanen"},{"link_name":"Ragnar Granit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragnar_Granit"},{"link_name":"Continuation War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Helsinki_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"vague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness"},{"link_name":"example needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"mass murder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Helsinki_University_massacre_plan"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"University of Helsinki 1919–present","text":"University of Helsinki (Main Building)The third period of the university's history began with the creation of a fully independent Republic of Finland in 1917, and with the renaming of the university as the University of Helsinki. Once Finland declared its full independence in 1917, the university was given a crucial role in building the nation state and, after World War II, the welfare state. Members of the academic community promoted the international relations of the new state and the development of its economic life. Furthermore, they were actively involved in national politics and the struggle for equality.In the interwar period the university was the scene of a conflict between those who wanted to advance the usage of Finnish language in the university, to the detriment of Swedish and those who opposed such move.[8] Geographer Väinö Tanner was one of the most vocal defenders of Swedish language usage.[9] Swedish People's Party of Finland initiated a campaign collecting 153 914 signatures in defense of the Swedish language that were handed to the parliament and government in October 1934.[8] On an international front academics from Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Iceland sent letters to the diplomatic representations of Finland in their respective countries warning about a weakening of the Nordic unity that would result from diminishing the role of Swedish in the University of Helsinki.[8]In the 20th century, scholarly research at the University of Helsinki reached the level of the European elite in many disciplines. This was manifested, among other things, by international recognitions granted to its professors, such as the Fields Medal received by the mathematician Lars Ahlfors (1936), the Nobel Prize in Chemistry granted to Professor A.I. Virtanen (1945) and the Nobel Prize in Medicine shared by Professor Ragnar Granit (1967). In the Continuation War the university was heavily damaged by bombs during a soviet air raid on 27 February 1944.[10]After World War II, university research focused on improving Finnish living conditions and supporting major changes in the structure of society and business. The university also contributed to the breakthrough of modern technology.[vague][example needed]The progress of scientific development created many new disciplines and faculties at the University of Helsinki. At present the university comprises 11 faculties, 500 professors and almost 40,000 students. The university has established as its goal to further its position as one of Europe's top multidisciplinary research universities.[11]In March 2014, two people were arrested and in June 2014 sentenced to prison for three years for plotting a mass murder at the university.[12][13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:University_building_Unioninkatu_33b_by_Unioninkatu_in_Kruununhaka,_Helsinki,_Finland,_2022_April.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vanha_fysiologian_laitosrakennus_-_Marit_Henriksson.jpg"}],"text":"Aleksanteri Institute, University of HelsinkiInstitute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Library of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"Helsinki University Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_University_Library"},{"link_name":"an Institute for Advanced Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Some_Institutes_for_Advanced_Study"},{"link_name":"Institute for Advanced Study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Advanced_Study"},{"link_name":"Princeton, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Raimo Väyrynen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raimo_V%C3%A4yrynen&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Juha Sihvola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juha_Sihvola"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HS14062012-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Faculties","text":"The university is divided into eleven faculties. They are listed below in the official order used by the university, reflecting both the history of the university and the hierarchy of disciplines at the time when the university was established:Faculty of Theology (established 1640)\nFaculty of Law (established 1640)\nFaculty of Medicine (established 1640)\nFaculty of Arts (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640 and split 1852, independent Arts section 1863, independent faculty 1992)\nFaculty of Science (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640 and split 1852, independent Science section 1863, independent faculty 1992)\nFaculty of Pharmacy (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640, split from the Faculty of Science 2004)\nFaculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences (Faculty of Philosophy established 1640, split from the Faculty of Science 2004)\nFaculty of Educational Sciences (independent section 1974, independent faculty 1992, reorganized and renamed 2004, reorganized and renamed 2017)\nFaculty of Social Sciences (established 1945)\nFaculty of Agriculture and Forestry (established 1898, independent faculty 1924)\nFaculty of Veterinary Medicine (established as an independent college in 1945, incorporated into the University of Helsinki in 1995)The university also has several independent institutes, such as research centres and libraries, the most notable of which are perhaps the National Library of Finland and Helsinki University Library. Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies is another independent institute within the University of Helsinki, an Institute for Advanced Study, which is modeled upon the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. Previous directors include Raimo Väyrynen (2002–2004) and Juha Sihvola (2004–2009).[14][15]","title":"Organization"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Academic Ranking of World Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Ranking_of_World_Universities"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-arwu-20"},{"link_name":"Shanghai Jiao Tong University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Jiao_Tong_University"},{"link_name":"Times Higher Education World University Rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Higher_Education_World_University_Rankings"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-21"},{"link_name":"THE–QS World University Rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THE%E2%80%93QS_World_University_Rankings"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"University rankings","text":"University of Helsinki is ranked at 101-150st in the world by the 2023 Academic Ranking of World Universities[20] published by Shanghai Jiao Tong University. According to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings[21] for 2023, the University of Helsinki is ranked at 121st overall in the world. In 2024 THE–QS World University Rankings[22] list, the University of Helsinki was ranked 115th.","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"master's degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%27s_degree"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"ECTS credits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Credit_Transfer_and_Accumulation_System"}],"sub_title":"International Master's Degree Programmes","text":"The University of Helsinki offers a wide range of master's degree programmes, taught entirely in English.[23] The scope of the programmes is 120 ECTS credits, completed with two years of full-time study. Some programmes are organised by the University of Helsinki along with other Finnish and foreign universities. All programmes comply with the national legislation governing university education and are, therefore, recognised globally.","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helsinki_July_2013-14.jpg"},{"link_name":"University of Helsinki Botanical Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Helsinki_Botanical_Garden"},{"link_name":"Aleksanteri Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksanteri_Institute"},{"link_name":"East Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Europe"},{"link_name":"Helsinki School of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_School_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"Hanken School of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanken_School_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"Helsinki Institute for Information Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Institute_for_Information_Technology"},{"link_name":"Aalto University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalto_University"},{"link_name":"Helsinki Institute of Life Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.helsinki.fi/en/helsinki-institute-of-life-science"},{"link_name":"Institute of Biotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.helsinki.fi/en/hilife-institute-of-biotechnology"},{"link_name":"Finnish Institute for Molecular Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Institute_for_Molecular_Medicine"},{"link_name":"Neuroscience Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.helsinki.fi/en/hilife-neuroscience-center"},{"link_name":"Helsinki Institute of Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Institute_of_Physics"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"}],"sub_title":"Research","text":"University of Helsinki Botanical Garden.Research institutes within the university include the following:Aleksanteri Institute – A national centre of research, study and expertise pertaining to Russia and East Europe\nChristina Institute for Gender Studies\nEnvironmental Change Research Unit\nErik Castrén Institute of International Law and Human Rights\nHelsinki Center of Economic Research (HECER) – A joint initiative of the University of Helsinki, the Helsinki School of Economics and the Hanken School of Economics\nHelsinki Institute for Information Technology (HIIT) – A joint research institute of the University of Helsinki and the Aalto University\nHelsinki Institute of Life Science (HiLIFE) - supports and coordinates life science research across the university. HiLIFE oversees three operative units:\nInstitute of Biotechnology (BI)\nFinnish Institute for Molecular Medicine (FIMM)\nNeuroscience Center (NC)\nHelsinki Institute of Physics\nRolf Nevanlinna Institute – Research institute of mathematics, computer science, and statistics","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Main_Auditorium,_Helsinki_University.jpg"},{"link_name":"campuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campus"}],"text":"Main Auditorium, University of HelsinkiThe university is located on four main campuses. Originally, the entire university was located in the very centre of Helsinki, but due to the rapid growth of the university since the 1930s, premises have been built and acquired in other areas.","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"City Centre Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Centre_Campus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helsinki--Psyc_Department.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carl Ludvig Engel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Ludvig_Engel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HU-main-building-1944b.jpg"},{"link_name":"Soviet bombings in World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Helsinki_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"City Centre Campus","text":"The historical City Centre Campus has been the hub of activity ever since the university moved from Turku to Helsinki in the early 19th century. The campus has a central location and reflects the architectural style of this part of the city. The university buildings in the city center house the Faculties of Theology, Law, Arts, Behavioural Sciences and Social Sciences plus administrative functions. Most of the buildings on the campus have a major architectural significance ranging from the dominating Neo-Classical, through the Jugendstil, to 20th century Modernism.Minerva, Department of Teacher EducationThe City Centre Campus, extending around the historical centre of Helsinki, Senate Square, and Kruununhaka city district, is the administrative heart of the University of Helsinki and has the largest concentration of faculties in Helsinki.After the Great Fire of Turku in 1827, Emperor Nicholas I ordered the Royal Academy of Turku be moved to the new capital city of the Grand Duchy of Finland, Helsinki, where the Imperial Alexander University in Finland began to operate the next year. Helsinki was to become Finland's window to the world; a European city to which the university belonged as an integral part. Carl Ludvig Engel, architect, was given the assignment of designing an Empire-style main building next to Senate Square, facing the Imperial Senate. The main building was completed in 1832. Thanks to the lessons learnt from the fire of Turku, the library was built separate from other premises. The library and several faculty buildings in the campus were also designed by Engel.University Main Building on fire after Soviet bombings in 1944.The main building as well as other buildings of the campus were badly damaged during the Soviet bombings in World War II but rebuilt after the war.[24]The plan concerning the concentration of university facilities dating back to the 1980s, aimed to achieve a closer unity between facilities. The City Centre Campus does not stand out from the rest of the urban environment but is a part of the city, in line with the old university tradition. The university facilities still form a functional and coherent whole, consisting not only of historically valuable buildings, but also of facilities for 20,000 students and 3,000 teachers and other staff.","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kumpula Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumpula_Campus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kumpula_Campus_Physicum.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Kumpula Campus","text":"The Kumpula Campus, housing the Faculty of Science, is located four kilometers north from the centre of Helsinki near tram lines 6 and 8. The campus houses the Departments of Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics and Statistics, Computer Science, and Geosciences and Geography.The university departments were located in Kumpula for the first time in 1978 when the City of Helsinki leased the area for the university. A planning competition for the city plan for the area was held a year earlier. In the 1980s, the Accelerator Laboratory of the Department of Physics was quarried into Kumpula rock and the construction of Kumpula Botanical Garden began in 1987. It was not, however, until the 1990s when the construction work proper began, transforming the area into a significant campus.Kumpula Campus PhysicumThe Chemicum, the building housing the Department of Chemistry and VERIFIN (Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention), and the Physicum, which provides facilities for physics, geology and geography are located on Kumpula campus surrounding a square named after the Finnish Nobel prize winner, A. I. Virtanen. Kumpula Campus Library is also located in the Physicum. The Kumpula Sports Centre is planned for the recreational use of both university staff and students and citizens of Helsinki alike. Completed in 2004, the Exactum provides facilities for seismology, computer science and mathematical subjects, as well as administrative services.The campus comprises two main parts: the Botanical Garden, surrounding the old building stock of Kumpula manor and the modern new building stock located a couple of hundred metres north of the manor. The greenness of the area makes the dynamic campus stand out as a unique, distinctive complex. The campus offers study and research facilities for 6,000 students and 1,000 teachers. The Finnish Meteorological Institute moved to the area in 2005. That building is known as Dynamicum.","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Meilahti Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meilahti_Campus"},{"link_name":"Meilahti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meilahti"}],"sub_title":"Meilahti Campus","text":"The Meilahti Campus, with the Faculty of Medicine, is a part of the Meilahti Hospital District on the edge of the city centre. Just a few kilometres from the City Centre Campus, the Meilahti area has been transformed into a cradle of top research on medicine, 'Medilahti'. Established in the 1930s, the Women's Clinic was accompanied by Finland's leading hospital, Helsinki University Central Hospital (HUCH) in 1966. The same year saw the completion of facilities for theoretical subject departments on Haartmaninkatu street. The building is now being renovated and extended.The latest completed facilities in the campus include the National Library of Health Sciences (Terkko) and the research and teaching centre Biomedicum that houses several research institutes including the Institute for Molecular Medicine Finland (FIMM), Neuroscience Center (NC), and Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research.The Ruskeasuo premises, including the Department of Dentistry, Institute for Oral Health, Department of Public Health and Department of Forensic Medicine, also belong to the Meilahti campus. The Meilahti and Ruskeasuo areas form a close-knit complex providing a meeting place for medical education, international top-level research and nursing. The campus is a workplace for 2,000 students and 1,500 teachers.Thanks to the years-long project to combine the teaching facilities of the Faculty of Medicine, Meilahti is now a functional unity of medicine and health care. The atmosphere in the campus inspires people in their studies, research and international co-operation.Although the Meilahti campus is intertwined with the rest of Meilahti district, it succeeds in forming a clear-cut campus area with its hospital-type building stock.","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Viikki Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viikki_Campus"},{"link_name":"Viikki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viikki"}],"sub_title":"Viikki Campus","text":"The Viikki Campus is located in the semi-suburban greenspace of the Viikki area, some 8 kilometres north-east of the city centre. It houses the Faculties of Agriculture and Forestry, Biosciences, Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy. It is an important concentration in the field of biosciences, even by European standards. Indeed, it is often called the bioscience campus or the \"green campus\".In addition to biosciences, the campus is home to a wide range of other life science researchers and students in such fields as environmental science, veterinary medicine, food research and economics. Numerous international research groups also work on the Viikki Campus. The Viikki Campus is the location of four faculties, three independent research institutes (Institute of Biotechnology (BI), Natural Resources Institute Finland (LUKE) and Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE)) and the Viikki Science Library.It also attracts an increasing number of businesses to the Helsinki Business and Science Park. The Finnish Game and Fisheries Research Institute and the Finnish Food Safety Authority, Evira, have also moved to Viikki and negotiations are under way to relocate MTT Agrifood Research Finland to Viikki to complement the Department of Economics and Management.The Viikki Campus unites a multidisciplinary science community of more than 6,500 students and 1,600 teachers, a residential area emphasising ecological values and the natural surroundings, including recreational areas and nature reserves, and forms a unique whole. The campus also has the Viikinlahti conservation area, which is particularly popular among bird watchers.","title":"Campuses"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Libraries and museums"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Interior,_National_Library_of_Finland,_2019_(01).jpg"},{"link_name":"National Library of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Library_of_Finland"}],"sub_title":"The National Library of Finland","text":"Interior of the National Library of FinlandThe National Library of Finland is the foremost research library in Finland and the main branch of the University of Helsinki's library system. The National Library of Finland is the oldest and largest scholarly library in Finland as well as one of the largest independent institutes at the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the collection, description, preservation and accessibility of Finland's printed national heritage and the unique collections under its care. The National Library also serves as a national service and development centre for the library sector and promotes national and international cooperation in the field.","title":"Libraries and museums"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kaisa-talo3.jpg"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ht-kaisa-library-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ht-kaisa-library-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"The Helsinki University Main Library","text":"The new Main Library in Kaisa House.The Main Library of the university is used by students for research and studying. Located a few blocks down the street from the university's main building in the city center, the new Main Library was opened in 2012 in the Kaisa House. The new library merged the undergraduate library and four dispersed faculty libraries of the city center campus to a collection of approximately 1.5 million books.[25] The architecture of the new building, designed by Anttinen Oiva Architects, has been praised[25][26] and received several awards.[27]","title":"Libraries and museums"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Helsinki University Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_University_Museum"}],"sub_title":"The Helsinki University Museum","text":"The Helsinki University Museum is the museum of the University of Helsinki and was located until June 2014 on Snellmanninkatu off the north-east corner of Senate Square. Museums main exhibition moved to the University Main Building in 2015.Helsinki University Museum was established in 2003 by merging the former University Museum specialising in the history of the University of Helsinki, the Museum of Medical History, the Museum of the History of Veterinary Medicine, the Museum of the History of Dentistry and the Collections of Craft Science. To complement the new conglomeration of museums, the Mineral Cabinet, which today belongs to the Finnish Museum of Natural History, returned to its original location in the Arppeanum building. Each year the museum also holds one or two temporary exhibitions in a specially designed area. Museums exhibition in Arppeanum Building was closed in June 2014. New main exhibition was opened in the Main Building in March 2015.The University Museum is in charge of the preservation and conservation of the university's valuable museum collections and property: old tuition and research equipment, furniture and works of art. The museum maintains an index register of all valuables that are kept in the facilities of the university. The museum also provides library, archive and photographic services pertaining to the history of the university and the history of medical science.","title":"Libraries and museums"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helsingin_Luonnontieteellinen_museo.JPG"},{"link_name":"Finnish Museum of Natural History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Museum_of_Natural_History"}],"sub_title":"Finnish Museum of Natural History","text":"Museum of Natural History.The Finnish Museum of Natural History is a research institution under the University of Helsinki. It is responsible for the national botanical, zoological, geological and paleontological collections consisting of samples from around the world. The collections serve scientific, public informational and educational purposes.","title":"Libraries and museums"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Helsinki_Old_Student_House.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Old Student House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanha_Ylioppilastalo"},{"link_name":"Student Union of the University of Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Union_of_the_University_of_Helsinki"},{"link_name":"euros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Student Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_at_Finnish_universities#Student_nations_at_Helsinki_University"},{"link_name":"political parties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Finland"}],"sub_title":"Student Union","text":"The Old Student House (Student Union), Aleksanterinkatu.The Student Union of the University of Helsinki (Helsingin yliopiston ylioppilaskunta, HYY) was founded in 1868. It currently has 32,000 members and is one of the world's wealthiest student organizations, with assets of several hundred million euros.[28] Among other things, it owns a good deal of property in the city centre of Helsinki. The union has been at the centre of student politics from the 19th Century nationalist movements, through the actions of the New Left in the 1960s, up to the present. Its governing assembly consists of parties which are connected to faculty organisations, the Student Nations, and the mainstream political parties.","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"student nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nations_in_Finnish_universities#Student_nations_at_Helsinki_University"},{"link_name":"Swedish-speaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish-speaking_Finns"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nylands_Nations_hus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nylands Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylands_Nation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ostrobotnia.jpg"},{"link_name":"North Ostrobothnian Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohjois-Pohjalainen_Osakunta"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Senate_Square_-_Senaatintori_-_Senatstorget,_Helsinki,_Finland.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Senate_Square_-_Senaatintori_-_Senatstorget,_Helsinki,_Finland.jpg"},{"link_name":"Senate Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Senate_Square"}],"sub_title":"Student nations","text":"The student nations are student organisations that provide extra-curricular activities to students. Along with the faculty-based organisations, the nations provide one of the main nodes of student social life. The nations at University of Helsinki have a special legal status in the Universities Act. There are 15 nations at the university, each one representing a historic region or province of Finland, with four of these representing Swedish-speaking regions. Membership is optional.Nylands Nation\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNorth Ostrobothnian NationPanorama of the Senate Square. University main building on left.","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notable alumni, faculty, and staff"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The chancellor is the highest representative of the University of Helsinki. He is elected by the college, the highest body of staff representation at the university. According to the University Act, the chancellor's task is to promote the sciences and monitor the interests of the university. The chancellor has the right to attend meetings of the Government of Finland on matters concerning the University of Helsinki.","title":"Chancellors"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Rectors"}]
[{"image_text":"Queen Christina of Sweden, University Founder and Patron","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Cristina_de_Suecia_a_caballo_%28Bourdon%29.jpg/150px-Cristina_de_Suecia_a_caballo_%28Bourdon%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Royal Academy of Åbo","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Turun_hovioikeus_talvella.jpg/330px-Turun_hovioikeus_talvella.jpg"},{"image_text":"Coat of arms of the University of Helsinki","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/24/Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Helsinki.png/220px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_University_of_Helsinki.png"},{"image_text":"National Library of Finland/Kansalliskirjasto","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Kansalliskirjasto_-_National_Library_of_Finland%2C_Helsinki_%2852890137262%29.jpg/280px-Kansalliskirjasto_-_National_Library_of_Finland%2C_Helsinki_%2852890137262%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"University of Helsinki (Main Building)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/University_of_Helsinki%2C_Main_Building_%2852890870759%29.jpg/330px-University_of_Helsinki%2C_Main_Building_%2852890870759%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aleksanteri Institute, University of Helsinki","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/University_building_Unioninkatu_33b_by_Unioninkatu_in_Kruununhaka%2C_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022_April.jpg/220px-University_building_Unioninkatu_33b_by_Unioninkatu_in_Kruununhaka%2C_Helsinki%2C_Finland%2C_2022_April.jpg"},{"image_text":"Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Vanha_fysiologian_laitosrakennus_-_Marit_Henriksson.jpg/220px-Vanha_fysiologian_laitosrakennus_-_Marit_Henriksson.jpg"},{"image_text":"University of Helsinki Botanical Garden.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Helsinki_July_2013-14.jpg/250px-Helsinki_July_2013-14.jpg"},{"image_text":"Main Auditorium, University of Helsinki","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Main_Auditorium%2C_Helsinki_University.jpg/160px-Main_Auditorium%2C_Helsinki_University.jpg"},{"image_text":"Minerva, Department of Teacher Education","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Helsinki--Psyc_Department.jpg/220px-Helsinki--Psyc_Department.jpg"},{"image_text":"University Main Building on fire after Soviet bombings in 1944.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/HU-main-building-1944b.jpg/220px-HU-main-building-1944b.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kumpula Campus Physicum","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kumpula_Campus_Physicum.jpg/220px-Kumpula_Campus_Physicum.jpg"},{"image_text":"Interior of the National Library of Finland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Interior%2C_National_Library_of_Finland%2C_2019_%2801%29.jpg/170px-Interior%2C_National_Library_of_Finland%2C_2019_%2801%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The new Main Library in Kaisa House.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Kaisa-talo3.jpg/150px-Kaisa-talo3.jpg"},{"image_text":"Museum of Natural History.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Helsingin_Luonnontieteellinen_museo.JPG/200px-Helsingin_Luonnontieteellinen_museo.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Old Student House (Student Union), Aleksanterinkatu.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Helsinki_Old_Student_House.jpg/180px-Helsinki_Old_Student_House.jpg"}]
[{"title":"History of Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Finland"},{"title":"Helsinki Senate Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_Senate_Square"},{"title":"List of universities in Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Finland"},{"title":"Education in Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Finland"},{"title":"Helsinki University of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki_University_of_Technology"},{"title":"Europaeum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europaeum"},{"title":"Bologna Process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bologna_Process"}]
[{"reference":"\"Helsingin yliopiston opetuksen ja opintojen eettiset periaatteet\" (PDF). 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www2.helsinki.fi/sites/default/files/atoms/files/hy_eettiset_periaatteet.pdf","url_text":"\"Helsingin yliopiston opetuksen ja opintojen eettiset periaatteet\""}]},{"reference":"\"University Management, University of Helsinki\". 28 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.helsinki.fi/en/news/higher-education-policy/sari-lindblom-appointed-rector-university-helsinki","url_text":"\"University Management, University of Helsinki\""}]},{"reference":"\"The University of Helsinki in numbers\". 22 July 2021. Retrieved 20 August 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.helsinki.fi/en/about-us/basic-information/university-numbers","url_text":"\"The University of Helsinki in numbers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Styleguide\". universityofhelsinki.github.io. Retrieved 16 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://universityofhelsinki.github.io/Styleguide/","url_text":"\"Styleguide\""}]},{"reference":"\"Bologna Process at the University of Helsinki\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160303172641/http://www.helsinki.fi/tutkinnonuudistus/materiaalit/raportit/Bologna_review_20041122.pdf","url_text":"\"Bologna Process at the University of Helsinki\""},{"url":"http://www.helsinki.fi/tutkinnonuudistus/materiaalit/raportit/Bologna_review_20041122.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sundman, Lasse (24 April 2011). \"Universitetsadresserna\". Uppslagsverket Finland (in Swedish). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fedora_Media_Writer
Fedora Media Writer
["1 Features","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
Live media creator for Fedora Linux Fedora Media WriterFedora Media Writer v5.0.6Developer(s)Fedora ProjectStable release5.1.1 / March 27, 2024; 2 months ago (2024-03-27) Repositorygithub.com/FedoraQt/MediaWriter Written inC++, QMLOperating systemLinux, macOS, WindowsTypeLive media creatorLicenseGNU GPLWebsitefedoraproject.org Fedora Media Writer is a free software tool designed to create live media for Fedora Linux. Features Cross-platform (available for Linux, macOS, and Windows) Destructive installer - "overwrites the drive's partition layout though so it also provides a way to restore a single-partition layout with a FAT32 partition" Supports various Fedora Linux releases Automatically detects all removable devices Persistent storage creation, to save all documents created and modifications made to the system SHA-1 checksum verification of known releases, to ensure there is no corruption when downloading Not limited to Fedora Linux releases, supports custom images See also Fedora Project List of tools to create bootable USB References ^ "How to make a Fedora USB stick". Fedora Magazine. 2017-05-22. Retrieved 2019-12-02. ^ "FedoraQt/MediaWriter README.md". 2021-04-27. Retrieved 2022-04-17 – via GitHub. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fedora Media Writer. Official website fedoralinux.org Archived 2008-09-07 at the Wayback Machine Creating and using a live installation image
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-Cross_System
Double-Cross System
["1 Early agents","2 Methods of operation","3 Operation outside the United Kingdom","4 Operation Fortitude and D-Day landings","5 V-weapons deception","6 List of agents","7 Notes","8 References","9 Bibliography","10 Further reading"]
British counter-espionage and deception operation of WW2 This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Double-Cross System" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The Double-Cross System or XX System was a World War II counter-espionage and deception operation of the British Security Service (MI5). Nazi agents in Britain – real and false – were captured, turned themselves in or simply announced themselves, and were then used by the British to broadcast mainly disinformation to their Nazi controllers. Its operations were overseen by the Twenty Committee under the chairmanship of John Cecil Masterman; the name of the committee comes from the number 20 in Roman numerals: "XX" (i.e. a double cross). The policy of MI5 during the war was initially to use the system for counter-espionage. It was only later that its potential for deception purposes was realised. Of the agents from the German intelligence services, Abwehr and Sicherheitsdienst (SD), some were apprehended, while many of the agents who reached British shores turned themselves in to the authorities; others were apprehended after they made elementary mistakes during their operations. In addition, some were false agents who had tricked the Germans into believing they would spy for them if they helped them reach England (e.g., Treasure, Fido). Later agents were instructed to contact agents who, unknown to the Abwehr, were controlled by the British. The Abwehr and SD sent agents over by parachute drop, submarine, or travel via neutral countries. The last route was most commonly used, with agents often impersonating refugees. After the war, it was discovered that all the agents Germany sent to Britain had given themselves up or had been captured, with the possible exception of one who committed suicide. Early agents Following a July 1940 conference in Kiel, the Abwehr (German intelligence) began an espionage campaign against Britain involving intelligence gathering and sabotage. Spies were sent over from Europe in various ways; some parachuted or were delivered by submarine. Others entered the country on false passports or posing as refugees. Public perception in Britain was that the country was full of well-trained German spies, who were deeply integrated into society. There was widespread "spy-mania", as Churchill put it. The truth was that between September and November 1940 fewer than 25 agents arrived in the country; mostly of Eastern European extraction, they were badly trained and poorly motivated. The agents were not difficult to spot, and it became easier still when the German Enigma machine encryption was broken. MI5, with advance warning of infiltration, had no trouble picking up almost all of the spies sent to the country. Writing in 1972, John C. Masterman (who had, later in the war, headed the Twenty Committee) said that by 1941, MI5 "actively ran and controlled the German espionage system in ." It was not an idle boast; post-war records confirmed that none of the Abwehr agents, bar one who committed suicide, went unnoticed. Once caught, the spies were deposited in the care of Lieutenant Colonel Robin Stephens at Camp 020 (Latchmere House, Richmond). After Stephens, a notorious and brilliant interrogator, had picked apart their life history, the agents were either spirited away (to be imprisoned or killed) or if judged acceptable, offered the chance to turn double agent on the Germans. Control of the new double agents fell to Thomas Argyll Robertson (usually called Tar, from his initials), a charismatic MI5 agent. A Scot and something of a playboy, Robertson had some early experience with double agents; just prior to the war he had been case officer to Arthur Owens (code name Snow). Owens was an oddity and it became apparent that he was playing off the Germans and British, although to what end Robertson was unable to uncover. Robertson dispatched an ex-RNAS officer called Walter Dicketts (code name Celery) to neutral Lisbon in early 1941 to meet Owens' German spymaster, Nikolaus Ritter from the Abwehr, to establish Owens' bona fides. Unknown to Dicketts, Owens had betrayed him to the Germans before Dicketts entered Germany to be interrogated by experts from the Abwehr in Hamburg. Although Dicketts managed to get himself recruited as a German agent (while continuing to report to MI5), Owens claimed that Dicketts' survival meant he had been 'turned' by the Germans. When both agents returned to England, Robertson and his team spent countless hours trying to establish which agent was telling the truth. In the end Owens was interned for endangering Dicketts' life and for revealing the important information that his German radio transmitter was controlled by MI5. The whole affair resulted in the collapse of the entire Snow network comprising the double agents Owens, GW, Biscuit, Charlie, Summer and Celery. The experiment had not appeared to be a success but MI5 had learned lessons about how Abwehr operated and how double agents might be useful. Robertson believed that turning German spies would have numerous benefits, disclosing what information Abwehr wanted and to mislead them as part of a military deception. It would also discourage them from sending more agents, if they believed an operational network existed. Section B1A (a subordinate of B section, under Guy Liddell) was formed and Robertson was put in charge of handling the double-agent program. Robertson's first agents were not a success, Giraffe (George Graf) was never really used and Gander (Kurt Goose; MI5 had a penchant for amusingly relevant code names), had been sent to Britain with a radio that could only transmit and both were quickly decommissioned. The next two attempts were even more farcical; Gösta Caroli and Wulf Schmidt (a Danish citizen) landed, via parachute, in September 1940. The two were genuine Nazis, had trained together and were friends. Caroli was coerced into turning double in return for Schmidt's life being spared, whilst Schmidt was told that Caroli had sold him out and in anger swapped sides. Caroli quickly became a problem; he attempted to strangle his MI5 handler before making an escape, carrying a canoe on a motorcycle. He vaguely planned to row to Holland but came unstuck after falling off the bike in front of a policeman. He was eventually recaptured and judged too much trouble to be used. Schmidt was more of a success; codenamed 'Tate', he continued to contact Germany until May 1945. These eccentric spies made Robertson aware that handling double agents was going to be a difficult task. Methods of operation The main form of communication that agents used with their handlers was secret writing. Letters were intercepted by the postal censorship authorities and some agents were caught. Later in the war, wireless sets were provided by the Germans. Eventually transmissions purporting to be from one double agent were facilitated by transferring the operation of the set to the main headquarters of MI5. On the British side, the fight against the Abwehr and SD was made much easier by the breaking of German ciphers. Abwehr hand ciphers were cracked early in the war and SD hand ciphers and Abwehr Enigma ciphers followed on 8 November 1941 by Dilly Knox, agents sent messages to the Abwehr in the simple code which was then sent on using an enigma machine, with the simple codes broken it helped break the daily enigma code. The Abwehr used a different version of Enigma machines, in November 1942 a machine was captured in Algiers during Operation Torch, it was found to have no plug board however the three rotors had been changed to rotate 11, 15 and 19 times rather than once every 26 letters, plus a plate on the left acted as a fourth rotor. The capture of a machine greatly helped the quicker decoding of German messages. The signals intelligence allowed an accurate assessment of whether the double agents were really trusted by the Germans and what effect their information had. A crucial aspect of the system was the need for genuine information to be sent along with the deception material. This need caused problems early in the war, with those who controlled the release of information being reluctant to provide even a small amount of relatively innocuous genuine material. Later in the war, as the system became better organised, genuine information was integrated into the deception system. It was used to disguise the development of "Gee", the Allies' navigation aid for bombers.: ch 25  One of the agents sent genuine information about Operation Torch to the Germans. It was postmarked before the landing but due to delays deliberately introduced by the British authorities, the information did not reach the Germans until after the Allied troops were ashore. The information impressed the Germans as it appeared to date from before the attack, but it was militarily useless to them. Operation outside the United Kingdom It was not only in the United Kingdom that the system was operated. A number of agents connected with the system were run in neutral Spain and Portugal. Some even had direct contact with the Germans in occupied Europe. One of the most famous of the agents who operated outside of the UK was Dušan Popov (Tricycle). There was even a case in which an agent started running deception operations independently from Portugal using little more than guidebooks, maps, and a very vivid imagination to convince his Abwehr handlers that he was spying in the UK. This agent, Juan Pujol García (Garbo), created a network of phantom sub-agents and eventually convinced the British authorities that he could be useful. He and his fictitious network were absorbed into the main double-cross system and he became so respected by Abwehr that they stopped landing agents in Britain after 1942. The Germans became dependent on the spurious information that was fed to them by Garbo's network and the other double-cross agents. Operation Fortitude and D-Day landings The British put their double-agent network to work in support of Operation Fortitude, a plan to deceive the Germans about the location of the Normandy Landings in France. Allowing one of the double agents to claim to have stolen documents describing the invasion plans might have aroused suspicion. Instead, agents were allowed to report minutiae, such as insignia on soldiers' uniforms and unit markings on vehicles. The observations in the south-central areas largely gave accurate information about the units located there. Reports from south-west England indicated few troop sightings, when in reality many units were housed there. Reports from the south-east depicted the real and the notional Operation Quicksilver forces. Any military planner would know that to mount an invasion of Europe from England, Allied units had to be staged around the country, with those that would land first placed nearest to the invasion point. German intelligence used the agent reports to construct an order of battle for the Allied forces, that placed the centre of gravity of the invasion force opposite Pas de Calais, the point on the French coast closest to England and therefore a likely invasion site. The deception was so effective that the Germans kept 15 divisions in reserve near Calais even after the invasion had begun, lest it prove to be a diversion from the main invasion at Calais. Early battle reports of insignia on Allied units only confirmed the information the double agents had sent, increasing the Germans' trust in their network. Agent Garbo was informed in radio messages from Germany after the invasion that he had been awarded the Iron Cross. V-weapons deception See also: Operation Crossbow The British noticed that, during the V-1 flying bomb attacks of 1944, the weapons were falling 2–3 mi (3–5 km) short of Trafalgar Square, the actual Luftwaffe aiming points such as Tower Bridge being unknown to the British. Duncan Sandys was told to get MI5-controlled German agents such as Zig Zag and Tate to report the V-1 impacts back to Germany. To make the Germans aim short, the British used these double agents to exaggerate the number of V-1s falling in the north and west of London and to underreport those falling in the south and east.: ch 44  Around 22 June, only one of seven impacts was reported south of the Thames, when 3⁄4 of the V-1s had fallen there. Although the Germans plotted a sample of V-1s which had radio transmitters, showing that they had fallen short, the telemetry was ignored in favour of the agents' reports. When the Germans received a false double cross V-1 report that there was considerable damage in Southampton—which had not been a target—the V-1s were temporarily aimed at the south coast ports. The double cross deception had caused a "re-targeting" from London, not just inaccurate aiming. When V-1s launched from Heinkel He 111s on 7 July at Southampton were inaccurate, British advisor Frederick Lindemann recommended that the agents report heavy losses, to save hundreds of Londoners each week at the expense of only a few lives in the ports. When the Cabinet learned of the deception on 15 August, Herbert Morrison ruled against it, saying that they had no right to decide that one man should die while another should survive. However R. V. Jones refused to call off the plan absent written orders, which never came, and the deception continued.: p. 422  When the V-2 rocket "blitz" began with only a few minutes from launch to impact, the deception was enhanced by providing locations damaged by bombing, verifiable by aerial reconnaissance, for impacts in central London but each "time-tagged" with an earlier impact that had fallen 5–8 mi (8–10 km) short of central London. From mid-January to mid-February 1945, the mean point of V-2 impacts edged eastward at the rate of a couple of miles a week, with more and more V-2s falling short of central London. Of the V-2s aimed at London, more than half landed outside the London Civil Defence Region.: p. 459  List of agents This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (September 2010) Artist – Johnny Jebsen Balloon – Dickie Metcalf Basket – Joseph Lenihan Beetle – Petur Thomsen, based in Iceland Biscuit – Sam McCarthy Blaze – (real name unknown), Transmission operator in the Luftwaffe, German Bootle – (real name unknown), Jointly handled by SIS and the French Deuxième Bureau Bronx – Elvira Chaudoir Brutus – Roman Czerniawski Careless – Clark Korab Carrot – (real name unknown), Polish airman Celery – Walter Dicketts Charlie – Kiener, German born in Britain Cheese – Renato Levi, Italian Servizio Informazioni Militare agent Cobweb – Ib Arnason Riis, based in Iceland Cossack – (real name unknown), Radio Transmission, Turkish Deputy – (real name unknown), Naval telegraph operator, Belgian Derrick – (real name unknown), Hydrograph, Belgian Dominant – (real name unknown), Belgian Dragonfly – Hans George Dragoman – (real name unknown), Travel agent, Spanish Dreadnought – Ivan Popov, brother of Dušan Popov, Tricycle Fan – (real name unknown), Naval radio operator, French Father – Henri Arents Fido – Roger Grosjean Flame – (real name unknown), Belgian Flash – (real name unknown), Belgian Forest – Lucien G. Herviou, French, SS 1943. Collaborated with OSS (Office of Strategic Services) in 1944. German codename LUC. Codename Fidelino, Italian?. Collaborated with Monoplane - Operation Jessica. Forge – (real name unknown), Driver, Belgian Frank – (real name unknown), Rexist collaborator, Belgian Freak – Marquis Frano de Bona Gabas – (real name unknown), Abwehr, German Gander – Hans Reysen Garbo – Juan Pujol García Gelatine – Gerda Sullivan Gilbert – André Latham, jointly handled by SIS and the French Deuxième Bureau Giraffe – Georges Graf GW – Gwilym Williams Hamlet – Dr Koestler, Austrian Hatchet – Albert de Jaeger Jacobs – (real name unknown) Josef – Yuri Smelkov Junior – Hans Ruser, German La Chatte – Mathilde Carré Lambert – Nikitov, Russian Lazy – (real name unknown), Transmission operator - Luftwaffe, German Lipstick – Josef Terradellas, a Spaniard Magnet – (real name unknown) Radio Operator, Belgian Meadow – (real name unknown), Writer, Belgian Mercy – (real name unknown), Belgian Meteor – Eugn Sostaric Mint – (real name unknown), Son of the Belgian Consul, Belgian Model – (real name unknown), Dutch Monoplane – Paul Jeannin 6th Army Group - French - prior codenames Jacques and Twit; German codename: Normandie. Former radio operator on the French liner Normandie. Moonbeam – (real name unknown), based in Canada Mullet – Thornton, a Briton born in Belgium Mutt and Jeff – Helge Moe and Tor Glad, two Norwegians Nettle – Goldschmidt, German Peppermint – José Brugada Pip – (real name unknown), Flemish saboteur Puppet – Mr Fanto, Briton Rainbow – Günther Schütz Rover – (real name unknown) Scruffy – Alphonse Timmerman Shepherd – (real name unknown), French Skull – (real name unknown), Abwehr, German The Snark – Maritza Mihailovic, Yugoslavian Sniper – (real name unknown), Pilot, Belgian Snow – Arthur Owens Spanehl – Ivan Španiel, Czech Spider – based in Iceland, Sailor, Spanish Springbok – Hans von Kotze Squeak – (real name unknown), Flemish Saboteur, Belgian Stephan – Klein, Austrian Summer – Gösta Caroli Sweet William – William Jackson, English Tate – Wulf Schmidt Teapot – (real name unknown), Triple Cross agent, German Treasure – Nathalie Sergueiew (Lily Sergeyev) Tricycle – Dušan Popov Washout – Ernesto Simoes Watchdog – Werner von Janowski Weasel – (real name unknown), Doctor, Belgian Wilfred – (real name unknown), Flemish Saboteur, Belgian The Worm – Stefan Zeiss Zigzag – Eddie Chapman Notes ^ Nicknamed "Tin Eye", Stephens' success as an interrogator was due to his abilities as a linguist, his thorough preparation and his ability to mix sympathy with firmness. Violence of any sort was forbidden at Camp 020. References ^ a b c Masterman (1972) ^ a b c d e Macintyre (2012), pp. 34–37 ^ Crowdy (2011), pg. 77 ^ a b Boon, Kristen E.; Huk, Aziz Z.; Lovelace, Douglas C. (2010). Terrorism: Commentary on Security Documents Volume 109: Terror-Based Interrogation. Oxford University Press. p. 372. ISBN 978-0195398144. ^ Macintyre (2012), pg. 4 ^ Witt, Carolinda (November 2017). Double Agent Celery. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781526716149. pg 108 ^ a b Witt, Carolinda (November 2017). Double Agent Celery. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books. ISBN 9781526716149. pp. 181-186 ^ a b c Macintyre (2012), pp. 38–39 ^ a b Rankin, Nicholas (2011). Ian Fleming's Commandos: The Story of 30 Assault Unit in WWII. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199782826. ^ a b c d Jones RV; Most Secret War 1978 ^ a b c Ordway (1979), pp. 467, 468 ^ a b c Irving (1964), pp. 251–53, 257–58 ^ Macintyre (2012), pp. 83–87 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Popov (1974) ^ Maggs, Sam (2016). Wonder Women: 25 Innovators, Inventors, and Trailblazers Who Changed History. Quirk Books. p. 112. ISBN 9781594749254. ^ Holt, Thaddeus. The Deceivers: Allied Military Deception in the Second World War. Bibliography Crowdy, Terry (20 December 2011). Deceiving Hitler: Double-Cross and Deception in World War II. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-135-9. Irving, David (1964). The Mare's Nest. London: William Kimber & Co. OCLC 602399051. Macintyre, Ben (27 Mar 2012). Double Cross: The True Story of The D-Day Spies. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1408819906. Masterman, John C (1972) . The Double-Cross System in the War of 1939 to 1945. Australian National University Press. ISBN 978-0-7081-0459-0. Ordway, Frederick I, III; Sharpe, Mitchell R (1979). The Rocket Team. Apogee Books Space Series 36. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Note: Ordway/Sharpe cite Masterman Jones, RV (1978). Most Secret War. Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 0-241-89746-7. Witt, Carolinda (2 November 2017). Double Agent Celery: MI5's Crooked Hero. Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 9781526716149. Popov, Dusko (1 January 1974). Spy/Counterspy. Weidenfeld and Nicolson; First Edition. ISBN 0448116065. Winnington, G. Peter (July 2023). Codename Treasure: the life of D-Day Spy, Lily Sergueiew. Pen and Sword; First Edition. ISBN 978-1399045278. Further reading Hinsley, F. H., and C. A. G. Simpkins. British Intelligence in the Second World War, Volume 4, Security and Counter-Intelligence. London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1990. ISBN 0-11-630952-0. Howard, Michael British Intelligence in the Second World War, Volume 5, Strategic Deception London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1990. ISBN 0-11-630954-7. John C. Campbell, "A Retrospective on John Masterman's The Double-Cross System", International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 18: 320–353, 2005. Jon Latimer, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001. Public Record Office Secret History Files, Camp 020: MI5 and the Nazi Spies, Oliver Hoare, 2000. Tommy Jonason & Simon Olsson, "Agent Tate: The Wartime Story of Double Agent Harry Williamson", London: Amberley Publishing, 2011. ISBN 1-4456-0481-7. Benton, Kenneth . "The ISOS Years: Madrid 1941-3". Journal of Contemporary History 30 (3): 359–410, 1995. Ben MacIntyre (2012), Double Cross: The True Story of the D-Day Spies, London: Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4088-1990-6, retrieved 2012-04-16 Haufler, Hervie (2014-04-01). The Spies Who Never Were: The True Story of the Nazi Spies Who Were Actually Allied Double Agents. Open Road Media. ISBN 978-1-4976-2262-3. West, Nigel (2015). Double Cross in Cairo: the true story of the spy who turned the tide of war in the Middle East. London: Biteback Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84954-796-3. Fiction. Overlord, Underhand (2013), by the American author Robert P. Wells is a fictionalized retelling of the Juan Pujol (Garbo) double-agent story from the Spanish Civil War through 1944, examining his role in MI5's Double-Cross System. ISBN 978-1-63068-019-0. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Double-Cross System. vteAllied military deception in World War IIDeception planning'A' Force Dudley Clarke Victor Jones London Controlling Section John Bevan Dennis Wheatley Ronald Wingate Ops (B) Noel Wild Roger Fleetwood-Hesketh List of Ops (B) staff D Division Peter Fleming Soviet military deception CamouflageMiddle East Cmd Camouflage Directorate Geoffrey Barkas Tony Ayrton Hugh Cott Peter Proud Steven Sykes Ghost Army Louis Dalton Porter Ellsworth Kelly David Slepian Bill Blass Art Kane George Vander Sluis Other Ernest Townsend Jasper Maskelyne more Operational unitsR Force David Strangeways OtherBeach JumpersDecoys Paradummy Starfish site Double-Cross SystemTwenty CommitteeJohn Cecil MastermanDouble agents Johnny Jebsen (Artist) Juan Pujol García (Garbo) Roman Czerniawski (Brutus) Roger Grosjean (Fido) Günther Schütz (Rainbow) Arthur Owens (Snow) Gösta Caroli (Summer) Wulf Schmidt (Tate) Nathalie Sergueiew (Treasure) Dušan Popov (Tricycle) Werner von Janowski (Watchdog) Eddie Chapman (Zig-Zag) Josef Jakobs Mutt and Jeff Fictional units Allied American British OperationsBodyguard Copperhead D-Day naval deceptions Ferdinand Fortitude Graffham Ironside Titanic Quicksilver Zeppelin Other Accumulator Barclay Bertram Boardman Cascade Chettyford Cockade Forfar Hardboiled Mincemeat Pastel Scherhorn Span Books Bodyguard of Lies British Intelligence in the Second World War (Vol. 5) The Deceivers: Allied Military Deception in the Second World War
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"counter-espionage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-espionage"},{"link_name":"MI5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MI5"},{"link_name":"Nazi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazism"},{"link_name":"disinformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinformation"},{"link_name":"John Cecil Masterman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cecil_Masterman"},{"link_name":"Roman numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_numerals"},{"link_name":"counter-espionage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-espionage"},{"link_name":"Abwehr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr"},{"link_name":"Sicherheitsdienst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicherheitsdienst"},{"link_name":"Treasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_Sergueiew"},{"link_name":"Fido","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Grosjean"},{"link_name":"one who committed suicide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Willem_Ter_Braak"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Masterman-1"}],"text":"The Double-Cross System or XX System was a World War II counter-espionage and deception operation of the British Security Service (MI5). Nazi agents in Britain – real and false – were captured, turned themselves in or simply announced themselves, and were then used by the British to broadcast mainly disinformation to their Nazi controllers. Its operations were overseen by the Twenty Committee under the chairmanship of John Cecil Masterman; the name of the committee comes from the number 20 in Roman numerals: \"XX\" (i.e. a double cross).The policy of MI5 during the war was initially to use the system for counter-espionage. It was only later that its potential for deception purposes was realised. Of the agents from the German intelligence services, Abwehr and Sicherheitsdienst (SD), some were apprehended, while many of the agents who reached British shores turned themselves in to the authorities; others were apprehended after they made elementary mistakes during their operations. In addition, some were false agents who had tricked the Germans into believing they would spy for them if they helped them reach England (e.g., Treasure, Fido). Later agents were instructed to contact agents who, unknown to the Abwehr, were controlled by the British. The Abwehr and SD sent agents over by parachute drop, submarine, or travel via neutral countries. The last route was most commonly used, with agents often impersonating refugees. After the war, it was discovered that all the agents Germany sent to Britain had given themselves up or had been captured, with the possible exception of one who committed suicide.[1]","title":"Double-Cross System"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiel"},{"link_name":"Abwehr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre34-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre34-2"},{"link_name":"Enigma machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_machine"},{"link_name":"John C. Masterman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cecil_Masterman"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre34-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crowdy77-3"},{"link_name":"Camp 020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_020"},{"link_name":"Latchmere House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latchmere_House"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TerrorBasedInterrogation-4"},{"link_name":"[Note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"double agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_agent"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre34-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre4-6"},{"link_name":"Thomas Argyll Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Argyll_Robertson"},{"link_name":"Scot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scot"},{"link_name":"Arthur Owens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Owens"},{"link_name":"RNAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service"},{"link_name":"Walter Dicketts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Dicketts"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-P&Sbook-7"},{"link_name":"Nikolaus Ritter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaus_Ritter"},{"link_name":"bona fides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bona_fides"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-P&Sbook4-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-P&Sbook4-8"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre34-2"},{"link_name":"military deception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_deception"},{"link_name":"Guy Liddell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Liddell"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre38-9"},{"link_name":"Gösta Caroli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6sta_Caroli"},{"link_name":"Wulf Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulf_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre38-9"},{"link_name":"canoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canoe"},{"link_name":"motorcycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorcycle"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre38-9"}],"text":"Following a July 1940 conference in Kiel, the Abwehr (German intelligence) began an espionage campaign against Britain involving intelligence gathering and sabotage. Spies were sent over from Europe in various ways; some parachuted or were delivered by submarine. Others entered the country on false passports or posing as refugees.[2] Public perception in Britain was that the country was full of well-trained German spies, who were deeply integrated into society. There was widespread \"spy-mania\", as Churchill put it. The truth was that between September and November 1940 fewer than 25 agents arrived in the country; mostly of Eastern European extraction, they were badly trained and poorly motivated.[2]The agents were not difficult to spot, and it became easier still when the German Enigma machine encryption was broken. MI5, with advance warning of infiltration, had no trouble picking up almost all of the spies sent to the country. Writing in 1972, John C. Masterman (who had, later in the war, headed the Twenty Committee) said that by 1941, MI5 \"actively ran and controlled the German espionage system in [the United Kingdom].\" It was not an idle boast; post-war records confirmed that none of the Abwehr agents, bar one who committed suicide, went unnoticed.[2][3]Once caught, the spies were deposited in the care of Lieutenant Colonel Robin Stephens at Camp 020 (Latchmere House, Richmond).[4][Note 1] After Stephens, a notorious and brilliant interrogator, had picked apart their life history, the agents were either spirited away (to be imprisoned or killed) or if judged acceptable, offered the chance to turn double agent on the Germans.[2][5]Control of the new double agents fell to Thomas Argyll Robertson (usually called Tar, from his initials), a charismatic MI5 agent. A Scot and something of a playboy, Robertson had some early experience with double agents; just prior to the war he had been case officer to Arthur Owens (code name Snow). Owens was an oddity and it became apparent that he was playing off the Germans and British, although to what end Robertson was unable to uncover. Robertson dispatched an ex-RNAS officer called Walter Dicketts (code name Celery) to neutral Lisbon in early 1941[6] to meet Owens' German spymaster, Nikolaus Ritter from the Abwehr, to establish Owens' bona fides. Unknown to Dicketts, Owens had betrayed him to the Germans before Dicketts entered Germany to be interrogated by experts from the Abwehr in Hamburg.[7] Although Dicketts managed to get himself recruited as a German agent (while continuing to report to MI5), Owens claimed that Dicketts' survival meant he had been 'turned' by the Germans. When both agents returned to England, Robertson and his team spent countless hours trying to establish which agent was telling the truth. In the end Owens was interned for endangering Dicketts' life and for revealing the important information that his German radio transmitter was controlled by MI5.[7] The whole affair resulted in the collapse of the entire Snow network comprising the double agents Owens, GW, Biscuit, Charlie, Summer and Celery. The experiment had not appeared to be a success but MI5 had learned lessons about how Abwehr operated and how double agents might be useful.[2]Robertson believed that turning German spies would have numerous benefits, disclosing what information Abwehr wanted and to mislead them as part of a military deception. It would also discourage them from sending more agents, if they believed an operational network existed. Section B1A (a subordinate of B section, under Guy Liddell) was formed and Robertson was put in charge of handling the double-agent program.[8]Robertson's first agents were not a success, Giraffe (George Graf) was never really used and Gander (Kurt Goose; MI5 had a penchant for amusingly relevant code names), had been sent to Britain with a radio that could only transmit and both were quickly decommissioned. The next two attempts were even more farcical; Gösta Caroli and Wulf Schmidt (a Danish citizen) landed, via parachute, in September 1940. The two were genuine Nazis, had trained together and were friends. Caroli was coerced into turning double in return for Schmidt's life being spared, whilst Schmidt was told that Caroli had sold him out and in anger swapped sides.[8]Caroli quickly became a problem; he attempted to strangle his MI5 handler before making an escape, carrying a canoe on a motorcycle. He vaguely planned to row to Holland but came unstuck after falling off the bike in front of a policeman. He was eventually recaptured and judged too much trouble to be used. Schmidt was more of a success; codenamed 'Tate', he continued to contact Germany until May 1945. These eccentric spies made Robertson aware that handling double agents was going to be a difficult task.[8]","title":"Early agents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"secret writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_writing"},{"link_name":"wireless sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"double agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_agent"},{"link_name":"ciphers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_(cryptography)"},{"link_name":"Enigma ciphers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enigma_cipher"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Flem11-10"},{"link_name":"Abwehr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr"},{"link_name":"Operation Torch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Flem11-10"},{"link_name":"signals intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signals_intelligence"},{"link_name":"Gee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gee_(navigation)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jones-11"},{"link_name":"Operation Torch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Torch"}],"text":"The main form of communication that agents used with their handlers was secret writing. Letters were intercepted by the postal censorship authorities and some agents were caught. Later in the war, wireless sets were provided by the Germans. Eventually transmissions purporting to be from one double agent were facilitated by transferring the operation of the set to the main headquarters of MI5. On the British side, the fight against the Abwehr and SD was made much easier by the breaking of German ciphers. Abwehr hand ciphers were cracked early in the war and SD hand ciphers and Abwehr Enigma ciphers followed on 8 November 1941 by Dilly Knox, agents sent messages to the Abwehr in the simple code which was then sent on using an enigma machine, with the simple codes broken it helped break the daily enigma code.[9] The Abwehr used a different version of Enigma machines, in November 1942 a machine was captured in Algiers during Operation Torch, it was found to have no plug board however the three rotors had been changed to rotate 11, 15 and 19 times rather than once every 26 letters, plus a plate on the left acted as a fourth rotor. The capture of a machine greatly helped the quicker decoding of German messages.[9] The signals intelligence allowed an accurate assessment of whether the double agents were really trusted by the Germans and what effect their information had.A crucial aspect of the system was the need for genuine information to be sent along with the deception material. This need caused problems early in the war, with those who controlled the release of information being reluctant to provide even a small amount of relatively innocuous genuine material. Later in the war, as the system became better organised, genuine information was integrated into the deception system. It was used to disguise the development of \"Gee\", the Allies' navigation aid for bombers.[10]: ch 25  One of the agents sent genuine information about Operation Torch to the Germans. It was postmarked before the landing but due to delays deliberately introduced by the British authorities, the information did not reach the Germans until after the Allied troops were ashore. The information impressed the Germans as it appeared to date from before the attack, but it was militarily useless to them.","title":"Methods of operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Dušan Popov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_Popov"},{"link_name":"Juan Pujol García","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Pujol_Garc%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"Abwehr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abwehr"}],"text":"It was not only in the United Kingdom that the system was operated. A number of agents connected with the system were run in neutral Spain and Portugal. Some even had direct contact with the Germans in occupied Europe. One of the most famous of the agents who operated outside of the UK was Dušan Popov (Tricycle). There was even a case in which an agent started running deception operations independently from Portugal using little more than guidebooks, maps, and a very vivid imagination to convince his Abwehr handlers that he was spying in the UK. This agent, Juan Pujol García (Garbo), created a network of phantom sub-agents and eventually convinced the British authorities that he could be useful. He and his fictitious network were absorbed into the main double-cross system and he became so respected by Abwehr that they stopped landing agents in Britain after 1942. The Germans became dependent on the spurious information that was fed to them by Garbo's network and the other double-cross agents.","title":"Operation outside the United Kingdom"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operation Fortitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Fortitude"},{"link_name":"Normandy Landings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandy_Landings"},{"link_name":"Operation Quicksilver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Quicksilver_(WWII)"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"order of battle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_battle"},{"link_name":"Pas de Calais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas_de_Calais"},{"link_name":"Iron Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Cross"}],"text":"The British put their double-agent network to work in support of Operation Fortitude, a plan to deceive the Germans about the location of the Normandy Landings in France. Allowing one of the double agents to claim to have stolen documents describing the invasion plans might have aroused suspicion. Instead, agents were allowed to report minutiae, such as insignia on soldiers' uniforms and unit markings on vehicles. The observations in the south-central areas largely gave accurate information about the units located there. Reports from south-west England indicated few troop sightings, when in reality many units were housed there. Reports from the south-east depicted the real and the notional Operation Quicksilver forces. Any military planner would know that to mount an invasion of Europe from England, Allied units had to be staged around the country, with those that would land first placed nearest to the invasion point. German intelligence used the agent reports to construct an order of battle for the Allied forces, that placed the centre of gravity of the invasion force opposite Pas de Calais, the point on the French coast closest to England and therefore a likely invasion site. The deception was so effective that the Germans kept 15 divisions in reserve near Calais even after the invasion had begun, lest it prove to be a diversion from the main invasion at Calais. Early battle reports of insignia on Allied units only confirmed the information the double agents had sent, increasing the Germans' trust in their network. Agent Garbo was informed in radio messages from Germany after the invasion that he had been awarded the Iron Cross.","title":"Operation Fortitude and D-Day landings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operation Crossbow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Crossbow"},{"link_name":"V-1 flying bomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-1_flying_bomb"},{"link_name":"Trafalgar Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafalgar_Square"},{"link_name":"Luftwaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luftwaffe"},{"link_name":"Tower Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ordway-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irving-13"},{"link_name":"Duncan Sandys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan_Sandys"},{"link_name":"Zig Zag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Chapman"},{"link_name":"Tate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulf_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ordway-12"},{"link_name":"double agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_agent"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Masterman-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jones-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irving-13"},{"link_name":"Heinkel He 111s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinkel_He_111"},{"link_name":"Frederick Lindemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Lindemann,_1st_Viscount_Cherwell"},{"link_name":"Herbert Morrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Morrison"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Irving-13"},{"link_name":"R. V. Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Victor_Jones"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jones-11"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ordway-12"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Masterman-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jones-11"}],"text":"See also: Operation CrossbowThe British noticed that, during the V-1 flying bomb attacks of 1944, the weapons were falling 2–3 mi (3–5 km) short of Trafalgar Square, the actual Luftwaffe aiming points such as Tower Bridge being unknown to the British.[11][12] Duncan Sandys was told to get MI5-controlled German agents such as Zig Zag and Tate to report the V-1 impacts back to Germany.[11] To make the Germans aim short, the British used these double agents to exaggerate the number of V-1s falling in the north and west of London and to underreport those falling in the south and east.[1][10]: ch 44  Around 22 June, only one of seven impacts was reported south of the Thames, when 3⁄4 of the V-1s had fallen there. Although the Germans plotted a sample of V-1s which had radio transmitters, showing that they had fallen short, the telemetry was ignored in favour of the agents' reports.[12]When the Germans received a false double cross V-1 report that there was considerable damage in Southampton—which had not been a target—the V-1s were temporarily aimed at the south coast ports. The double cross deception had caused a \"re-targeting\" from London, not just inaccurate aiming. When V-1s launched from Heinkel He 111s on 7 July at Southampton were inaccurate, British advisor Frederick Lindemann recommended that the agents report heavy losses, to save hundreds of Londoners each week at the expense of only a few lives in the ports. When the Cabinet learned of the deception on 15 August, Herbert Morrison ruled against it, saying that they had no right to decide that one man should die while another should survive.[12] However R. V. Jones refused to call off the plan absent written orders, which never came, and the deception continued.[10]: p. 422When the V-2 rocket \"blitz\" began with only a few minutes from launch to impact, the deception was enhanced by providing locations damaged by bombing, verifiable by aerial reconnaissance, for impacts in central London but each \"time-tagged\" with an earlier impact that had fallen 5–8 mi (8–10 km) short of central London.[11] From mid-January to mid-February 1945, the mean point of V-2 impacts edged eastward at the rate of a couple of miles a week, with more and more V-2s falling short of central London.[1] Of the V-2s aimed at London, more than half landed outside the London Civil Defence Region.[10]: p. 459","title":"V-weapons deception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johnny Jebsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Jebsen"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macintyre83-14"},{"link_name":"Dickie Metcalf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dickie_Metcalf&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Joseph Lenihan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Lenihan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sam McCarthy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sam_McCarthy_(spy)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Deuxième Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuxi%C3%A8me_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Elvira Chaudoir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elvira_Chaudoir"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mag-16"},{"link_name":"Roman Czerniawski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Czerniawski"},{"link_name":"Clark Korab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clark_Korab&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Walter Dicketts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Dicketts"},{"link_name":"Servizio Informazioni Militare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servizio_Informazioni_Militare"},{"link_name":"Ib Arnason Riis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ib_Arnason_Riis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Hans George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_George&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Ivan Popov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ivan_Popov_(spy)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Henri Arents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henri_Arents&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Roger Grosjean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Grosjean"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Lucien G. Herviou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucien_G._Herviou&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Marquis Frano de Bona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marquis_Frano_de_Bona&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Hans Reysen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_Reysen&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Juan Pujol García","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Pujol_Garc%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"Gerda Sullivan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gerda_Sullivan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"André Latham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andr%C3%A9_Latham&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Deuxième Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuxi%C3%A8me_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Georges Graf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georges_Graf&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Gwilym Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gwilym_Williams_(spy)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Albert de Jaeger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albert_de_Jaeger&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Yuri Smelkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yuri_Smelkov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Mathilde Carré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathilde_Carr%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Eugn Sostaric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eugn_Sostaric&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Paul Jeannin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paul_Jeannin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Mutt and Jeff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutt_and_Jeff_(spies)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"José Brugada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jos%C3%A9_Brugada&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Günther Schütz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Sch%C3%BCtz"},{"link_name":"Alphonse Timmerman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alphonse_Timmerman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Arthur Owens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Owens"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Hans von Kotze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_von_Kotze&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Gösta Caroli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6sta_Caroli"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Wulf Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulf_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Nathalie Sergueiew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_Sergueiew"},{"link_name":"Dušan Popov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_Popov"},{"link_name":"Ernesto Simoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernesto_Simoes&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Werner von Janowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_von_Janowski"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Popov-15"},{"link_name":"Stefan Zeiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stefan_Zeiss&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eddie Chapman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Chapman"}],"text":"Artist – Johnny Jebsen[13]\nBalloon – Dickie Metcalf\nBasket – Joseph Lenihan\nBeetle – Petur Thomsen, based in Iceland\nBiscuit – Sam McCarthy\nBlaze – (real name unknown), Transmission operator in the Luftwaffe, German[14]\nBootle – (real name unknown), Jointly handled by SIS and the French Deuxième Bureau\nBronx – Elvira Chaudoir[15]\nBrutus – Roman Czerniawski\nCareless – Clark Korab\nCarrot – (real name unknown), Polish airman\nCelery – Walter Dicketts\nCharlie – Kiener, German born in Britain\nCheese – Renato Levi, Italian Servizio Informazioni Militare agent\nCobweb – Ib Arnason Riis, based in Iceland\nCossack – (real name unknown), Radio Transmission, Turkish[14]\nDeputy – (real name unknown), Naval telegraph operator, Belgian[14]\nDerrick – (real name unknown), Hydrograph, Belgian[14]\nDominant – (real name unknown), Belgian[14]\nDragonfly – Hans George\nDragoman – (real name unknown), Travel agent, Spanish[14]\nDreadnought – Ivan Popov, brother of Dušan Popov, Tricycle\nFan – (real name unknown), Naval radio operator, French[14]\nFather – Henri Arents\nFido – Roger Grosjean\nFlame – (real name unknown), Belgian[14]\nFlash – (real name unknown), Belgian[14]\nForest – Lucien G. Herviou, French, SS 1943. Collaborated with OSS (Office of Strategic Services) in 1944. German codename LUC. Codename Fidelino, Italian?. Collaborated with Monoplane - Operation Jessica.\nForge – (real name unknown), Driver, Belgian[14]\nFrank – (real name unknown), Rexist collaborator, Belgian[14]\nFreak – Marquis Frano de Bona\nGabas – (real name unknown), Abwehr, German[14]\nGander – Hans Reysen\nGarbo – Juan Pujol García\nGelatine – Gerda Sullivan\nGilbert – André Latham, jointly handled by SIS and the French Deuxième Bureau\nGiraffe – Georges Graf\nGW – Gwilym Williams\nHamlet – Dr Koestler, Austrian\nHatchet – Albert de Jaeger\nJacobs – (real name unknown)\nJosef – Yuri Smelkov\nJunior – Hans Ruser, German[14]\nLa Chatte – Mathilde Carré\nLambert – Nikitov, Russian\nLazy – (real name unknown), Transmission operator - Luftwaffe, German[14]\nLipstick – Josef Terradellas, a Spaniard\nMagnet – (real name unknown) Radio Operator, Belgian[14]\nMeadow – (real name unknown), Writer, Belgian[14]\nMercy – (real name unknown), Belgian[14]\nMeteor – Eugn Sostaric\nMint – (real name unknown), Son of the Belgian Consul, Belgian[14]\nModel – (real name unknown), Dutch[14]\nMonoplane – Paul Jeannin 6th Army Group - French - prior codenames Jacques and Twit; German codename: Normandie. Former radio operator on the French liner Normandie.[16]\nMoonbeam – (real name unknown), based in Canada\nMullet – Thornton, a Briton born in Belgium\nMutt and Jeff – Helge Moe and Tor Glad, two Norwegians\nNettle – Goldschmidt, German[14]\nPeppermint – José Brugada\nPip – (real name unknown), Flemish saboteur[14]\nPuppet – Mr Fanto, Briton\nRainbow – Günther Schütz\nRover – (real name unknown)\nScruffy – Alphonse Timmerman\nShepherd – (real name unknown), French[14]\nSkull – (real name unknown), Abwehr, German[14]\nThe Snark – Maritza Mihailovic, Yugoslavian\nSniper – (real name unknown), Pilot, Belgian[14]\nSnow – Arthur Owens\nSpanehl – Ivan Španiel, Czech[14]\nSpider – based in Iceland, Sailor, Spanish[14]\nSpringbok – Hans von Kotze\nSqueak – (real name unknown), Flemish Saboteur, Belgian[14]\nStephan – Klein, Austrian[14]\nSummer – Gösta Caroli\nSweet William – William Jackson, English[14]\nTate – Wulf Schmidt\nTeapot – (real name unknown), Triple Cross agent, German[14]\nTreasure – Nathalie Sergueiew (Lily Sergeyev)\nTricycle – Dušan Popov\nWashout – Ernesto Simoes\nWatchdog – Werner von Janowski\nWeasel – (real name unknown), Doctor, Belgian[14]\nWilfred – (real name unknown), Flemish Saboteur, Belgian[14]\nThe Worm – Stefan Zeiss\nZigzag – Eddie Chapman","title":"List of agents"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TerrorBasedInterrogation-4"}],"text":"^ Nicknamed \"Tin Eye\", Stephens' success as an interrogator was due to his abilities as a linguist, his thorough preparation and his ability to mix sympathy with firmness. Violence of any sort was forbidden at Camp 020.[4]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Osprey Publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osprey_Publishing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84603-135-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84603-135-9"},{"link_name":"Irving, David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Irving"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"602399051","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/602399051"},{"link_name":"Macintyre, Ben","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Macintyre"},{"link_name":"Bloomsbury Publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1408819906","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1408819906"},{"link_name":"Masterman, John C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cecil_Masterman"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7081-0459-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7081-0459-0"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list"},{"link_name":"Most Secret War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/mostsecretwar0000jone"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-241-89746-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-241-89746-7"},{"link_name":"Witt, Carolinda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolinda_Witt"},{"link_name":"Pen and Sword Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_and_Sword_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781526716149","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781526716149"},{"link_name":"Popov, Dusko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusko_Popov"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0448116065","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0448116065"},{"link_name":"Winnington, G. Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Winnington&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1399045278","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1399045278"}],"text":"Crowdy, Terry (20 December 2011). Deceiving Hitler: Double-Cross and Deception in World War II. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-135-9.\nIrving, David (1964). The Mare's Nest. London: William Kimber & Co. OCLC 602399051.\nMacintyre, Ben (27 Mar 2012). Double Cross: The True Story of The D-Day Spies. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1408819906.\nMasterman, John C (1972) [1945]. The Double-Cross System in the War of 1939 to 1945. Australian National University Press. ISBN 978-0-7081-0459-0.\nOrdway, Frederick I, III; Sharpe, Mitchell R (1979). The Rocket Team. Apogee Books Space Series 36. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Note: Ordway/Sharpe cite Masterman\nJones, RV (1978). Most Secret War. Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 0-241-89746-7.\nWitt, Carolinda (2 November 2017). Double Agent Celery: MI5's Crooked Hero. Pen and Sword Books. ISBN 9781526716149.\nPopov, Dusko (1 January 1974). Spy/Counterspy. Weidenfeld and Nicolson; First Edition. ISBN 0448116065.\nWinnington, G. Peter (July 2023). Codename Treasure: the life of D-Day Spy, Lily Sergueiew. Pen and Sword; First Edition. ISBN 978-1399045278.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hinsley, F. H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Hinsley"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-11-630952-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-11-630952-0"},{"link_name":"Howard, Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Howard_(historian)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-11-630954-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-11-630954-7"},{"link_name":"Jon Latimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Latimer"},{"link_name":"Public Record Office Secret History Files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_Record_Office_Secret_History_Files&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-4456-0481-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4456-0481-7"},{"link_name":"Benton, Kenneth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Benton"},{"link_name":"Ben MacIntyre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_MacIntyre"},{"link_name":"Double Cross: The True Story of the D-Day Spies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bloomsbury.com/Double-Cross/Ben-Macintyre/books/details/9781408819906"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4088-1990-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4088-1990-6"},{"link_name":"The Spies Who Never Were: The True Story of the Nazi Spies Who Were Actually Allied Double Agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ySErAwAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4976-2262-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4976-2262-3"},{"link_name":"West, Nigel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigel_West"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-84954-796-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84954-796-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-63068-019-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-63068-019-0"},{"link_name":"Double-Cross System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Double-Cross_System"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Allied_Military_Deception_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Allied_Military_Deception_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Allied_Military_Deception_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"military deception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_deception#World_War_II"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"'A' Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Headquarters_%27A%27_Force"},{"link_name":"Dudley Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley_Clarke"},{"link_name":"Victor Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Jones_(British_Army_officer)"},{"link_name":"London Controlling Section","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Controlling_Section"},{"link_name":"John Bevan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bevan_(British_Army_officer)"},{"link_name":"Dennis Wheatley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Wheatley"},{"link_name":"Ronald Wingate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Wingate"},{"link_name":"Ops (B)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ops_(B)"},{"link_name":"Noel Wild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_Wild"},{"link_name":"Roger Fleetwood-Hesketh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Fleetwood-Hesketh"},{"link_name":"List of Ops (B) staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Ops_(B)_staff"},{"link_name":"D Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=D_Division_(Second_World_War)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Peter Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Fleming_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Soviet military deception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_military_deception"},{"link_name":"Camouflage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camouflage#Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Middle East Cmd Camouflage Directorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East_Command_Camouflage_Directorate"},{"link_name":"Geoffrey Barkas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Barkas"},{"link_name":"Tony Ayrton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Ayrton"},{"link_name":"Hugh Cott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott"},{"link_name":"Peter Proud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Proud"},{"link_name":"Steven Sykes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Sykes_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Ghost Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_Army"},{"link_name":"Louis Dalton Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Dalton_Porter"},{"link_name":"Ellsworth Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellsworth_Kelly"},{"link_name":"David Slepian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Slepian"},{"link_name":"Bill Blass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Blass"},{"link_name":"Art Kane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Kane"},{"link_name":"George Vander Sluis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Vander_Sluis"},{"link_name":"Ernest Townsend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Townsend"},{"link_name":"Jasper Maskelyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper_Maskelyne"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_camoufleurs#Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"R Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_Force"},{"link_name":"David Strangeways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Strangeways"},{"link_name":"Beach Jumpers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beach_Jumpers"},{"link_name":"Paradummy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradummy"},{"link_name":"Starfish site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starfish_site"},{"link_name":"Double-Cross System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"John Cecil Masterman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cecil_Masterman"},{"link_name":"Johnny Jebsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Jebsen"},{"link_name":"Juan Pujol García","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Pujol_Garc%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"Roman Czerniawski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Czerniawski"},{"link_name":"Roger Grosjean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Grosjean"},{"link_name":"Günther Schütz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Sch%C3%BCtz"},{"link_name":"Arthur Owens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Owens"},{"link_name":"Gösta Caroli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6sta_Caroli"},{"link_name":"Wulf Schmidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulf_Schmidt"},{"link_name":"Nathalie Sergueiew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathalie_Sergueiew"},{"link_name":"Dušan Popov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Du%C5%A1an_Popov"},{"link_name":"Werner von Janowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werner_von_Janowski"},{"link_name":"Eddie Chapman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_Chapman"},{"link_name":"Josef Jakobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Jakobs"},{"link_name":"Mutt and Jeff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutt_and_Jeff_(spies)"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Allied_deception_formations_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_deception_formations_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_deception_formations_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Bodyguard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bodyguard"},{"link_name":"Copperhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Copperhead"},{"link_name":"D-Day naval deceptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Day_naval_deceptions"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ferdinand"},{"link_name":"Fortitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Fortitude"},{"link_name":"Graffham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Graffham"},{"link_name":"Ironside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Ironside"},{"link_name":"Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Titanic"},{"link_name":"Quicksilver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Quicksilver_(deception_plan)"},{"link_name":"Zeppelin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Zeppelin_(deception_plan)"},{"link_name":"Accumulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Accumulator"},{"link_name":"Barclay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barclay"},{"link_name":"Bertram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Bertram"},{"link_name":"Boardman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Boardman"},{"link_name":"Cascade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cascade"},{"link_name":"Chettyford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Chettyford"},{"link_name":"Cockade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Cockade"},{"link_name":"Forfar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Forfar"},{"link_name":"Hardboiled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Hardboiled"},{"link_name":"Mincemeat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Mincemeat"},{"link_name":"Pastel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Pastel"},{"link_name":"Scherhorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Scherhorn"},{"link_name":"Span","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Span"},{"link_name":"Bodyguard of Lies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodyguard_of_Lies"},{"link_name":"British Intelligence in the Second World War (Vol. 5)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Second_World_War#Intelligence"},{"link_name":"The Deceivers: Allied Military Deception in the Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Deceivers:_Allied_Military_Deception_in_the_Second_World_War"}],"text":"Hinsley, F. H., and C. A. G. Simpkins. British Intelligence in the Second World War, Volume 4, Security and Counter-Intelligence. London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1990. ISBN 0-11-630952-0.\nHoward, Michael British Intelligence in the Second World War, Volume 5, Strategic Deception London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1990. ISBN 0-11-630954-7.\nJohn C. Campbell, \"A Retrospective on John Masterman's The Double-Cross System\", International Journal of Intelligence and CounterIntelligence 18: 320–353, 2005.\nJon Latimer, Deception in War, London: John Murray, 2001.\nPublic Record Office Secret History Files, Camp 020: MI5 and the Nazi Spies, Oliver Hoare, 2000.\nTommy Jonason & Simon Olsson, \"Agent Tate: The Wartime Story of Double Agent Harry Williamson\", London: Amberley Publishing, 2011. ISBN 1-4456-0481-7.\nBenton, Kenneth . \"The ISOS Years: Madrid 1941-3\". Journal of Contemporary History 30 (3): 359–410, 1995.\nBen MacIntyre (2012), Double Cross: The True Story of the D-Day Spies, London: Bloomsbury Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4088-1990-6, retrieved 2012-04-16\nHaufler, Hervie (2014-04-01). The Spies Who Never Were: The True Story of the Nazi Spies Who Were Actually Allied Double Agents. Open Road Media. ISBN 978-1-4976-2262-3.\nWest, Nigel (2015). Double Cross in Cairo: the true story of the spy who turned the tide of war in the Middle East. London: Biteback Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84954-796-3.\nFiction. Overlord, Underhand (2013), by the American author Robert P. Wells is a fictionalized retelling of the Juan Pujol (Garbo) double-agent story from the Spanish Civil War through 1944, examining his role in MI5's Double-Cross System. ISBN 978-1-63068-019-0.Wikimedia Commons has media related to Double-Cross System.vteAllied military deception in World War IIDeception planning'A' Force\nDudley Clarke\nVictor Jones\nLondon Controlling Section\nJohn Bevan\nDennis Wheatley\nRonald Wingate\nOps (B)\nNoel Wild\nRoger Fleetwood-Hesketh\nList of Ops (B) staff\nD Division\nPeter Fleming\n\nSoviet military deception\nCamouflageMiddle East Cmd Camouflage Directorate\nGeoffrey Barkas\nTony Ayrton\nHugh Cott\nPeter Proud\nSteven Sykes\nGhost Army\nLouis Dalton Porter\nEllsworth Kelly\nDavid Slepian\nBill Blass\nArt Kane\nGeorge Vander Sluis\nOther\nErnest Townsend\nJasper Maskelyne\nmore\nOperational unitsR Force\nDavid Strangeways\nOtherBeach JumpersDecoys\nParadummy\nStarfish site\nDouble-Cross SystemTwenty CommitteeJohn Cecil MastermanDouble agents\nJohnny Jebsen (Artist)\nJuan Pujol García (Garbo)\nRoman Czerniawski (Brutus)\nRoger Grosjean (Fido)\nGünther Schütz (Rainbow)\nArthur Owens (Snow)\nGösta Caroli (Summer)\nWulf Schmidt (Tate)\nNathalie Sergueiew (Treasure)\nDušan Popov (Tricycle)\nWerner von Janowski (Watchdog)\nEddie Chapman (Zig-Zag)\nJosef Jakobs\nMutt and Jeff\nFictional units\nAllied\nAmerican\nBritish\nOperationsBodyguard\nCopperhead\nD-Day naval deceptions\nFerdinand\nFortitude\nGraffham\nIronside\nTitanic\nQuicksilver\nZeppelin\nOther\nAccumulator\nBarclay\nBertram\nBoardman\nCascade\nChettyford\nCockade\nForfar\nHardboiled\nMincemeat\nPastel\nScherhorn\nSpan\nBooks\nBodyguard of Lies\nBritish Intelligence in the Second World War (Vol. 5)\nThe Deceivers: Allied Military Deception in the Second World War","title":"Further reading"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt
Hans Georg Dehmelt
["1 Biography","2 Awards and honors","3 References","4 External links"]
German physicist Hans Georg DehmeltHans Georg DehmeltBorn(1922-09-09)9 September 1922Görlitz, GermanyDied7 March 2017(2017-03-07) (aged 94)Seattle, Washington, U.S.NationalityGerman, AmericanAlma materUniversity of GöttingenKnown forDevelopment of the ion trapPrecise measurement of the electron g-factorPenning trapLaser coolingDoppler coolingNuclear quadrupole resonanceAwardsNational Medal of Science (1995)Nobel Prize in Physics (1989)Rumford Prize (1985)Humboldt Prize (1974)Davisson–Germer Prize (1970)Scientific careerFieldsPhysicsInstitutionsUniversity of Washington Duke UniversityDoctoral studentsDavid J. Wineland Hans Georg Dehmelt (German pronunciation: ⓘ; 9 September 1922 – 7 March 2017) was a German and American physicist, who was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989, for co-developing the ion trap technique (Penning trap) with Wolfgang Paul, for which they shared one-half of the prize (the other half of the Prize in that year was awarded to Norman Foster Ramsey). Their technique was used for high precision measurement of the electron magnetic moment. Biography At the age of ten Dehmelt enrolled in the Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster, a Latin school in Berlin, where he was admitted on a scholarship. After graduating in 1940, he volunteered for service in the German Army, which ordered him to attend the University of Breslau to study physics in 1943. After a year of study he returned to army service and was captured during the Battle of the Bulge. After his release from an American prisoner of war camp in 1946, Dehmelt returned to his study of physics at the University of Göttingen, where he supported himself by repairing and bartering old, pre-war radio sets. He completed his master's thesis in 1948 and received his PhD in 1950, both from the University of Göttingen. He was then invited to Duke University as a postdoctoral associate, emigrating in 1952. Dehmelt became an assistant professor at the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington in 1955, an associate professor in 1958, and a full professor in 1961. In 1955 he built his first electron impact tube in George Volkoff's laboratory at the University of British Columbia and experimented on paramagnetic resonances in polarized atoms and free electrons. In the 1960s, Dehmelt and his students worked on spectroscopy of hydrogen and helium ions. The electron was finally isolated in 1973 with David Wineland, who continued work on trapped ions at NIST. He created the first geonium atom in 1976, which he then used to measure precise magnetic moments of the electron and positron with R. S. Van Dyck into the 1980s, work that led to his Nobel prize. In 1979 Dehmelt led a team that took the first photo of a single atom. He continued work on ion traps at the University of Washington, until his retirement in October 2002. In May 2010, he was honoured as one of Washington's Nobel laureates by Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden at a special event in Seattle. He was married to Irmgard Lassow, now deceased, and the couple had a son, Gerd, also deceased. In 1989 Dehmelt married Diana Dundore, a physician. Dehmelt died on March 7, 2017, in Seattle, Washington, aged 94. Awards and honors Davisson-Germer Prize in 1970. Rumford Prize in 1985. Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989. Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1990. National Medal of Science in 1995. References ^ "Dr. Hans Dehmelt's Obituary - The Co-op Funeral Home of People's Memorial". Archived from the original on 2017-03-18. ^ "Berühmter Görlitzer Physiker ist tot" . Sächsische Zeitung (in German). Saxony: DDV. 2017-03-16. Retrieved 2017-03-17. ^ Sandomir, Richard (9 April 2017). "Hans Dehmelt, Nobel Laureate for Isolating Electrons, Dies at 94". The New York Times. ^ "Nobel Prize in Physics 1989. Press release". The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. 12 October 1989. Retrieved 2008-04-08. ^ Sandomir, Richard (April 9, 2017), "Hans Dehmelt, Nobel Laureate for Isolating Electrons, Dies at 94", The New York Times ^ Urton, James (2017-03-21). "Hans Dehmelt — Nobel laureate and UW professor emeritus — has died at age 94". UW Today. University of Washington. ^ "Hans G. Dehmelt - Biographical". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2017-03-15. ^ Trujillo, Joshua (2010-05-07). "Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden honors local Nobel Laureates - Seattle's Big Blog". Blog.seattlepi.com. Retrieved 2017-03-15. ^ "King County deaths". The Seattle Post-Intelligencer. March 13, 2017. ^ "Hans Dehmelt's Obituary on The Seattle Times". Legacy.com. ^ "Physicist Hans Dehmelt, the first UW professor to win a Nobel Prize, dies". 23 March 2017. ^ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement. ^ "The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details". Nsf.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-15. Sources "Moby Electron" article by David H. Freeman, Discover Magazine, February, 1991, pp. 51–56 External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Hans Georg Dehmelt. Hans G. Dehmelt on Nobelprize.org including the Nobel Lecture, December 8, 1989 Experiments with an Isolated Subatomic Particle at Rest University of Washington home page Archived 2009-05-07 at the Wayback Machine Seattle Times newspaper article D. J. Wineland, "Hans G. Dehmelt", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2018) vteLaureates of the Nobel Prize in Physics1901–1925 1901: Röntgen 1902: Lorentz / Zeeman 1903: Becquerel / P. Curie / M. Curie 1904: Rayleigh 1905: Lenard 1906: J. J. Thomson 1907: Michelson 1908: Lippmann 1909: Marconi / Braun 1910: Van der Waals 1911: Wien 1912: Dalén 1913: Kamerlingh Onnes 1914: Laue 1915: W. L. Bragg / W. H. Bragg 1916 1917: Barkla 1918: Planck 1919: Stark 1920: Guillaume 1921: Einstein 1922: N. Bohr 1923: Millikan 1924: M. Siegbahn 1925: Franck / Hertz 1926–1950 1926: Perrin 1927: Compton / C. Wilson 1928: O. Richardson 1929: De Broglie 1930: Raman 1931 1932: Heisenberg 1933: Schrödinger / Dirac 1934 1935: Chadwick 1936: Hess / C. D. Anderson 1937: Davisson / G. P. Thomson 1938: Fermi 1939: Lawrence 1940 1941 1942 1943: Stern 1944: Rabi 1945: Pauli 1946: Bridgman 1947: Appleton 1948: Blackett 1949: Yukawa 1950: Powell 1951–1975 1951: Cockcroft / Walton 1952: Bloch / Purcell 1953: Zernike 1954: Born / Bothe 1955: Lamb / Kusch 1956: Shockley / Bardeen / Brattain 1957: C. N. Yang / T. D. Lee 1958: Cherenkov / Frank / Tamm 1959: Segrè / Chamberlain 1960: Glaser 1961: Hofstadter / Mössbauer 1962: Landau 1963: Wigner / Goeppert Mayer / Jensen 1964: Townes / Basov / Prokhorov 1965: Tomonaga / Schwinger / Feynman 1966: Kastler 1967: Bethe 1968: Alvarez 1969: Gell-Mann 1970: Alfvén / Néel 1971: Gabor 1972: Bardeen / Cooper / Schrieffer 1973: Esaki / Giaever / Josephson 1974: Ryle / Hewish 1975: A. Bohr / Mottelson / Rainwater 1976–2000 1976: Richter / Ting 1977: P. W. Anderson / Mott / Van Vleck 1978: Kapitsa / Penzias / R. Wilson 1979: Glashow / Salam / Weinberg 1980: Cronin / Fitch 1981: Bloembergen / Schawlow / K. Siegbahn 1982: K. Wilson 1983: Chandrasekhar / Fowler 1984: Rubbia / Van der Meer 1985: von Klitzing 1986: Ruska / Binnig / Rohrer 1987: Bednorz / Müller 1988: Lederman / Schwartz / Steinberger 1989: Ramsey / Dehmelt / Paul 1990: Friedman / Kendall / R. Taylor 1991: de Gennes 1992: Charpak 1993: Hulse / J. Taylor 1994: Brockhouse / Shull 1995: Perl / Reines 1996: D. Lee / Osheroff / R. Richardson 1997: Chu / Cohen-Tannoudji / Phillips 1998: Laughlin / Störmer / Tsui 1999: 't Hooft / Veltman 2000: Alferov / Kroemer / Kilby 2001–present 2001: Cornell / Ketterle / Wieman 2002: Davis / Koshiba / Giacconi 2003: Abrikosov / Ginzburg / Leggett 2004: Gross / Politzer / Wilczek 2005: Glauber / Hall / Hänsch 2006: Mather / Smoot 2007: Fert / Grünberg 2008: Nambu / Kobayashi / Maskawa 2009: Kao / Boyle / Smith 2010: Geim / Novoselov 2011: Perlmutter / Schmidt / Riess 2012: Wineland / Haroche 2013: Englert / Higgs 2014: Akasaki / Amano / Nakamura 2015: Kajita / McDonald 2016: Thouless / Haldane / Kosterlitz 2017: Weiss / Barish / Thorne 2018: Ashkin / Mourou / Strickland 2019: Peebles / Mayor / Queloz 2020: Penrose / Genzel / Ghez 2021: Parisi / Hasselmann / Manabe 2022: Aspect / Clauser / Zeilinger 2023: Agostini / Krausz / L'Huillier vte1989 Nobel Prize laureatesChemistry Sidney Altman (Canada/United States) Thomas Cech (United States) Literature (1989)Camilo José Cela (Spain)Peace 14th Dalai Lama (Tibet) Physics Norman Foster Ramsey Jr. (United States) Hans Georg Dehmelt (Germany) Wolfgang Paul (Germany) Physiology or Medicine J. Michael Bishop (United States) Harold E. Varmus (United States) Economic Sciences Trygve Haavelmo (Norway) Nobel Prize recipients 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Czech Republic Poland Academics Mathematics Genealogy Project People Deutsche Biographie
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[ˈhans ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈdeːml̩t]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/De-Hans_Georg_Dehmelt.ogg/De-Hans_Georg_Dehmelt.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:De-Hans_Georg_Dehmelt.ogg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SZ-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nobelprizepress-4"},{"link_name":"ion trap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_trap"},{"link_name":"Penning trap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penning_trap"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul"},{"link_name":"Norman Foster Ramsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey"},{"link_name":"electron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"magnetic moment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_moment"}],"text":"Hans Georg Dehmelt (German pronunciation: [ˈhans ˈɡeːɔʁk ˈdeːml̩t] ⓘ; 9 September 1922 – 7 March 2017)[1][2][3] was a German and American physicist, who was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1989,[4] for co-developing the ion trap technique (Penning trap) with Wolfgang Paul, for which they shared one-half of the prize (the other half of the Prize in that year was awarded to Norman Foster Ramsey). Their technique was used for high precision measurement of the electron magnetic moment.","title":"Hans Georg Dehmelt"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlinisches_Gymnasium_zum_Grauen_Kloster"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"Berlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sandomir-5"},{"link_name":"German Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Army_(Wehrmacht)"},{"link_name":"University of Breslau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Breslau"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Bulge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge"},{"link_name":"University of Göttingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen"},{"link_name":"Duke University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_University"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"Seattle, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UW_Today-6"},{"link_name":"George Volkoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Volkoff"},{"link_name":"University of British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"geonium atom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geonium_atom"},{"link_name":"ion traps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_trap"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Princess_Victoria_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-seattlepi-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"At the age of ten Dehmelt enrolled in the Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster, a Latin school in Berlin, where he was admitted on a scholarship.[5] After graduating in 1940, he volunteered for service in the German Army, which ordered him to attend the University of Breslau to study physics in 1943. After a year of study he returned to army service and was captured during the Battle of the Bulge.After his release from an American prisoner of war camp in 1946, Dehmelt returned to his study of physics at the University of Göttingen, where he supported himself by repairing and bartering old, pre-war radio sets. He completed his master's thesis in 1948 and received his PhD in 1950, both from the University of Göttingen. He was then invited to Duke University as a postdoctoral associate, emigrating in 1952. Dehmelt became an assistant professor at the University of Washington in Seattle, Washington in 1955, an associate professor in 1958, and a full professor in 1961.[6]In 1955 he built his first electron impact tube in George Volkoff's laboratory at the University of British Columbia[7] and experimented on paramagnetic resonances in polarized atoms and free electrons. In the 1960s, Dehmelt and his students worked on spectroscopy of hydrogen and helium ions. The electron was finally isolated in 1973 with David Wineland, who continued work on trapped ions at NIST.He created the first geonium atom in 1976, which he then used to measure precise magnetic moments of the electron and positron with R. S. Van Dyck into the 1980s, work that led to his Nobel prize. In 1979 Dehmelt led a team that took the first photo of a single atom. He continued work on ion traps at the University of Washington, until his retirement in October 2002.In May 2010, he was honoured as one of Washington's Nobel laureates by Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden at a special event in Seattle.[8]He was married to Irmgard Lassow, now deceased, and the couple had a son, Gerd, also deceased. In 1989 Dehmelt married Diana Dundore, a physician.Dehmelt died on March 7, 2017, in Seattle, Washington, aged 94.[9][10][11]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Davisson-Germer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davisson-Germer_Prize"},{"link_name":"Rumford Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumford_Prize"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize in Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Achievement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"National Medal of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Davisson-Germer Prize in 1970.\nRumford Prize in 1985.\nNobel Prize in Physics in 1989.\nGolden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1990.[12]\nNational Medal of Science in 1995.[13]","title":"Awards and honors"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"\"Dr. Hans Dehmelt's Obituary - The Co-op Funeral Home of People's Memorial\". Archived from the original on 2017-03-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170318083359/http://funerals.coop/obituaries/dr-hans-dehmelt.html","url_text":"\"Dr. Hans Dehmelt's Obituary - The Co-op Funeral Home of People's Memorial\""},{"url":"http://funerals.coop/obituaries/dr-hans-dehmelt.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Berühmter Görlitzer Physiker ist tot\" [Famous Görlitz Physicist is Dead]. Sächsische Zeitung (in German). Saxony: DDV. 2017-03-16. Retrieved 2017-03-17.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sz-online.de/nachrichten/beruehmter-goerlitzer-physiker-ist-tot-3637180.html","url_text":"\"Berühmter Görlitzer Physiker ist tot\""}]},{"reference":"Sandomir, Richard (9 April 2017). \"Hans Dehmelt, Nobel Laureate for Isolating Electrons, Dies at 94\". The New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/09/science/hans-dehmelt-dies-nobel-laureate-physics.html","url_text":"\"Hans Dehmelt, Nobel Laureate for Isolating Electrons, Dies at 94\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nobel Prize in Physics 1989. Press release\". The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. 12 October 1989. Retrieved 2008-04-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1989/press.html","url_text":"\"Nobel Prize in Physics 1989. Press release\""}]},{"reference":"Sandomir, Richard (April 9, 2017), \"Hans Dehmelt, Nobel Laureate for Isolating Electrons, Dies at 94\", The New York Times","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/09/science/hans-dehmelt-dies-nobel-laureate-physics.html","url_text":"\"Hans Dehmelt, Nobel Laureate for Isolating Electrons, Dies at 94\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Urton, James (2017-03-21). \"Hans Dehmelt — Nobel laureate and UW professor emeritus — has died at age 94\". UW Today. University of Washington.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.washington.edu/news/2017/03/21/hans-dehmelt-nobel-laureate-and-uw-professor-emeritus-has-died-at-age-94/","url_text":"\"Hans Dehmelt — Nobel laureate and UW professor emeritus — has died at age 94\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hans G. Dehmelt - Biographical\". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2017-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1989/dehmelt-autobio.html","url_text":"\"Hans G. Dehmelt - Biographical\""}]},{"reference":"Trujillo, Joshua (2010-05-07). \"Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden honors local Nobel Laureates - Seattle's Big Blog\". Blog.seattlepi.com. Retrieved 2017-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.seattlepi.com/thebigblog/2010/05/07/crown-princess-victoria-of-sweden-honors-local-nobel-laureates/","url_text":"\"Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden honors local Nobel Laureates - Seattle's Big Blog\""}]},{"reference":"\"King County deaths\". The Seattle Post-Intelligencer. March 13, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.seattlepi.com/local/obits/article/King-County-deaths-03-10-2017-10997885.php","url_text":"\"King County deaths\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Seattle_Post-Intelligencer","url_text":"The Seattle Post-Intelligencer"}]},{"reference":"\"Hans Dehmelt's Obituary on The Seattle Times\". Legacy.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.legacy.com/obituaries/seattletimes/obituary.aspx?n=hans-dehmelt&pid=184580043","url_text":"\"Hans Dehmelt's Obituary on The Seattle Times\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legacy.com","url_text":"Legacy.com"}]},{"reference":"\"Physicist Hans Dehmelt, the first UW professor to win a Nobel Prize, dies\". 23 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/education/physicist-hans-dehmelt-the-first-uw-professor-to-win-a-nobel-prize-dies/","url_text":"\"Physicist Hans Dehmelt, the first UW professor to win a Nobel Prize, dies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement\". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement.","urls":[{"url":"https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration","url_text":"\"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Achievement","url_text":"American Academy of Achievement"}]},{"reference":"\"The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details\". Nsf.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/recip_details.cfm?recip_id=102","url_text":"\"The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_material
Writing material
["1 History","1.1 Archaeology","1.2 Common writing materials of the Middle Ages","1.3 Paper","1.4 Electronic media","2 See also","3 References","4 Further reading"]
Material which can be written upon This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this article. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Writing material" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Handwriting on paper; a writing material A writing material is a surface that can be written on with suitable instruments, or used for symbolic or representational drawings. Building materials on which writings or drawings are produced are not included. The gross characterization of writing materials is by the material constituting the writing surface (for example, paper) and the number, size, usage, and storage configuration of multiple surfaces (for example, paper sheets) into a single object (for example, a spiral notebook). Writing materials are often paired with specific types of writing instruments. Other important attributes of writing material are its reusability, permanence, and resistance to fraudulent misuse. History Archaeology Rock paintings in Libya Because drawing preceded writing, the first remains of writing materials are the stone walls of the caves on which cave paintings were drawn. Another precursor was tally sticks used to record the count of objects or the passage of discrete time units (days). Tally sticks have been found made of wood and bone. Knotted ropes and similar materials were also used for tallies. Such materials did not take a great deal of preparation for their use for drawing or writing. Animal hides also had potential for use as a material for writing or drawing, although the drawings and writings may have been decorative or to convey status or religious meaning. Among the barks of trees, birch bark is very well suited for use as a writing material and was used in Northern Europe and among native peoples in North America. Four other classes of material were sometimes used for writing: clay, wax, cloth, and metal. The value of metal for useful implements may have made it less than useful for practical writing and drawing. The hardness of many metals that made them useful also made it an inconvenient material for many kinds of writing. But foils or sheets of soft metals like lead were usable. Lead sheets were used for curse tablets, as well as personal correspondence. Papyrus fragment from the late Middle Kingdom in Ancient Egypt Writing seems to have become more widespread with the invention of papyrus in Egypt. Parchment, using sheepskins left after the wool was removed for cloth, was sometimes cheaper than papyrus, which had to be imported from outside of Egypt. With the invention of wood-pulp paper, the cost of writing material began a steady decline. Cloth probably shared its mode of use with animal skins. Clay introduces the useful combination of extreme ease of making the inscription with the potential for rendering it fairly permanent. Unglazed pottery can readily accept inscriptions even after firing. Wax offers another novel combination of advantages: a reusable surface, easily inscribed and erased, and an easy combination with materials like wood that give it durability. Stone tablets, clay and wooden writing tablets, and wax-covered wooden tablets are some of the first specialized configurations of materials in flat surfaces specifically for writing. Unglazed pottery shards were used almost as a kind of scratch paper, as ostraka, for tax receipts, and, in Athens, to record the individual nominations of Greek leaders for ostracism. The archaeological record contains either examples of these materials used for drawing or writing or it has indirect indications of their use for writing, drawing, or tallying. The Quipu or talking knots were recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by several cultures in the region of Andean South America. Knotted strings were used by many other cultures such as the ancient Chinese and native Hawaiians, but such practices should not be confused with the quipu, which refers only to the Andean device. Common writing materials of the Middle Ages In Western civilizations, papyrus, which originated in 3,000 B.C.E. in Egypt, was later replaced by parchment made by treating animal hides, a process starting in the second century B.C. in the Mediterranean region A wide variety of parchments from various animal skins, with different textures, quality, and hue were widely used for codices, religious and cultural texts. This was replaced by the advent and increasing access and availability of paper. In eastern civilisations such as India, the principal writing media were birch bark or bhurjapatra (Sanskrit) and dried palm leaves. The use of paper began only after the 10th century. However, birch bark and palm leaf continue to be used even today on a limited scale in a rural milieu for the use of horoscopes, wedding invitations, and other cultural uses. In China, the early material was animal bones, later silk, bamboo, and wooden slips, until the 2nd century when paper was invented. The invention of paper is attributed to a eunuch of the imperial court called Cai Lun in 105 A.D. However, paper was not introduced to Europe for another thousand years following a battle in 751 A.D. where a few paper-makers were captured, and thus the technology spread from Baghdad westward, only reaching Spain in the 12th century. Paper Cai Lun used old rags, hemp, tree bark, and fishing nets to develop a method of paper-making fundamentally similar to that still used today. The world of Islam acquired the art of papermaking in the 8th century, taught by Chinese prisoners who had been taken during eastward expeditions. Eventually, the Muslims brought papermaking to the Indian subcontinent and to Europe. Paper was at first called bagdatikos meaning "from Baghdad". The craft of paper-making reached Spain in the twelfth century, and at subsequent hundred-year intervals arrived in Italy, Germany, and England. Yet for centuries after paper became widely available in Europe, vellum and parchment were preferred for documents that had to be long-lasting. The basic ingredients of paper were linen and cotton, soaked in water and beaten into a smooth pulp, or slurry. As the pulp was drained through a wire screen, the slurry's interlocking fibers matted together, ready for the next step. First, a press squeezed out water from the sheet, preparatory to drying; then, the application of a gelatin coating readied the sheet's surface for ink. In the late 18th century, paper was still made from cloth gathered by ragpickers. Wove Paper was invented by James Whatman and John Baskerville (1706-75). They created a way to produce perfectly smooth paper, using a fine wire mesh that left no lines from the mould on the page. Electronic media Electronic media have utilized the keyboard developed for the typewriter, electrical and electronic circuitry, and storage devices, and the viewing screen developed for reading electronic signals to provide another form of writing material. The Palm Pilot was invented in 1996 and further changed the idea of electronic devices as writing materials. It was the first consumer product that allowed people to write directly on an electronic screen using a stylus, rather than having to input their writing using a keyboard. See also Notebook Desk pad References ^ Domenici, Viviano; Domenici, Davide (1996). "Talking Knots of the Inka". Archaeology. Vol. 49, no. 6. Retrieved 18 March 2016. ^ Neuman, William (January 2, 2016). "Untangling an Accounting Tool and an Ancient Inca Mystery". New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2016. ^ Jacobsen, Lyle E. "Use of Knotted String Accounting Records in Old Hawaii and Ancient China". Accounting Historians Journal. Retrieved 29 August 2016. ^ a b Gascolgne, Arthur Bamber. "HISTORY OF WRITING MATERIALS". historyworld.net. ^ a b c Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books : A Living History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-1606060834. ^ Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library : An Illustrated History. China: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-60239-706-4. ^ Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library : An Illustrated History. China: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-60239-706-4. ^ Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. p. 99. ISBN 978-1606060834. ^ Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-1606060834. ^ Andrea., Butter (2002). Piloting Palm: the inside story of Palm, Handspring, and the birth of the billion-dollar handheld industry. Pogue, David, 1963-. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471089656. OCLC 49078768. Further reading Wikimedia Commons has media related to Writing materials. Harris, Roy (1985) The Origin of Writing. La Salle, IL: Open Court. Martin, Henri-Jean (1988) The History and Power of Writing, translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. vteWriting and writing materialEnduringPlant-based Amate Trema micrantha Ficus aurea Bamboo and wooden slips Birch bark (Betula) Folding-book manuscript Streblus asper Broussonetia papyrifera Ola leaf (Corypha umbraculifera) Palm leaf (Borassus) Paper Papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) Other materials Animal skin Parchment Vellum Ink Metals Intaglio Stamping Oracle bone Photographic film Stone Geoglyph Petroglyph Tablets Clay tablet Slate Wax tablet Textile printing Silk text Impermanent Electronic paper Screen Skywriting Carrier objects Book Codex Notebook Electronic media Hu/Shaku (baton) Inscription Bas-relief Manuscript Palimpsest Microform Scroll Sign Related topics Writing systems History of writing List of writing systems Written language
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Den.JPG"},{"link_name":"suitable instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_instruments"},{"link_name":"symbolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol"},{"link_name":"representational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_(arts)"},{"link_name":"drawings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drawing"},{"link_name":"Building materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Building_material"},{"link_name":"paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"spiral notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_notebook"}],"text":"Handwriting on paper; a writing materialA writing material is a surface that can be written on with suitable instruments, or used for symbolic or representational drawings. Building materials on which writings or drawings are produced are not included. The gross characterization of writing materials is by the material constituting the writing surface (for example, paper) and the number, size, usage, and storage configuration of multiple surfaces (for example, paper sheets) into a single object (for example, a spiral notebook). Writing materials are often paired with specific types of writing instruments. Other important attributes of writing material are its reusability, permanence, and resistance to fraudulent misuse.","title":"Writing material"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Libya_4924_Pictograms_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007_cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_(geology)"},{"link_name":"cave paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_painting"},{"link_name":"tally sticks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tally_stick"},{"link_name":"days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Days"},{"link_name":"wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood"},{"link_name":"bone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone"},{"link_name":"hides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hide_(skin)"},{"link_name":"birch bark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_bark"},{"link_name":"clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay"},{"link_name":"wax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax"},{"link_name":"cloth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth"},{"link_name":"metal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"curse tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse_tablets"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Papyrs-Harrageh-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Middle Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus"},{"link_name":"Parchment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment"},{"link_name":"wood-pulp paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-pulp_paper"},{"link_name":"Stone tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_tablets"},{"link_name":"wax-covered wooden tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax_tablet"},{"link_name":"ostraka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostraka"},{"link_name":"ostracism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracism"},{"link_name":"Quipu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quipu"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"strings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(structure)"},{"link_name":"Andean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20160102-2"},{"link_name":"ancient Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_China"},{"link_name":"native Hawaiians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Hawaiians"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Archaeology","text":"Rock paintings in LibyaBecause drawing preceded writing, the first remains of writing materials are the stone walls of the caves on which cave paintings were drawn. Another precursor was tally sticks used to record the count of objects or the passage of discrete time units (days). Tally sticks have been found made of wood and bone. Knotted ropes and similar materials were also used for tallies. Such materials did not take a great deal of preparation for their use for drawing or writing. Animal hides also had potential for use as a material for writing or drawing, although the drawings and writings may have been decorative or to convey status or religious meaning. Among the barks of trees, birch bark is very well suited for use as a writing material and was used in Northern Europe and among native peoples in North America.Four other classes of material were sometimes used for writing: clay, wax, cloth, and metal. The value of metal for useful implements may have made it less than useful for practical writing and drawing. The hardness of many metals that made them useful also made it an inconvenient material for many kinds of writing. But foils or sheets of soft metals like lead were usable. Lead sheets were used for curse tablets, as well as personal correspondence.Papyrus fragment from the late Middle Kingdom in Ancient EgyptWriting seems to have become more widespread with the invention of papyrus in Egypt. Parchment, using sheepskins left after the wool was removed for cloth, was sometimes cheaper than papyrus, which had to be imported from outside of Egypt. With the invention of wood-pulp paper, the cost of writing material began a steady decline.Cloth probably shared its mode of use with animal skins. Clay introduces the useful combination of extreme ease of making the inscription with the potential for rendering it fairly permanent. Unglazed pottery can readily accept inscriptions even after firing. Wax offers another novel combination of advantages: a reusable surface, easily inscribed and erased, and an easy combination with materials like wood that give it durability. Stone tablets, clay and wooden writing tablets, and wax-covered wooden tablets are some of the first specialized configurations of materials in flat surfaces specifically for writing.Unglazed pottery shards were used almost as a kind of scratch paper, as ostraka, for tax receipts, and, in Athens, to record the individual nominations of Greek leaders for ostracism.The archaeological record contains either examples of these materials used for drawing or writing or it has indirect indications of their use for writing, drawing, or tallying.The Quipu or talking knots[1] were recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by several cultures in the region of Andean South America.[2] Knotted strings were used by many other cultures such as the ancient Chinese and native Hawaiians,[3] but such practices should not be confused with the quipu, which refers only to the Andean device.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus"},{"link_name":"parchment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"birch bark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_bark"},{"link_name":"dried palm leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm_leaf_manuscript"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"bamboo, and wooden slips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips"},{"link_name":"paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"Cai Lun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cai_Lun"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"}],"sub_title":"Common writing materials of the Middle Ages","text":"In Western civilizations, papyrus, which originated in 3,000 B.C.E. in Egypt, was later replaced by parchment made by treating animal hides, a process starting in the second century B.C. in the Mediterranean region[4] A wide variety of parchments from various animal skins, with different textures, quality, and hue were widely used for codices, religious and cultural texts. This was replaced by the advent and increasing access and availability of paper.In eastern civilisations such as India, the principal writing media were birch bark or bhurjapatra (Sanskrit) and dried palm leaves. The use of paper began only after the 10th century. However, birch bark and palm leaf continue to be used even today on a limited scale in a rural milieu for the use of horoscopes, wedding invitations, and other cultural uses.In China, the early material was animal bones, later silk,[5] bamboo, and wooden slips, until the 2nd century when paper was invented. The invention of paper is attributed to a eunuch of the imperial court called Cai Lun in 105 A.D.[5] However, paper was not introduced to Europe for another thousand years following a battle in 751 A.D. where a few paper-makers were captured, and thus the technology spread from Baghdad westward, only reaching Spain in the 12th century.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Paper","text":"Cai Lun used old rags, hemp, tree bark, and fishing nets to develop a method of paper-making fundamentally similar to that still used today.[5]The world of Islam acquired the art of papermaking in the 8th century, taught by Chinese prisoners who had been taken during eastward expeditions. Eventually, the Muslims brought papermaking to the Indian subcontinent and to Europe.[6] Paper was at first called bagdatikos meaning \"from Baghdad\". The craft of paper-making reached Spain in the twelfth century, and at subsequent hundred-year intervals arrived in Italy, Germany, and England. Yet for centuries after paper became widely available in Europe, vellum and parchment were preferred for documents that had to be long-lasting. The basic ingredients of paper were linen and cotton, soaked in water and beaten into a smooth pulp, or slurry. As the pulp was drained through a wire screen, the slurry's interlocking fibers matted together, ready for the next step. First, a press squeezed out water from the sheet, preparatory to drying; then, the application of a gelatin coating readied the sheet's surface for ink. [7]In the late 18th century, paper was still made from cloth gathered by ragpickers.[8] Wove Paper was invented by James Whatman and John Baskerville (1706-75). They created a way to produce perfectly smooth paper, using a fine wire mesh that left no lines from the mould on the page.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Electronic media","text":"Electronic media have utilized the keyboard developed for the typewriter, electrical and electronic circuitry, and storage devices, and the viewing screen developed for reading electronic signals to provide another form of writing material. The Palm Pilot was invented in 1996 and further changed the idea of electronic devices as writing materials. It was the first consumer product that allowed people to write directly on an electronic screen using a stylus, rather than having to input their writing using a keyboard.[10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Writing materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Writing_materials"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Writing"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Writing"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Writing"},{"link_name":"Writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing"},{"link_name":"writing material","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Amate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amate"},{"link_name":"Trema micrantha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trema_micrantha"},{"link_name":"Ficus aurea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_aurea"},{"link_name":"Bamboo and wooden slips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips"},{"link_name":"Birch bark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_bark_manuscript"},{"link_name":"Betula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birch_bark"},{"link_name":"Folding-book manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folding-book_manuscript"},{"link_name":"Streblus asper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streblus_asper"},{"link_name":"Broussonetia papyrifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_mulberry"},{"link_name":"Ola leaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ola_leaf"},{"link_name":"Corypha umbraculifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corypha_umbraculifera"},{"link_name":"Palm leaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palm-leaf_manuscript"},{"link_name":"Borassus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borassus"},{"link_name":"Paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper"},{"link_name":"Papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus"},{"link_name":"Cyperus papyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus_papyrus"},{"link_name":"Parchment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment"},{"link_name":"Vellum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellum"},{"link_name":"Ink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink"},{"link_name":"Intaglio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intaglio_(printmaking)"},{"link_name":"Stamping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamping_(metalworking)"},{"link_name":"Oracle bone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_bone"},{"link_name":"Photographic film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film"},{"link_name":"Stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy"},{"link_name":"Geoglyph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoglyph"},{"link_name":"Petroglyph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroglyph"},{"link_name":"Clay tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet"},{"link_name":"Slate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate_(writing)"},{"link_name":"Wax tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax_tablet"},{"link_name":"Textile printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_printing"},{"link_name":"Silk text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts"},{"link_name":"Electronic paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_paper"},{"link_name":"Screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visual_display"},{"link_name":"Skywriting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skywriting"},{"link_name":"Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book"},{"link_name":"Codex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex"},{"link_name":"Notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook"},{"link_name":"Electronic media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_media"},{"link_name":"Hu/Shaku (baton)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu_(ritual_baton)"},{"link_name":"Inscription","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy"},{"link_name":"Bas-relief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief"},{"link_name":"Manuscript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscript"},{"link_name":"Palimpsest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palimpsest"},{"link_name":"Microform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microform"},{"link_name":"Scroll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll"},{"link_name":"Sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign"},{"link_name":"Writing systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writing_system"},{"link_name":"History of writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_writing"},{"link_name":"List of writing systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_writing_systems"},{"link_name":"Written language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Written_language"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Writing materials.Harris, Roy (1985) The Origin of Writing. La Salle, IL: Open Court.\nMartin, Henri-Jean (1988) The History and Power of Writing, translated by Lydia G. Cochrane. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.vteWriting and writing materialEnduringPlant-based\nAmate\nTrema micrantha\nFicus aurea\nBamboo and wooden slips\nBirch bark (Betula)\nFolding-book manuscript\nStreblus asper\nBroussonetia papyrifera\nOla leaf (Corypha umbraculifera)\nPalm leaf (Borassus)\nPaper\nPapyrus (Cyperus papyrus)\nOther materials\nAnimal skin\nParchment\nVellum\nInk\nMetals\nIntaglio\nStamping\nOracle bone\nPhotographic film\nStone\nGeoglyph\nPetroglyph\nTablets\nClay tablet\nSlate\nWax tablet\nTextile printing\nSilk text\nImpermanent\nElectronic paper\nScreen\nSkywriting\nCarrier objects\nBook\nCodex\nNotebook\nElectronic media\nHu/Shaku (baton)\nInscription\nBas-relief\nManuscript\nPalimpsest\nMicroform\nScroll\nSign\nRelated topics\nWriting systems\nHistory of writing\nList of writing systems\nWritten language","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Handwriting on paper; a writing material","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Den.JPG/220px-Den.JPG"},{"image_text":"Rock paintings in Libya","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Libya_4924_Pictograms_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007_cropped.jpg/220px-Libya_4924_Pictograms_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007_cropped.jpg"},{"image_text":"Papyrus fragment from the late Middle Kingdom in Ancient Egypt","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Papyrs-Harrageh-1.jpg/170px-Papyrs-Harrageh-1.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Notebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook"},{"title":"Desk pad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desk_pad"}]
[{"reference":"Domenici, Viviano; Domenici, Davide (1996). \"Talking Knots of the Inka\". Archaeology. Vol. 49, no. 6. Retrieved 18 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://archive.archaeology.org/9611/abstracts/inka.html","url_text":"\"Talking Knots of the Inka\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)","url_text":"Archaeology"}]},{"reference":"Neuman, William (January 2, 2016). \"Untangling an Accounting Tool and an Ancient Inca Mystery\". New York Times. Retrieved January 8, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/03/world/americas/untangling-an-accounting-tool-and-an-ancient-incan-mystery.html","url_text":"\"Untangling an Accounting Tool and an Ancient Inca Mystery\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times","url_text":"New York Times"}]},{"reference":"Jacobsen, Lyle E. \"Use of Knotted String Accounting Records in Old Hawaii and Ancient China\". Accounting Historians Journal. Retrieved 29 August 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.accountingin.com/accounting-historians-journal/volume-10-number-2/use-of-knotted-string-accounting-records-in-old-hawaii-and-ancient-china/","url_text":"\"Use of Knotted String Accounting Records in Old Hawaii and Ancient China\""}]},{"reference":"Gascolgne, Arthur Bamber. \"HISTORY OF WRITING MATERIALS\". historyworld.net.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=aa92","url_text":"\"HISTORY OF WRITING MATERIALS\""}]},{"reference":"Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books : A Living History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. p. 18. ISBN 978-1606060834.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1606060834","url_text":"978-1606060834"}]},{"reference":"Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library : An Illustrated History. China: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 978-1-60239-706-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4","url_text":"978-1-60239-706-4"}]},{"reference":"Murray, Stuart (2009). The Library : An Illustrated History. China: Skyhorse Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-60239-706-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60239-706-4","url_text":"978-1-60239-706-4"}]},{"reference":"Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. p. 99. ISBN 978-1606060834.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1606060834","url_text":"978-1606060834"}]},{"reference":"Lyons, Martyn (2011). Books: A Living History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-1606060834.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1606060834","url_text":"978-1606060834"}]},{"reference":"Andrea., Butter (2002). Piloting Palm: the inside story of Palm, Handspring, and the birth of the billion-dollar handheld industry. Pogue, David, 1963-. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471089656. OCLC 49078768.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/pilotingpalminsi00butt","url_text":"Piloting Palm: the inside story of Palm, Handspring, and the birth of the billion-dollar handheld industry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471089656","url_text":"0471089656"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/49078768","url_text":"49078768"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_Griffith
Phillip Griffith
["1 Publications","2 References"]
American mathematician Not to be confused with Phillip A. Griffiths, another American mathematician.. Phillip Alan Griffith (born December 29, 1940) is a mathematician and professor emeritus at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign who works on commutative algebra and ring theory. He received his PhD from the University of Houston in 1968. Griffith is the editor-in-chief of the Illinois Journal of Mathematics In 1971, Griffith received a Sloan Fellowship. Publications Griffith, Phillip A. (1970), Infinite abelian group theory, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.-London, ISBN 978-0-226-30870-8, MR 0289638 Griffith, Phillip; Evans, E. Graham (1985), Syzygies, London Mathematical Society Lecture Note Series, vol. 106, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-31411-4, MR 0811636 References ^ a b "Phillip Griffith". Department of Mathematics. University of Illinois. Archived from the original on April 3, 2016. Retrieved November 8, 2012. ^ "Faculty Honors". Mathematics. University of Illinois. Archived from the original on February 15, 2013. Retrieved November 8, 2012. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Israel United States Netherlands Academics MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH This article about an American mathematician is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone
Marylebone
["1 History","1.1 Etymology","1.2 Manors of Tyburn and Lileston","1.3 Shifting parish church","1.4 Urbanisation","1.5 Social history","1.6 Coat of arms","1.7 Later administrative history","1.8 20th century","2 Streets","3 Representation","4 Geography","5 Former Landmarks","6 Notable residents","7 Transport","7.1 Tube stations","7.2 Railway stations","7.3 Bus","8 Education","9 References","10 External links"]
Coordinates: 51°31′04″N 0°08′49″W / 51.5177°N 0.1470°W / 51.5177; -0.1470Area in London, England "St Marylebone" redirects here. For the London borough, see Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone. Not to be confused with St Mary-le-Bow. This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (October 2020) Human settlement in EnglandMaryleboneMarylebone Town HallMaryleboneLocation within Greater LondonOS grid referenceTQ285815London boroughWestminsterCeremonial countyGreater LondonRegionLondonCountryEnglandSovereign stateUnited KingdomPost townLONDONPostcode districtW1Postcode districtNW1Dialling code020PoliceMetropolitanFireLondonAmbulanceLondon UK ParliamentCities of London and WestminsterWestminster NorthLondon AssemblyWest Central List of places UK England London 51°31′04″N 0°08′49″W / 51.5177°N 0.1470°W / 51.5177; -0.1470 Marylebone (usually /ˈmɑːrlɪbən/, also /ˈmærɪləbən, ˈmærɪbən/) is an area in London, England and is located in the City of Westminster. It is in Central London and part of the West End. Oxford Street forms its southern boundary. An ancient parish and latterly a metropolitan borough, it merged with the boroughs of Westminster and Paddington to form the new City of Westminster in 1965. Marylebone station lies two miles north-west of Charing Cross. The area is also served by numerous tube stations: Baker Street, Bond Street, Edgware Road (Bakerloo line), Edgware Road (Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines), Great Portland Street, Marble Arch, Marylebone, Oxford Circus, and Regent's Park. History Marylebone was an Ancient Parish formed to serve the manors (landholdings) of Lileston (in the west, which gives its name to modern Lisson Grove) and Tyburn in the east. The parish is likely to have been in place since at least the twelfth century and will have used the boundaries of the pre-existing manors. The boundaries of the parish were consistent from the late twelfth century to the creation of the Metropolitan Borough which succeeded it. Etymology The parish took its name from its church, dedicated to St Mary; the original church was built on the bank of a small stream or "bourne", called the Tybourne or Tyburn. This stream rose further north in (Hampstead), eventually running along what became Marylebone Lane, which preserves its curve within the grid pattern. The original name of the parish was simply Marybourne, the stream of St Mary; the French "le" appeared in the 17th century, under the influence of names like Mary-le-Bow. The suggestion that the name derives from Marie la Bonne, or "Mary the Good", is not substantiated. Manors of Tyburn and Lileston Both manors were mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086. Domesday recorded eight households in each manor, implying a combined population of less than a hundred. At Domesday the Manor of Lilestone was valued at 60 shillings and owned by a woman called Ediva. Tyburn was a possession of the Nunnery of Barking Abbey and valued at 52 shillings. The ownership of both manors was the same as it had been before the Conquest. Lilestone became the property of the Knights Templar until their suppression in 1312. It then passed to the Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, whose name is the origin of the place name St John's Wood. Early in the 13th century Tyburn was held by Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford. At the end of the 15th century Thomas Hobson bought up the greater part of the manor; in 1544 his son Thomas exchanged it with Henry VIII, who enclosed the northern part of the manor as a deer park, the distant origin of Regent's Park. Lilestone Manor also passed into the hands of the Crown at this time. Tyburn manor remained with the Crown until the southern part was sold in 1611 by James I, who retained the deer park, to Edward Forest, who had held it as a fixed rental under Elizabeth I. Forest's manor of Marylebone then passed by marriage to the Austen family. The deer park, Marylebone Park Fields, was let out in small holdings for hay and dairy produce. An 1834 map of the borough of St Marylebone, showing the parishes of Paddington (green), Marylebone (red), and St Pancras (yellow) Shifting parish church St Marylebone Church The Ancient Parish's church, St Marylebone Parish Church, has been rebuilt several times at various locations within the parish. The earliest known church dedicated to St John the Evangelist was established by Barking Abbey, which held Manor of Tyburn, at an unknown date, but probably sometime in the 12th century. This church was located on the north side of Oxford Street, probably near the junction with Marylebone Lane. This site was subject to regular robbery and in 1400 a new church was built, around 900 metres further north. and given the name St Mary by the Bourne. This church was rebuilt in 1740 with a new building erected a little further north in 1817. Urbanisation In 1710, John Holles, Duke of Newcastle, purchased the manor for £17,500, and his daughter and heir, Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles, by her marriage to Edward Harley, Earl of Oxford, passed it into the family of the Earl of Oxford, one of whose titles was Lord Harley of Wigmore. She and the earl, realising the need for fashionable housing north of the Oxford Road (now Oxford St), commissioned the surveyor and builder John Prince to draw a master plan that set Cavendish Square in a rational grid system of streets. The Harley heiress Lady Margaret Cavendish Harley married William, 2nd Duke of Portland, and took the property, including Marylebone High Street, into the Bentinck family. Such place names in the neighbourhood as Cavendish Square and Portland Place reflect the Dukes of Portland landholdings and Georgian-era developments there. In 1879 the fifth Duke died without issue and the estate passed through the female line to his sister, Lucy Joan Bentinck, widow of the 6th Baron Howard de Walden. Most of the Manor of Lileston was acquired by Sir William Portman in 1554, and much of this was developed by his descendants as the Portman Estate in the late 1700s. Both estates have aristocratic antecedents and are still run by members of the aforementioned families. The Howard de Walden Estate owns, leases and manages the majority of the 92 acres (37 ha) of real estate in Marylebone which comprises the area from Marylebone High Street in the west to Robert Adam's Portland Place in the east and from Wigmore Street in the south to Marylebone Road in the north. Social history In the 18th century the area was known for the raffish entertainments in Marylebone Gardens, the scene of bear-baiting and prize fights by members of both sexes, and for the duelling grounds in Marylebone Fields. The Marylebone Cricket Club, for many years the governing body of world cricket, was formed in 1787 and initially based at Dorset Fields before moving a short distance to its current home at Lord's Cricket Ground in 1814. Lord's is also home to Middlesex County Cricket Club and the England and Wales Cricket Board, with the England national team as one of a number of home venues. The ground is sometimes called the Home of Cricket. Coat of arms The Marylebone coat of arms The Borough of St Marylebone was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms in 1901. The crest includes the Virgin Mary wearing a silver robe with a light blue mantle, holding the infant Jesus, dressed in gold. The wavy light blue bars represent the River Tyburn while the gold roses and lilies are taken from the arms of Barking Abbey, which held the Manor of Tyburn and first established the parish church. The version used by the Abbey was placed against a red border, and some versions of Marylebone's arms have made extensive use of red. The roses and lilies ultimately derive from the legend that when Mary's tomb was opened it contained those flowers. The motto "Fiat secundum Verbum Tuum" is Latin for "let it be according to thy word", a phrase used in the Gospel of Luke. Later administrative history The Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone was a metropolitan borough of the County of London between 1899 and 1965, after which, with the Metropolitan Borough of Paddington and the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster it was merged into the City of Westminster. The Metropolitan Borough inherited the boundaries of the Ancient Parish which had been fixed since at least the 12th century. Marylebone Town Hall was completed in 1920. 20th century Marylebone was the scene of the Balcombe Street siege in 1975, when Provisional Irish Republican Army terrorists held two people hostage for almost a week. Streets For a list of street names' etymologies in this district, see Street names of Marylebone. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Punch or May Day by Benjamin Robert Haydon (1829), depicts St Marylebone Church in the background. Marylebone is characterised by major streets on a grid pattern such as Gloucester Place, Baker Street, Marylebone High Street, Wimpole Street, Harley Street and Portland Place, with smaller mews between the major streets. Mansfield Street is a short continuation of Chandos Street built by the Adam brothers in 1770, on a plot of ground which had been underwater. Most of its houses are fine buildings with exquisite interiors, which if put on the market now would have an expected price in excess of £10 million. At Number 13 lived religious architect John Loughborough Pearson who died in 1897, and designer of Castle Drogo and New Delhi Sir Edwin Lutyens, who died in 1944. Immediately across the road at 61 New Cavendish Street lived Natural History Museum creator Alfred Waterhouse. Queen Anne Street is an elegant cross-street which unites the northern end of Chandos Street with Welbeck Street. The painter J. M. W. Turner moved to 47 Queen Anne Street in 1812 from 64 Harley Street, now divided into numbers 22 and 23, and owned the house until his death in 1851. It was known as "Turner's Den", becoming damp, dilapidated, dusty, dirty, with dozens of Turner's works of art now in the National Gallery scattered throughout the house, walls covered in tack holes and a drawing room inhabited by cats with no tails. During the same period a few hundred yards to the east, Chandos House in Chandos Street was used as the Austro-Hungarian Embassy and residence of the fabulously extravagant Ambassador Prince Paul Anton III Esterhazy, seeing entertainment on a most lavish scale. The building is one of the finest surviving Adam houses in London, and now lets rooms. Wimpole Street runs from Henrietta Place north to Devonshire Street, becoming Upper Wimpole en route – the latter where Arthur Conan Doyle opened his ophthalmic practice at number 2 in 1891; Conan Doyle's fictional detective Sherlock Holmes also had his residence in Marylebone at 221b Baker Street. Nearby at a six-floor Grade II 18th-century house at 57 Wimpole Street is where Paul McCartney resided from 1964 to 1966, staying on the top floor of girlfriend Jane Asher's family home in a room overlooking Browning Mews in the back, and with John Lennon writing "I Want to Hold Your Hand" on a piano in the basement. A further Beatles connection is that they, and many other musicians have recorded at the Abbey Road Studios. At her father's house at number 50 Wimpole Street lived for some time between 1840 and 1845, Elizabeth Barrett, then known as the author of a volume of poems, and who afterwards escaped and was better known as Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Today, at the bottom end of Wimpole at Wigmore can be found a sandwich shop named Barrett's. Marylebone High Street Bentinck Street leaves Welbeck Street and touches the middle of winding Marylebone Lane. Charles Dickens lived at number 18 with his indebted father (on whom the character Wilkins Micawber was based) while working as a court reporter in the 1830s, and Edward Gibbon wrote much of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire while living at number 7 from the early 1770s. James Smithson wrote the will that led to the foundation of the Smithsonian Institution while living at number 9 in 1826, while number 10 was briefly graced by Chopin in 1848, who found his apartment too expensive and moved to Mayfair. More recently, Cambridge spies Anthony Blunt and Guy Burgess lived at 5 Bentinck Street during the Second World War. In 1960s two-some John Dunbar and TV repairman "Magic Alex" lived on the street, where the former introduced the latter to John Lennon in 1967. Princess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of Fife, who was a qualified nurse, founded a nursing home in Bentinck Street, and served as its matron. Manchester Square, west of Bentinck Street, has a central private garden with plane trees, laid out in 1776. The mansion on the north side of the square, now the home of the Wallace Collection, once housed the Spanish ambassador, whose chapel was in Spanish Place. From the north-west corner is Manchester Street, final home of Georgian-era prophet Joanna Southcott, who died there in 1814. Marylebone has some Beatles heritage, with John Lennon's flat at 34 Montagu Square, and the original Apple Corps headquarters at 95 Wigmore Street. Bulstrode Street, small and charming, is named after a Portman family estate in Buckinghamshire, itself named after a local family there made-good in Tudor days. Tucked away, with a few terraced houses, Bulstrode Street has been the home of minor health care professionals for hundreds of years. The RADA student and aspiring actress Vivien Leigh, aged twenty in 1933, gave birth at the Rahere Nursing Home, then at number 8, to her first child. The north end of Welbeck Street joins New Cavendish Street, the name of which changed from Upper Marylebone Street after World War I. Number 13 in New Cavendish Street, at its junction with Welbeck Street and on the corner of Marylebone Street, was the birthplace in 1882 of the orchestral conductor Leopold Stokowski, the son of a Polish cabinet maker. He sang as a boy in the choir of St Marylebone Church. At the northern end of Marylebone High Street towards the Marylebone Road there is an area with a colourful history, which includes the former Marylebone Gardens, whose entertainments including bare-knuckle fighting, a cemetery, a workhouse, and the areas frequented by Charles Wesley, all shut down by the close of the 18th century, where today there are mansion blocks and upper-end retail. At No. 1 Dorset Street resided mid-Victorian scientist Charles Babbage, inventor of the analytical engine. Babbage complained that two adjacent hackney-coach stands in Paddington Street ruined the neighbourhood, leading to the establishment of coffee and beer shops, and furthermore, the character of the new population could be inferred from the taste they exhibited for the noisiest and most discordant music. An acclaimed international venue for chamber music, the Wigmore Hall, opened at 36 Wigmore Street in 1901. It hosts over 500 concerts each year. The Marylebone Low Emission Neighbourhood was established in 2016 to improve the air quality of the area. Westminster City Council in partnership with local residents, businesses and stakeholders completed a green grid of 800 new trees on Marylebone's streets in 2019. Representation The area was represented by the St Marylebone UK Parliament constituency between 1918 and 1983. The area is currently divided between the Cities of London and Westminster and Westminster North parliamentary constituencies. These are represented by Nickie Aiken and Karen Buck respectively. Geography The Parish and Borough was bounded by two Roman Roads, Oxford Street to the south and Watling Street (Edgware Road) to the west, and positioned on both side of the former River Tyburn which flowed from north to south. To the north (Boundary Road in St John's Wood) and east (running through Regent's Park and along Cleveland Street), the area's boundaries have been inherited as part of the north and eastern boundary of the modern City of Westminster. This area includes localities such as St John's Wood, Lisson Grove and East Marylebone. East Marylebone has since the 1970s been viewed as a part of Fitzrovia. Local places of interest include Marylebone Village, most of Regent's Park, Marylebone Station, Lord's Cricket Ground the home of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the original site of the MCC at Dorset Square. Neighbouring areas of London Lisson Grove St John's Wood Regent's Park Paddington Marylebone Fitzrovia Hyde Park Mayfair Soho Areas and features of Marylebone include: All Souls Church, Langham Place (designed by John Nash) Baker Street (including the fictitious 221B Baker Street) Broadcasting House (BBC headquarters) Bryanston Square Dorset Square Duke Street, Marylebone Harley Street Hinde Street Methodist Chapel Holy Trinity Church, Marylebone (designed by Sir John Soane) Hyde Park Langham Hotel, London (built in the 1860s) London Business School, founded in 1964 London Central Mosque Madame Tussauds Manchester Square (Georgian square) Marble Arch Marylebone High Street Montagu Square (Regency square) Regent's Park (which houses London Zoo) Royal Academy of Music Royal Institute of British Architects Selfridges Department Store St. James's, Spanish Place St Peter, Vere Street (designed in 1722 by James Gibbs) University of Westminster Wallace Collection West London Mission at 19 Thayer Street Wigmore Hall Wigmore Street Wyndham Place Former Landmarks Marylebone Gardens, c. 1770 Egton House, studio of BBC Radio 1, demolished Queen's Hall, classical music concert venue destroyed by fire in World War II Marylebone Gardens a former pleasure ground and venue for concerts, closed in 1778 St. George's Hall, a theatre built in 1867, demolished 1966. Yorkshire Stingo, a public house on Marylebone Road. St Marylebone Grammar School on the corner of Lisson Grove and Marylebone Road, now offices. Theatre Royal, Marylebone, a former music hall opened in 1832 at 71 Church Street, Marylebone, demolished in 1959. Freshwater Place off Homer Street, pioneering social housing by Octavia Hill, demolished in 1961. Notable residents Lord Byron, English romantic poet, born in Marylebone and baptised St Marylebone Parish Church. Charles Dickens, English writer, lived in 1 Devonshire Terrace, a building that was demolished in the 1950s. Benny Green, English jazz saxophonist, born in Marylebone. Robin Hurlstone, English actor, born in Marylebone. W. O. G. Lofts, English researcher and author, born in Marylebone. Paul McCartney, English musician, wrote "Yesterday" whilst living at 57 Wimpole Street. Norman Wisdom, English actor, comedian, musician and singer, born in Marylebone. Steve Wright, English disc jockey and radio presenter, lived and died in Marylebone. Transport Tube stations Baker Street Bond Street Edgware Road (Bakerloo line) Edgware Road (Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines) Great Portland Street Marble Arch Marylebone Oxford Circus Regent's Park Railway stations Marylebone Bus The area is served by routes 2, 13, 18, 27, 30, 74, 113, 139, 189, 205, 274, 453 and night routes N18 and N74. Education For education in Marylebone, see List of schools in the City of Westminster. London Business School (one of the top-ranked elite business schools in the world) Halcyon London International School (International school on Seymour Place) St Marylebone School (comprehensive specialist school in Performing Arts, Maths & Computing for girls founded in 1791) Sylvia Young Theatre School (fee paying performing arts school) St Vincent's RC Primary School (Catholic Voluntary Aided Mixed School) Francis Holland School (independent day school for girls) Portland Place School (independent secondary school) The Royal Academy of Music on Marylebone Road The University of Westminster on Marylebone Road and upper Regent Street Regent's College, whose campus is within the grounds of Regent's Park, which houses:European Business School London; British American College London; Regent's Business School; School of Psychotherapy and Counselling; Webster Graduate School; Internexus, a provider of English language courses. L'Ecole Internationale Franco-Anglaise (international school providing English-French bilingual education) Queen's College Preparatory School (independent day school for girls) Southbank International School on Portland Place References ^ Pointon, Graham, ed. (1990). BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names (2nd ed.). Oxford: The University Press. ISBN 0-19-282745-6. ^ Churches in the Landscape, Richard Morris, JM Dent and Sons 1989. Chapter 4 describes how the parish system was completed (bar a few exceptions) in the 12th century and new Canon Law made changes to boundaries very difficult and rare. ^ "Maryburne rill", in Harrison's Description of England 1586, noted by Henry Benjamin Wheatley and Peter Cunningham, London Past and Present: its history, associations, and traditions, Volume 2, p. 509. ^ Mills, David (2010). A Dictionary of London Place-Names (2nd ed.). Oxford: The University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-56678-5. ^ Zachrisson, Robert Eugen (1917). "Marylebone–Tyburn–Holborn". Modern Language Review. 12 (2): 146–156. doi:10.2307/3714121. JSTOR 3714121. ^ London Encyclopaedia, Weinreb and Hibbert, 1983 ^ Domesday entry for Lisson https://opendomesday.org/place/TQ2782/lisson/ ^ Domesday entry for Tyburn https://opendomesday.org/place/TQ2780/marylebone/ ^ Wheatley and Cunningham, p. 509. ^ London Encyclopaedia - entry for Marylebone states that both Manors came into the hands of the Crown at the time of the dissolution of the monasteries. ^ 'The Regent's Park', Old and New London 5 (1878:262–286) Archived 17 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 3 July 2010. ^ B. Weinreb and C. Hibbert, eds (1995), The London Encyclopedia, Macmillan ISBN 0-333-57688-8 ^ Church website https://www.stmarylebone.org/information/history ^ Daniel Lysons, 'Marylebone', in The Environs of London: Volume 3, County of Middlesex (London, 1795), pp. 242–279. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/london-environs/vol3/pp242-279 . ^ London Encyclopaedia, Weinreb and Hibbert, 1983 ^ Wheatley and Cunningham; they note the annual rents brought in £900. ^ The Howard de Walden Estate Archived 22 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine ^ Wheatley and Cunningham, p. 511. ^ Edworthy, Niall (1999). Lord's: The Home of Cricket : the Illustrated History. Virgin. ISBN 9781852277949. ^ Geoffrey Briggs, Civic & Corporate Heraldry, London, 1971 ^ Historic England. "Marylebone Town Hall (1222688)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 May 2020. ^ "LUTYENS, Sir Edwin Landseer (1869-1944) & PEARSON, John Loughborough (1817-1897) English Heritage". www.english-heritage.org.uk. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016. ^ "WATERHOUSE, Alfred (1830-1905) English Heritage". www.english-heritage.org.uk. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016. ^ Gayford, Martin. "JMW Turner: the man behind the masterpieces". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 21 October 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2018. ^ "Austrian Foreign Ministry -> Embassy -> London -> History of the Austrian Embassy". www.bmeia.gv.at. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2016. ^ Lownie, Andrew (2015). Stalin's Englishman: The Lives of Guy Burgess. London: Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 114–115. ^ Babbage's pamphlet Street Nuisances (1864) http://www.hrc.wmin.ac.uk/theory-babbagesdancer2.html Archived 24 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 4 August 2017 ^ "2017/18 Season Preview". Wigmore Hall. Retrieved 7 June 2019. ^ Hill, Dave (15 February 2017). "'Filthy glamour': could polluted Marylebone Road help fix London's air?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 7 June 2019. ^ "The W1W Tree Planting Initiative for Marylebone". The W1W Tree Planting Initiative for Marylebone. Retrieved 7 June 2019. ^ "W1W Tree Planting in Marylebone — Media Files". The W1W Tree Planting Initiative for Marylebone. 15 December 2009. Retrieved 7 June 2019. ^ Bloom, Ben (26 May 2012). "Veteran BBC reporter plants 500th tree of Marylebone ecology project". Hampstead Highgate Express. Retrieved 7 June 2019. ^ "History of St Marylebone, in Westminster and Middlesex – Map and description". visionofbritain.org.uk. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013. ^ "Westminster Green Plaques Scheme – review of criteria and funding" (PDF). City of Westminster. 12 January 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015. Theatre Royal Marylebone 71 Church Street, NW8; 1832–1959 ^ a b Gold, Kevin (1 May 2015). "Marylebone Celebrities Past & Present". Kubie Gold. Retrieved 20 December 2022. ^ Fordham, John (24 June 1998). "Obituaries: Benny Green: Horn of plenty". The Guardian. p. 16. ProQuest 245264974. He was born in Marylebone and was taught to play saxophone by a sax-playing father. While at Marylebone grammar school, where he said he was "uneducated", Green, aged 13, took to the sax seriously. He played for his first paying audience at a Marble Arch church hall in 1943 with a repertoire of only two tunes - Whispering and Whispering Grass. ^ Churcher, Sharon; Wingett, Fiona (22 April 2001). "Joan Collins stole my husband ...but I will fight to win him back Exclusive: Heartbroken wife of Dynasty star's new toyboy tells how Percy from Peru used her callously to get to the top: ". The Mail on Sunday. p. 32. ProQuest 328738015. Robin was born in Marylebone, London, in March 1958 to company director Arthur Hurlstone and his wife, Mary, a Welsh farmer's daughter 21 years his junior. In his teens, Robin inherited 20,000 of money and worked as a model. However, he made art and antiques his business and is now a director of three companies. ^ Adrian, Jack (12 July 1997). "Obituary: W. O. G. Lofts". The Independent. p. 16. ProQuest 312645493. William Oliver Guillemont Lofts was born in Marylebone, London, in 1923. ^ Porter, Richard (6 October 2016). "Give My Regards to Wimpole Street - Where Paul McCartney Lived with the Ashers". Beatles in London. Retrieved 20 December 2022. ^ Johnston, Jenny (29 January 2000). "Interview: Sir Norman Wisdom - My wife ran away with a tall, dark handsome man..I was so happy the kids chose to live with me; EXCLUSIVE: SIR NORMAN WISDOM'S LIFE OF LAUGHTER AND REGRET: ". The Mirror. p. 34. ProQuest 338240954. Born in Marylebone, West London, on February 4, 1915, Wisdom endured terrible suffering at the hands of his father Fred, a violent drunk. Once, when he was just nine, his dad hurled him into a ceiling. ^ "Top Business Schools in 2020". Top Universities. Retrieved 16 September 2021. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Marylebone. Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Marylebone". London/Mayfair-Marylebone travel guide from Wikivoyage Marylebone Village Hampstead and Marylebone by G. E. Mitton at Project Gutenberg Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "St Marylebone" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 30. The Marylebone Association. The amenities society for Marylebone representing its residents, businesses and people who live and/or work in Marylebone. The Association's area is bounded by Oxford Street (South), Edgware Road (West), Marylebone Road (North) and Great Portland Street (East). The St Marylebone Society An amenities society that represents residents North of the Marylebone Road The Marylebone Forum is the designated neighbourhood planning forum for the area of Marylebone. vteCity of WestminsterDistricts Adelphi and Aldwych (see also Strand) Bayswater Belgravia Clare Market Covent Garden Fitzrovia Hyde Park (in commercial use) Kilburn Knightsbridge Lisson Grove Maida Vale including Little Venice Marylebone Mayfair Millbank Paddington including Paddington Green and Tyburnia Pimlico Queen's Park St James's St John's Wood Soho including Chinatown Victoria Westbourne Green Westminster Attractions Apsley House Banqueting House Benjamin Franklin House British Dental Association Museum British Optical Association Museum Buckingham Palace Canada House Gallery Churchill War Rooms Clarence House Courtauld Gallery Crime Museum Faraday Museum Fleming Museum Guards Museum Handel & Hendrix Horse Guards Household Cavalry Museum Hunterian Museum Institute of Contemporary Arts Kennel Club Dog Art Gallery London Film Museum London Transport Museum Madame Tussauds Mall Galleries National Gallery Palace of Westminster Queen's Gallery Royal Academy of Arts Royal Academy of Music Museum Royal Mews Sherlock Holmes Museum Somerset House Spencer House Tate Britain Trafalgar Square Twinings Museum Two Temple Place Wallace Collection Wellington Arch West End theatre Westminster Abbey London Zoo Parks and open spaces Green Park Hyde Park Kensington Gardens Regent's Park St James's Park Constituencies Cities of London and Westminster Westminster North Local government Westminster City Council Elections 2010 2014 2018 Queen's Park Community Council Bridges Chelsea Bridge Grosvenor Bridge Hungerford Bridge and Golden Jubilee Bridges Lambeth Bridge Vauxhall Bridge Waterloo Bridge Westminster Bridge Rail and tube stations Baker Street Bayswater Bond Street Charing Cross Charing Cross Edgware Road Edgware Road Embankment Great Portland Street Green Park Hyde Park Corner Lancaster Gate Leicester Square Maida Vale Marble Arch Marylebone Oxford Circus Paddington Paddington Paddington Piccadilly Circus Pimlico Queensway Regent's Park Royal Oak St James's Park St John's Wood Temple Tottenham Court Road Victoria Warwick Avenue Westbourne Park Westminster Art and architecture Grade I listed buildings Grade II* listed buildings 1–9 A–Z Public art Other topics Blue plaques People Schools Category vteAreas of LondonCentral activities zone Bloomsbury City of London wards Holborn Marylebone Mayfair Paddington Pimlico Soho Southwark Vauxhall Waterloo Westminster Town centrenetworkInternational Knightsbridge West End Metropolitan Bromley Croydon Ealing Harrow Hounslow Ilford Kingston Romford Shepherd's Bush Stratford Sutton Uxbridge Wood Green Major Angel Barking Bayswater Bexleyheath Brixton Camden Town Canary Wharf Catford Chiswick Clapham Junction Dalston East Ham Edgware Eltham Enfield Town Fulham Hammersmith Holloway Nags Head Kensington High Street Kilburn King's Road East Lewisham Orpington Peckham Putney Richmond Southall Streatham Tooting Walthamstow Wandsworth Wembley Wimbledon Woolwich Districts(principal) Acton Beckenham Belgravia Bethnal Green Brentford Camberwell Canada Water Carshalton Chadwell Heath Chingford Clapham Crystal Palace Coulsdon Cricklewood Dagenham Deptford Dulwich Edmonton Elephant and Castle Erith Feltham Finchley Forest Gate Forest Hill Golders Green Greenwich Harlesden Hampstead Harringay Hayes (Hillingdon) Hendon Hornchurch Kentish Town Leyton Mill Hill Mitcham Morden Muswell Hill New Cross New Malden Northwood Notting Hill Penge Pinner Purley Ruislip Sidcup Southgate South Norwood Stanmore Stoke Newington Surbiton Sydenham Teddington Thamesmead Tolworth Tulse Hill Twickenham Upminster Upper Norwood Wanstead Wealdstone Welling West Ham West Hampstead West Norwood Whitechapel Willesden Green Woodford Neighbourhoods(principal) Abbey Wood Alperton Anerley Archway Barnes Barnsbury Battersea Beckton Bermondsey Bow Brent Cross Brockley Canonbury Charlton Chelsea Chessington Chipping Barnet Chislehurst Clerkenwell Elmers End Gidea Park Greenford Gunnersbury Hackbridge Hackney Ham Hampton Hanwell Hanworth Harold Wood Highams Park Highbury Highgate Hillingdon Hook Holloway Hoxton Ickenham Isle of Dogs Isleworth Islington Kensal Green Kew Lambeth Manor Park Mortlake Neasden Northolt Nunhead Plaistow (Newham) Poplar Roehampton Rotherhithe Seven Kings Seven Sisters Shoreditch Stamford Hill Stepney St Helier Surrey Quays Tottenham Upper and Lower Clapton Upper Holloway Walworth Wapping West Drayton Worcester Park Yiewsley Fictional Canley (borough) (The Bill: TV soap) Charnham (suburb) (Family Affairs: TV soap) London Below (magical realm) (Neverwhere: TV series, novel) Walford (borough) (EastEnders: TV soap) Authority control databases International FAST VIAF National Germany Israel United States Geographic MusicBrainz area
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_St_Marylebone"},{"link_name":"St Mary-le-Bow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mary-le-Bow"},{"link_name":"/ˈmɑːrlɪbən/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"/ˈmærɪləbən, ˈmærɪbən/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"City of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"Central London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_London"},{"link_name":"West End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_of_London"},{"link_name":"Oxford Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Street"},{"link_name":"ancient parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_parish#Ancient_parishes"},{"link_name":"metropolitan borough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_borough"},{"link_name":"Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"Paddington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Paddington"},{"link_name":"City of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"Marylebone station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_station"},{"link_name":"Charing Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charing_Cross"},{"link_name":"Baker Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_Street_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Bond Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_Street_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Edgware Road (Bakerloo line)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgware_Road_tube_station_(Bakerloo_Line)"},{"link_name":"Edgware Road (Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgware_Road_tube_station_(Circle,_District_and_Hammersmith_%26_City_lines)"},{"link_name":"Great Portland Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Portland_Street_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Marble Arch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble_Arch_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_station"},{"link_name":"Oxford Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Circus_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park_tube_station"}],"text":"Area in London, England\"St Marylebone\" redirects here. For the London borough, see Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone.Not to be confused with St Mary-le-Bow.Human settlement in EnglandMarylebone (usually /ˈmɑːrlɪbən/, also /ˈmærɪləbən, ˈmærɪbən/[1]) is an area in London, England and is located in the City of Westminster. It is in Central London and part of the West End. Oxford Street forms its southern boundary.An ancient parish and latterly a metropolitan borough, it merged with the boroughs of Westminster and Paddington to form the new City of Westminster in 1965.Marylebone station lies two miles north-west of Charing Cross.The area is also served by numerous tube stations: Baker Street, Bond Street, Edgware Road (Bakerloo line), Edgware Road (Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines), Great Portland Street, Marble Arch, Marylebone, Oxford Circus, and Regent's Park.","title":"Marylebone"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ancient Parish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_parish#Ancient_parishes"},{"link_name":"Lisson Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisson_Grove"},{"link_name":"Tyburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyburn"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Marylebone was an Ancient Parish formed to serve the manors (landholdings) of Lileston (in the west, which gives its name to modern Lisson Grove) and Tyburn in the east. The parish is likely to have been in place since at least the twelfth century and will have used the boundaries of the pre-existing manors. The boundaries of the parish were consistent from the late twelfth century to the creation of the Metropolitan Borough which succeeded it.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"its church, dedicated to St Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marylebone_Parish_Church"},{"link_name":"bourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_(stream)"},{"link_name":"Tyburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyburn_(stream)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Hampstead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampstead"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Lane"},{"link_name":"Mary-le-Bow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mary-le-Bow"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Etymology","text":"The parish took its name from its church, dedicated to St Mary; the original church was built on the bank of a small stream or \"bourne\", called the Tybourne or Tyburn.[3] This stream rose further north in (Hampstead), eventually running along what became Marylebone Lane, which preserves its curve within the grid pattern. The original name of the parish was simply Marybourne, the stream of St Mary; the French \"le\" appeared in the 17th century, under the influence of names like Mary-le-Bow.[4] The suggestion that the name derives from Marie la Bonne, or \"Mary the Good\", is not substantiated.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Domesday Book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domesday_Book"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"shillings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shilling"},{"link_name":"Barking Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barking_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Knights Templar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Templar"},{"link_name":"Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Hospitaller"},{"link_name":"St John's Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_Wood"},{"link_name":"Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_de_Vere,_3rd_Earl_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Thomas Hobson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hobson_(postal_carrier)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"deer park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_deer_park"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-encyc-12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LONDON,_MARYLEBONE_by_BARTLETT,_F.A._and_B.J._DAVIES.jpg"},{"link_name":"Paddington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddington"},{"link_name":"St Pancras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Pancras,_London"}],"sub_title":"Manors of Tyburn and Lileston","text":"Both manors were mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086.[6] Domesday recorded eight households in each manor,[7][8] implying a combined population of less than a hundred.At Domesday the Manor of Lilestone was valued at 60 shillings and owned by a woman called Ediva. Tyburn was a possession of the Nunnery of Barking Abbey and valued at 52 shillings. The ownership of both manors was the same as it had been before the Conquest.Lilestone became the property of the Knights Templar until their suppression in 1312. It then passed to the Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, whose name is the origin of the place name St John's Wood.Early in the 13th century Tyburn was held by Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford. At the end of the 15th century Thomas Hobson bought up the greater part of the manor; in 1544 his son Thomas exchanged it with Henry VIII,[9] who enclosed the northern part of the manor as a deer park, the distant origin of Regent's Park. Lilestone Manor also passed into the hands of the Crown at this time.[10]Tyburn manor remained with the Crown until the southern part was sold in 1611 by James I, who retained the deer park, to Edward Forest,[11] who had held it as a fixed rental under Elizabeth I. Forest's manor of Marylebone then passed by marriage to the Austen family. The deer park, Marylebone Park Fields, was let out in small holdings for hay and dairy produce.[12]An 1834 map of the borough of St Marylebone, showing the parishes of Paddington (green), Marylebone (red), and St Pancras (yellow)","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Marylebone_Church_18.07.2020_(4).jpg"},{"link_name":"St Marylebone Parish Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marylebone_Parish_Church"},{"link_name":"St John the Evangelist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John_the_Evangelist"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Shifting parish church","text":"St Marylebone ChurchThe Ancient Parish's church, St Marylebone Parish Church, has been rebuilt several times at various locations within the parish. The earliest known church dedicated to St John the Evangelist was established by Barking Abbey, which held Manor of Tyburn, at an unknown date, but probably sometime in the 12th century.[13] This church was located on the north side of Oxford Street, probably near the junction with Marylebone Lane. This site was subject to regular robbery and in 1400 a new church was built, around 900 metres further north. and given the name St Mary by the Bourne.[14][15] This church was rebuilt in 1740 with a new building erected a little further north in 1817.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Holles, Duke of Newcastle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Holles,_1st_Duke_of_Newcastle-upon-Tyne"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Harley,_Countess_of_Oxford_and_Mortimer"},{"link_name":"Edward Harley, Earl of Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Harley,_2nd_Earl_of_Oxford_and_Earl_Mortimer"},{"link_name":"Cavendish Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_Square"},{"link_name":"William, 2nd Duke of Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bentinck,_2nd_Duke_of_Portland"},{"link_name":"Marylebone High Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_High_Street"},{"link_name":"Cavendish Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavendish_Square"},{"link_name":"Portland Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_Place"},{"link_name":"Dukes of Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Portland"},{"link_name":"issue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issue_(genealogy)"},{"link_name":"Baron Howard de Walden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baron_Howard_de_Walden"},{"link_name":"Sir William Portman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Portman"},{"link_name":"Portman Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portman_Estate"},{"link_name":"Howard de Walden Estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_de_Walden_Estate"},{"link_name":"Robert Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adam"},{"link_name":"Portland Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_Place"},{"link_name":"Wigmore Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigmore_Street"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Road"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Urbanisation","text":"In 1710, John Holles, Duke of Newcastle, purchased the manor for £17,500,[16] and his daughter and heir, Lady Henrietta Cavendish Holles, by her marriage to Edward Harley, Earl of Oxford, passed it into the family of the Earl of Oxford, one of whose titles was Lord Harley of Wigmore. She and the earl, realising the need for fashionable housing north of the Oxford Road (now Oxford St), commissioned the surveyor and builder John Prince to draw a master plan that set Cavendish Square in a rational grid system of streets.The Harley heiress Lady Margaret Cavendish Harley married William, 2nd Duke of Portland, and took the property, including Marylebone High Street, into the Bentinck family. Such place names in the neighbourhood as Cavendish Square and Portland Place reflect the Dukes of Portland landholdings and Georgian-era developments there. In 1879 the fifth Duke died without issue and the estate passed through the female line to his sister, Lucy Joan Bentinck, widow of the 6th Baron Howard de Walden.Most of the Manor of Lileston was acquired by Sir William Portman in 1554, and much of this was developed by his descendants as the Portman Estate in the late 1700s. Both estates have aristocratic antecedents and are still run by members of the aforementioned families. The Howard de Walden Estate owns, leases and manages the majority of the 92 acres (37 ha) of real estate in Marylebone which comprises the area from Marylebone High Street in the west to Robert Adam's Portland Place in the east and from Wigmore Street in the south to Marylebone Road in the north.[17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marylebone Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Gardens"},{"link_name":"bear-baiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear-baiting"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Cricket Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Cricket_Club"},{"link_name":"Dorset Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorset_Square"},{"link_name":"Lord's Cricket Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s"},{"link_name":"Middlesex County Cricket Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex_County_Cricket_Club"},{"link_name":"England and Wales Cricket Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_and_Wales_Cricket_Board"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Social history","text":"In the 18th century the area was known for the raffish entertainments in Marylebone Gardens, the scene of bear-baiting and prize fights by members of both sexes, and for the duelling grounds in Marylebone Fields.[18] The Marylebone Cricket Club, for many years the governing body of world cricket, was formed in 1787 and initially based at Dorset Fields before moving a short distance to its current home at Lord's Cricket Ground in 1814. Lord's is also home to Middlesex County Cricket Club and the England and Wales Cricket Board, with the England national team as one of a number of home venues. The ground is sometimes called the Home of Cricket.[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Marylebone_arms.png"},{"link_name":"coat of arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms"},{"link_name":"College of Arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_of_Arms"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"River Tyburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Tyburn"},{"link_name":"Barking Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barking_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Gospel of Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Luke"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Coat of arms","text":"The Marylebone coat of armsThe Borough of St Marylebone was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms in 1901.[20] The crest includes the Virgin Mary wearing a silver robe with a light blue mantle, holding the infant Jesus, dressed in gold. The wavy light blue bars represent the River Tyburn while the gold roses and lilies are taken from the arms of Barking Abbey, which held the Manor of Tyburn and first established the parish church. The version used by the Abbey was placed against a red border, and some versions of Marylebone's arms have made extensive use of red. The roses and lilies ultimately derive from the legend that when Mary's tomb was opened it contained those flowers.The motto \"Fiat secundum Verbum Tuum\" is Latin for \"let it be according to thy word\", a phrase used in the Gospel of Luke.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_St_Marylebone"},{"link_name":"metropolitan borough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_borough"},{"link_name":"County of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_London"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Borough of Paddington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Paddington"},{"link_name":"Metropolitan Borough of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"City of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Town Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Town_Hall"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Later administrative history","text":"The Metropolitan Borough of St Marylebone was a metropolitan borough of the County of London between 1899 and 1965, after which, with the Metropolitan Borough of Paddington and the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster it was merged into the City of Westminster. The Metropolitan Borough inherited the boundaries of the Ancient Parish which had been fixed since at least the 12th century. Marylebone Town Hall was completed in 1920.[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Balcombe Street siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balcombe_Street_siege"},{"link_name":"Provisional Irish Republican Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army"}],"sub_title":"20th century","text":"Marylebone was the scene of the Balcombe Street siege in 1975, when Provisional Irish Republican Army terrorists held two people hostage for almost a week.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Street names of Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_names_of_Marylebone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Benjamin_Robert_Haydon_(1786-1846)_-_Punch_or_May_Day_-_N00682_-_National_Gallery.jpg"},{"link_name":"Punch or May Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punch_or_May_Day"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Robert Haydon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Robert_Haydon"},{"link_name":"St Marylebone Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marylebone_Church"},{"link_name":"Gloucester Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloucester_Place"},{"link_name":"Baker Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_Street"},{"link_name":"Marylebone High Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_High_Street"},{"link_name":"Wimpole Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wimpole_Street"},{"link_name":"Harley Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harley_Street"},{"link_name":"Portland Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland_Place"},{"link_name":"mews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mews"},{"link_name":"Mansfield Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansfield_Street,_London"},{"link_name":"John Loughborough Pearson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Loughborough_Pearson"},{"link_name":"Castle Drogo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Drogo"},{"link_name":"Sir Edwin Lutyens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Edwin_Lutyens"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"New Cavendish Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Cavendish_Street"},{"link_name":"Alfred Waterhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Waterhouse"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"J. M. W. Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._M._W._Turner"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Chandos House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandos_House"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Arthur Conan Doyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Conan_Doyle"},{"link_name":"Sherlock Holmes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherlock_Holmes"},{"link_name":"221b Baker Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/221b_Baker_Street"},{"link_name":"Paul McCartney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McCartney"},{"link_name":"Jane Asher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Asher"},{"link_name":"John Lennon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lennon"},{"link_name":"I Want to Hold Your Hand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_to_Hold_Your_Hand"},{"link_name":"Abbey Road Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Barrett Browning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marylebone_High_Street_Londres.jpg"},{"link_name":"Marylebone High Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_High_Street"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Lane"},{"link_name":"Charles Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens"},{"link_name":"Edward Gibbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Gibbon"},{"link_name":"James Smithson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Smithson"},{"link_name":"number 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8_%26_9_Bentinck_Street"},{"link_name":"Anthony Blunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Blunt"},{"link_name":"Guy Burgess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Burgess"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"John Dunbar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dunbar_(artist)"},{"link_name":"Magic Alex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_Alex"},{"link_name":"Princess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of Fife","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Alexandra,_2nd_Duchess_of_Fife"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Wallace Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Collection"},{"link_name":"Spanish Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._James%27s,_Spanish_Place"},{"link_name":"Joanna Southcott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Southcott"},{"link_name":"Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"Vivien Leigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivien_Leigh"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Leopold Stokowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Stokowski"},{"link_name":"Charles Wesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wesley"},{"link_name":"Charles Babbage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Wigmore Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigmore_Hall"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"For a list of street names' etymologies in this district, see Street names of Marylebone.Punch or May Day by Benjamin Robert Haydon (1829), depicts St Marylebone Church in the background.Marylebone is characterised by major streets on a grid pattern such as Gloucester Place, Baker Street, Marylebone High Street, Wimpole Street, Harley Street and Portland Place, with smaller mews between the major streets.Mansfield Street is a short continuation of Chandos Street built by the Adam brothers in 1770, on a plot of ground which had been underwater. Most of its houses are fine buildings with exquisite interiors, which if put on the market now would have an expected price in excess of £10 million. At Number 13 lived religious architect John Loughborough Pearson who died in 1897, and designer of Castle Drogo and New Delhi Sir Edwin Lutyens, who died in 1944.[22] Immediately across the road at 61 New Cavendish Street lived Natural History Museum creator Alfred Waterhouse.[23]Queen Anne Street is an elegant cross-street which unites the northern end of Chandos Street with Welbeck Street. The painter J. M. W. Turner moved to 47 Queen Anne Street in 1812 from 64 Harley Street, now divided into numbers 22 and 23, and owned the house until his death in 1851. It was known as \"Turner's Den\", becoming damp, dilapidated,[24] dusty, dirty, with dozens of Turner's works of art now in the National Gallery scattered throughout the house, walls covered in tack holes and a drawing room inhabited by cats with no tails.During the same period a few hundred yards to the east, Chandos House in Chandos Street was used as the Austro-Hungarian Embassy and residence of the fabulously extravagant Ambassador Prince Paul Anton III Esterhazy,[25] seeing entertainment on a most lavish scale. The building is one of the finest surviving Adam houses in London, and now lets rooms.Wimpole Street runs from Henrietta Place north to Devonshire Street, becoming Upper Wimpole en route – the latter where Arthur Conan Doyle opened his ophthalmic practice at number 2 in 1891; Conan Doyle's fictional detective Sherlock Holmes also had his residence in Marylebone at 221b Baker Street. Nearby at a six-floor Grade II 18th-century house at 57 Wimpole Street is where Paul McCartney resided from 1964 to 1966, staying on the top floor of girlfriend Jane Asher's family home in a room overlooking Browning Mews in the back, and with John Lennon writing \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" on a piano in the basement. A further Beatles connection is that they, and many other musicians have recorded at the Abbey Road Studios. At her father's house at number 50 Wimpole Street lived for some time between 1840 and 1845, Elizabeth Barrett, then known as the author of a volume of poems, and who afterwards escaped and was better known as Elizabeth Barrett Browning. Today, at the bottom end of Wimpole at Wigmore can be found a sandwich shop named Barrett's.Marylebone High StreetBentinck Street leaves Welbeck Street and touches the middle of winding Marylebone Lane. Charles Dickens lived at number 18 with his indebted father (on whom the character Wilkins Micawber was based) while working as a court reporter in the 1830s, and Edward Gibbon wrote much of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire while living at number 7 from the early 1770s. James Smithson wrote the will that led to the foundation of the Smithsonian Institution while living at number 9 in 1826, while number 10 was briefly graced by Chopin in 1848, who found his apartment too expensive and moved to Mayfair. More recently, Cambridge spies Anthony Blunt and Guy Burgess lived at 5 Bentinck Street during the Second World War.[26] In 1960s two-some John Dunbar and TV repairman \"Magic Alex\" lived on the street, where the former introduced the latter to John Lennon in 1967. Princess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of Fife, who was a qualified nurse, founded a nursing home in Bentinck Street, and served as its matron.[citation needed]Manchester Square, west of Bentinck Street, has a central private garden with plane trees, laid out in 1776. The mansion on the north side of the square, now the home of the Wallace Collection, once housed the Spanish ambassador, whose chapel was in Spanish Place. From the north-west corner is Manchester Street, final home of Georgian-era prophet Joanna Southcott, who died there in 1814.Marylebone has some Beatles heritage, with John Lennon's flat at 34 Montagu Square, and the original Apple Corps headquarters at 95 Wigmore Street.Bulstrode Street, small and charming, is named after a Portman family estate in Buckinghamshire, itself named after a local family there made-good in Tudor days. Tucked away, with a few terraced houses, Bulstrode Street has been the home of minor health care professionals for hundreds of years. The RADA student and aspiring actress Vivien Leigh, aged twenty in 1933, gave birth at the Rahere Nursing Home, then at number 8, to her first child.The north end of Welbeck Street joins New Cavendish Street, the name of which changed from Upper Marylebone Street after World War I. Number 13 in New Cavendish Street, at its junction with Welbeck Street and on the corner of Marylebone Street, was the birthplace in 1882 of the orchestral conductor Leopold Stokowski, the son of a Polish cabinet maker. He sang as a boy in the choir of St Marylebone Church.At the northern end of Marylebone High Street towards the Marylebone Road there is an area with a colourful history, which includes the former Marylebone Gardens, whose entertainments including bare-knuckle fighting, a cemetery, a workhouse, and the areas frequented by Charles Wesley, all shut down by the close of the 18th century, where today there are mansion blocks and upper-end retail.At No. 1 Dorset Street resided mid-Victorian scientist Charles Babbage, inventor of the analytical engine. Babbage complained that two adjacent hackney-coach stands in Paddington Street ruined the neighbourhood, leading to the establishment of coffee and beer shops, and furthermore, the character of the new population could be inferred from the taste they exhibited for the noisiest and most discordant music.[27] An acclaimed international venue for chamber music, the Wigmore Hall, opened at 36 Wigmore Street in 1901. It hosts over 500 concerts each year.[28]The Marylebone Low Emission Neighbourhood was established in 2016 to improve the air quality of the area.[29] Westminster City Council in partnership with local residents, businesses and stakeholders completed a green grid of 800 new trees on Marylebone's streets in 2019.[30][31][32]","title":"Streets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St Marylebone UK Parliament constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marylebone_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Cities of London and Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_of_London_and_Westminster_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Westminster North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_North_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Nickie Aiken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickie_Aiken"},{"link_name":"Karen Buck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_Buck"}],"text":"The area was represented by the St Marylebone UK Parliament constituency between 1918 and 1983.The area is currently divided between the Cities of London and Westminster and Westminster North parliamentary constituencies. These are represented by Nickie Aiken and Karen Buck respectively.","title":"Representation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oxford Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Street"},{"link_name":"Watling Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watling_Street"},{"link_name":"Edgware Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgware_Road"},{"link_name":"River Tyburn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Tyburn"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park"},{"link_name":"Cleveland Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Street,_London"},{"link_name":"City of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"St John's Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_Wood"},{"link_name":"Lisson Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisson_Grove"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Fitzrovia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitzrovia"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Station"},{"link_name":"Lord's Cricket Ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%27s_Cricket_Ground"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Cricket_Club"},{"link_name":"Lisson Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisson_Grove"},{"link_name":"St John's Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_Wood"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park"},{"link_name":"Paddington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddington"},{"link_name":"Fitzrovia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitzrovia"},{"link_name":"Hyde Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyde_Park,_London"},{"link_name":"Mayfair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayfair"},{"link_name":"Soho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soho"},{"link_name":"All Souls Church, Langham Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Souls_Church,_Langham_Place"},{"link_name":"John Nash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Nash_(architect)"},{"link_name":"Baker Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_Street"},{"link_name":"221B Baker Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/221B_Baker_Street"},{"link_name":"Broadcasting House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting_House"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"Bryanston Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryanston_Square"},{"link_name":"Dorset Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorset_Square"},{"link_name":"Duke Street, Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_Street,_Marylebone"},{"link_name":"Harley Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harley_Street"},{"link_name":"Holy Trinity Church, Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church_Marylebone"},{"link_name":"John Soane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Soane"},{"link_name":"Hyde Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyde_Park,_London"},{"link_name":"Langham Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langham_Hotel,_London"},{"link_name":"London Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Business_School"},{"link_name":"London Central Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Central_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Madame Tussauds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Tussauds"},{"link_name":"Manchester Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Square"},{"link_name":"Marble Arch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble_Arch"},{"link_name":"Marylebone High Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_High_Street"},{"link_name":"Montagu Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montagu_Square"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park"},{"link_name":"London Zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Zoo"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Music"},{"link_name":"Royal Institute of British Architects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects"},{"link_name":"Selfridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selfridges"},{"link_name":"St. James's, Spanish Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._James%27s,_Spanish_Place"},{"link_name":"St Peter, Vere Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Peter,_Vere_Street"},{"link_name":"James Gibbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gibbs"},{"link_name":"University of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"Wallace Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_Collection"},{"link_name":"West London Mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_London_Mission"},{"link_name":"Wigmore Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigmore_Hall"},{"link_name":"Wigmore Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigmore_Street"},{"link_name":"Wyndham Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryanston_Square"}],"text":"The Parish and Borough was bounded by two Roman Roads, Oxford Street to the south and Watling Street (Edgware Road) to the west, and positioned on both side of the former River Tyburn which flowed from north to south. To the north (Boundary Road in St John's Wood) and east (running through Regent's Park and along Cleveland Street), the area's boundaries have been inherited as part of the north and eastern boundary of the modern City of Westminster.This area includes localities such as St John's Wood, Lisson Grove and East Marylebone.[33] East Marylebone has since the 1970s been viewed as a part of Fitzrovia.Local places of interest include Marylebone Village, most of Regent's Park, Marylebone Station, Lord's Cricket Ground the home of the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the original site of the MCC at Dorset Square.Neighbouring areas of London\nLisson Grove\nSt John's Wood\nRegent's Park\n\n\n\n\n\nPaddington\n\nMarylebone\n\nFitzrovia\n\n\n\n\n\nHyde Park\nMayfair\nSohoAreas and features of Marylebone include:All Souls Church, Langham Place (designed by John Nash)\nBaker Street (including the fictitious 221B Baker Street)\nBroadcasting House (BBC headquarters)\nBryanston Square\nDorset Square\nDuke Street, Marylebone\nHarley Street\nHinde Street Methodist Chapel\nHoly Trinity Church, Marylebone (designed by Sir John Soane)\nHyde Park\nLangham Hotel, London (built in the 1860s)\nLondon Business School, founded in 1964\nLondon Central Mosque\nMadame Tussauds\nManchester Square (Georgian square)\nMarble Arch\nMarylebone High Street\nMontagu Square (Regency square)\nRegent's Park (which houses London Zoo)\nRoyal Academy of Music\nRoyal Institute of British Architects\nSelfridges Department Store\nSt. James's, Spanish Place\nSt Peter, Vere Street (designed in 1722 by James Gibbs)\nUniversity of Westminster\nWallace Collection\nWest London Mission at 19 Thayer Street\nWigmore Hall\nWigmore Street\nWyndham Place","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Marylebone_Gardens.gif"},{"link_name":"Egton House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egton_House"},{"link_name":"BBC Radio 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Radio_1"},{"link_name":"Queen's Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Hall"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Gardens"},{"link_name":"St. George's Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._George%27s_Hall_(London)"},{"link_name":"Yorkshire Stingo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire_Stingo"},{"link_name":"Marylebone Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_Road"},{"link_name":"St Marylebone Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marylebone_Grammar_School"},{"link_name":"Theatre Royal, Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_Royal,_Marylebone"},{"link_name":"Church Street, Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Street,_Marylebone"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Freshwater Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer_Street#Freshwater_Place"},{"link_name":"Octavia Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavia_Hill"}],"text":"Marylebone Gardens, c. 1770Egton House, studio of BBC Radio 1, demolished\nQueen's Hall, classical music concert venue destroyed by fire in World War II\nMarylebone Gardens a former pleasure ground and venue for concerts, closed in 1778\nSt. George's Hall, a theatre built in 1867, demolished 1966.\nYorkshire Stingo, a public house on Marylebone Road.\nSt Marylebone Grammar School on the corner of Lisson Grove and Marylebone Road, now offices.\nTheatre Royal, Marylebone, a former music hall opened in 1832 at 71 Church Street, Marylebone, demolished in 1959.[34]\nFreshwater Place off Homer Street, pioneering social housing by Octavia Hill, demolished in 1961.","title":"Former Landmarks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lord Byron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Byron"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-35"},{"link_name":"Charles Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-35"},{"link_name":"Benny Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny_Green_(saxophonist)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Robin Hurlstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Hurlstone"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"W. O. G. Lofts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._O._G._Lofts"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Paul McCartney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McCartney"},{"link_name":"Yesterday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yesterday_(Beatles_song)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Norman Wisdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Wisdom"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Steve Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Wright_(DJ)"}],"text":"Lord Byron, English romantic poet, born in Marylebone and baptised St Marylebone Parish Church.[35]\nCharles Dickens, English writer, lived in 1 Devonshire Terrace, a building that was demolished in the 1950s.[35]\nBenny Green, English jazz saxophonist, born in Marylebone.[36]\nRobin Hurlstone, English actor, born in Marylebone.[37]\nW. O. G. Lofts, English researcher and author, born in Marylebone.[38]\nPaul McCartney, English musician, wrote \"Yesterday\" whilst living at 57 Wimpole Street.[39]\nNorman Wisdom, English actor, comedian, musician and singer, born in Marylebone.[40]\nSteve Wright, English disc jockey and radio presenter, lived and died in Marylebone.","title":"Notable residents"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Baker Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_Street_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Bond Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bond_Street_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Edgware Road (Bakerloo line)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgware_Road_tube_station_(Bakerloo_Line)"},{"link_name":"Edgware Road (Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgware_Road_tube_station_(Circle,_District_and_Hammersmith_%26_City_lines)"},{"link_name":"Great Portland Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Portland_Street_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Marble Arch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble_Arch_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_station"},{"link_name":"Oxford Circus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_Circus_tube_station"},{"link_name":"Regent's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_Park_tube_station"}],"sub_title":"Tube stations","text":"Baker Street\nBond Street\nEdgware Road (Bakerloo line)\nEdgware Road (Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines)\nGreat Portland Street\nMarble Arch\nMarylebone\nOxford Circus\nRegent's Park","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Marylebone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marylebone_station"}],"sub_title":"Railway stations","text":"Marylebone","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_2"},{"link_name":"13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_13"},{"link_name":"18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_18"},{"link_name":"27","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_27"},{"link_name":"30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_30"},{"link_name":"74","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_74"},{"link_name":"113","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_113"},{"link_name":"139","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_139"},{"link_name":"189","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_189"},{"link_name":"205","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_205"},{"link_name":"274","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_274"},{"link_name":"453","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_453"},{"link_name":"N18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_N18"},{"link_name":"N74","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Buses_route_N74"}],"sub_title":"Bus","text":"The area is served by routes 2, 13, 18, 27, 30, 74, 113, 139, 189, 205, 274, 453 and night routes N18 and N74.","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of schools in the City of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_in_the_City_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"London Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Business_School"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Halcyon London International School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.halcyonschool.com/"},{"link_name":"Seymour Place","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymour_Place"},{"link_name":"St Marylebone School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Marylebone_School"},{"link_name":"Sylvia Young Theatre School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_Young_Theatre_School"},{"link_name":"St Vincent's RC Primary School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.stvincentsprimary.org.uk/"},{"link_name":"Francis Holland School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Holland_School"},{"link_name":"Portland Place School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.portland-place.co.uk/"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Music"},{"link_name":"University of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"Regent Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent_Street"},{"link_name":"Regent's College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent%27s_College"},{"link_name":"European Business School London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Business_School_London"},{"link_name":"British American College London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_American_College_London"},{"link_name":"Webster Graduate School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webster_Graduate_School"},{"link_name":"L'Ecole Internationale Franco-Anglaise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Ecole_Internationale_Franco-Anglaise"},{"link_name":"Queen's College Preparatory School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.qcps.org.uk"},{"link_name":"Southbank International School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.southbank.org/"}],"text":"For education in Marylebone, see List of schools in the City of Westminster.London Business School (one of the top-ranked elite business schools in the world)[41]\nHalcyon London International School (International school on Seymour Place)\nSt Marylebone School (comprehensive specialist school in Performing Arts, Maths & Computing for girls founded in 1791)\nSylvia Young Theatre School (fee paying performing arts school)\nSt Vincent's RC Primary School (Catholic Voluntary Aided Mixed School)\nFrancis Holland School (independent day school for girls)\nPortland Place School (independent secondary school)\nThe Royal Academy of Music on Marylebone Road\nThe University of Westminster on Marylebone Road and upper Regent Street\nRegent's College, whose campus is within the grounds of Regent's Park, which houses:European Business School London; British American College London; Regent's Business School; School of Psychotherapy and Counselling; Webster Graduate School; Internexus, a provider of English language courses.\nL'Ecole Internationale Franco-Anglaise (international school providing English-French bilingual education)\nQueen's College Preparatory School (independent day school for girls)\nSouthbank International School on Portland Place","title":"Education"}]
[{"image_text":"An 1834 map of the borough of St Marylebone, showing the parishes of Paddington (green), Marylebone (red), and St Pancras (yellow)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/LONDON%2C_MARYLEBONE_by_BARTLETT%2C_F.A._and_B.J._DAVIES.jpg/260px-LONDON%2C_MARYLEBONE_by_BARTLETT%2C_F.A._and_B.J._DAVIES.jpg"},{"image_text":"St Marylebone Church","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/St_Marylebone_Church_18.07.2020_%284%29.jpg/220px-St_Marylebone_Church_18.07.2020_%284%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Marylebone coat of arms","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/St_Marylebone_arms.png/150px-St_Marylebone_arms.png"},{"image_text":"Punch or May Day by Benjamin Robert Haydon (1829), depicts St Marylebone Church in the background.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Benjamin_Robert_Haydon_%281786-1846%29_-_Punch_or_May_Day_-_N00682_-_National_Gallery.jpg/220px-Benjamin_Robert_Haydon_%281786-1846%29_-_Punch_or_May_Day_-_N00682_-_National_Gallery.jpg"},{"image_text":"Marylebone High Street","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Marylebone_High_Street_Londres.jpg/220px-Marylebone_High_Street_Londres.jpg"},{"image_text":"Marylebone Gardens, c. 1770","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Marylebone_Gardens.gif/220px-Marylebone_Gardens.gif"}]
null
[{"reference":"Pointon, Graham, ed. (1990). BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names (2nd ed.). Oxford: The University Press. ISBN 0-19-282745-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bbcpronouncingdi00gepo","url_text":"BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of British Names"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-282745-6","url_text":"0-19-282745-6"}]},{"reference":"Mills, David (2010). A Dictionary of London Place-Names (2nd ed.). Oxford: The University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-56678-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-56678-5","url_text":"978-0-199-56678-5"}]},{"reference":"Zachrisson, Robert Eugen (1917). \"Marylebone–Tyburn–Holborn\". Modern Language Review. 12 (2): 146–156. doi:10.2307/3714121. JSTOR 3714121.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3714121","url_text":"\"Marylebone–Tyburn–Holborn\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3714121","url_text":"10.2307/3714121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3714121","url_text":"3714121"}]},{"reference":"Edworthy, Niall (1999). Lord's: The Home of Cricket : the Illustrated History. Virgin. ISBN 9781852277949.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781852277949","url_text":"9781852277949"}]},{"reference":"Historic England. \"Marylebone Town Hall (1222688)\". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 16 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England","url_text":"Historic England"},{"url":"https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1222688","url_text":"\"Marylebone Town Hall (1222688)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England","url_text":"National Heritage List for England"}]},{"reference":"\"LUTYENS, Sir Edwin Landseer (1869-1944) & PEARSON, John Loughborough (1817-1897) English Heritage\". www.english-heritage.org.uk. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/pearson-john-loughborough-1817-1897","url_text":"\"LUTYENS, Sir Edwin Landseer (1869-1944) & PEARSON, John Loughborough (1817-1897) English Heritage\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160410175821/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/pearson-john-loughborough-1817-1897","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"WATERHOUSE, Alfred (1830-1905) English Heritage\". www.english-heritage.org.uk. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/waterhouse-alfred-1830-1905","url_text":"\"WATERHOUSE, Alfred (1830-1905) English Heritage\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160410213754/http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/blue-plaques/waterhouse-alfred-1830-1905","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Gayford, Martin. \"JMW Turner: the man behind the masterpieces\". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 21 October 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-news/6197141/JMW-Turner-the-man-behind-the-masterpieces.html","url_text":"\"JMW Turner: the man behind the masterpieces\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171021111658/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-news/6197141/JMW-Turner-the-man-behind-the-masterpieces.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Austrian Foreign Ministry -> Embassy -> London -> History of the Austrian Embassy\". www.bmeia.gv.at. Archived from the original on 15 December 2012. Retrieved 27 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121215194547/http://www.bmeia.gv.at/en/embassy/london/the-embassy/history-of-the-austrian-embassy.html","url_text":"\"Austrian Foreign Ministry -> Embassy -> London -> History of the Austrian Embassy\""},{"url":"http://www.bmeia.gv.at/en/embassy/london/the-embassy/history-of-the-austrian-embassy.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lownie, Andrew (2015). Stalin's Englishman: The Lives of Guy Burgess. London: Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 114–115.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Lownie","url_text":"Lownie, Andrew"}]},{"reference":"\"2017/18 Season Preview\". Wigmore Hall. Retrieved 7 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://wigmore-hall.org.uk/news/2017-18-season-preview","url_text":"\"2017/18 Season Preview\""}]},{"reference":"Hill, Dave (15 February 2017). \"'Filthy glamour': could polluted Marylebone Road help fix London's air?\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 7 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/15/marylebone-road-london-air-pollution-crisis-sadiq-khan","url_text":"\"'Filthy glamour': could polluted Marylebone Road help fix London's air?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"}]},{"reference":"\"The W1W Tree Planting Initiative for Marylebone\". The W1W Tree Planting Initiative for Marylebone. Retrieved 7 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://w1wtrees.wordpress.com/","url_text":"\"The W1W Tree Planting Initiative for Marylebone\""}]},{"reference":"\"W1W Tree Planting in Marylebone — Media Files\". The W1W Tree Planting Initiative for Marylebone. 15 December 2009. Retrieved 7 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://w1wtrees.wordpress.com/2009/12/15/w1w-tree-initiative-press/","url_text":"\"W1W Tree Planting in Marylebone — Media Files\""}]},{"reference":"Bloom, Ben (26 May 2012). \"Veteran BBC reporter plants 500th tree of Marylebone ecology project\". Hampstead Highgate Express. Retrieved 7 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hamhigh.co.uk/news/environment/veteran-bbc-reporter-plants-500th-tree-of-marylebone-ecology-project-1-1387713","url_text":"\"Veteran BBC reporter plants 500th tree of Marylebone ecology project\""}]},{"reference":"\"History of St Marylebone, in Westminster and Middlesex – Map and description\". visionofbritain.org.uk. Archived from the original on 17 September 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/place/place_page.jsp?p_id=969","url_text":"\"History of St Marylebone, in Westminster and Middlesex – Map and description\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130917145512/http://visionofbritain.org.uk/place/place_page.jsp?p_id=969","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Westminster Green Plaques Scheme – review of criteria and funding\" (PDF). City of Westminster. 12 January 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015. Theatre Royal Marylebone 71 Church Street, NW8; 1832–1959","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150703053153/http://www3.westminster.gov.uk/CSU/Cabinet%20Member%20Decisions/Built_Environment/2011-12/Post%2010%20May%202011/24%20-%20Westminster%20Green%20Plaque%20Scheme%20Review%20of%20Criteria%20and%20Funding/Cabinet%20Member%20Rpt%2012%20Jan%202012.pdf","url_text":"\"Westminster Green Plaques Scheme – review of criteria and funding\""},{"url":"http://www3.westminster.gov.uk/CSU/Cabinet%20Member%20Decisions/Built_Environment/2011-12/Post%2010%20May%202011/24%20-%20Westminster%20Green%20Plaque%20Scheme%20Review%20of%20Criteria%20and%20Funding/Cabinet%20Member%20Rpt%2012%20Jan%202012.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gold, Kevin (1 May 2015). \"Marylebone Celebrities Past & Present\". Kubie Gold. Retrieved 20 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kubie-gold.co.uk/property-news/marylebone-celebrities-past-present/","url_text":"\"Marylebone Celebrities Past & Present\""}]},{"reference":"Fordham, John (24 June 1998). \"Obituaries: Benny Green: Horn of plenty\". The Guardian. p. 16. ProQuest 245264974. He was born in Marylebone and was taught to play saxophone by a sax-playing father. While at Marylebone grammar school, where he said he was \"uneducated\", Green, aged 13, took to the sax seriously. He played for his first paying audience at a Marble Arch church hall in 1943 with a repertoire of only two tunes - Whispering and Whispering Grass.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/245264974","url_text":"245264974"}]},{"reference":"Churcher, Sharon; Wingett, Fiona (22 April 2001). \"Joan Collins stole my husband ...but I will fight to win him back Exclusive: Heartbroken wife of Dynasty star's new toyboy tells how Percy from Peru used her callously to get to the top: [FB Edition]\". The Mail on Sunday. p. 32. ProQuest 328738015. Robin was born in Marylebone, London, in March 1958 to company director Arthur Hurlstone and his wife, Mary, a Welsh farmer's daughter 21 years his junior. In his teens, Robin inherited 20,000 of money and worked as a model. However, he made art and antiques his business and is now a director of three companies.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/328738015","url_text":"328738015"}]},{"reference":"Adrian, Jack (12 July 1997). \"Obituary: W. O. G. Lofts\". The Independent. p. 16. ProQuest 312645493. William Oliver Guillemont Lofts was born in Marylebone, London, in 1923.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/312645493","url_text":"312645493"}]},{"reference":"Porter, Richard (6 October 2016). \"Give My Regards to Wimpole Street - Where Paul McCartney Lived with the Ashers\". Beatles in London. Retrieved 20 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://beatlesinlondon.com/wimpole/","url_text":"\"Give My Regards to Wimpole Street - Where Paul McCartney Lived with the Ashers\""}]},{"reference":"Johnston, Jenny (29 January 2000). \"Interview: Sir Norman Wisdom - My wife ran away with a tall, dark handsome man..I was so happy the kids chose to live with me; EXCLUSIVE: SIR NORMAN WISDOM'S LIFE OF LAUGHTER AND REGRET: [1 STAR Edition]\". The Mirror. p. 34. ProQuest 338240954. Born in Marylebone, West London, on February 4, 1915, Wisdom endured terrible suffering at the hands of his father Fred, a violent drunk. Once, when he was just nine, his dad hurled him into a ceiling.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/338240954","url_text":"338240954"}]},{"reference":"\"Top Business Schools in 2020\". Top Universities. Retrieved 16 September 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings-articles/university-subject-rankings/top-business-schools-2020","url_text":"\"Top Business Schools in 2020\""}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"St Marylebone\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 30.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/St_Marylebone","url_text":"\"St Marylebone\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great
Antiochus III the Great
["1 Biography","1.1 Background and early reign","1.2 Early wars against other Hellenistic rulers","1.3 Bactrian campaign and Indian expedition","1.4 Persia and Coele Syria campaigns","1.5 War against Rome and death","2 Family","3 Antiochus and the Jews","4 Books of Maccabees","5 Cultural portrayals","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 External links"]
6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire (r. 222–187 BC) Antiochus IIIBasileus MegasBust from the Louvre, possibly Roman copy of Hellenistic portrait of Antiochus IIIBasileus Megas of the Seleucid EmpireReignApril/June 223 – 3 July 187 BC(36 years)PredecessorSeleucus III CeraunusSuccessorSeleucus IV PhilopatorBornc. 241 BCSusa, Seleucid EmpireDied3 July 187 BC (aged 54)Susa, Seleucid EmpireSpouseLaodice IIIEuboea of ChalcisIssueAntiochusSeleucus IV PhilopatorArdysLaodice of BactriaLaodice IV, Queen of the Seleucid EmpireCleopatra I Syra, Queen of EgyptAntiochis, Queen of CappadociaAntiochus IVNamesAntiochos ho MégasἈντίoχoς ὁ Μέγας("Antiochus the Great")DynastySeleucidFatherSeleucus II CallinicusMotherLaodice IIReligionGreek polytheism Antiochus III the Great (/ænˈtaɪəkəs/; Greek: Ἀντίοχος ὁ Μέγας Antíokhos ho Mégas; c. 241 – 3 July 187 BC) was a Greek Hellenistic king and the 6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire, reigning from 223 to 187 BC. He ruled over the region of Syria and large parts of the rest of western Asia towards the end of the 3rd century BC. Rising to the throne at the age of eighteen in April/June 223 BC, his early campaigns against the Ptolemaic Kingdom were unsuccessful, but in the following years Antiochus gained several military victories and substantially expanded the empire's territory. His traditional designation, the Great, reflects an epithet he assumed. He also assumed the title Basileus Megas (Greek for "Great King"), the traditional title of the Persian kings. A militarily active ruler, Antiochus restored much of the territory of the Seleucid Empire, before suffering a serious setback, towards the end of his reign, in his war against Rome. Declaring himself the "champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination", Antiochus III waged a four-year war against the Roman Republic beginning in mainland Greece in the autumn of 192 BC before being decisively defeated at the Battle of Magnesia. He died three years later on campaign in the east. Biography Background and early reign Seleucid Kingdom at the time of Antiochus's accession to the throne. Antiochus III was a member of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty. He was the son of king Seleucus II Callinicus and Laodice II, aunt of Seleucus, and was born around 242 BC near Susa in Persia. He may have borne a non-dynastic name (starting with Ly-), according to a Babylonian chronicle. He succeeded, under the name Antiochus, his brother Seleucus III Ceraunus, upon the latter's murder in Anatolia; he was in Babylon at the time. Antiochus III inherited a disorganized state. Not only had Asia Minor become detached, but the easternmost provinces had broken away, Bactria under the Seleucid Diodotus of Bactria, and Parthia under the rebel satrap Andragoras in 247–245 BC, who was himself later vanquished by the nomad chieftain Arsaces. In 222 BC, soon after Antiochus's accession, Media and Persis revolted under their governors, the brothers Molon and Alexander. The young king, under the influence of the minister Hermeias, headed an attack on Ptolemaic Syria instead of going in person to face the rebels. The attack against the Ptolemaic empire proved a fiasco, and the generals sent against Molon and Alexander met with disaster. Only in Asia Minor, where the king's cousin, Achaeus, represented the Seleucid cause, did its prestige recover, driving the Pergamene power back to its earlier limits. In 221 BC Antiochus at last went far east, and the rebellion of Molon and Alexander collapsed which Polybius attributes in part to his following the advice of Zeuxis rather than Hermeias. The submission of Lesser Media, which had asserted its independence under Artabazanes, followed. Antiochus conspired with his physician and allies to have Hermeias assassinated, and then returned to Syria (220 BC). Meanwhile, Achaeus himself had revolted and assumed the title of king in Asia Minor. Though, due to the brewing mutiny of his troops arising from their dissatisfaction over his rebellion against their king, Achaeus desisted from his attempted coup and retreated. While sending additional threats to Achaeus, Antiochus left him for the time being and renewed his attempts on Ptolemaic Syria. Early wars against other Hellenistic rulers Seleucid Empire after the wars of expansion See also: Fourth Syrian War and Seleucid–Parthian wars The campaigns of 219 BC and 218 BC carried the Seleucid armies almost to the confines of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, but in 217 BC Ptolemy IV defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Raphia. This defeat nullified all Antiochus's successes and compelled him to withdraw north of Lebanon. In 216 BC his army marched into western Anatolia to suppress the local rebellion led by Antiochus's own cousin Achaeus, and had by 214 BC driven him from the field into Sardis. Capturing Achaeus, Antiochus had him executed. The citadel managed to hold out until 213 BC under Achaeus's widow Laodice who surrendered later. Having thus recovered the central part of Asia Minor (for the Seleucid government had perforce to tolerate the dynasties in Pergamon, Bithynia and Cappadocia), Antiochus turned to recovering the outlying provinces of the north and east. He besieged Xerxes of Armenia in 212 BC, who had refused to pay tribute, and forced his capitulation. In 209 BC Antiochus invaded Parthia, occupied the capital Hecatompylos and pushed forward into Hyrcania, winning the Battle of Mount Labus. The Parthian king Arsaces II apparently successfully sued for peace. Bactrian campaign and Indian expedition The year 209 BC saw Antiochus in Bactria, where the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I had supplanted the original rebel. Antiochus again met with success. Euthydemus was defeated by Antiochus at the Battle of the Arius but after sustaining a famous siege in his capital Bactra (Balkh), he obtained an honourable peace by which Antiochus promised Euthydemus's son Demetrius the hand of Laodice, his daughter, and allowed Euthydemus himself to keep his royal title. Antiochus next, following in the steps of Alexander, crossed into the Kabul valley, reaching the realm of Indian king Sophagasenus and returned west by way of Seistan and Kerman (206/5). According to Polybius: He crossed the Caucasus and descended into India, renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus, king of the Indians, and received more elephants, raising their number to a total of one hundred and fifty, and provisioned his army once more on the spot. He himself broke camp with his troops, leaving behind Androsthenes of Cyzicus to bring back the treasure which this king (Sophagasenus) had agreed to give him. Persia and Coele Syria campaigns See also: Fifth Syrian War From Seleucia on the Tigris he led a short expedition down the Persian Gulf against the Gerrhaeans of the Arabian coast (205 BC/204 BC). Antiochus seemed to have restored the Seleucid empire in the east, which earned him the title of "the Great" (Antiochos Megas). In 205/204 BC the infant Ptolemy V Epiphanes succeeded to the Egyptian throne, and Antiochus is said (notably by Polybius) to have concluded a secret pact with Philip V of Macedon for the partition of the Ptolemaic possessions. Under the terms of this pact, Macedon was to receive the Ptolemaic possessions around the Aegean Sea and Cyrene, while Antiochus would annex Cyprus and Egypt. Once more Antiochus attacked the Ptolemaic province of Coele Syria and Phoenicia, and by 199 BC he seems to have had possession of it before the Aetolian leader Scopas recovered it for Ptolemy. But that recovery proved brief, for in 198 BC Antiochus defeated Scopas at the Battle of Panium, near the sources of the Jordan, a battle which marks the end of Ptolemaic rule in Judea. War against Rome and death Main article: Roman–Seleucid War Antiochus then moved to Asia Minor, by land and by sea, to secure the coast towns which belonged to the remnants of Ptolemaic overseas dominions and the independent Greek cities. This enterprise earned him the antagonism of the Roman Republic, since Smyrna and Lampsacus appealed to the Republic, which at the time acted as a defender of Greek freedom. The tension grew when Antiochus in 196 BC established a footing in Thrace. The evacuation of Greece by the Romans gave Antiochus his opportunity, and he now had the fugitive Hannibal at his court to urge him on. In 192 BC Antiochus invaded Greece with a 10,000-man army, and was elected the commander in chief of the Aetolian League. In 191 BC, however, the Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio routed him at Thermopylae, forcing him to withdraw to Asia Minor. The Romans followed up their success by invading Anatolia, and the decisive victory of Scipio Asiaticus at Magnesia ad Sipylum (190 BC), following the defeat of Hannibal at sea off Side, delivered Asia Minor into their hands. By the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC) Antiochus abandoned all the country north and west of the Taurus Mountains, most of which the Roman Republic gave either to Rhodes or to the Attalid ruler Eumenes II, its allies (many Greek cities were left free). As a consequence of this blow to the Seleucid power, the outlying provinces of the empire, recovered by Antiochus, reasserted their independence. Antiochus mounted a fresh eastern expedition in Luristan, where he was killed while pillaging a temple of Bel at Elymaïs, Persia, in 187 BC. Family Coin of Antiochus the Great. The Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ, of King Antiochus. In 222 BC, Antiochus III married Princess Laodice of Pontus, a daughter of King Mithridates II of Pontus and Princess Laodice of the Seleucid Empire. The couple were first cousins through their mutual grandfather, Antiochus II Theos. Antiochus and Laodice had eight children (three sons and five daughters): Antiochus (221–193 BC), Antiochus III's first heir apparent and joint-king with his father from 210 to 193 BC Seleucus IV Philopator (c. 220 – 175 BC), Antiochus III's successor Ardys Daughter (name unknown), betrothed in about 206 BC to Demetrius I of Bactria Laodice IV, married all three of her brothers in succession and became Queen of the Seleucid Empire through her second and third marriages Cleopatra I Syra (c. 204 – 176 BC), married in 193 BC Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt Antiochis, married in 194 BC King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia Mithridates (215–164 BC), succeeded his brother Seleucus IV Philopator in 175 BC under the regnal name Antiochus IV Epiphanes In 191 BC, Antiochus III married a girl from Chalcis, whom he named "Euboea". They had no children. Laodice III may have fallen in disgrace; however, she clearly survived Antiochus III, and appears in Susa in 183 BC. Antiochus and the Jews Antiochus III resettled 2000 Jewish families from Babylonia into the Hellenistic Anatolian regions of Lydia and Phrygia. Josephus portrays him as friendly towards the Jews of Jerusalem and cognizant of their loyalty to him (see Antiquities of the Jews, Book XII, Chapter 3), in stark contrast to the attitude of his son. In fact, Antiochus III lowered taxes, granted subventions to the Temple, and let the Jews live, as Josephus puts it, "according to the law of their forefathers." Antiochus III is the "king of the north" referred to in Daniel 11:11-19. Books of Maccabees Antiochus III is mentioned in the deuterocanonical Books of the Maccabees. The subject of Maccabees is the Maccabean Revolt against Antiochus' son, Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Antiochus III is first mentioned in 1 Maccabees 1:10, when Antiochus IV is introduced as "son of King Antiochus ". Antiochus III is mentioned later in 1 Maccabees 8, which describes Judas Maccabeus' knowledge of the deeds of the Roman Republic, including an allusion to the defeat of Antiochus III by the Romans. The NRSV says "They also had defeated Antiochus the Great, king of Asia, who went to fight against them with one hundred twenty elephants and with cavalry and chariots and a very large army. He was crushed by them; they took him alive and decreed that he and those who would reign after him should pay a heavy tribute and give hostages and surrender some of their best provinces, the countries of India, Media, and Lydia. These they took from him and gave to King Eumenes." (1 Maccabees 8:6-8) Cultural portrayals During the Caroline era, the play Believe as You List was centred around Antiochus's resistance to the Romans after the Battle of Thermopylae. The play was originally about Sebastian of Portugal surviving the Battle of Alcazar, returning and trying to gather support to return to the throne. This first version was censored for being considered "subversive" because it portrayed Sebastian being deposed, it had comments in favour of an Anglo-Spanish alliance and it was possibly pro-Catholic. That led to the final version changing to the story of Antiochus, which led to historical inaccuracy in exaggerating his defeat at that phase in history to fit the earlier text and turning Spaniards into Romans and the Catholic eremite into a Stoic philosopher. Antiochus features towards the end of Norman Barrow's historical novel, The High Priest (Faber & Faber, 1947), after his forces have reacquired Jerusalem from the Ptolemaic occupation. The book was noted by John Betjeman in the Daily Herald as "interesting". See also Asia portal List of Syrian monarchs Timeline of Syrian history Notes ^ "Antiochus III the Great". Livius.org. Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020. ^ Davies, Philip R. (2002). Second Temple studies III: studies in politics, class, and material culture. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-8264-6030-1. The difference is that from the perspective of Antiochus III, the Greek king of a Greek empire, or from the later point of view of a head of state communicating with a Greek city-state ^ Garg, Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world, Volume 2. Concept Publishing Company. p. 510. ISBN 978-81-7022-375-7. Antiochus III the Great. Greek king who ruled an empire including Syria and western Asia (including Mesopotamia and Iran) towards the end of the 3rd century BC. It was during his time that Bactria became independent under Euthydemos. Shortly afterwards Antiochus III crossed the Hindu Kush and attacked an Indian prince named Subhagasena (Sophagasenas of the classical writers) who ruled over the Kabul valley. Antiochus III defeated Subhagasena, extorted from him a large cash indemnity and many elephants before he went back to his country. This invasion produced no permanent effect. ^ Jones, Peter V.; Sidwell, Keith C. (1997). The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-38600-5. Antiochus III, the Greek king of Syria (the dynasty there was called 'Seleucid'), was busily expanding in Asia Minor and in 196 BC even crossed into Europe to annex part of Thrace. ^ Whitehorne, John Edwin George (1994). Cleopatras. Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-415-05806-3. ...in the autumn of 192 BC they heard that Antiochus III had crossed over to Greece with his army and declared himself the champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination. ^ a b Wilson. Nigel Guy (2006). Encyclopedia of ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-415-97334-2. ANTIOCHUS III THE GREAT c242-187 BC Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great was the sixth king (223-187 BC) … Antiochus landed on the mainland of Greece posing as a champion of Greek freedom against the Romans (192 BC). ^ Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia. Infobase Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8160-4346-0. Antiochus III (222–187 BC) A member of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty ^ Zion, Noam; Spectre, Barbara (2000). A Different Light: The Big Book of Hanukkah. Devora Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-930143-37-1. Antiochus III, the Greek Seleucid Dynasty of Greater Syria captures Judea. 172 or 171-163 ^ Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth (2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-521-68974-8. The wars between the two most prominent Macedonian Generals dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel…As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids. ^ Glubb, Sir John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. Thames & Hudson. p. 34. OCLC 585939. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Macedonian and ruled by means of Macedonian officials and Macedonian soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Macedonia and Greek city states, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population. ^ Jonsson, David J. (2005). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press. p. 566. ISBN 978-1-59781-039-5. Antiochus III was born in 242 BC, the son of Seleucus II, near Susa, Persia. ^ "BCHP 12 (Seleucus III Chronicle) - Livius". ^ a b c d e f g h i j k  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Seleucid Dynasty s.v. Antiochus III. the Great". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 604–605. ^ ^ Polybius, Histories. 5.56 ^ Polybius, Histories. 5.57 ^ Polybius, Histories. 5.58 ^ Chahin 1987, p. 190. ^ "Polybius 10.49, Antiochus Engages the Bactrians". Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021. ^ a b "Polybius 11.34, Antiochus Moves from Bactria Through Interior Asia". Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2021. ^ Kosmin 2014, pp. 35–36. ^ Appian, The Syrian Wars 1.1 ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Antiochus s.v. Antiochus III." . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 132. ^ Bringmann, Klaus (2007). A history of the Roman republic. Polity. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-7456-3371-8. The Aetolians called on Antiochus the 'liberate' Greece and to act as arbitrator between them and the Romans. Thereupon the king landed in Demetrias in the late autumn of 192 with a small army, and the Aetolian assembly elected him supreme strategos. His attempt to gather together al those who were dissatisfied with the peace agreement of 196 under the banner of Greek freedom had some success but proved a failure overall. ^ "Antiochus III the Great - Livius". Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020. ^ I. Estremo Oriente 190 ^ Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. 2000. p. 61. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2. Jewish settlements in the interior of Asia Minor were known as early as the 3rd century BC when Antiochus III resettled 2000 Jewish families from Babylonia into Lydia and Phrygia ^ "The Antiquities of the Jews 12:3:3". Sefaria.org. Archived from the original on 2 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021. ^ E. Bickerman, "La Charte séleucide de Jérusalem," REJ 100 (1935): 4–35. ^ Chisholm, Robert B. (2009). Handbook on the Prophets. Baker Books. p. 309. ISBN 9781585583652. Retrieved 18 August 2023. ^ "Books - by John Betjeman". Daily Herald. British Newspaper Archive. 22 April 1947. p. 4. Retrieved 18 February 2018. References Bar-Kochva, Bezalel (1976). The Seleucid Army. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bevan, Edwyn Robert (1902). The House of Seleucus. London: Edward Arnolds. Chahin, M. (1987). The Kingdom of Armenia: A History. Curzon Press. Cook, S. A.; Adcock, F. E.; Charlesworth, M. P., eds. (1928). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 7 & 8. New York: Macmillan. Grabbe, Lester L. (1992). Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian. Fortress Press. Kincaid, C. A. (1930). Successors of Alexander the Great. London: Pasmore and Co. Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674728820 Livy (1976). Bettenson, H (ed.). Rome and the Mediterranean. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140443189. Rawlings, Hunter R. (1976). "Antiochus the Great and Rhodes, 197–191 BC". American Journal of Ancient History. 1: 2–28. Schmitt, Hatto (1964). Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Antiochos' des Grossen und Seiner Zeit. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. Sherwin-White, Susan; Kuhrt, Amélie (1993). From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press. Taylor, Michael J. (2013). Antiochus the Great. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. Grainger, John D. (2015). The Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III (223–187 BC). Barnsley: Pen and Sword. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Antiochus III. Antiochus III "the Great" entry in historical sourcebook by Mahlon H. Smith Antiochus III entry in 'Seleucid Genealogy' Archived 22 July 2018 at the Wayback Machine Antiochus III the Great Seleucid dynastyBorn: c. 241 BC Died: 187 BC Regnal titles Preceded bySeleucus III Ceraunus Seleucid King(King of Syria) 223–187 BC Succeeded bySeleucus IV Philopator vteHellenistic rulersArgeads Philip II Alexander III the Great Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antipatrids Cassander Philip IV Alexander V Antipater II Antipater Etesias Sosthenes Antigonids Antigonus I Monophthalmus Demetrius I Poliorcetes Antigonus II Gonatas Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus III Doson Philip V Perseus Philip VI (pretender) Ptolemies Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Ptolemy III Euergetes Ptolemy IV Philopator Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra (regent) Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III Ptolemy IX Lathyros Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra VI Tryphaena Berenice IV Epiphanea Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator Ptolemy XV Caesarion Monarchs of Cyrene Magas Berenice II Demetrius the Fair Ptolemy VIII Physcon Ptolemy Apion Cleopatra Selene II Seleucids Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III the Great Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Alexander I Balas Demetrius II Nicator Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes Alexander II Zabinas Cleopatra Thea Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Cleopatra Selene I Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Lysimachids Lysimachus Ptolemy Epigonos Attalids Philetaerus Eumenes I Attalus I Eumenes II Attalus II Attalus III Eumenes III Greco-Bactrians Diodotus I Diodotus II Euthydemus I Demetrius I Euthydemus II Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Demetrius II Eucratides I Plato Eucratides II Heliocles I Indo-Greeks Demetrius I Antimachus I Pantaleon Agathocles Apollodotus I Demetrius II Antimachus II Menander I Zoilos I Agathokleia Lysias Strato I Antialcidas Heliokles II Polyxenos Demetrius III Philoxenus Diomedes Amyntas Epander Theophilos Peukolaos Thraso Nicias Menander II Artemidoros Hermaeus Archebius Telephos Apollodotus II Hippostratos Dionysios Zoilos II Apollophanes Strato II Strato III Monarchs of Bithynia Boteiras Bas Zipoetes I Nicomedes I Zipoetes II Etazeta (regent) Ziaelas Prusias I Prusias II Nicomedes II Nicomedes III Nicomedes IV Socrates Chrestus Monarchs of Pontus Mithridates I Ctistes Ariobarzanes Mithridates II Mithridates III Pharnaces I Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos with Laodice Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates VI Eupator Pharnaces II Darius Arsaces Polemon I Pythodorida Polemon II Monarchs of Commagene Ptolemaeus Sames II Mithridates I Antiochus I Mithridates II Antiochus II Mithridates III Antiochus III Antiochus IV Monarchs of Cappadocia Ariarathes I Ariarathes II Ariamnes II Ariarathes III Ariarathes IV Ariarathes V Orophernes Ariarathes VI Ariarathes VII Ariarathes VIII Ariarathes IX Ariobarzanes I Ariobarzanes II Ariobarzanes III Ariarathes X Archelaus Monarchs of theCimmerian Bosporus Paerisades I Satyros II Prytanis Eumelos Spartokos III Hygiainon (regent) Paerisades II Spartokos IV Leukon II Spartokos V  Kamasarye Paerisades III Paerisades IV Paerisades V Mithridates I Pharnaces Asander with Dynamis Mithridates II Asander with Dynamis Scribonius's attempted rule with Dynamis Dynamis with Polemon Polemon Aspurgus Gepaepyris Mithridates III Cotys I Monarchs of Epirus Admetus Tharrhypas Alcetas I Neoptolemus I Arybbas Alexander I Aeacides Neoptolemus II Alcetas II Pyrrhus I Alexander II Olympias II (regent) Pyrrhus II Ptolemy Pyrrhus III Deidamia Hellenistic rulers were preceded by Hellenistic satraps in most of their territories. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"/ænˈtaɪəkəs/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_period"},{"link_name":"king","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Seleucid_rulers"},{"link_name":"Seleucid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies,_Philip_R._2002_95-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Garg,_Ga%E1%B9%85g%C4%81_R%C4%81m_1992_510-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones,_Peter_V.;_Sidwell,_Keith_c._1997_20-4"},{"link_name":"region of Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria_(region)"},{"link_name":"western Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Asia"},{"link_name":"Ptolemaic Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Great King","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_King"},{"link_name":"traditional title of the Persian kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire"},{"link_name":"waged a four-year war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War"},{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whitehorne,_John_Edwin_George_1994_84-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilson._Nigel_Guy_2005_58-6"},{"link_name":"Battle of Magnesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia"}],"text":"Antiochus III the Great (/ænˈtaɪəkəs/; Greek: Ἀντίοχος ὁ Μέγας Antíokhos ho Mégas; c. 241 – 3 July 187 BC)[1] was a Greek Hellenistic king and the 6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire, reigning from 223 to 187 BC.[2][3][4] He ruled over the region of Syria and large parts of the rest of western Asia towards the end of the 3rd century BC. Rising to the throne at the age of eighteen in April/June 223 BC, his early campaigns against the Ptolemaic Kingdom were unsuccessful, but in the following years Antiochus gained several military victories and substantially expanded the empire's territory. His traditional designation, the Great, reflects an epithet he assumed. He also assumed the title Basileus Megas (Greek for \"Great King\"), the traditional title of the Persian kings. A militarily active ruler, Antiochus restored much of the territory of the Seleucid Empire, before suffering a serious setback, towards the end of his reign, in his war against Rome.Declaring himself the \"champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination\", Antiochus III waged a four-year war against the Roman Republic beginning in mainland Greece in the autumn of 192 BC[5][6] before being decisively defeated at the Battle of Magnesia. He died three years later on campaign in the east.","title":"Antiochus III the Great"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:225fkr.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_kingdoms"},{"link_name":"Seleucid dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Seleucid_rulers"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bertman,_Stephen_2003_76-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zion,_Noam_;_Spectre,_Barbara_2000_57-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baskin,_Judith_R._;_Seeskin,_Kenneth_2010_37-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Glubb,_Sir_John_Bagot_1967_34-10"},{"link_name":"Seleucus II Callinicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus"},{"link_name":"Laodice II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodice_II"},{"link_name":"Susa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susa"},{"link_name":"Persia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persia"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jonsson,_David_J._2005_566-11"},{"link_name":"Seleucus III Ceraunus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Asia Minor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria"},{"link_name":"Diodotus of Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodotus_of_Bactria"},{"link_name":"Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia"},{"link_name":"Andragoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragoras_(Seleucid_satrap)"},{"link_name":"Arsaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsaces_I_of_Parthia"},{"link_name":"Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(region)"},{"link_name":"Persis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fars_Province"},{"link_name":"Molon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molon"},{"link_name":"Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_(satrap)"},{"link_name":"Hermeias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeias"},{"link_name":"Achaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaeus_(general)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"Polybius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius"},{"link_name":"Zeuxis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeuxis_(general)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Artabazanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artabazanes_of_Media_Atropatene"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Syria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"}],"sub_title":"Background and early reign","text":"Seleucid Kingdom at the time of Antiochus's accession to the throne.Antiochus III was a member of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty.[7][8][9][10] He was the son of king Seleucus II Callinicus and Laodice II, aunt of Seleucus, and was born around 242 BC near Susa in Persia.[11] He may have borne a non-dynastic name (starting with Ly-), according to a Babylonian chronicle. He succeeded, under the name Antiochus, his brother Seleucus III Ceraunus, upon the latter's murder in Anatolia; he was in Babylon at the time.[12]Antiochus III inherited a disorganized state. Not only had Asia Minor become detached, but the easternmost provinces had broken away, Bactria under the Seleucid Diodotus of Bactria, and Parthia under the rebel satrap Andragoras in 247–245 BC, who was himself later vanquished by the nomad chieftain Arsaces. In 222 BC, soon after Antiochus's accession, Media and Persis revolted under their governors, the brothers Molon and Alexander. The young king, under the influence of the minister Hermeias, headed an attack on Ptolemaic Syria instead of going in person to face the rebels. The attack against the Ptolemaic empire proved a fiasco, and the generals sent against Molon and Alexander met with disaster. Only in Asia Minor, where the king's cousin, Achaeus, represented the Seleucid cause, did its prestige recover, driving the Pergamene power back to its earlier limits.[13]In 221 BC Antiochus at last went far east, and the rebellion of Molon and Alexander collapsed which Polybius attributes in part to his following the advice of Zeuxis rather than Hermeias.[14] The submission of Lesser Media, which had asserted its independence under Artabazanes, followed. Antiochus conspired with his physician and allies to have Hermeias assassinated,[15] and then returned to Syria (220 BC). Meanwhile, Achaeus himself had revolted and assumed the title of king in Asia Minor. Though, due to the brewing mutiny of his troops arising from their dissatisfaction over his rebellion against their king, Achaeus desisted from his attempted coup and retreated.[16] While sending additional threats to Achaeus, Antiochus left him for the time being and renewed his attempts on Ptolemaic Syria.[17][13]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:194fkr.JPG"},{"link_name":"Seleucid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Fourth Syrian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_Wars#Fourth_Syrian_War_(219-217_BC)"},{"link_name":"Seleucid–Parthian wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid%E2%80%93Parthian_wars"},{"link_name":"Ptolemaic Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator"},{"link_name":"Battle of Raphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Raphia"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Achaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaeus_(general)"},{"link_name":"Sardis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardis"},{"link_name":"Laodice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodice_of_Pontus"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"Pergamon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon"},{"link_name":"Bithynia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bithynia"},{"link_name":"Cappadocia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cappadocia"},{"link_name":"Xerxes of Armenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerxes_of_Sophene"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChahin1987190-18"},{"link_name":"Parthia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthia"},{"link_name":"Hecatompylos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qumis,_Iran"},{"link_name":"Hyrcania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyrcania"},{"link_name":"Battle of Mount Labus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Labus"},{"link_name":"Arsaces II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsaces_II_of_Parthia"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"}],"sub_title":"Early wars against other Hellenistic rulers","text":"Seleucid Empire after the wars of expansionSee also: Fourth Syrian War and Seleucid–Parthian warsThe campaigns of 219 BC and 218 BC carried the Seleucid armies almost to the confines of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, but in 217 BC Ptolemy IV defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Raphia. This defeat nullified all Antiochus's successes and compelled him to withdraw north of Lebanon. In 216 BC his army marched into western Anatolia to suppress the local rebellion led by Antiochus's own cousin Achaeus, and had by 214 BC driven him from the field into Sardis. Capturing Achaeus, Antiochus had him executed. The citadel managed to hold out until 213 BC under Achaeus's widow Laodice who surrendered later.[13]Having thus recovered the central part of Asia Minor (for the Seleucid government had perforce to tolerate the dynasties in Pergamon, Bithynia and Cappadocia), Antiochus turned to recovering the outlying provinces of the north and east. He besieged Xerxes of Armenia in 212 BC, who had refused to pay tribute, and forced his capitulation.[18] In 209 BC Antiochus invaded Parthia, occupied the capital Hecatompylos and pushed forward into Hyrcania, winning the Battle of Mount Labus. The Parthian king Arsaces II apparently successfully sued for peace.[13]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactria"},{"link_name":"Greco-Bactrian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Euthydemus I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthydemus_I"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Arius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Arius"},{"link_name":"famous siege in his capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Bactra"},{"link_name":"Bactra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bactra"},{"link_name":"Demetrius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactria"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Polybius_11.34-20"},{"link_name":"Kabul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabul"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Sophagasenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophagasenus"},{"link_name":"Seistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seistan"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"Polybius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius"},{"link_name":"Caucasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_Kush"},{"link_name":"Sophagasenus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophagasenus"},{"link_name":"Androsthenes of Cyzicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Cyzicus"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKosmin201435%E2%80%9336-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Polybius_11.34-20"}],"sub_title":"Bactrian campaign and Indian expedition","text":"The year 209 BC saw Antiochus in Bactria, where the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus I had supplanted the original rebel. Antiochus again met with success.[19] Euthydemus was defeated by Antiochus at the Battle of the Arius but after sustaining a famous siege in his capital Bactra (Balkh), he obtained an honourable peace by which Antiochus promised Euthydemus's son Demetrius the hand of Laodice, his daughter, and allowed Euthydemus himself to keep his royal title.[13][20]Antiochus next, following in the steps of Alexander, crossed into the Kabul valley, reaching the realm of Indian king Sophagasenus and returned west by way of Seistan and Kerman (206/5).[13] According to Polybius:He crossed the Caucasus and descended into India, renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus, king of the Indians, and received more elephants, raising their number to a total of one hundred and fifty, and provisioned his army once more on the spot. He himself broke camp with his troops, leaving behind Androsthenes of Cyzicus to bring back the treasure which this king (Sophagasenus) had agreed to give him.[21][20]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fifth Syrian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Syrian_War"},{"link_name":"Seleucia on the Tigris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucia"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf"},{"link_name":"Gerrhaeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrha"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy V Epiphanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Polybius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polybius"},{"link_name":"Philip V of Macedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_V_of_Macedon"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"Macedon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedon"},{"link_name":"Cyrene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya"},{"link_name":"Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Scopas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopas_of_Aetolia"},{"link_name":"Battle of Panium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Panium"},{"link_name":"Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan_River"},{"link_name":"Judea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judea"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"}],"sub_title":"Persia and Coele Syria campaigns","text":"See also: Fifth Syrian WarFrom Seleucia on the Tigris he led a short expedition down the Persian Gulf against the Gerrhaeans of the Arabian coast (205 BC/204 BC). Antiochus seemed to have restored the Seleucid empire in the east, which earned him the title of \"the Great\" (Antiochos Megas).[22] In 205/204 BC the infant Ptolemy V Epiphanes succeeded to the Egyptian throne, and Antiochus is said (notably by Polybius) to have concluded a secret pact with Philip V of Macedon for the partition of the Ptolemaic possessions.[13] Under the terms of this pact, Macedon was to receive the Ptolemaic possessions around the Aegean Sea and Cyrene, while Antiochus would annex Cyprus and Egypt.Once more Antiochus attacked the Ptolemaic province of Coele Syria and Phoenicia, and by 199 BC he seems to have had possession of it before the Aetolian leader Scopas recovered it for Ptolemy. But that recovery proved brief, for in 198 BC Antiochus defeated Scopas at the Battle of Panium, near the sources of the Jordan, a battle which marks the end of Ptolemaic rule in Judea.[13]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic"},{"link_name":"Smyrna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smyrna"},{"link_name":"Lampsacus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampsacus"},{"link_name":"Thrace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrace"},{"link_name":"Hannibal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Aetolian League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aetolian_League"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bringmann,_Klaus_2007_91-24"},{"link_name":"Manius Acilius Glabrio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manius_Acilius_Glabrio_(consul_191_BC)"},{"link_name":"Thermopylae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(191_BC)"},{"link_name":"Anatolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia"},{"link_name":"Scipio Asiaticus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Asiaticus"},{"link_name":"Magnesia ad Sipylum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Magnesia"},{"link_name":"Side","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side,_Turkey"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Apamea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Apamea"},{"link_name":"Taurus Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurus_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Eumenes II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumenes_II"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-13"},{"link_name":"Luristan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luristan"},{"link_name":"Bel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bel_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Elymaïs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elymais"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilson._Nigel_Guy_2005_58-6"}],"sub_title":"War against Rome and death","text":"Antiochus then moved to Asia Minor, by land and by sea, to secure the coast towns which belonged to the remnants of Ptolemaic overseas dominions and the independent Greek cities. This enterprise earned him the antagonism of the Roman Republic, since Smyrna and Lampsacus appealed to the Republic, which at the time acted as a defender of Greek freedom. The tension grew when Antiochus in 196 BC established a footing in Thrace. The evacuation of Greece by the Romans gave Antiochus his opportunity, and he now had the fugitive Hannibal at his court to urge him on.[13][23]In 192 BC Antiochus invaded Greece with a 10,000-man army, and was elected the commander in chief of the Aetolian League.[24] In 191 BC, however, the Romans under Manius Acilius Glabrio routed him at Thermopylae, forcing him to withdraw to Asia Minor. The Romans followed up their success by invading Anatolia, and the decisive victory of Scipio Asiaticus at Magnesia ad Sipylum (190 BC), following the defeat of Hannibal at sea off Side, delivered Asia Minor into their hands.[13]By the Treaty of Apamea (188 BC) Antiochus abandoned all the country north and west of the Taurus Mountains, most of which the Roman Republic gave either to Rhodes or to the Attalid ruler Eumenes II, its allies (many Greek cities were left free). As a consequence of this blow to the Seleucid power, the outlying provinces of the empire, recovered by Antiochus, reasserted their independence.[13] Antiochus mounted a fresh eastern expedition in Luristan, where he was killed while pillaging a temple of Bel at Elymaïs, Persia, in 187 BC.[6]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antiochus_III_197_BC.JPG"},{"link_name":"Princess Laodice of Pontus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodice_III"},{"link_name":"King Mithridates II of Pontus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Pontus"},{"link_name":"Princess Laodice of the Seleucid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodice_(wife_of_Mithridates_II_of_Pontus)"},{"link_name":"Antiochus II Theos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Antiochus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_(son_of_Antiochus_III_the_Great)"},{"link_name":"heir apparent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heir_apparent"},{"link_name":"Seleucus IV Philopator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator"},{"link_name":"betrothed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betrothal"},{"link_name":"Demetrius I of Bactria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Bactria"},{"link_name":"Laodice IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laodice_IV"},{"link_name":"Seleucid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Cleopatra I Syra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes"},{"link_name":"Antiochis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochis#Seleucid_Princesses_&_Hellenistic_Queen_Consorts"},{"link_name":"King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariarathes_IV_of_Cappadocia"},{"link_name":"Mithridates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes"},{"link_name":"Seleucus IV Philopator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator"},{"link_name":"regnal name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnal_name"},{"link_name":"Antiochus IV Epiphanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Coin of Antiochus the Great. The Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΟΧΟΥ, of King Antiochus.In 222 BC, Antiochus III married Princess Laodice of Pontus, a daughter of King Mithridates II of Pontus and Princess Laodice of the Seleucid Empire. The couple were first cousins through their mutual grandfather, Antiochus II Theos. Antiochus and Laodice had eight children (three sons and five daughters):[25]Antiochus (221–193 BC), Antiochus III's first heir apparent and joint-king with his father from 210 to 193 BC\nSeleucus IV Philopator (c. 220 – 175 BC), Antiochus III's successor\nArdys\nDaughter (name unknown), betrothed in about 206 BC to Demetrius I of Bactria\nLaodice IV, married all three of her brothers in succession and became Queen of the Seleucid Empire through her second and third marriages\nCleopatra I Syra (c. 204 – 176 BC), married in 193 BC Ptolemy V Epiphanes of Egypt\nAntiochis, married in 194 BC King Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia\nMithridates (215–164 BC), succeeded his brother Seleucus IV Philopator in 175 BC under the regnal name Antiochus IV EpiphanesIn 191 BC, Antiochus III married a girl[clarification needed] from Chalcis, whom he named \"Euboea\". They had no children. Laodice III may have fallen in disgrace; however, she clearly survived Antiochus III, and appears in Susa in 183 BC.[26]","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Babylonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonia"},{"link_name":"Lydia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia"},{"link_name":"Phrygia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygia"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freedman,_David_Noel_2000_61-27"},{"link_name":"Josephus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephus"},{"link_name":"Antiquities of the Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiquities_of_the_Jews"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Daniel 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_11"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"Antiochus III resettled 2000 Jewish families from Babylonia into the Hellenistic Anatolian regions of Lydia and Phrygia.[27] Josephus portrays him as friendly towards the Jews of Jerusalem and cognizant of their loyalty to him (see Antiquities of the Jews, Book XII, Chapter 3),[28] in stark contrast to the attitude of his son. In fact, Antiochus III lowered taxes, granted subventions to the Temple, and let the Jews live, as Josephus puts it, \"according to the law of their forefathers.\"[29]Antiochus III is the \"king of the north\" referred to in Daniel 11:11-19.[30]","title":"Antiochus and the Jews"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"deuterocanonical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books"},{"link_name":"Books of the Maccabees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Books_of_the_Maccabees"},{"link_name":"Maccabean Revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt"},{"link_name":"Antiochus IV Epiphanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes"},{"link_name":"1 Maccabees 1:10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Maccabees+1%3A10&version=NRSV"},{"link_name":"1 Maccabees 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Maccabees+8&version=NRSV"},{"link_name":"defeat of Antiochus III by the Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Seleucid_War"},{"link_name":"NRSV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Revised_Standard_Version"},{"link_name":"Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(region)"},{"link_name":"Lydia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia"},{"link_name":"King Eumenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumenes_II"},{"link_name":"1 Maccabees 8:6-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1+Maccabees+8%3A6-8&version=NRSV"}],"text":"Antiochus III is mentioned in the deuterocanonical Books of the Maccabees. The subject of Maccabees is the Maccabean Revolt against Antiochus' son, Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Antiochus III is first mentioned in 1 Maccabees 1:10, when Antiochus IV is introduced as \"son of King Antiochus [Antiochus III]\". Antiochus III is mentioned later in 1 Maccabees 8, which describes Judas Maccabeus' knowledge of the deeds of the Roman Republic, including an allusion to the defeat of Antiochus III by the Romans. The NRSV says \"They [the Romans] also had defeated Antiochus the Great, king of Asia, who went to fight against them with one hundred twenty elephants and with cavalry and chariots and a very large army. He was crushed by them; they took him alive and decreed that he and those who would reign after him should pay a heavy tribute and give hostages and surrender some of their best provinces, the countries of India, Media, and Lydia. These they took from him and gave to King Eumenes.\" (1 Maccabees 8:6-8)","title":"Books of Maccabees"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Caroline era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_era"},{"link_name":"Believe as You List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Believe_as_You_List"},{"link_name":"Battle of Thermopylae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Thermopylae_(191_BC)"},{"link_name":"Sebastian of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Battle of Alcazar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Alcazar"},{"link_name":"subversive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subversive"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"eremite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eremite"},{"link_name":"Stoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoicism"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"John Betjeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Betjeman"},{"link_name":"Daily Herald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Herald_(UK_newspaper)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"During the Caroline era, the play Believe as You List was centred around Antiochus's resistance to the Romans after the Battle of Thermopylae. The play was originally about Sebastian of Portugal surviving the Battle of Alcazar, returning and trying to gather support to return to the throne. This first version was censored for being considered \"subversive\" because it portrayed Sebastian being deposed, it had comments in favour of an Anglo-Spanish alliance and it was possibly pro-Catholic. That led to the final version changing to the story of Antiochus, which led to historical inaccuracy in exaggerating his defeat at that phase in history to fit the earlier text and turning Spaniards into Romans and the Catholic eremite into a Stoic philosopher.[citation needed]\nAntiochus features towards the end of Norman Barrow's historical novel, The High Priest (Faber & Faber, 1947), after his forces have reacquired Jerusalem from the Ptolemaic occupation. The book was noted by John Betjeman in the Daily Herald as \"interesting\".[31]","title":"Cultural portrayals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Antiochus III the Great\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iii-the-great/?"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20200504014106/https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iii-the-great/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Davies,_Philip_R._2002_95_2-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8264-6030-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-6030-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Garg,_Ga%E1%B9%85g%C4%81_R%C4%81m_1992_510_3-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-81-7022-375-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7022-375-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Jones,_Peter_V.;_Sidwell,_Keith_c._1997_20_4-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-38600-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-38600-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Whitehorne,_John_Edwin_George_1994_84_5-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-05806-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-05806-3"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Wilson._Nigel_Guy_2005_58_6-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Wilson._Nigel_Guy_2005_58_6-1"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/encyclopediaofan0000unse_a6l6/page/58"},{"link_name":"58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/encyclopediaofan0000unse_a6l6/page/58"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-97334-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-97334-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Bertman,_Stephen_2003_76_7-0"},{"link_name":"Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/handbooktolifein00bert/page/76"},{"link_name":"76","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/handbooktolifein00bert/page/76"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8160-4346-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4346-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Zion,_Noam_;_Spectre,_Barbara_2000_57_8-0"},{"link_name":"A Different Light: The Big Book of Hanukkah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/differentlightpl00zion/page/57"},{"link_name":"57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/differentlightpl00zion/page/57"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-930143-37-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-930143-37-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Baskin,_Judith_R._;_Seeskin,_Kenneth_2010_37_9-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-68974-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68974-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Glubb,_Sir_John_Bagot_1967_34_10-0"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"585939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/585939"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Jonsson,_David_J._2005_566_11-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-59781-039-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59781-039-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"\"BCHP 12 (Seleucus III Chronicle) - 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Livius.org. Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.\n\n^ Davies, Philip R. (2002). Second Temple studies III: studies in politics, class, and material culture. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-8264-6030-1. The difference is that from the perspective of Antiochus III, the Greek king of a Greek empire, or from the later point of view of a head of state communicating with a Greek city-state\n\n^ Garg, Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world, Volume 2. Concept Publishing Company. p. 510. ISBN 978-81-7022-375-7. Antiochus III the Great. Greek king who ruled an empire including Syria and western Asia (including Mesopotamia and Iran) towards the end of the 3rd century BC. It was during his time that Bactria became independent under Euthydemos. Shortly afterwards Antiochus III crossed the Hindu Kush and attacked an Indian prince named Subhagasena (Sophagasenas of the classical writers) who ruled over the Kabul valley. Antiochus III defeated Subhagasena, extorted from him a large cash indemnity and many elephants before he went back to his country. This invasion produced no permanent effect.\n\n^ Jones, Peter V.; Sidwell, Keith C. (1997). The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-521-38600-5. Antiochus III, the Greek king of Syria (the dynasty there was called 'Seleucid'), was busily expanding in Asia Minor and in 196 BC even crossed into Europe to annex part of Thrace.\n\n^ Whitehorne, John Edwin George (1994). Cleopatras. Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-415-05806-3. ...in the autumn of 192 BC they heard that Antiochus III had crossed over to Greece with his army and declared himself the champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination.\n\n^ a b Wilson. Nigel Guy (2006). Encyclopedia of ancient Greece. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-415-97334-2. ANTIOCHUS III THE GREAT c242-187 BC Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great was the sixth king (223-187 BC) … Antiochus landed on the mainland of Greece posing as a champion of Greek freedom against the Romans (192 BC).\n\n^ Bertman, Stephen (2003). Handbook to life in ancient Mesopotamia. Infobase Publishing. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8160-4346-0. Antiochus III (222–187 BC) A member of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty\n\n^ Zion, Noam; Spectre, Barbara (2000). A Different Light: The Big Book of Hanukkah. Devora Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-930143-37-1. Antiochus III, the Greek Seleucid Dynasty of Greater Syria captures Judea. 172 or 171-163\n\n^ Baskin, Judith R.; Seeskin, Kenneth (2010). The Cambridge Guide to Jewish History, Religion, and Culture. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-521-68974-8. The wars between the two most prominent Macedonian Generals dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel…As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids.\n\n^ Glubb, Sir John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. Thames & Hudson. p. 34. OCLC 585939. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Macedonian and ruled by means of Macedonian officials and Macedonian soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Macedonia and Greek city states, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population.\n\n^ Jonsson, David J. (2005). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press. p. 566. ISBN 978-1-59781-039-5. Antiochus III was born in 242 BC, the son of Seleucus II, near Susa, Persia.\n\n^ \"BCHP 12 (Seleucus III Chronicle) - Livius\".\n\n^ a b c d e f g h i j k  One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Seleucid Dynasty s.v. Antiochus III. the Great\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 604–605.\n\n^ [1] [dead link]\n\n^ Polybius, Histories. 5.56\n\n^ Polybius, Histories. 5.57\n\n^ Polybius, Histories. 5.58\n\n^ Chahin 1987, p. 190.\n\n^ \"Polybius 10.49, Antiochus Engages the Bactrians\". Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\n^ a b \"Polybius 11.34, Antiochus Moves from Bactria Through Interior Asia\". Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2021.\n\n^ Kosmin 2014, pp. 35–36.\n\n^ Appian, The Syrian Wars 1.1\n\n^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Antiochus s.v. Antiochus III.\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 132.\n\n^ Bringmann, Klaus (2007). A history of the Roman republic. Polity. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-7456-3371-8. The Aetolians called on Antiochus the 'liberate' Greece and to act as arbitrator between them and the Romans. Thereupon the king landed in Demetrias in the late autumn of 192 with a small army, and the Aetolian assembly elected him supreme strategos. His attempt to gather together al those who were dissatisfied with the peace agreement of 196 under the banner of Greek freedom had some success but proved a failure overall.\n\n^ \"Antiochus III the Great - Livius\". Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.\n\n^ I. Estremo Oriente 190\n\n^ Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. 2000. p. 61. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2. Jewish settlements in the interior of Asia Minor were known as early as the 3rd century BC when Antiochus III resettled 2000 Jewish families from Babylonia into Lydia and Phrygia\n\n^ \"The Antiquities of the Jews 12:3:3\". Sefaria.org. Archived from the original on 2 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.\n\n^ E. Bickerman, \"La Charte séleucide de Jérusalem,\" REJ 100 (1935): 4–35.\n\n^ Chisholm, Robert B. (2009). Handbook on the Prophets. Baker Books. p. 309. ISBN 9781585583652. Retrieved 18 August 2023.\n\n^ \"Books - by John Betjeman\". Daily Herald. British Newspaper Archive. 22 April 1947. p. 4. Retrieved 18 February 2018.","title":"Notes"}]
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Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world, Volume 2. Concept Publishing Company. p. 510. ISBN 978-81-7022-375-7. Antiochus III the Great. Greek king who ruled an empire including Syria and western Asia (including Mesopotamia and Iran) towards the end of the 3rd century BC. It was during his time that Bactria became independent under Euthydemos. Shortly afterwards Antiochus III crossed the Hindu Kush and attacked an Indian prince named Subhagasena (Sophagasenas of the classical writers) who ruled over the Kabul valley. Antiochus III defeated Subhagasena, extorted from him a large cash indemnity and many elephants before he went back to his country. This invasion produced no permanent effect.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7022-375-7","url_text":"978-81-7022-375-7"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Peter V.; Sidwell, Keith C. (1997). The World of Rome: An Introduction to Roman Culture. 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The wars between the two most prominent Macedonian Generals dynasties, the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria, unalterably change the history of the land of Israel…As a result the land of Israel became part of the empire of the Syrian Greek Seleucids.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68974-8","url_text":"978-0-521-68974-8"}]},{"reference":"Glubb, Sir John Bagot (1967). Syria, Lebanon, Jordan. Thames & Hudson. p. 34. OCLC 585939. Although the Ptolemies and the Seleucids were perpetual rivals, both dynasties were Macedonian and ruled by means of Macedonian officials and Macedonian soldiers. Both governments made great efforts to attract immigrants from Macedonia and Greek city states, thereby adding yet another racial element to the population.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/585939","url_text":"585939"}]},{"reference":"Jonsson, David J. (2005). The Clash of Ideologies. Xulon Press. p. 566. ISBN 978-1-59781-039-5. Antiochus III was born in 242 BC, the son of Seleucus II, near Susa, Persia.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59781-039-5","url_text":"978-1-59781-039-5"}]},{"reference":"\"BCHP 12 (Seleucus III Chronicle) - Livius\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/bchp-12-seleucus-iii-chronicle/","url_text":"\"BCHP 12 (Seleucus III Chronicle) - Livius\""}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Seleucid Dynasty s.v. Antiochus III. the Great\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 604–605.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Seleucid_Dynasty","url_text":"Seleucid Dynasty s.v. Antiochus III. the Great"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"\"Polybius 10.49, Antiochus Engages the Bactrians\". Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D10%3Achapter%3D49","url_text":"\"Polybius 10.49, Antiochus Engages the Bactrians\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210518143710/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0234%3Abook%3D10%3Achapter%3D49","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Polybius 11.34, Antiochus Moves from Bactria Through Interior Asia\". Archived from the original on 20 April 2008. Retrieved 20 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34","url_text":"\"Polybius 11.34, Antiochus Moves from Bactria Through Interior Asia\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080420074248/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+11.34","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Antiochus s.v. Antiochus III.\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 132.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Antiochus","url_text":"\"Antiochus s.v. Antiochus III.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Bringmann, Klaus (2007). A history of the Roman republic. Polity. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-7456-3371-8. The Aetolians called on Antiochus the 'liberate' Greece and to act as arbitrator between them and the Romans. Thereupon the king landed in Demetrias in the late autumn of 192 with a small army, and the Aetolian assembly elected him supreme strategos. His attempt to gather together al those who were dissatisfied with the peace agreement of 196 under the banner of Greek freedom had some success but proved a failure overall.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3371-8","url_text":"978-0-7456-3371-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Antiochus III the Great - Livius\". Archived from the original on 4 May 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iii-the-great/","url_text":"\"Antiochus III the Great - Livius\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200504014106/https://www.livius.org/articles/person/antiochus-iii-the-great/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. 2000. p. 61. ISBN 978-90-5356-503-2. Jewish settlements in the interior of Asia Minor were known as early as the 3rd century BC when Antiochus III resettled 2000 Jewish families from Babylonia into Lydia and Phrygia","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5356-503-2","url_text":"978-90-5356-503-2"}]},{"reference":"\"The Antiquities of the Jews 12:3:3\". Sefaria.org. Archived from the original on 2 December 2021. Retrieved 14 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211202134658/https://www.sefaria.org/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews.12.3.3?lang=bi&with=all&lang2=en","url_text":"\"The Antiquities of the Jews 12:3:3\""},{"url":"https://www.sefaria.org/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews.12.3.3","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Robert B. (2009). Handbook on the Prophets. Baker Books. p. 309. ISBN 9781585583652. Retrieved 18 August 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=LN1FEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT309","url_text":"Handbook on the Prophets"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baker_Books","url_text":"Baker Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781585583652","url_text":"9781585583652"}]},{"reference":"\"Books - by John Betjeman\". Daily Herald. British Newspaper Archive. 22 April 1947. p. 4. Retrieved 18 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000681/19470422/061/0004","url_text":"\"Books - by John Betjeman\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Newspaper_Archive","url_text":"British Newspaper Archive"}]},{"reference":"Bar-Kochva, Bezalel (1976). The Seleucid Army. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bezalel_Bar-Kochva","url_text":"Bar-Kochva, Bezalel"}]},{"reference":"Bevan, Edwyn Robert (1902). The House of Seleucus. London: Edward Arnolds.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwyn_Bevan","url_text":"Bevan, Edwyn Robert"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/houseseleucus03bevagoog","url_text":"The House of Seleucus"}]},{"reference":"Chahin, M. (1987). The Kingdom of Armenia: A History. Curzon Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Cook, S. A.; Adcock, F. E.; Charlesworth, M. P., eds. (1928). The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 7 & 8. New York: Macmillan.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Arthur_Cook","url_text":"Cook, S. A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Adcock","url_text":"Adcock, F. E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Charlesworth","url_text":"Charlesworth, M. P."}]},{"reference":"Grabbe, Lester L. (1992). Judaism from Cyrus to Hadrian. Fortress Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lester_L._Grabbe","url_text":"Grabbe, Lester L."}]},{"reference":"Kincaid, C. A. (1930). Successors of Alexander the Great. London: Pasmore and Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Augustus_Kincaid","url_text":"Kincaid, C. A."}]},{"reference":"Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674728820","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_J._Kosmin","url_text":"Kosmin, Paul J."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9UWdAwAAQBAJ","url_text":"The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press","url_text":"Harvard University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674728820","url_text":"978-0674728820"}]},{"reference":"Livy (1976). Bettenson, H (ed.). Rome and the Mediterranean. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0140443189.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy","url_text":"Livy"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/romemediterranea00livy","url_text":"Rome and the Mediterranean"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140443189","url_text":"978-0140443189"}]},{"reference":"Rawlings, Hunter R. (1976). \"Antiochus the Great and Rhodes, 197–191 BC\". American Journal of Ancient History. 1: 2–28.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter_R._Rawlings_III","url_text":"Rawlings, Hunter R."}]},{"reference":"Schmitt, Hatto (1964). Untersuchungen zur Geschichte Antiochos' des Grossen und Seiner Zeit. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hatto_H._Schmitt&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Schmitt, Hatto"}]},{"reference":"Sherwin-White, Susan; Kuhrt, Amélie (1993). From Samarkhand to Sardis: A New Approach to the Seleucid Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9lie_Kuhrt","url_text":"Kuhrt, Amélie"}]},{"reference":"Taylor, Michael J. (2013). Antiochus the Great. Barnsley: Pen and Sword.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Grainger, John D. (2015). The Seleukid Empire of Antiochus III (223–187 BC). Barnsley: Pen and Sword.","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_window_manager
X window manager
["1 How X window managers work","2 Types of window managers","2.1 Stacking window managers","2.2 Tiling window managers","2.3 Compositing window managers","2.4 Virtual window managers","2.5 Extensible window managers","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
Type of window manager This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "X window manager" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2011) The windowing system based on the X11 protocol keeps display server and window manager as separate components. An X window manager is a window manager that runs on top of the X Window System, a windowing system mainly used on Unix-like systems. Unlike MacOS Classic, macOS, and Microsoft Windows platforms (excepting Microsoft Windows explorer.exe shell replacements), which have historically provided a vendor-controlled, fixed set of ways to control how windows and panes display on a screen, and how the user may interact with them, window management for the X Window System was deliberately kept separate from the software providing the graphical display. The user can choose between various third-party window managers, which differ from one another in several ways, including: customizability of appearance and functionality: textual menus used to start programs and/or change options docks and other graphical ways to start programs multiple desktops and virtual desktops (desktops larger than the physical monitor size), and pagers to switch between them consumption of memory and other system resources degree of integration with a desktop environment, which provides a more complete interface to the operating system, and provides a range of integrated utilities and applications. How X window managers work When a window manager is running, some kinds of interaction between the X server and its clients are redirected through the window manager. In particular, whenever an attempt to show a new window is made, this request is redirected to the window manager, which decides the initial position of the window. Additionally, most modern window managers are reparenting, which usually leads to a banner being placed at the top of the window and a decorative frame being drawn around the window. These two elements are controlled by the window manager rather than the program. Therefore, when the user clicks or drags these elements, it is the window manager that takes the appropriate actions (such as moving or resizing the window). Window managers are also responsible for icons. Indeed, icons do not exist at the X Window System core protocol level. When the user requests a window to be iconified, the window manager unmaps it (makes it non-visible) and takes the appropriate actions to show an icon in its place. Most modern window managers do not literally show icons to represent iconified windows anymore. Often, an auxiliary toolbar program will allow access to iconified windows. While the main aim of a window manager is to manage the windows, many window managers have additional features such as handling mouse clicks in the root window, presenting panes and other visual elements, handling some keystrokes (e.g., Alt-F4 may close a window), deciding which application to run at start-up, etc. Standardized protocols exist to allow normal clients to communicate with the window manager. The original one is Inter-Client Communication Conventions Manual (ICCCM) but this has been superseded by the Extended Window Manager Hints (EWMH). These protocols allow clients to request titles for windows and icons, check if a window is iconified which might be docked or minimized, and possibly customize windows decorations, what virtual desktop the window occupies. Additional information from the window manager is available through the core protocol including the visibility of windows such as if a window is hidden on a different Virtual desktop, and figuring out the adjustments for the window manager frames. Types of window managers Stacking window managers Main article: Stacking window manager A stacking window manager renders the windows one-by-one onto the screen at specific co-ordinates. If one window's area overlaps another, then the window "on top" overwrites part of the other's visible appearance. This results in the appearance familiar to many users in which windows act a little bit like pieces of paper on a desktop, which can be moved around and allowed to overlap. In contrast to compositing window managers (see below), the lack of separate off-screen buffers can mean increased efficiency, but effects such as translucency are not possible. Stacking window managers include Amiwm, Blackbox, CTWM, Enlightenment, Fluxbox, FLWM, FVWM, IceWM, MWM, Openbox, TWM and Window Maker. Tiling window managers Main article: Tiling window manager A tiling window manager is a window manager with an organization of the screen into mutually non-overlapping frames (hence the name tiling), as opposed to the traditional approach of coordinate-based stacking of objects (windows) that tries to emulate the desk paradigm. Tiling window managers include awesome, dwm, ion, larswm, ratpoison, Stumpwm, wmii, i3, xmonad, and XWEM. Compositing window managers Main article: Compositing window manager A compositing window manager may appear to the user similar to a stacking window manager. However, the individual windows are first rendered in individual buffers, and then their images are composited onto the screen buffer; this two-step process means that visual effects (such as shadows, translucency) can be applied. It also means that compositing window managers are inherently more resource-hungry than an equivalently-powerful stacking window manager. For this reason, some window managers for X do not support compositing by default, such as Openbox.Compositing in Lubuntu Historically, the Amiga in 1985, OSX in 2001, Java Looking Glass in 2003, and the Windows Longhorn demo in 2003 (delayed until Vista in 2007) preceded compositing efforts under X11. Compositing window managers for X include: GNOME's Mutter née Metacity (first dev-branch compositor in 2.7 or 2.8 Wayback Machine of 2004 Linux Today - Release Digest: GNOME, August 30, 2004—original stable-branch compositor since 2.14 in 2005 Re: About Compositing or 2006 Metacity branched for 2.14—current compositor architecture since 2.22 Enable Metacity Compositing in GNOME 2.22 | Tombuntu in 2008—Metacity+Clutter begat Mutter in 2011), Xfce's Xfwm (since 4.2 of 2004 or 2005 Xfce 4.2.0 released!), Unity's Compiz (since 2005—was forked as Beryl in 2006 but the projects re-merged in 2007), and KDE's KWin (since 4.0 of 2008). Compositing support can be added to non-compositing window managers, through the use of compositors such as compton. Virtual window managers A virtual window manager is a window manager that uses virtual screens, whose resolution can be higher than the resolution of one's monitor/display adapter thus resembling a two dimensional virtual desktop with its viewport. This environment is very useful when one wishes to have a large number of windows open at the same time. A number of virtual window managers have been made, including FVWM, Tvtwm, HaZe and others. Extensible window managers See also: Category:X window managers extensible by scripting Some window managers are extensible, or programmable, by user scripts. In these window managers, users can define new actions or override the default, or reactions to various events, like window size and position changes, window creation and deletion, key and mouse input, timer, etc. They often provide on-the-fly code execution, too. Some examples of such window managers and the used languages are: Awesome - Lua KWin - ECMAScript Qtile - Python Sawfish - "rep", a Lisp dialect Xmonad - haskell StumpWM - Common Lisp GWM - "WOOL", a Lisp dialect Bspwm - C See also Comparison of X window managers Re-parenting window manager for a popular implementation technique X Window System protocols and architecture for context Windowing system Wmctrl - a command-line utility used to control windows in EWMH and NetWM compatible window managers xdotool - another command-line utility used to control windows Wayland compositor References ^ a b "Extended Window Manager Hints". standards.freedesktop.org. Retrieved 2018-09-16. ^ "home". awesome window manager. External links The Comprehensive List of Window Managers for Unix ArchWiki List of Window Managers for Linux vteX Window SystemArchitecture Core protocol X Window selection X Window authorization X11 color names X Input Method Wayland Extensions X Image Extension X keyboard extension RandR X Rendering Extension Shape extension Shared memory extension X Display Manager Control Protocol X video extension X-Video Motion Compensation AIGLX GLX Multi-Pointer X Display PostScript Composite Extension Xinerama Componentsand notableimplementationsDisplay servers X.Org Server Cygwin/X X-Win32 X386 XFree86 XDarwin Xming Xsgi Xsun Xgl Xephyr XQuartz XWayland Client libraries Xlib XCB X Toolkit Intrinsics Display managersSession managers GDM KDM SDDM XDM LightDM LXDM Entrance WDM Window managers(comparison)Compositing Compiz KWin Metacity Mutter Xfwm Enlightenment Stacking 4Dwm AfterStep amiwm Blackbox CTWM cwm Fluxbox FLWM FVWM IceWM Matchbox mwm olwm Openbox Qvwm Sawfish swm tvtwm twm vtwm WindowLab Window Maker wm2 Tiling awesome dwm i3 Ion ratpoison wmii xmonad StumpWM larswm Standards ICCCM EWMH XDS freedesktop.org Applications xcalc xclock xedit xload xterm xeyes Desktop environments (comparison) vteDesktop environments and window managers based on X11 or WaylandDesktopenvironments(comparison)GTK-based Budgie Cinnamon GNOME GPE Java Desktop System LXDE MATE ROX Desktop Sugar Xfce Qt-based Deepin DE KDE SC Lumina LXQt Razor-qt Trinity UKUI Motif-based CDE IRIX Interactive Desktop VUE X.desktop Other Looking Glass OpenWindows (OLIT-based) UDE (Xlib/XCB-based) Shells GNOME Shell KDesktop Phosh Plasma Plasma Bigscreen Plasma Mobile Maynard Unity X windowmanagers(comparison)Compositing Compiz Enlightenment KWin Metacity Metisse Moksha Muffin Mutter Project Looking Glass Xfwm Stacking 4Dwm AfterStep amiwm Blackbox CTWM cwm Fluxbox FLWM FVWM IceWM Matchbox Motif Window Manager olwm Openbox Qvwm Sawfish swm twm tvtwm vtwm Window Maker WindowLab wm2 Tiling awesome dwm i3 Ion larswm ratpoison StumpWM wmii xmonad Waylandcompositors Enlightenment Gala KWin Mir Mutter Muffin Budgie-wm sway Weston Related Display server Desktop metaphor GUI GUI widget Painter's algorithm Resolution independence Shell Virtual desktop Widget toolkit WIMP Windowing system
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Schema_of_the_layers_of_the_graphical_user_interface.svg"},{"link_name":"windowing system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowing_system"},{"link_name":"display server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_server"},{"link_name":"window manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_manager"},{"link_name":"window manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_manager"},{"link_name":"X Window System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System"},{"link_name":"Unix-like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix-like"},{"link_name":"MacOS Classic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"explorer.exe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer.exe"},{"link_name":"shell replacements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_shell_replacement"},{"link_name":"panes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paned_window_(computing)"},{"link_name":"screen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_display"},{"link_name":"menus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menu_(computing)"},{"link_name":"docks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dock_(computing)"},{"link_name":"multiple desktops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_desktops"},{"link_name":"virtual desktops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_desktop"},{"link_name":"pagers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pager_(GUI)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EWMH-1"},{"link_name":"desktop environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_environment"}],"text":"The windowing system based on the X11 protocol keeps display server and window manager as separate components.An X window manager is a window manager that runs on top of the X Window System, a windowing system mainly used on Unix-like systems.Unlike MacOS Classic, macOS, and Microsoft Windows platforms (excepting Microsoft Windows explorer.exe shell replacements), which have historically provided a vendor-controlled, fixed set of ways to control how windows and panes display on a screen, and how the user may interact with them, window management for the X Window System was deliberately kept separate from the software providing the graphical display. The user can choose between various third-party window managers, which differ from one another in several ways, including:customizability of appearance and functionality:\ntextual menus used to start programs and/or change options\ndocks and other graphical ways to start programs\nmultiple desktops and virtual desktops (desktops larger than the physical monitor size), and pagers[1] to switch between them\nconsumption of memory and other system resources\ndegree of integration with a desktop environment, which provides a more complete interface to the operating system, and provides a range of integrated utilities and applications.","title":"X window manager"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"X server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System_protocols_and_architecture"},{"link_name":"clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System_protocols_and_architecture#The_X_client-server_model_and_network_transparency"},{"link_name":"reparenting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-parenting_window_manager"},{"link_name":"icons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"X Window System core protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System_core_protocol"},{"link_name":"root window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_window"},{"link_name":"Inter-Client Communication Conventions Manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-Client_Communication_Conventions_Manual"},{"link_name":"Extended Window Manager Hints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Window_Manager_Hints"},{"link_name":"virtual desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_desktop"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EWMH-1"},{"link_name":"Virtual desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_desktop"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"When a window manager is running, some kinds of interaction between the X server and its clients are redirected through the window manager. In particular, whenever an attempt to show a new window is made, this request is redirected to the window manager, which decides the initial position of the window. Additionally, most modern window managers are reparenting, which usually leads to a banner being placed at the top of the window and a decorative frame being drawn around the window. These two elements are controlled by the window manager rather than the program. Therefore, when the user clicks or drags these elements, it is the window manager that takes the appropriate actions (such as moving or resizing the window).Window managers are also responsible for icons. Indeed, icons do not exist at the X Window System core protocol level. When the user requests a window to be iconified, the window manager unmaps it (makes it non-visible) and takes the appropriate actions to show an icon in its place. Most modern window managers do not literally show icons to represent iconified windows anymore. Often, an auxiliary toolbar program will allow access to iconified windows.While the main aim of a window manager is to manage the windows, many window managers have additional features such as handling mouse clicks in the root window, presenting panes and other visual elements, handling some keystrokes (e.g., Alt-F4 may close a window), deciding which application to run at start-up, etc.Standardized protocols exist to allow normal clients to communicate with the window manager. The original one is Inter-Client Communication Conventions Manual (ICCCM) but this has been superseded by the Extended Window Manager Hints (EWMH). These protocols allow clients to request titles for windows and icons, check if a window is iconified which might be docked or minimized, and possibly customize windows decorations, what virtual desktop the window occupies.[1] Additional information from the window manager is available through the core protocol including the visibility of windows such as if a window is hidden on a different Virtual desktop, and figuring out the adjustments for the window manager frames.[citation needed]","title":"How X window managers work"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Types of window managers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"off-screen buffers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off-screen_buffer"},{"link_name":"Amiwm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiwm"},{"link_name":"Blackbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbox"},{"link_name":"CTWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTWM"},{"link_name":"Enlightenment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlightenment_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"Fluxbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluxbox"},{"link_name":"FLWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLWM"},{"link_name":"FVWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FVWM"},{"link_name":"IceWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IceWM"},{"link_name":"MWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_Window_Manager"},{"link_name":"Openbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openbox"},{"link_name":"TWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twm"},{"link_name":"Window Maker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_Maker"}],"sub_title":"Stacking window managers","text":"A stacking window manager renders the windows one-by-one onto the screen at specific co-ordinates. If one window's area overlaps another, then the window \"on top\" overwrites part of the other's visible appearance. This results in the appearance familiar to many users in which windows act a little bit like pieces of paper on a desktop, which can be moved around and allowed to overlap.In contrast to compositing window managers (see below), the lack of separate off-screen buffers can mean increased efficiency, but effects such as translucency are not possible.Stacking window managers include Amiwm, Blackbox, CTWM, Enlightenment, Fluxbox, FLWM, FVWM, IceWM, MWM, Openbox, TWM and Window Maker.","title":"Types of window managers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellation"},{"link_name":"awesome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awesome_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"dwm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwm"},{"link_name":"ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"larswm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larswm"},{"link_name":"ratpoison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratpoison"},{"link_name":"Stumpwm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stumpwm"},{"link_name":"wmii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wmii"},{"link_name":"i3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I3_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"xmonad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xmonad"},{"link_name":"XWEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=XWEM&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Tiling window managers","text":"A tiling window manager is a window manager with an organization of the screen into mutually non-overlapping frames (hence the name tiling), as opposed to the traditional approach of coordinate-based stacking of objects (windows) that tries to emulate the desk paradigm.Tiling window managers include awesome, dwm, ion, larswm, ratpoison, Stumpwm, wmii, i3, xmonad, and XWEM.","title":"Types of window managers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Openbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openbox"},{"link_name":"Compositing in Lubuntu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//askubuntu.com/questions/53745/compositing-in-lubuntu"},{"link_name":"Historically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compositing_window_manager#History"},{"link_name":"GNOME","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME"},{"link_name":"Mutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutter_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"Metacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacity"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140607010531/http://webapp5.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/SuSe-Dokumentation/packages/metacity/NEWS"},{"link_name":"Linux Today - Release Digest: GNOME, August 30, 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.linuxtoday.com/developer/2004083101126NWGNRL"},{"link_name":"Re: About Compositing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mail.gnome.org/archives/metacity-devel-list/2005-November/msg00063.html"},{"link_name":"Metacity branched for 2.14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mail.gnome.org/archives/metacity-devel-list/2006-February/msg00011.html"},{"link_name":"Enable Metacity Compositing in GNOME 2.22 | Tombuntu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//tombuntu.com/index.php/2008/03/31/enable-metacity-compositing-in-gnome-222"},{"link_name":"Mutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutter_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"Xfce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xfce"},{"link_name":"Xfwm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xfwm"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Xfce 4.2.0 released!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150923235500/https://mail.xfce.org/pipermail/xfce/2005-January/012328.html"},{"link_name":"Unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_(user_interface)"},{"link_name":"Compiz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiz"},{"link_name":"Beryl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryl_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"KDE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDE"},{"link_name":"KWin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KWin"}],"sub_title":"Compositing window managers","text":"A compositing window manager may appear to the user similar to a stacking window manager. However, the individual windows are first rendered in individual buffers, and then their images are composited onto the screen buffer; this two-step process means that visual effects (such as shadows, translucency) can be applied. It also means that compositing window managers are inherently more resource-hungry than an equivalently-powerful stacking window manager. For this reason, some window managers for X do not support compositing by default, such as Openbox.Compositing in LubuntuHistorically, the Amiga in 1985, OSX in 2001, Java Looking Glass in 2003, and the Windows Longhorn demo in 2003 (delayed until Vista in 2007) preceded compositing efforts under X11. Compositing window managers for X include:GNOME's Mutter née Metacity (first dev-branch compositor in 2.7[citation needed] or 2.8 Wayback Machine of 2004 Linux Today - Release Digest: GNOME, August 30, 2004—original stable-branch compositor since 2.14 in 2005 Re: About Compositing or 2006 Metacity branched for 2.14—current compositor architecture since 2.22 Enable Metacity Compositing in GNOME 2.22 | Tombuntu in 2008—Metacity+Clutter begat Mutter in 2011),\nXfce's Xfwm (since 4.2 of 2004[citation needed] or 2005 Xfce 4.2.0 released!),\nUnity's Compiz (since 2005—was forked as Beryl in 2006 but the projects re-merged in 2007), and\nKDE's KWin (since 4.0 of 2008).Compositing support can be added to non-compositing window managers, through the use of compositors such as compton.","title":"Types of window managers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"display adapter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Display_adapter"},{"link_name":"virtual desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_desktop"},{"link_name":"viewport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viewport"},{"link_name":"FVWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FVWM"},{"link_name":"Tvtwm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tvtwm"},{"link_name":"HaZe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HaZe&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Virtual window managers","text":"A virtual window manager is a window manager that uses virtual screens, whose resolution can be higher than the resolution of one's monitor/display adapter thus resembling a two dimensional virtual desktop with its viewport. This environment is very useful when one wishes to have a large number of windows open at the same time. A number of virtual window managers have been made, including FVWM, Tvtwm, HaZe and others.","title":"Types of window managers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:X window managers extensible by scripting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:X_window_managers_extensible_by_scripting"},{"link_name":"Awesome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awesome_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"Lua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"KWin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KWin"},{"link_name":"ECMAScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECMAScript"},{"link_name":"Qtile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qtile"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Sawfish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawfish_(window_manager)"},{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Xmonad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xmonad"},{"link_name":"haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"StumpWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StumpWM"},{"link_name":"Common Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Lisp"},{"link_name":"GWM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=GWM_(window_manager)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"}],"sub_title":"Extensible window managers","text":"See also: Category:X window managers extensible by scriptingSome window managers are extensible, or programmable, by user scripts.In these window managers, users can define new actions or override the default, or reactions to various events, like window size and position changes, window creation and deletion, key and mouse input, timer, etc. They often provide on-the-fly code execution, too.Some examples of such window managers and the used languages are:Awesome - Lua[2]\nKWin - ECMAScript\nQtile - Python\nSawfish - \"rep\", a Lisp dialect\nXmonad - haskell\nStumpWM - Common Lisp\nGWM - \"WOOL\", a Lisp dialect\nBspwm - C","title":"Types of window managers"}]
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[{"title":"Comparison of X window managers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_X_window_managers"},{"title":"Re-parenting window manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re-parenting_window_manager"},{"title":"X Window System protocols and architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System_protocols_and_architecture"},{"title":"Windowing system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowing_system"},{"title":"Wmctrl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wmctrl"},{"title":"xdotool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xdotool&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"title":"Wayland compositor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayland_compositor"}]
[{"reference":"\"Extended Window Manager Hints\". standards.freedesktop.org. Retrieved 2018-09-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://standards.freedesktop.org/wm-spec/wm-spec-latest.html#id2504750","url_text":"\"Extended Window Manager Hints\""}]},{"reference":"\"home\". awesome window manager.","urls":[{"url":"https://awesomewm.org/","url_text":"\"home\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)
United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)
["1 Historical context","2 After the declaration of war","3 See also","4 References"]
Declaration of war that entered the United Kingdom into World War II Poles marching in Warsaw, after Britain declared war on Germany, during invasion of Poland. Banner reads "Long Live England". Declaration of war Neville Chamberlain announces war with Germany, 3 September 1939. Problems playing this file? See media help. On 3 September 1939, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany—two days after the German invasion of Poland. France also declared war on Germany later the same day. The state of war was announced to the British public in an 11 AM radio broadcast by the prime minister Neville Chamberlain. This morning, the British ambassador in Berlin handed the German government a final note stating that unless we heard from them by 11 o'clock that they were prepared at once to withdraw their troops from Poland, a state of war would exist between us. I have to tell you now that no such undertaking has been received, and that consequently this country is at war with Germany. Historical context Further information: Events preceding World War II in Europe At the conclusion of the First World War, the German Empire signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 as an end to hostilities with France, Britain, and the United States during the convoluted German Revolution of 1918–1919, which began on 29 October 1918. Negotiations between the Allied powers regarding post-war Europe started on 18 January 1919 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Seventy delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations. The opposing nations of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire were excluded from the negotiations. At first a "Council of Ten" comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan met officially to decide the peace terms. It became the "Big Four" when Japan dropped out and the top person from each of the other four nations met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions to be ratified by the entire assembly. In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June 1919, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty. On 28 June 1919, Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, a peace treaty which ended the formal state of war and imposed various punitive measures upon Germany, including military restrictions, loss of territory and colonies, war reparations, and effective acceptance of blame for the initiation of hostilities in World War I. At the time of the armistice, in the first stages of the German Revolution, power had passed provisionally to leaders of the Social Democratic Party, the abdication of the Emperor of Germany was announced on 9 November 1918, and what became known as the Weimar Republic was subsequently established through a constituent national assembly. The transition from monarchy to republic was difficult, and many in the new Republic were not supportive of the democratic system of government. The officer class gave little support to the Republic, and Germany was forced to borrow money from the United States and others to pay its war debt, imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. In the early 1920s a period of hyperinflation made the Mark almost worthless. In January 1922, one US dollar was worth 191 Marks, but by November of the same year it was equal to 4,200,000,000 Marks. On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Reich following a contentious election. Under Hitler's leadership, the Reichstag turned the government into an effective dictatorship under Hitler's oversight on 21 March 1933 with the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, and the economic hardships were significantly diminished via implementation of new economic and social policies. After five years in power, Hitler annexed Austria, former component of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (allies of the former German Empire), into Germany, despite such an act (specifically, "prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations") being banned by both the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Versailles. In early November 1938, the First Vienna Award was signed, allowing Germany to seize the Sudetenland, a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia which had been a part of the German Empire-allied Austro-Hungarian Empire. Soon after, Germany invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and also gained Memelland (part of the former German Empire from 1871–1920) through the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania. Two Western powers, the United Kingdom and France, gave guarantees to Poland that they would declare war if Polish independence came under threat, as presented in a statement to the House of Commons by the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain on 31 March 1939 (formalized by the British on 6 April 1939; not ratified until 4 September 1939 by the French): ... in the event of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence, and which the Polish Government accordingly considered it vital to resist with their national forces, His Majesty's Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government all support in their power. They have given the Polish Government an assurance to this effect. I may add that the French Government have authorised me to make it plain that they stand in the same position in this matter as do His Majesty's Government. After the declaration of war The Royal Navy initiated a naval blockade of Germany on 4 September. Although Britain and France honoured these guarantees by declaring war two days after Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939, and the dominions of the British Empire quickly followed suit, so little practical assistance was given to Poland, which was soon defeated, that in its early stages the war declared by Britain and France was described as a "Phoney War". Further, neither the British Empire nor the French ever declared war upon the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland on 17 September 1939 (16 days after Nazi Germany invaded from the West). The Polish ambassador in London, Edward Bernard Raczyński, contacted the British Foreign Office to point out that clause 1(b) of the agreement, which concerned an "aggression by a European power" on Poland, should apply to the Soviet invasion. Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax responded that the obligation of British Government towards Poland arising out of the Anglo-Polish Agreement was restricted to Germany, according to the first clause of the secret protocol. The Soviet Union held sway over the former Polish territory at the war's conclusion, having become a part of the Allies in the course of World War II. At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the post-war Yalta Conference in 1945 sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London. See also Canadian declaration of war on Germany Declarations of war by Great Britain and the United Kingdom Declarations of war during World War II Diplomatic history of World War II French declaration of war on Germany (1939) Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan References ^ "Britain and France declare war on Germany". The History Channel. Retrieved 6 May 2014. ^ "Neville Chamberlain's declaration of war". ^ "The November revolution, 1918/1919" (PDF). Deutscher Bundestag. March 2006. Retrieved 4 June 2023. ^ Kalfus, Richard. "Weimar Republic 1919-1923" (PDF). St. Luis Community College. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 December 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2014. ^ Statement by the Prime Minister in the House of Commons on March 31, 1939. ^ Rapten, Pema Dechen. "Political Disorder: The Weimar Republic and Revolt 1918-23". Mount Holyoke College. Retrieved 6 May 2014. ^ Sword, Keith, ed. (1991). The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces, 1939–41. pp. 81–101. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-21379-5. ISBN 978-1-349-21381-8. vteNeville ChamberlainPremierships 1938–1939 1939–1940 Constituencies Birmingham Ladywood Birmingham Edgbaston Family Joseph Chamberlain (father) Austen Chamberlain (half-brother) Beatrice Chamberlain (half-sister) Ida Chamberlain (sister) Hilda Chamberlain (sister) Anne Chamberlain (wife) Career Career before 1937 Conservative Research Department European foreign policy of the Chamberlain ministry Appeasement Munich Agreement Peace for our time Declaration of war on Germany Anglo-Polish alliance Phoney War Norway Debate Cultural depictions The Gathering Storm (TV, 1974) Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years (TV, 1981) Countdown to War (Film, 1989) Heil Honey I'm Home! (TV, 1990) Dunkirk (TV, 2004) Into the Storm (TV, 2009) Darkest Hour (Film, 2017)
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_German-soviet_Invasion_of_Poland,_1939_HU83158.jpg"},{"link_name":"Warsaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw"},{"link_name":"invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Declaration of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chamberlain-war-declaration.ogg"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"declared war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declared_war"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"German invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"declared war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)"},{"link_name":"Neville Chamberlain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Poles marching in Warsaw, after Britain declared war on Germany, during invasion of Poland. Banner reads \"Long Live England\".Declaration of war\n\nNeville Chamberlain announces war with Germany, 3 September 1939.\nProblems playing this file? See media help.On 3 September 1939, the United Kingdom declared war on Germany—two days after the German invasion of Poland.[1] France also declared war on Germany later the same day.The state of war was announced to the British public in an 11 AM radio broadcast by the prime minister Neville Chamberlain.This morning, the British ambassador in Berlin handed the German government a final note stating that unless we heard from them by 11 o'clock that they were prepared at once to withdraw their troops from Poland, a state of war would exist between us. I have to tell you now that no such undertaking has been received, and that consequently this country is at war with Germany.[2]","title":"United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Events preceding World War II in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Events_preceding_World_War_II_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"German Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Armistice of 11 November 1918","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918"},{"link_name":"German Revolution of 1918–1919","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919"},{"link_name":"French Foreign Ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Foreign_Ministry"},{"link_name":"Quai d'Orsay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quai_d%27Orsay"},{"link_name":"German Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Philipp Scheidemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_Scheidemann"},{"link_name":"Gustav Bauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Bauer"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Versailles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles"},{"link_name":"military restrictions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Military_restrictions"},{"link_name":"loss of territory and colonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Territorial_changes"},{"link_name":"war reparations, and effective acceptance of blame for the initiation of hostilities in World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles#Reparations"},{"link_name":"Social Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"Emperor of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_II,_German_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Weimar Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_Republic"},{"link_name":"constituent national assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weimar_National_Assembly"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"monarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy"},{"link_name":"republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic"},{"link_name":"war debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_reparations"},{"link_name":"hyperinflation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperinflation_in_the_Weimar_Republic"},{"link_name":"Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Papiermark"},{"link_name":"US dollar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_dollar"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Adolf Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler"},{"link_name":"Chancellor of the Reich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chancellors_of_Germany#Weimar_Republic_(Reichskanzler)_(1919%E2%80%931933)"},{"link_name":"Reichstag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reichstag_(Nazi_Germany)"},{"link_name":"dictatorship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship"},{"link_name":"Enabling Act of 1933","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enabling_Act_of_1933"},{"link_name":"annexed Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anschluss"},{"link_name":"Austro-Hungarian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire"},{"link_name":"German Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)"},{"link_name":"First Vienna Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Vienna_Award"},{"link_name":"Sudetenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudetenland"},{"link_name":"Czechoslovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Czechoslovak_Republic"},{"link_name":"Memelland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memelland"},{"link_name":"1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1939_German_ultimatum_to_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Western powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_powers"},{"link_name":"guarantees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Polish_military_alliance#British_Guarantee_to_Poland"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Neville Chamberlain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neville_Chamberlain"},{"link_name":"Polish Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic"},{"link_name":"His Majesty's Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/His_Majesty%27s_Government"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Further information: Events preceding World War II in EuropeAt the conclusion of the First World War, the German Empire signed the Armistice of 11 November 1918 as an end to hostilities with France, Britain, and the United States during the convoluted German Revolution of 1918–1919, which began on 29 October 1918.Negotiations between the Allied powers regarding post-war Europe started on 18 January 1919 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Seventy delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations. The opposing nations of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire were excluded from the negotiations. At first a \"Council of Ten\" comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan met officially to decide the peace terms. It became the \"Big Four\" when Japan dropped out and the top person from each of the other four nations met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions to be ratified by the entire assembly. In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June 1919, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty.On 28 June 1919, Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, a peace treaty which ended the formal state of war and imposed various punitive measures upon Germany, including military restrictions, loss of territory and colonies, war reparations, and effective acceptance of blame for the initiation of hostilities in World War I. At the time of the armistice, in the first stages of the German Revolution, power had passed provisionally to leaders of the Social Democratic Party, the abdication of the Emperor of Germany was announced on 9 November 1918, and what became known as the Weimar Republic was subsequently established through a constituent national assembly.[3] The transition from monarchy to republic was difficult, and many in the new Republic were not supportive of the democratic system of government. The officer class gave little support to the Republic, and Germany was forced to borrow money from the United States and others to pay its war debt, imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. In the early 1920s a period of hyperinflation made the Mark almost worthless. In January 1922, one US dollar was worth 191 Marks, but by November of the same year it was equal to 4,200,000,000 Marks.[4]On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of the Reich following a contentious election. Under Hitler's leadership, the Reichstag turned the government into an effective dictatorship under Hitler's oversight on 21 March 1933 with the passage of the Enabling Act of 1933, and the economic hardships were significantly diminished via implementation of new economic and social policies. After five years in power, Hitler annexed Austria, former component of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (allies of the former German Empire), into Germany, despite such an act (specifically, \"prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations\") being banned by both the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Versailles. In early November 1938, the First Vienna Award was signed, allowing Germany to seize the Sudetenland, a German-speaking area of Czechoslovakia which had been a part of the German Empire-allied Austro-Hungarian Empire. Soon after, Germany invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia and also gained Memelland (part of the former German Empire from 1871–1920) through the 1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania.Two Western powers, the United Kingdom and France, gave guarantees to Poland that they would declare war if Polish independence came under threat, as presented in a statement to the House of Commons by the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain on 31 March 1939 (formalized by the British on 6 April 1939; not ratified until 4 September 1939 by the French):... in the event of any action which clearly threatened Polish independence, and which the Polish Government accordingly considered it vital to resist with their national forces, His Majesty's Government would feel themselves bound at once to lend the Polish Government all support in their power. They have given the Polish Government an assurance to this effect.\nI may add that the French Government have authorised me to make it plain that they stand in the same position in this matter as do His Majesty's Government.[5]","title":"Historical context"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a naval blockade of Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany_(1939%E2%80%931945)"},{"link_name":"invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"dominions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion"},{"link_name":"Phoney War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoney_War"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"invaded Poland on 17 September 1939","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Edward Bernard Raczyński","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Bernard_Raczy%C5%84ski"},{"link_name":"Foreign Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Lord Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Wood,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Allies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Joseph Stalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin"},{"link_name":"Yalta Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yalta_Conference"},{"link_name":"Polish government-in-exile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_government-in-exile"}],"text":"The Royal Navy initiated a naval blockade of Germany on 4 September.\nAlthough Britain and France honoured these guarantees by declaring war two days after Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939,[6] and the dominions of the British Empire quickly followed suit, so little practical assistance was given to Poland, which was soon defeated, that in its early stages the war declared by Britain and France was described as a \"Phoney War\".Further, neither the British Empire nor the French ever declared war upon the Soviet Union, which invaded Poland on 17 September 1939 (16 days after Nazi Germany invaded from the West). The Polish ambassador in London, Edward Bernard Raczyński, contacted the British Foreign Office to point out that clause 1(b) of the agreement, which concerned an \"aggression by a European power\" on Poland, should apply to the Soviet invasion. Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax responded that the obligation of British Government towards Poland arising out of the Anglo-Polish Agreement was restricted to Germany, according to the first clause of the secret protocol.[7] The Soviet Union held sway over the former Polish territory at the war's conclusion, having become a part of the Allies in the course of World War II. At the insistence of Joseph Stalin, the post-war Yalta Conference in 1945 sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London.","title":"After the declaration of war"}]
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[{"title":"Canadian declaration of war on Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_declaration_of_war_on_Germany"},{"title":"Declarations of war by Great Britain and the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarations_of_war_by_Great_Britain_and_the_United_Kingdom"},{"title":"Declarations of war during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declarations_of_war_during_World_War_II"},{"title":"Diplomatic history of World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II"},{"title":"French declaration of war on Germany (1939)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)"},{"title":"Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_World_War_II"},{"title":"United Kingdom declaration of war on Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Japan"}]
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