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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryu%E2%80%93Takayanagi_conjecture
Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture
["1 Motivation","2 Holographic preliminaries","3 Conjecture","4 Example","5 References"]
String theory Fundamental objects String Cosmic string Brane D-brane Perturbative theory Bosonic Superstring (Type I, Type II, Heterotic) Non-perturbative results S-duality T-duality U-duality M-theory F-theory AdS/CFT correspondence Phenomenology Phenomenology Cosmology Landscape Mathematics Geometric Langlands correspondence Mirror symmetry Monstrous moonshine Vertex algebra K-theory Related concepts Theory of everything Conformal field theory Quantum gravity Supersymmetry Supergravity Twistor string theory N = 4 supersymmetric Yang–Mills theory Kaluza–Klein theory Multiverse Holographic principle Theorists Aganagić Arkani-Hamed Atiyah Banks Berenstein Bousso Curtright Dijkgraaf Distler Douglas Duff Dvali Ferrara Fischler Friedan Gates Gliozzi Gopakumar Green Greene Gross Gubser Gukov Guth Hanson Harvey Hořava Horowitz Gibbons Kachru Kaku Kallosh Kaluza Kapustin Klebanov Knizhnik Kontsevich Klein Linde Maldacena Mandelstam Marolf Martinec Minwalla Moore Motl Mukhi Myers Nanopoulos Năstase Nekrasov Neveu Nielsen van Nieuwenhuizen Novikov Olive Ooguri Ovrut Polchinski Polyakov Rajaraman Ramond Randall Randjbar-Daemi Roček Rohm Sagnotti Scherk Schwarz Seiberg Sen Shenker Siegel Silverstein Sơn Staudacher Steinhardt Strominger Sundrum Susskind 't Hooft Townsend Trivedi Turok Vafa Veneziano Verlinde Verlinde Wess Witten Yau Yoneya Zamolodchikov Zamolodchikov Zaslow Zumino Zwiebach History Glossaryvte The Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture is a conjecture within holography that posits a quantitative relationship between the entanglement entropy of a conformal field theory and the geometry of an associated anti-de Sitter spacetime. The formula characterizes "holographic screens" in the bulk; that is, it specifies which regions of the bulk geometry are "responsible to particular information in the dual CFT". The conjecture is named after Shinsei Ryu  and Tadashi Takayanagi , who jointly published the result in 2006. As a result, the authors were awarded the 2015 New Horizons in Physics Prize for "fundamental ideas about entropy in quantum field theory and quantum gravity". The formula was generalized to a covariant form in 2007. Motivation The thermodynamics of black holes suggests certain relationships between the entropy of black holes and their geometry. Specifically, the Bekenstein–Hawking area formula conjectures that the entropy of a black hole is proportional to its surface area: S BH = k B A 4 ℓ P 2 {\displaystyle S_{\text{BH}}={\frac {k_{\text{B}}A}{4\ell _{\text{P}}^{2}}}} The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy S BH {\displaystyle S_{\text{BH}}} is a measure of the information lost to external observers due to the presence of the horizon. The horizon of the black hole acts as a "screen" distinguishing one region of the spacetime (in this case the exterior of the black hole) that is not affected by another region (in this case the interior). The Bekenstein–Hawking area law states that the area of this surface is proportional to the entropy of the information lost behind it. The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy is a statement about the gravitational entropy of a system; however, there is another type of entropy that is important in quantum information theory, namely the entanglement (or von Neumann) entropy. This form of entropy provides a measure of how far from a pure state a given quantum state is, or, equivalently, how entangled it is. The entanglement entropy is a useful concept in many areas, such as in condensed matter physics and quantum many-body systems. Given its use, and its suggestive similarity to the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy, it is desirable to have a holographic description of entanglement entropy in terms of gravity. Holographic preliminaries Main article: Holographic principle The holographic principle states that gravitational theories in a given dimension are dual to a gauge theory in one lower dimension. The AdS/CFT correspondence is one example of such duality. Here, the field theory is defined on a fixed background and is equivalent to a quantum gravitational theory whose different states each correspond to a possible spacetime geometry. The conformal field theory is often viewed as living on the boundary of the higher dimensional space whose gravitational theory it defines. The result of such a duality is a dictionary between the two equivalent descriptions. For example, in a CFT defined on d {\displaystyle d} dimensional Minkowski space the vacuum state corresponds to pure AdS space, whereas the thermal state corresponds to a planar black hole. Important for the present discussion is that the thermal state of a CFT defined on the d {\displaystyle d} dimensional sphere corresponds to the d + 1 {\displaystyle d+1} dimensional Schwarzschild black hole in AdS space. The Bekenstein–Hawking area law, while claiming that the area of the black hole horizon is proportional to the black hole's entropy, fails to provide a sufficient microscopic description of how this entropy arises. The holographic principle provides such a description by relating the black hole system to a quantum system which does admit such a microscopic description. In this case, the CFT has discrete eigenstates and the thermal state is the canonical ensemble of these states. The entropy of this ensemble can be calculated through normal means, and yields the same result as predicted by the area law. This turns out to be a special case of the Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture. Conjecture Consider a spatial slice Σ {\displaystyle \Sigma } of an AdS space time on whose boundary we define the dual CFT. The Ryu–Takayanagi formula states: S A = Area of  γ A 4 G {\displaystyle S_{A}={\frac {{\text{Area of }}\gamma _{A}}{4G}}} (1) where S A {\displaystyle S_{A}} is the entanglement entropy of the CFT in some spatial sub-region A ⊂ ∂ Σ {\displaystyle A\subset \partial \Sigma } with its complement B {\displaystyle B} , and γ A {\displaystyle \gamma _{A}} is the Ryu–Takayanagi surface in the bulk. This surface must satisfy three properties: γ A {\displaystyle \gamma _{A}} has the same boundary as A {\displaystyle A} . γ A {\displaystyle \gamma _{A}} is homologous to A. γ A {\displaystyle \gamma _{A}} extremizes the area. If there are multiple extremal surfaces, γ A {\displaystyle \gamma _{A}} is the one with the least area. Because of property (3), this surface is typically called the minimal surface when the context is clear. Furthermore, property (1) ensures that the formula preserves certain features of entanglement entropy, such as S A = S B {\displaystyle S_{A}=S_{B}} and S A 1 + A 2 ≥ S A 1 ∪ A 2 {\displaystyle S_{A_{1}+A_{2}}\geq S_{A_{1}\cup A_{2}}} . The conjecture provides an explicit geometric interpretation of the entanglement entropy of the boundary CFT, namely as the area of a surface in the bulk. Example In their original paper, Ryu and Takayanagi show this result explicitly for an example in AdS 3 / CFT 2 {\displaystyle {\text{AdS}}_{3}/{\text{CFT}}_{2}} where an expression for the entanglement entropy is already known. For an AdS 3 {\displaystyle {\text{AdS}}_{3}} space of radius R {\displaystyle R} , the dual CFT has a central charge given by c = 3 R 2 G {\displaystyle c={\frac {3R}{2G}}} (2) Furthermore, AdS 3 {\displaystyle {\text{AdS}}_{3}} has the metric d s 2 = R 2 ( − cosh ⁡ ρ 2 d t 2 + d ρ 2 + sinh ⁡ ρ 2 d θ 2 ) {\displaystyle ds^{2}=R^{2}(-\cosh {\rho ^{2}dt^{2}}+d\rho ^{2}+\sinh {\rho ^{2}d\theta ^{2}})} in ( t , ρ , θ ) {\displaystyle (t,\rho ,\theta )} (essentially a stack of hyperbolic disks). Since this metric diverges at ρ → ∞ {\displaystyle \rho \to \infty } , ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is restricted to ρ ≤ ρ 0 {\displaystyle \rho \leq \rho _{0}} . This act of imposing a maximum ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is analogous to the corresponding CFT having a UV cutoff. If L {\displaystyle L} is the length of the CFT system, in this case the circumference of the cylinder calculated with the appropriate metric, and a {\displaystyle a} is the lattice spacing, we have e ρ 0 ∼ L / a {\displaystyle e^{\rho _{0}}\sim L/a} . In this case, the boundary CFT lives at coordinates ( t , ρ 0 , θ ) = ( t , θ ) {\displaystyle (t,\rho _{0},\theta )=(t,\theta )} . Consider a fixed t {\displaystyle t} slice and take the subregion A of the boundary to be θ ∈ [ 0 , 2 π l / L ] {\displaystyle \theta \in } where l {\displaystyle l} is the length of A {\displaystyle A} . The minimal surface is easy to identify in this case, as it is just the geodesic through the bulk that connects θ = 0 {\displaystyle \theta =0} and θ = 2 π l / L {\displaystyle \theta =2\pi l/L} . Remembering the lattice cutoff, the length of the geodesic can be calculated as cosh ⁡ ( L γ A / R ) = 1 + 2 sinh 2 ⁡ ρ 0 sin 2 ⁡ π l L {\displaystyle \cosh {(L_{\gamma _{A}}/R)}=1+2\sinh ^{2}\rho _{0}\sin ^{2}{\frac {\pi l}{L}}} (3) If it is assumed that e ρ 0 >> 1 {\displaystyle e^{\rho _{0}}>>1} , then using the Ryu–Takayanagi formula to compute the entanglement entropy. Plugging in the length of the minimal surface calculated in (3) and recalling the central charge (2), the entanglement entropy is given by S A = R 4 G log ⁡ ( e 2 ρ 0 sin 2 ⁡ π l L ) = c 3 log ⁡ ( e ρ 0 sin ⁡ π l L ) {\displaystyle S_{A}={\frac {R}{4G}}\log {(e^{2\rho _{0}}\sin ^{2}{\frac {\pi l}{L}})}={\frac {c}{3}}\log {(e^{\rho _{0}}\sin {\frac {\pi l}{L}})}} (4) This agrees with the result calculated by usual means. References ^ a b c Ryu, Shinsei; Takayanagi, Tadashi (2006-08-21). "Aspects of Holographic Entanglement Entropy". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2006 (8): 045. arXiv:hep-th/0605073. Bibcode:2006JHEP...08..045R. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2006/08/045. ISSN 1029-8479. S2CID 14858887. ^ Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics (2015-10-15), Gravity and Entanglement, retrieved 2017-05-07 ^ Fukami, Masaya (March 2018), Introduction to the Ryu–Takayanagi Formula (PDF), p. 2 ^ Ryu, Shinsei; Takayanagi, Tadashi (May 2006). "Holographic Derivation of Entanglement Entropy from AdS/CFT". Phys. Rev. Lett. 96 (18): 181602. arXiv:hep-th/0603001. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.181602. PMID 16712357. S2CID 119441463. ^ "Recipients of the 2015 Breakthrough Prizes in Fundamental Physics and Life Sciences Announced". www.breakthroughprize.org. Retrieved 3 Aug 2018. ^ Hubeny, Veronika E.; Rangamani, Mukund; Takayanagi, Tadashi (23 July 2007). "A Covariant Holographic Entanglement Entropy Proposal". JHEP. 2007 (7): 062. arXiv:0705.0016. Bibcode:2007JHEP...07..062H. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2007/07/062. S2CID 15206042. ^ a b c Van Raamsdonk, Mark (31 August 2016). "Lectures on Gravity and Entanglement". New Frontiers in Fields and Strings. pp. 297–351. arXiv:1609.00026. doi:10.1142/9789813149441_0005. ISBN 978-981-314-943-4. S2CID 119273886. ^ Calabrese, Pasquale; Cardy, John (2004-06-11). "Entanglement entropy and quantum field theory". Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment. P06002 (6): P06002. arXiv:hep-th/0405152. Bibcode:2004JSMTE..06..002C. doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2004/06/P06002. S2CID 15945690. vteQuantum gravityCentral concepts AdS/CFT correspondence Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture Causal patch Gravitational anomaly Graviton Holographic principle IR/UV mixing Planck units Quantum foam Trans-Planckian problem Weinberg–Witten theorem Faddeev–Popov ghost Batalin-Vilkovisky formalism CA-duality Toy models 2+1D topological gravity CGHS model Jackiw–Teitelboim gravity Liouville gravity RST model Topological quantum field theory Quantum field theoryin curved spacetime Bunch–Davies vacuum Hawking radiation Semiclassical gravity Unruh effect Black holes Black hole complementarity Black hole information paradox Black-hole thermodynamics Bekenstein bound Bousso's holographic bound Cosmic censorship hypothesis ER = EPR Firewall (physics) Gravitational singularity ApproachesString theory Bosonic string theory M-theory Supergravity Superstring theory Canonical quantum gravity Loop quantum gravity Wheeler–DeWitt equation Euclidean quantum gravity Hartle–Hawking state Others Causal dynamical triangulation Causal sets Noncommutative geometry Spin foam Group field theory Superfluid vacuum theory Twistor theory Dual graviton Applications Quantum cosmology Eternal inflation Multiverse FRW/CFT duality See also: Template:Quantum mechanics topics
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"holography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holographic_principle"},{"link_name":"entanglement entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_of_entanglement"},{"link_name":"conformal field theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformal_field_theory"},{"link_name":"anti-de Sitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-de_Sitter_space"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryu-takayanagi-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-introduction-3"},{"link_name":"Shinsei Ryu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shinsei_Ryu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinsei_Ry%C5%AB"},{"link_name":"Tadashi Takayanagi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tadashi_Takayanagi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadashi_Takayanagi"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"New Horizons in Physics Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Prize_in_Fundamental_Physics"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"covariant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_covariance"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture is a conjecture within holography that posits a quantitative relationship between the entanglement entropy of a conformal field theory and the geometry of an associated anti-de Sitter spacetime.[1][2] The formula characterizes \"holographic screens\" in the bulk; that is, it specifies which regions of the bulk geometry are \"responsible to particular information in the dual CFT\".[3] The conjecture is named after Shinsei Ryu [de] and Tadashi Takayanagi [de], who jointly published the result in 2006.[4] As a result, the authors were awarded the 2015 New Horizons in Physics Prize for \"fundamental ideas about entropy in quantum field theory and quantum gravity\".[5] The formula was generalized to a covariant form in 2007.[6]","title":"Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"thermodynamics of black holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics"},{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"},{"link_name":"spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"entanglement (or von Neumann) entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy_of_entanglement"}],"text":"The thermodynamics of black holes suggests certain relationships between the entropy of black holes and their geometry. Specifically, the Bekenstein–Hawking area formula conjectures that the entropy of a black hole is proportional to its surface area:S\n \n BH\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n k\n \n B\n \n \n A\n \n \n 4\n \n ℓ\n \n P\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{\\text{BH}}={\\frac {k_{\\text{B}}A}{4\\ell _{\\text{P}}^{2}}}}The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n BH\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{\\text{BH}}}\n \n is a measure of the information lost to external observers due to the presence of the horizon. The horizon of the black hole acts as a \"screen\" distinguishing one region of the spacetime (in this case the exterior of the black hole) that is not affected by another region (in this case the interior). The Bekenstein–Hawking area law states that the area of this surface is proportional to the entropy of the information lost behind it.The Bekenstein–Hawking entropy is a statement about the gravitational entropy of a system; however, there is another type of entropy that is important in quantum information theory, namely the entanglement (or von Neumann) entropy. This form of entropy provides a measure of how far from a pure state a given quantum state is, or, equivalently, how entangled it is. The entanglement entropy is a useful concept in many areas, such as in condensed matter physics and quantum many-body systems. Given its use, and its suggestive similarity to the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy, it is desirable to have a holographic description of entanglement entropy in terms of gravity.","title":"Motivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gauge theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge_theory"},{"link_name":"AdS/CFT correspondence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence"},{"link_name":"Minkowski space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_space"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vr-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vr-7"}],"text":"The holographic principle states that gravitational theories in a given dimension are dual to a gauge theory in one lower dimension. The AdS/CFT correspondence is one example of such duality. Here, the field theory is defined on a fixed background and is equivalent to a quantum gravitational theory whose different states each correspond to a possible spacetime geometry. The conformal field theory is often viewed as living on the boundary of the higher dimensional space whose gravitational theory it defines. The result of such a duality is a dictionary between the two equivalent descriptions. For example, in a CFT defined on \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d}\n \n dimensional Minkowski space the vacuum state corresponds to pure AdS space, whereas the thermal state corresponds to a planar black hole.[7] Important for the present discussion is that the thermal state of a CFT defined on the \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d}\n \n dimensional sphere corresponds to the \n \n \n \n d\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d+1}\n \n dimensional Schwarzschild black hole in AdS space.The Bekenstein–Hawking area law, while claiming that the area of the black hole horizon is proportional to the black hole's entropy, fails to provide a sufficient microscopic description of how this entropy arises. The holographic principle provides such a description by relating the black hole system to a quantum system which does admit such a microscopic description. In this case, the CFT has discrete eigenstates and the thermal state is the canonical ensemble of these states.[7] The entropy of this ensemble can be calculated through normal means, and yields the same result as predicted by the area law. This turns out to be a special case of the Ryu–Takayanagi conjecture.","title":"Holographic preliminaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryu-takayanagi-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vr-7"},{"link_name":"homologous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homology_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"text":"Consider a spatial slice \n \n \n \n Σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Sigma }\n \n of an AdS space time on whose boundary we define the dual CFT. The Ryu–Takayanagi formula states:where \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{A}}\n \n is the entanglement entropy of the CFT in some spatial sub-region \n \n \n \n A\n ⊂\n ∂\n Σ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\subset \\partial \\Sigma }\n \n with its complement \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n \n γ\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma _{A}}\n \n is the Ryu–Takayanagi surface in the bulk.[1] This surface must satisfy three properties:[7]γ\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma _{A}}\n \n has the same boundary as \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n.\n\n \n \n \n \n γ\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma _{A}}\n \n is homologous to A.\n\n \n \n \n \n γ\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma _{A}}\n \n extremizes the area. If there are multiple extremal surfaces, \n \n \n \n \n γ\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\gamma _{A}}\n \n is the one with the least area.Because of property (3), this surface is typically called the minimal surface when the context is clear. Furthermore, property (1) ensures that the formula preserves certain features of entanglement entropy, such as \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n A\n \n \n =\n \n S\n \n B\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{A}=S_{B}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n S\n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ≥\n \n S\n \n \n A\n \n 1\n \n \n ∪\n \n A\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle S_{A_{1}+A_{2}}\\geq S_{A_{1}\\cup A_{2}}}\n \n.[clarification needed] The conjecture provides an explicit geometric interpretation of the entanglement entropy of the boundary CFT, namely as the area of a surface in the bulk.","title":"Conjecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ryu-takayanagi-1"},{"link_name":"central charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_charge"},{"link_name":"metric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metric_(general_relativity)"},{"link_name":"hyperbolic disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincar%C3%A9_disk_model"},{"link_name":"3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#math_3"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#math_2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In their original paper, Ryu and Takayanagi show this result explicitly for an example in \n \n \n \n \n \n AdS\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n \n CFT\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AdS}}_{3}/{\\text{CFT}}_{2}}\n \n where an expression for the entanglement entropy is already known.[1] For an \n \n \n \n \n \n AdS\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AdS}}_{3}}\n \n space of radius \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R}\n \n, the dual CFT has a central charge given byFurthermore, \n \n \n \n \n \n AdS\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{AdS}}_{3}}\n \n has the metricd\n \n s\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n −\n cosh\n ⁡\n \n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n 2\n \n \n \n +\n d\n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n sinh\n ⁡\n \n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n d\n \n θ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ds^{2}=R^{2}(-\\cosh {\\rho ^{2}dt^{2}}+d\\rho ^{2}+\\sinh {\\rho ^{2}d\\theta ^{2}})}in \n \n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n ρ\n ,\n θ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (t,\\rho ,\\theta )}\n \n (essentially a stack of hyperbolic disks). Since this metric diverges at \n \n \n \n ρ\n →\n ∞\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho \\to \\infty }\n \n, \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n is restricted to \n \n \n \n ρ\n ≤\n \n ρ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho \\leq \\rho _{0}}\n \n. This act of imposing a maximum \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n is analogous to the corresponding CFT having a UV cutoff. If \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L}\n \n is the length of the CFT system, in this case the circumference of the cylinder calculated with the appropriate metric, and \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n is the lattice spacing, we havee\n \n \n ρ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ∼\n L\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{\\rho _{0}}\\sim L/a}\n \n.In this case, the boundary CFT lives at coordinates \n \n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n \n ρ\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n θ\n )\n =\n (\n t\n ,\n θ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (t,\\rho _{0},\\theta )=(t,\\theta )}\n \n. Consider a fixed \n \n \n \n t\n \n \n {\\displaystyle t}\n \n slice and take the subregion A of the boundary to be \n \n \n \n θ\n ∈\n [\n 0\n ,\n 2\n π\n l\n \n /\n \n L\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\theta \\in [0,2\\pi l/L]}\n \n where \n \n \n \n l\n \n \n {\\displaystyle l}\n \n is the length of \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n. The minimal surface is easy to identify in this case, as it is just the geodesic through the bulk that connects \n \n \n \n θ\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\theta =0}\n \n and \n \n \n \n θ\n =\n 2\n π\n l\n \n /\n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\theta =2\\pi l/L}\n \n. Remembering the lattice cutoff, the length of the geodesic can be calculated asIf it is assumed that \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n ρ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n >>\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{\\rho _{0}}>>1}\n \n, then using the Ryu–Takayanagi formula to compute the entanglement entropy. Plugging in the length of the minimal surface calculated in (3) and recalling the central charge (2), the entanglement entropy is given byThis agrees with the result calculated by usual means.[8]","title":"Example"}]
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[{"reference":"Ryu, Shinsei; Takayanagi, Tadashi (2006-08-21). \"Aspects of Holographic Entanglement Entropy\". Journal of High Energy Physics. 2006 (8): 045. arXiv:hep-th/0605073. Bibcode:2006JHEP...08..045R. doi:10.1088/1126-6708/2006/08/045. ISSN 1029-8479. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axoplasmic_transport
Axonal transport
["1 Mechanism","2 Fast and slow transport","3 Anterograde transport","4 Retrograde transport","5 Consequences of interruption","6 Infection","7 See also","8 References"]
Movement of organelles Axonal transport, also called axoplasmic transport or axoplasmic flow, is a cellular process responsible for movement of mitochondria, lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins, and other organelles to and from a neuron's cell body, through the cytoplasm of its axon called the axoplasm. Since some axons are on the order of meters long, neurons cannot rely on diffusion to carry products of the nucleus and organelles to the ends of their axons. Axonal transport is also responsible for moving molecules destined for degradation from the axon back to the cell body, where they are broken down by lysosomes. Dynein, a motor protein responsible for retrograde axonal transport, carries vesicles and other cellular products toward the cell bodies of neurons. Its light chains bind the cargo, and its globular head regions bind the microtubule, "inching" along it. Movement toward the cell body is called retrograde transport and movement toward the synapse is called anterograde transport. Mechanism Kinesin walking on a microtubule. It is a molecular biological machine that uses protein domain dynamics on nanoscales. The vast majority of axonal proteins are synthesized in the neuronal cell body and transported along axons. Some mRNA translation has been demonstrated within axons. Axonal transport occurs throughout the life of a neuron and is essential to its growth and survival. Microtubules (made of tubulin) run along the length of the axon and provide the main cytoskeletal "tracks" for transportation. Kinesin and dynein are motor proteins that move cargoes in the anterograde (forwards from the soma to the axon tip) and retrograde (backwards to the soma (cell body) directions, respectively. Motor proteins bind and transport several different cargoes including mitochondria, cytoskeletal polymers, autophagosomes, and synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters. Axonal transport can be fast or slow, and anterograde (away from the cell body) or retrograde (conveys materials from axon to cell body). Fast and slow transport Vesicular cargoes move relatively fast (50–400 mm/day) whereas transport of soluble (cytosolic) and cytoskeletal proteins takes much longer (moving at less than 8 mm/day). The basic mechanism of fast axonal transport has been understood for decades but the mechanism of slow axonal transport is only recently becoming clear, as a result of advanced imaging techniques. Fluorescent labeling techniques (e.g. fluorescence microscopy) have enabled direct visualization of transport in living neurons. Recent studies have revealed that the movement of cytoskeletal "slow" cargoes is actually rapid but unlike fast cargoes, they pause frequently, making the overall transit rate much slower. The mechanism is known as the "Stop and Go" model of slow axonal transport, and has been extensively validated for the transport of the cytoskeletal protein neurofilament. The movement of soluble (cytosolic) cargoes is more complex, but appears to have a similar basis where soluble proteins organize into multi-protein complexes that are then conveyed by transient interactions with more rapidly moving cargoes moving in fast axonal transport. An analogy is the difference in transport rates between local and express subway trains. Though both types of train travel at similar velocities between stations, the local train takes much longer to reach the end of the line because it stops at every station whereas the express makes only a few stops on the way. Anterograde transport See also: Anterograde tracing Anterograde (also called "orthograde") transport is movement of molecules/organelles outward, from the cell body (also called soma) to the synapse or cell membrane. The anterograde movement of individual cargoes (in transport vesicles) of both fast and slow components along the microtubule is mediated by kinesins. Several kinesins have been implicated in slow transport, though the mechanism for generating the "pauses" in the transit of slow component cargoes is still unknown. There are two classes of slow anterograde transport: slow component a (SCa) that carries mainly microtubules and neurofilaments at 0.1-1 millimeters per day, and slow component b (SCb) that carries over 200 diverse proteins and actin at a rate of up to 6 millimeters per day. The slow component b, which also carries actin, are transported at a rate of 2-3 millimeters per day in retinal cell axons. During reactivation from latency, the herpes simplex virus (HSV) enters its lytic cycle, and uses anterograde transport mechanisms to migrate from dorsal root ganglia neurons to the skin or mucosa that it subsequently affects. A cargo-receptor for anterograde transport motors, the kinesins, has been identified as the amyloid precursor protein (APP), the parent protein that produces the senile plaques found in Alzheimer's disease. A 15-amino acid peptide in the cytoplasmic carboxyl terminus of APP binds with high affinity to conventional kinesin-1 and mediates transport of exogenous cargo in the giant axon of the squid. Manganese, a contrast agent for T1-weighted MRI, travels by anterograde transport after stereotaxic injection into the brain of experimental animals and thereby reveals circuitry by whole brain MR imaging in living animals, as pioneered by Robia Pautler, Elaine Bearer and Russ Jacobs. Studies in kinesin-light chain-1 knockout mice revealed that Mn2+ travels by kinesin-based transport in the optic nerve and in the brain. Transport in both hippocampal projections and in the optic nerve also depends on APP. Transport from hippocampus to forebrain is decreased in aging and destination is altered by the presence of Alzheimer's disease plaques. Retrograde transport See also: Retrograde tracing Retrograde transport shuttles molecules/organelles away from axon termini toward the cell body. Retrograde axonal transport is mediated by cytoplasmic dynein, and is used for example to send chemical messages and endocytosis products headed to endolysosomes from the axon back to the cell. Operating at average in vivo speeds of approximately 2 μm/sec, fast retrograde transport can cover 10-20 centimeters per day. Fast retrograde transport returns used synaptic vesicles and other materials to the soma and informs the soma of conditions at the axon terminals. Retrograde transport carries survival signals from the synapse back to the cell body, such as the TRK, the nerve growth factor receptor. Some pathogens exploit this process to invade the nervous system. They enter the distal tips on an axon and travel to the soma by retrograde transport. Examples include tetanus toxin and the herpes simplex, rabies, and polio viruses. In such infections, the delay between infection and the onset of symptoms corresponds to the time needed for the pathogens to reach the somata. Herpes simplex virus travels both ways in axons depending on its life cycle, with retrograde transport dominating polarity for incoming capsids. Consequences of interruption Whenever axonal transport is inhibited or interrupted, normal physiology becomes pathophysiology, and an accumulation of axoplasm, called an axonal spheroid, may result. Because axonal transport can be disrupted in a multitude of ways, axonal spheroids can be seen in many different classes of diseases, including genetic, traumatic, ischemic, infectious, toxic, degenerative and specific white matter diseases called leukoencephalopathies. Several rare neurodegenerative diseases are linked to genetic mutations in the motor proteins, kinesin and dynein, and in those cases, it is likely that axonal transport is a key player in mediating pathology. Dysfunctional axonal transport is also linked to sporadic (common) forms of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. This is mainly due to numerous observations that large axonal accumulations are invariably seen in affected neurons, and that genes known to play a role in the familial forms of these diseases also have purported roles in normal axonal transport. However, there is little direct evidence for involvement of axonal transport in the latter diseases, and other mechanisms (such as direct synaptotoxicity) may be more relevant. Arrest of axoplasmic flow at the edge of ischemic areas in vascular retinopathies leads to swelling of nerve fibres, which give rise to soft exudates or cotton-wool patches. Since the axon depends on axoplasmic transport for vital proteins and materials, injury, such as diffuse axonal injury, which interrupts the transport, will cause the distal axon to degenerate in a process called Wallerian degeneration. Cancer drugs that interfere with cancerous growth by altering microtubules (which are necessary for cell division) damage nerves because the microtubules are necessary for axonal transport. Infection The rabies virus reaches the central nervous system by retrograde axoplasmic flow. The tetanus neurotoxin is internalised at the neuromuscular junction through binding the nidogen proteins and is retrogradely transported towards the soma in signaling endosomes. Neurotropic viruses, such as the herpesviruses, travel inside axons using cellular transport machinery, as has been shown in work by Elaine Bearer's group. Other infectious agents are also suspected of using axonal transport. Such infections are now thought to contribute to Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative neurological disorders. See also Intraflagellar transport References ^ Sabry J, O'Connor TP, Kirschner MW (June 1995). "Axonal transport of tubulin in Ti1 pioneer neurons in situ". Neuron. 14 (6): 1247–56. doi:10.1016/0896-6273(95)90271-6. PMID 7541635. ^ a b c d Oztas E (2003). "Neuronal Tracing" (PDF). Neuroanatomy. 2: 2–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2005-10-25. ^ Karp G, van der Geer P (2005). Cell and molecular biology: concepts and experiments (4th ed.). John Wiley. p. 344. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cellular process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_process"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion"},{"link_name":"lipids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipid"},{"link_name":"synaptic vesicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"organelles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organelle"},{"link_name":"neuron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron"},{"link_name":"cell body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_body"},{"link_name":"cytoplasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm"},{"link_name":"axon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon"},{"link_name":"axoplasm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axoplasm"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sabry-1"},{"link_name":"lysosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysosome"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oztas-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cytoplasmic_dynein.svg"},{"link_name":"Dynein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynein"},{"link_name":"microtubule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtubule"},{"link_name":"retrograde transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrograde_transport"},{"link_name":"synapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse"},{"link_name":"anterograde transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_transport"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Karp-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bear_et_al-4"}],"text":"Axonal transport, also called axoplasmic transport or axoplasmic flow, is a cellular process responsible for movement of mitochondria, lipids, synaptic vesicles, proteins, and other organelles to and from a neuron's cell body, through the cytoplasm of its axon called the axoplasm.[1] Since some axons are on the order of meters long, neurons cannot rely on diffusion to carry products of the nucleus and organelles to the ends of their axons. Axonal transport is also responsible for moving molecules destined for degradation from the axon back to the cell body, where they are broken down by lysosomes.[2]Dynein, a motor protein responsible for retrograde axonal transport, carries vesicles and other cellular products toward the cell bodies of neurons. Its light chains bind the cargo, and its globular head regions bind the microtubule, \"inching\" along it.Movement toward the cell body is called retrograde transport and movement toward the synapse is called anterograde transport.[3][4]","title":"Axonal transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kinesin_walking.gif"},{"link_name":"Kinesin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin"},{"link_name":"microtubule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtubule"},{"link_name":"biological machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_machine"},{"link_name":"protein domain dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_dynamics#Global_flexibility:_multiple_domains"},{"link_name":"nanoscales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoscopic_scale"},{"link_name":"mRNA translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_translation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Giustetto-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Si-6"},{"link_name":"Microtubules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtubule"},{"link_name":"tubulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubulin"},{"link_name":"Kinesin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin"},{"link_name":"dynein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynein"},{"link_name":"motor proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_protein"},{"link_name":"soma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perikaryon"},{"link_name":"mitochondria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondria"},{"link_name":"cytoskeletal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoskeleton"},{"link_name":"polymers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"autophagosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autophagosome"},{"link_name":"synaptic vesicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle"},{"link_name":"neurotransmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter"}],"text":"Kinesin walking on a microtubule. It is a molecular biological machine that uses protein domain dynamics on nanoscales.The vast majority of axonal proteins are synthesized in the neuronal cell body and transported along axons. Some mRNA translation has been demonstrated within axons.[5][6] Axonal transport occurs throughout the life of a neuron and is essential to its growth and survival. Microtubules (made of tubulin) run along the length of the axon and provide the main cytoskeletal \"tracks\" for transportation. Kinesin and dynein are motor proteins that move cargoes in the anterograde (forwards from the soma to the axon tip) and retrograde (backwards to the soma (cell body) directions, respectively. Motor proteins bind and transport several different cargoes including mitochondria, cytoskeletal polymers, autophagosomes, and synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters.Axonal transport can be fast or slow, and anterograde (away from the cell body) or retrograde (conveys materials from axon to cell body).","title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"imaging techniques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_science"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roy-8"},{"link_name":"fluorescence microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence_microscope"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scott,_D-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roy,_S-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Vesicular cargoes move relatively fast (50–400 mm/day) whereas transport of soluble (cytosolic) and cytoskeletal proteins takes much longer (moving at less than 8 mm/day).[7] The basic mechanism of fast axonal transport has been understood for decades but the mechanism of slow axonal transport is only recently becoming clear, as a result of advanced imaging techniques.[8] Fluorescent labeling techniques (e.g. fluorescence microscopy) have enabled direct visualization of transport in living neurons.Recent studies have revealed that the movement of cytoskeletal \"slow\" cargoes is actually rapid but unlike fast cargoes, they pause frequently, making the overall transit rate much slower. The mechanism is known as the \"Stop and Go\" model of slow axonal transport, and has been extensively validated for the transport of the cytoskeletal protein neurofilament.[9] The movement of soluble (cytosolic) cargoes is more complex, but appears to have a similar basis where soluble proteins organize into multi-protein complexes that are then conveyed by transient interactions with more rapidly moving cargoes moving in fast axonal transport.[10][11][12] An analogy is the difference in transport rates between local and express subway trains. Though both types of train travel at similar velocities between stations, the local train takes much longer to reach the end of the line because it stops at every station whereas the express makes only a few stops on the way.","title":"Fast and slow transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anterograde tracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anterograde_tracing"},{"link_name":"cell body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_body"},{"link_name":"soma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma_(biology)"},{"link_name":"synapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse"},{"link_name":"cell membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane"},{"link_name":"transport vesicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_vesicles"},{"link_name":"microtubule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtubule"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bear_et_al-4"},{"link_name":"kinesins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oztas-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roy-8"},{"link_name":"neurofilaments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurofilament"},{"link_name":"actin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actin"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roy-8"},{"link_name":"herpes simplex virus (HSV)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herpes_simplex_virus"},{"link_name":"lytic cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lytic_cycle"},{"link_name":"dorsal root ganglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglia"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"amyloid precursor protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloid_precursor_protein"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"giant axon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squid_giant_axon"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"contrast agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_agent"},{"link_name":"Elaine Bearer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_Bearer"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid22500926-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"See also: Anterograde tracingAnterograde (also called \"orthograde\") transport is movement of molecules/organelles outward, from the cell body (also called soma) to the synapse or cell membrane.The anterograde movement of individual cargoes (in transport vesicles) of both fast and slow components along the microtubule[4] is mediated by kinesins.[2] Several kinesins have been implicated in slow transport,[8] though the mechanism for generating the \"pauses\" in the transit of slow component cargoes is still unknown.There are two classes of slow anterograde transport: slow component a (SCa) that carries mainly microtubules and neurofilaments at 0.1-1 millimeters per day, and slow component b (SCb) that carries over 200 diverse proteins and actin at a rate of up to 6 millimeters per day.[8] The slow component b, which also carries actin, are transported at a rate of 2-3 millimeters per day in retinal cell axons.During reactivation from latency, the herpes simplex virus (HSV) enters its lytic cycle, and uses anterograde transport mechanisms to migrate from dorsal root ganglia neurons to the skin or mucosa that it subsequently affects.[13]A cargo-receptor for anterograde transport motors, the kinesins, has been identified as the amyloid precursor protein (APP), the parent protein that produces the senile plaques found in Alzheimer's disease.[14] A 15-amino acid peptide in the cytoplasmic carboxyl terminus of APP binds with high affinity to conventional kinesin-1 and mediates transport of exogenous cargo in the giant axon of the squid.[15]Manganese, a contrast agent for T1-weighted MRI, travels by anterograde transport after stereotaxic injection into the brain of experimental animals and thereby reveals circuitry by whole brain MR imaging in living animals, as pioneered by Robia Pautler, Elaine Bearer and Russ Jacobs. Studies in kinesin-light chain-1 knockout mice revealed that Mn2+ travels by kinesin-based transport in the optic nerve and in the brain. Transport in both hippocampal projections and in the optic nerve also depends on APP.[16] Transport from hippocampus to forebrain is decreased in aging and destination is altered by the presence of Alzheimer's disease plaques.[17]","title":"Anterograde transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Retrograde tracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrograde_tracing"},{"link_name":"cell body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma_(biology)"},{"link_name":"dynein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynein"},{"link_name":"endocytosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocytosis"},{"link_name":"endolysosomes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endolysosome"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oztas-2"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oztas-2"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"See also: Retrograde tracingRetrograde transport shuttles molecules/organelles away from axon termini toward the cell body. Retrograde axonal transport is mediated by cytoplasmic dynein, and is used for example to send chemical messages and endocytosis products headed to endolysosomes from the axon back to the cell.[2] Operating at average in vivo speeds of approximately 2 μm/sec,[18][19] fast retrograde transport can cover 10-20 centimeters per day.[2]Fast retrograde transport returns used synaptic vesicles and other materials to the soma and informs the soma of conditions at the axon terminals. Retrograde transport carries survival signals from the synapse back to the cell body, such as the TRK, the nerve growth factor receptor.[20] Some pathogens exploit this process to invade the nervous system. They enter the distal tips on an axon and travel to the soma by retrograde transport. Examples include tetanus toxin and the herpes simplex, rabies, and polio viruses. In such infections, the delay between infection and the onset of symptoms corresponds to the time needed for the pathogens to reach the somata.[21] Herpes simplex virus travels both ways in axons depending on its life cycle, with retrograde transport dominating polarity for incoming capsids.[22]","title":"Retrograde transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"specific white matter diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereditary_diffuse_leukoencephalopathy_with_spheroids"},{"link_name":"leukoencephalopathies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukoencephalopathy"},{"link_name":"neurodegenerative diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease"},{"link_name":"genetic mutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_mutation"},{"link_name":"kinesin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinesin"},{"link_name":"dynein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynein"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Alzheimer's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s"},{"link_name":"Parkinson's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roy-8"},{"link_name":"diffuse axonal injury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_axonal_injury"},{"link_name":"distal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location#Proximal_and_distal"},{"link_name":"Wallerian degeneration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallerian_degeneration"},{"link_name":"Cancer drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer_drugs"},{"link_name":"cell division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis"}],"text":"Whenever axonal transport is inhibited or interrupted, normal physiology becomes pathophysiology, and an accumulation of axoplasm, called an axonal spheroid, may result. Because axonal transport can be disrupted in a multitude of ways, axonal spheroids can be seen in many different classes of diseases, including genetic, traumatic, ischemic, infectious, toxic, degenerative and specific white matter diseases called leukoencephalopathies. Several rare neurodegenerative diseases are linked to genetic mutations in the motor proteins, kinesin and dynein, and in those cases, it is likely that axonal transport is a key player in mediating pathology.[23][24] Dysfunctional axonal transport is also linked to sporadic (common) forms of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's.[8] This is mainly due to numerous observations that large axonal accumulations are invariably seen in affected neurons, and that genes known to play a role in the familial forms of these diseases also have purported roles in normal axonal transport. However, there is little direct evidence for involvement of axonal transport in the latter diseases, and other mechanisms (such as direct synaptotoxicity) may be more relevant.Arrest of axoplasmic flow at the edge of ischemic areas in vascular retinopathies leads to swelling of nerve fibres, which give rise to soft exudates or cotton-wool patches.Since the axon depends on axoplasmic transport for vital proteins and materials, injury, such as diffuse axonal injury, which interrupts the transport, will cause the distal axon to degenerate in a process called Wallerian degeneration. Cancer drugs that interfere with cancerous growth by altering microtubules (which are necessary for cell division) damage nerves because the microtubules are necessary for axonal transport.","title":"Consequences of interruption"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rabies virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabies_virus"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mitrabhakdi-25"},{"link_name":"neurotoxin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotoxin"},{"link_name":"neuromuscular junction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction"},{"link_name":"nidogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nidogen"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"The rabies virus reaches the central nervous system by retrograde axoplasmic flow.[25] The tetanus neurotoxin is internalised at the neuromuscular junction through binding the nidogen proteins and is retrogradely transported towards the soma in signaling endosomes.[26] Neurotropic viruses, such as the herpesviruses, travel inside axons using cellular transport machinery, as has been shown in work by Elaine Bearer's group.[27][28] Other infectious agents are also suspected of using axonal transport.[29] Such infections are now thought to contribute to Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative neurological disorders.[30][31]","title":"Infection"}]
[{"image_text":"Dynein, a motor protein responsible for retrograde axonal transport, carries vesicles and other cellular products toward the cell bodies of neurons. Its light chains bind the cargo, and its globular head regions bind the microtubule, \"inching\" along it.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Cytoplasmic_dynein.svg/200px-Cytoplasmic_dynein.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Kinesin walking on a microtubule. It is a molecular biological machine that uses protein domain dynamics on nanoscales.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Kinesin_walking.gif/300px-Kinesin_walking.gif"}]
[{"title":"Intraflagellar transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraflagellar_transport"}]
[{"reference":"Sabry J, O'Connor TP, Kirschner MW (June 1995). \"Axonal transport of tubulin in Ti1 pioneer neurons in situ\". Neuron. 14 (6): 1247–56. doi:10.1016/0896-6273(95)90271-6. PMID 7541635.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0896-6273%2895%2990271-6","url_text":"\"Axonal transport of tubulin in Ti1 pioneer neurons in situ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0896-6273%2895%2990271-6","url_text":"10.1016/0896-6273(95)90271-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7541635","url_text":"7541635"}]},{"reference":"Oztas E (2003). \"Neuronal Tracing\" (PDF). Neuroanatomy. 2: 2–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2005-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.neuroanatomy.org/2003/002_005.pdf","url_text":"\"Neuronal Tracing\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051025165319/http://neuroanatomy.org/2003/002_005.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Karp G, van der Geer P (2005). Cell and molecular biology: concepts and experiments (4th ed.). John Wiley. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-471-46580-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cellmolecularbio04edkarp","url_text":"Cell and molecular biology: concepts and experiments"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/cellmolecularbio04edkarp/page/344","url_text":"344"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-46580-5","url_text":"978-0-471-46580-5"}]},{"reference":"Bear MF, Connors BW, Paradso MA (2007). Neuroscience : exploring the brain (3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-7817-6003-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark","url_text":"Neuroscience : exploring the brain"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00mark/page/41","url_text":"41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-6003-4","url_text":"978-0-7817-6003-4"}]},{"reference":"Giustetto M, Hegde AN, Si K, Casadio A, Inokuchi K, Pei W, Kandel ER, Schwartz JH (November 2003). \"Axonal transport of eukaryotic translation elongation factor 1alpha mRNA couples transcription in the nucleus to long-term facilitation at the synapse\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (23): 13680–5. Bibcode:2003PNAS..10013680G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1835674100. PMC 263873. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-process
s-process
["1 History","2 The s-process in stars","3 The s-process measured in stardust","4 References"]
Nucleosynthesis pathway The slow neutron-capture process, or s-process, is a series of reactions in nuclear astrophysics that occur in stars, particularly asymptotic giant branch stars. The s-process is responsible for the creation (nucleosynthesis) of approximately half the atomic nuclei heavier than iron. In the s-process, a seed nucleus undergoes neutron capture to form an isotope with one higher atomic mass. If the new isotope is stable, a series of increases in mass can occur, but if it is unstable, then beta decay will occur, producing an element of the next higher atomic number. The process is slow (hence the name) in the sense that there is sufficient time for this radioactive decay to occur before another neutron is captured. A series of these reactions produces stable isotopes by moving along the valley of beta-decay stable isobars in the table of nuclides. A range of elements and isotopes can be produced by the s-process, because of the intervention of alpha decay steps along the reaction chain. The relative abundances of elements and isotopes produced depends on the source of the neutrons and how their flux changes over time. Each branch of the s-process reaction chain eventually terminates at a cycle involving lead, bismuth, and polonium. The s-process contrasts with the r-process, in which successive neutron captures are rapid: they happen more quickly than the beta decay can occur. The r-process dominates in environments with higher fluxes of free neutrons; it produces heavier elements and more neutron-rich isotopes than the s-process. Together the two processes account for most of the relative abundance of chemical elements heavier than iron. History The s-process was seen to be needed from the relative abundances of isotopes of heavy elements and from a newly published table of abundances by Hans Suess and Harold Urey in 1956. Among other things, these data showed abundance peaks for strontium, barium, and lead, which, according to quantum mechanics and the nuclear shell model, are particularly stable nuclei, much like the noble gases are chemically inert. This implied that some abundant nuclei must be created by slow neutron capture, and it was only a matter of determining how other nuclei could be accounted for by such a process. A table apportioning the heavy isotopes between s-process and r-process was published in the famous B2FH review paper in 1957. There it was also argued that the s-process occurs in red giant stars. In a particularly illustrative case, the element technetium, whose longest half-life is 4.2 million years, had been discovered in s-, M-, and N-type stars in 1952 by Paul W. Merrill. Since these stars were thought to be billions of years old, the presence of technetium in their outer atmospheres was taken as evidence of its recent creation there, probably unconnected with the nuclear fusion in the deep interior of the star that provides its power. Periodic table showing the cosmogenic origin of each element. The elements heavier than iron with origins in dying low-mass stars are typically those produced by the s-process, which is characterized by slow neutron diffusion and capture over long periods in such stars. A calculable model for creating the heavy isotopes from iron seed nuclei in a time-dependent manner was not provided until 1961. That work showed that the large overabundances of barium observed by astronomers in certain red-giant stars could be created from iron seed nuclei if the total neutron flux (number of neutrons per unit area) was appropriate. It also showed that no one single value for neutron flux could account for the observed s-process abundances, but that a wide range is required. The numbers of iron seed nuclei that were exposed to a given flux must decrease as the flux becomes stronger. This work also showed that the curve of the product of neutron-capture cross section times abundance is not a smoothly falling curve, as B2FH had sketched, but rather has a ledge-precipice structure. A series of papers in the 1970s by Donald D. Clayton utilizing an exponentially declining neutron flux as a function of the number of iron seed exposed became the standard model of the s-process and remained so until the details of AGB-star nucleosynthesis became sufficiently advanced that they became a standard model for s-process element formation based on stellar structure models. Important series of measurements of neutron-capture cross sections were reported from Oak Ridge National Lab in 1965 and by Karlsruhe Nuclear Physics Center in 1982 and subsequently, these placed the s-process on the firm quantitative basis that it enjoys today. The s-process in stars The s-process is believed to occur mostly in asymptotic giant branch stars, seeded by iron nuclei left by a supernova during a previous generation of stars. In contrast to the r-process which is believed to occur over time scales of seconds in explosive environments, the s-process is believed to occur over time scales of thousands of years, passing decades between neutron captures. The extent to which the s-process moves up the elements in the chart of isotopes to higher mass numbers is essentially determined by the degree to which the star in question is able to produce neutrons. The quantitative yield is also proportional to the amount of iron in the star's initial abundance distribution. Iron is the "starting material" (or seed) for this neutron capture-beta minus decay sequence of synthesizing new elements. The main neutron source reactions are: 136C  +  42He  →  168O  +  n 2210Ne  +  42He  →  2512Mg  +  n The s-process acting in the range from Ag to Sb One distinguishes the main and the weak s-process component. The main component produces heavy elements beyond Sr and Y, and up to Pb in the lowest metallicity stars. The production sites of the main component are low-mass asymptotic giant branch stars. The main component relies on the 13C neutron source above. The weak component of the s-process, on the other hand, synthesizes s-process isotopes of elements from iron group seed nuclei to 58Fe on up to Sr and Y, and takes place at the end of helium- and carbon-burning in massive stars. It employs primarily the 22Ne neutron source. These stars will become supernovae at their demise and spew those s-process isotopes into interstellar gas. The s-process is sometimes approximated over a small mass region using the so-called "local approximation", by which the ratio of abundances is inversely proportional to the ratio of neutron-capture cross-sections for nearby isotopes on the s-process path. This approximation is – as the name indicates – only valid locally, meaning for isotopes of nearby mass numbers, but it is invalid at magic numbers where the ledge-precipice structure dominates. Chart representing the final part of the s-process. Red horizontal lines with a circle in their right ends represent neutron captures; blue arrows pointing up-left represent beta decays; green arrows pointing down-left represent alpha decays; cyan/light-green arrows pointing down-right represent electron captures. Because of the relatively low neutron fluxes expected to occur during the s-process (on the order of 105 to 1011 neutrons per cm2 per second), this process does not have the ability to produce any of the heavy radioactive isotopes such as thorium or uranium. The cycle that terminates the s-process is: 209Bi captures a neutron, producing 210Bi, which decays to 210Po by β− decay. 210Po in turn decays to 206Pb by α decay: 20983Bi  +  n  →  21083Bi  +  γ 21083Bi      →  21084Po  +  e−  +  νe 21084Po      →  20682Pb  +  42He 206Pb then captures three neutrons, producing 209Pb, which decays to 209Bi by β− decay, restarting the cycle: 20682Pb  +  3 n  →  20982Pb 20982Pb      →  20983Bi  +   e−  +   νe The net result of this cycle therefore is that 4 neutrons are converted into one alpha particle, two electrons, two anti-electron neutrinos and gamma radiation:     4 n  →  42He  +  2 e−  +  2 νe  +  γ The process thus terminates in bismuth, the heaviest "stable" element, and polonium, the first non-primordial element after bismuth. Bismuth is actually slightly radioactive, but with a half-life so long—a billion times the present age of the universe—that it is effectively stable over the lifetime of any existing star. Polonium-210, however, decays with a half-life of 138 days to stable lead-206. The s-process measured in stardust Stardust is one component of cosmic dust. Stardust is individual solid grains that condensed during mass loss from various long-dead stars. Stardust existed throughout interstellar gas before the birth of the Solar System and was trapped in meteorites when they assembled from interstellar matter contained in the planetary accretion disk in early Solar System. Today they are found in meteorites, where they have been preserved. Meteoriticists habitually refer to them as presolar grains. The s-process enriched grains are mostly silicon carbide (SiC). The origin of these grains is demonstrated by laboratory measurements of extremely unusual isotopic abundance ratios within the grain. First experimental detection of s-process xenon isotopes was made in 1978, confirming earlier predictions that s-process isotopes would be enriched, nearly pure, in stardust from red giant stars. These discoveries launched new insight into astrophysics and into the origin of meteorites in the Solar System. Silicon carbide (SiC) grains condense in the atmospheres of AGB stars and thus trap isotopic abundance ratios as they existed in that star. Because the AGB stars are the main site of the s-process in the galaxy, the heavy elements in the SiC grains contain almost pure s-process isotopes in elements heavier than iron. This fact has been demonstrated repeatedly by sputtering-ion mass spectrometer studies of these stardust presolar grains. Several surprising results have shown that within them the ratio of s-process and r-process abundances is somewhat different from that which was previously assumed. It has also been shown with trapped isotopes of krypton and xenon that the s-process abundances in the AGB-star atmospheres changed with time or from star to star, presumably with the strength of neutron flux in that star or perhaps the temperature. This is a frontier of s-process studies in the 2000s. References ^ Suess, H. E.; Urey, H. C. (1956). "Abundances of the Elements". Reviews of Modern Physics. 28 (1): 53–74. Bibcode:1956RvMP...28...53S. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.53. ^ Burbidge, E. M.; Burbidge, G. R.; Fowler, W. A.; Hoyle, F. (1957). "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". Reviews of Modern Physics. 29 (4): 547–650. Bibcode:1957RvMP...29..547B. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.29.547. ^ Hammond, C. R. (2004). "The Elements". Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9. ^ Moore, C. E. (1951). "Technetium in the Sun". Science. 114 (2951): 59–61. Bibcode:1951Sci...114...59M. doi:10.1126/science.114.2951.59. PMID 17782983. ^ Merrill, P. W. (1952). "Technetium in the stars". Science. 115 (2992): 484. ^ George Sivulka (8 March 2017). "An Introduction to the Evidence for Stellar Nucleosynthesis". Stanford University. Retrieved 3 May 2018. ^ Clayton, D. D.; Fowler, W. A.; Hull, T. E.; Zimmerman, B. A. (1961). "Neutron capture chains in heavy element synthesis". Annals of Physics. 12 (3): 331–408. Bibcode:1961AnPhy..12..331C. doi:10.1016/0003-4916(61)90067-7. ^ Clayton, D. D.; Rassbach, M. E. (1967). "Termination of the s-process". The Astrophysical Journal. 148: 69. Bibcode:1967ApJ...148...69C. doi:10.1086/149128. ^ Clayton, D. D. (1968). "Distribution of neutron-source strengths for the s-process". In Arnett, W. D.; Hansen, C. J.; Truran, J. W.; Cameron, A. G. W. (eds.). Nucleosynthesis. Gordon and Breach. pp. 225–240. ^ Peters, J. G.; Fowler, W. A.; Clayton, D. D. (1972). "Weak s-process Irradiations". The Astrophysical Journal. 173: 637. Bibcode:1972ApJ...173..637P. doi:10.1086/151450. ^ Clayton, D. D.; Newman, M. J. (1974). "s-process Studies: Exact Solution to a Chain Having Two Distinct Cross-Section Values". The Astrophysical Journal. 192: 501. Bibcode:1974ApJ...192..501C. doi:10.1086/153082. ^ Clayton, D. D.; Ward, R. A. (1974). "s-process Studies: Exact Evaluation of an Exponential Distribution of Exposures". The Astrophysical Journal. 193: 397. Bibcode:1974ApJ...193..397C. doi:10.1086/153175. ^ Ward, R. A.; Newman, M. J.; Clayton, D. D. (1976). "s-process Studies: Branching and the Time Scale". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 31: 33. Bibcode:1976ApJS...31...33W. doi:10.1086/190373. ^ Macklin, R. L.; Gibbons, J. H. (1965). "Neutron Capture Data at Stellar Temperatures". Reviews of Modern Physics. 37 (1): 166–176. Bibcode:1965RvMP...37..166M. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.37.166. ^ Kaeppeler, F.; Beer, H.; Wisshak, K.; Clayton, D. D.; Macklin, R. L.; Ward, R. A. (1982). "s-process studies in the light of new experimental cross sections". The Astrophysical Journal. 257: 821–846. Bibcode:1982ApJ...257..821K. doi:10.1086/160033. ^ Reifarth, R. (2010). "The s-process – overview and selected developments". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 202 (012022). doi:10.1088/1742-6596/202/1/012022. ^ Boothroyd, A. I. (2006). "Heavy elements in stars". Science. 314 (5806): 1690–1691. doi:10.1126/science.1136842. PMID 17170281. S2CID 116938510. ^ Busso, M.; Gallino, R.; Wasserburg, G. J. (1999). "Nucleosynthesis in Asymptotic Giant Branch Stars: Relevance for Galactic Enrichment and Solar System Formation" (PDF). Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 37 (1): 239–309. Bibcode:1999ARA&A..37..239B. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.37.1.239. ^ Srinivasan, B.; Anders, E. (1978). "Noble Gases in the Murchison Meteorite: Possible Relics of s-process Nucleosynthesis". Science. 201 (4350): 51–56. Bibcode:1978Sci...201...51S. doi:10.1126/science.201.4350.51. PMID 17777755. S2CID 21175338. ^ Clayton, D. D.; Ward, R. A. (1978). "s-process studies: Xenon and krypton isotopic abundances". The Astrophysical Journal. 224: 1000. Bibcode:1978ApJ...224.1000C. doi:10.1086/156449. ^ a b Clayton, D. D.; Nittler, L. R. (2004). "Astrophysics with Presolar Stardust" (PDF). Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 42 (1): 39–78. Bibcode:2004ARA&A..42...39C. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.134022. S2CID 96456868. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactions"},{"link_name":"nuclear astrophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics"},{"link_name":"asymptotic giant branch stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch_stars"},{"link_name":"nucleosynthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleosynthesis"},{"link_name":"atomic nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"heavier than iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemical_element)"},{"link_name":"seed nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_nucleus"},{"link_name":"neutron capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_capture"},{"link_name":"isotope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope"},{"link_name":"atomic mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_mass"},{"link_name":"stable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_nuclide"},{"link_name":"unstable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstable_nucleus"},{"link_name":"beta decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay"},{"link_name":"atomic number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_number"},{"link_name":"radioactive decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decay"},{"link_name":"valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_of_stability"},{"link_name":"beta-decay stable isobars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta-decay_stable_isobars"},{"link_name":"table of nuclides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_nuclides"},{"link_name":"alpha decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"bismuth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth"},{"link_name":"polonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium"},{"link_name":"r-process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-process"},{"link_name":"free neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_neutron"},{"link_name":"abundance of chemical elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_of_chemical_elements"}],"text":"The slow neutron-capture process, or s-process, is a series of reactions in nuclear astrophysics that occur in stars, particularly asymptotic giant branch stars. The s-process is responsible for the creation (nucleosynthesis) of approximately half the atomic nuclei heavier than iron.In the s-process, a seed nucleus undergoes neutron capture to form an isotope with one higher atomic mass. If the new isotope is stable, a series of increases in mass can occur, but if it is unstable, then beta decay will occur, producing an element of the next higher atomic number. The process is slow (hence the name) in the sense that there is sufficient time for this radioactive decay to occur before another neutron is captured. A series of these reactions produces stable isotopes by moving along the valley of beta-decay stable isobars in the table of nuclides.A range of elements and isotopes can be produced by the s-process, because of the intervention of alpha decay steps along the reaction chain. The relative abundances of elements and isotopes produced depends on the source of the neutrons and how their flux changes over time. Each branch of the s-process reaction chain eventually terminates at a cycle involving lead, bismuth, and polonium.The s-process contrasts with the r-process, in which successive neutron captures are rapid: they happen more quickly than the beta decay can occur. The r-process dominates in environments with higher fluxes of free neutrons; it produces heavier elements and more neutron-rich isotopes than the s-process. Together the two processes account for most of the relative abundance of chemical elements heavier than iron.","title":"s-process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"abundances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements"},{"link_name":"Hans Suess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Suess"},{"link_name":"Harold Urey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Urey"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"strontium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium"},{"link_name":"barium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"nuclear shell model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model"},{"link_name":"noble gases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noble_gas"},{"link_name":"inert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inert_gas"},{"link_name":"neutron capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_capture"},{"link_name":"r-process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-process"},{"link_name":"B2FH review paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B2FH_paper"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Synthesis_of_the_Elements_in_Stars-2"},{"link_name":"red giant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_giant"},{"link_name":"technetium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technetium"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CRC-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Paul W. Merrill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_W._Merrill"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"B2FH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B2FH"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Donald D. Clayton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_D._Clayton"},{"link_name":"AGB-star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_Giant_Branch"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The s-process was seen to be needed from the relative abundances of isotopes of heavy elements and from a newly published table of abundances by Hans Suess and Harold Urey in 1956.[1] Among other things, these data showed abundance peaks for strontium, barium, and lead, which, according to quantum mechanics and the nuclear shell model, are particularly stable nuclei, much like the noble gases are chemically inert. This implied that some abundant nuclei must be created by slow neutron capture, and it was only a matter of determining how other nuclei could be accounted for by such a process. A table apportioning the heavy isotopes between s-process and r-process was published in the famous B2FH review paper in 1957.[2] There it was also argued that the s-process occurs in red giant stars. In a particularly illustrative case, the element technetium, whose longest half-life is 4.2 million years, had been discovered in s-, M-, and N-type stars in 1952[3][4] by Paul W. Merrill.[5][6] Since these stars were thought to be billions of years old, the presence of technetium in their outer atmospheres was taken as evidence of its recent creation there, probably unconnected with the nuclear fusion in the deep interior of the star that provides its power.Periodic table showing the cosmogenic origin of each element. The elements heavier than iron with origins in dying low-mass stars are typically those produced by the s-process, which is characterized by slow neutron diffusion and capture over long periods in such stars.A calculable model for creating the heavy isotopes from iron seed nuclei in a time-dependent manner was not provided until 1961.[7] That work showed that the large overabundances of barium observed by astronomers in certain red-giant stars could be created from iron seed nuclei if the total neutron flux (number of neutrons per unit area) was appropriate. It also showed that no one single value for neutron flux could account for the observed s-process abundances, but that a wide range is required. The numbers of iron seed nuclei that were exposed to a given flux must decrease as the flux becomes stronger. This work also showed that the curve of the product of neutron-capture cross section times abundance is not a smoothly falling curve, as B2FH had sketched, but rather has a ledge-precipice structure. A series of papers[8][9][10][11][12][13] in the 1970s by Donald D. Clayton utilizing an exponentially declining neutron flux as a function of the number of iron seed exposed became the standard model of the s-process and remained so until the details of AGB-star nucleosynthesis became sufficiently advanced that they became a standard model for s-process element formation based on stellar structure models. Important series of measurements of neutron-capture cross sections were reported from Oak Ridge National Lab in 1965[14] and by Karlsruhe Nuclear Physics Center in 1982[15] and subsequently, these placed the s-process on the firm quantitative basis that it enjoys today.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asymptotic giant branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch"},{"link_name":"mass numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_number"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"Iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reifarth2010-16"},{"link_name":"neutron source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_source"},{"link_name":"136C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-13"},{"link_name":"42He","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-4"},{"link_name":"168O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen-16"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"2210Ne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon-22"},{"link_name":"42He","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-4"},{"link_name":"2512Mg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium-25"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S-process-elem-Ag-to-Sb.svg"},{"link_name":"Ag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver"},{"link_name":"Sb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony"},{"link_name":"Sr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium"},{"link_name":"Y","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yttrium"},{"link_name":"Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium_fusion"},{"link_name":"carbon-burning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-burning_process"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg"},{"link_name":"neutron captures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_capture"},{"link_name":"beta decays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay"},{"link_name":"alpha decays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay"},{"link_name":"electron captures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_capture"},{"link_name":"neutron fluxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_flux"},{"link_name":"thorium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium"},{"link_name":"uranium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium"},{"link_name":"209Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-209"},{"link_name":"210Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-210"},{"link_name":"210Po","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium-210"},{"link_name":"β− decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay"},{"link_name":"210Po","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium-210"},{"link_name":"206Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-206"},{"link_name":"α decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay"},{"link_name":"20983Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-209"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"21083Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-210"},{"link_name":"γ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"21083Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-210"},{"link_name":"21084Po","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium-210"},{"link_name":"e−","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"νe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_antineutrino"},{"link_name":"21084Po","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium-210"},{"link_name":"20682Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-206"},{"link_name":"42He","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-4"},{"link_name":"206Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-206"},{"link_name":"209Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-209"},{"link_name":"209Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-209"},{"link_name":"20682Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-206"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"20982Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-209"},{"link_name":"20982Pb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-209"},{"link_name":"20983Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bismuth-209"},{"link_name":"e−","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"νe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_antineutrino"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"alpha particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_particle"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"gamma radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"42He","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-4"},{"link_name":"e−","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"νe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_antineutrino"},{"link_name":"γ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"Polonium-210","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polonium-210"},{"link_name":"lead-206","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead-206"}],"text":"The s-process is believed to occur mostly in asymptotic giant branch stars, seeded by iron nuclei left by a supernova during a previous generation of stars. In contrast to the r-process which is believed to occur over time scales of seconds in explosive environments, the s-process is believed to occur over time scales of thousands of years, passing decades between neutron captures. The extent to which the s-process moves up the elements in the chart of isotopes to higher mass numbers is essentially determined by the degree to which the star in question is able to produce neutrons. The quantitative yield is also proportional to the amount of iron in the star's initial abundance distribution. Iron is the \"starting material\" (or seed) for this neutron capture-beta minus decay sequence of synthesizing new elements.[16]The main neutron source reactions are:136C \n+ \n42He \n→ \n168O \n+ \nn\n\n\n2210Ne \n+ \n42He \n→ \n2512Mg \n+ \nnThe s-process acting in the range from Ag to SbOne distinguishes the main and the weak s-process component. The main component produces heavy elements beyond Sr and Y, and up to Pb in the lowest metallicity stars. The production sites of the main component are low-mass asymptotic giant branch stars.[17] The main component relies on the 13C neutron source above.[18] The weak component of the s-process, on the other hand, synthesizes s-process isotopes of elements from iron group seed nuclei to 58Fe on up to Sr and Y, and takes place at the end of helium- and carbon-burning in massive stars. It employs primarily the 22Ne neutron source. These stars will become supernovae at their demise and spew those s-process isotopes into interstellar gas.The s-process is sometimes approximated over a small mass region using the so-called \"local approximation\", by which the ratio of abundances is inversely proportional to the ratio of neutron-capture cross-sections for nearby isotopes on the s-process path. This approximation is – as the name indicates – only valid locally, meaning for isotopes of nearby mass numbers, but it is invalid at magic numbers where the ledge-precipice structure dominates.Chart representing the final part of the s-process. Red horizontal lines with a circle in their right ends represent neutron captures; blue arrows pointing up-left represent beta decays; green arrows pointing down-left represent alpha decays; cyan/light-green arrows pointing down-right represent electron captures.Because of the relatively low neutron fluxes expected to occur during the s-process (on the order of 105 to 1011 neutrons per cm2 per second), this process does not have the ability to produce any of the heavy radioactive isotopes such as thorium or uranium. The cycle that terminates the s-process is:209Bi captures a neutron, producing 210Bi, which decays to 210Po by β− decay. 210Po in turn decays to 206Pb by α decay:20983Bi \n+ \nn \n→ \n21083Bi \n+ \nγ\n\n\n21083Bi \n \n \n→ \n21084Po \n+ \ne− \n+ \nνe\n\n\n21084Po \n \n \n→ \n20682Pb \n+ \n42He206Pb then captures three neutrons, producing 209Pb, which decays to 209Bi by β− decay, restarting the cycle:20682Pb \n+ \n3 n \n→ \n20982Pb\n\n\n20982Pb \n \n \n→ \n20983Bi \n+ \n e− \n+ \n νeThe net result of this cycle therefore is that 4 neutrons are converted into one alpha particle, two electrons, two anti-electron neutrinos and gamma radiation:4 n \n→ \n42He \n+ \n2 e− \n+ \n2 νe \n+ \nγThe process thus terminates in bismuth, the heaviest \"stable\" element, and polonium, the first non-primordial element after bismuth. Bismuth is actually slightly radioactive, but with a half-life so long—a billion times the present age of the universe—that it is effectively stable over the lifetime of any existing star. Polonium-210, however, decays with a half-life of 138 days to stable lead-206.","title":"The s-process in stars"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cosmic dust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_dust"},{"link_name":"presolar grains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presolar_grains"},{"link_name":"silicon carbide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_carbide"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clayton2004-21"},{"link_name":"AGB stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymptotic_Giant_Branch"},{"link_name":"presolar grains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presolar_grains"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clayton2004-21"},{"link_name":"krypton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krypton"},{"link_name":"xenon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenon"}],"text":"Stardust is one component of cosmic dust. Stardust is individual solid grains that condensed during mass loss from various long-dead stars. Stardust existed throughout interstellar gas before the birth of the Solar System and was trapped in meteorites when they assembled from interstellar matter contained in the planetary accretion disk in early Solar System. Today they are found in meteorites, where they have been preserved. Meteoriticists habitually refer to them as presolar grains. The s-process enriched grains are mostly silicon carbide (SiC). The origin of these grains is demonstrated by laboratory measurements of extremely unusual isotopic abundance ratios within the grain. First experimental detection of s-process xenon isotopes was made in 1978,[19] confirming earlier predictions that s-process isotopes would be enriched, nearly pure, in stardust from red giant stars.[20] These discoveries launched new insight into astrophysics and into the origin of meteorites in the Solar System.[21] Silicon carbide (SiC) grains condense in the atmospheres of AGB stars and thus trap isotopic abundance ratios as they existed in that star. Because the AGB stars are the main site of the s-process in the galaxy, the heavy elements in the SiC grains contain almost pure s-process isotopes in elements heavier than iron. This fact has been demonstrated repeatedly by sputtering-ion mass spectrometer studies of these stardust presolar grains.[21] Several surprising results have shown that within them the ratio of s-process and r-process abundances is somewhat different from that which was previously assumed. It has also been shown with trapped isotopes of krypton and xenon that the s-process abundances in the AGB-star atmospheres changed with time or from star to star, presumably with the strength of neutron flux in that star or perhaps the temperature. This is a frontier of s-process studies in the 2000s.","title":"The s-process measured in stardust"}]
[{"image_text":"Periodic table showing the cosmogenic origin of each element. The elements heavier than iron with origins in dying low-mass stars are typically those produced by the s-process, which is characterized by slow neutron diffusion and capture over long periods in such stars.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/500px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The s-process acting in the range from Ag to Sb","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/S-process-elem-Ag-to-Sb.svg/400px-S-process-elem-Ag-to-Sb.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Chart representing the final part of the s-process. Red horizontal lines with a circle in their right ends represent neutron captures; blue arrows pointing up-left represent beta decays; green arrows pointing down-left represent alpha decays; cyan/light-green arrows pointing down-right represent electron captures.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg/250px-S-R-processes-atomic-mass-201-to-210.svg.png"}]
null
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Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200219012701/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a254/39a457245a227a7e010c2033cac8e17e8306.pdf","url_text":"\"Astrophysics with Presolar Stardust\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Astronomy_and_Astrophysics","url_text":"Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ARA&A..42...39C","url_text":"2004ARA&A..42...39C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.42.053102.134022","url_text":"10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.134022"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:96456868","url_text":"96456868"},{"url":"https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a254/39a457245a227a7e010c2033cac8e17e8306.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAGE_Publications
Sage Publishing
["1 History","2 OASPA membership","3 Acquisitions","4 Publications","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
Independent academic publishing company Not to be confused with Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies or Sage Group. Sage PublishingStatusActiveFounded1965 (1965)FounderSara Miller McCuneGeorge D. McCuneCountry of originUnited StatesHeadquarters locationThousand Oaks, CaliforniaDistributionWorldwidePublication typesAcademic books, journals, reference and library productsNonfiction topicsSocial science, science, medicine, humanities, technologyImprintsCorwin, CQ Press, Learning Matters, Talis, Lean Library and Adam MatthewOfficial websitesagepub.com Sage Publishing, formerly SAGE Publications, is an American independent academic publishing company, founded in 1965 in New York City by Sara Miller McCune and now based in the Newbury Park neighborhood of Thousand Oaks, California. Sage Publishing maintains a robust global presence, with offices strategically located across North America, Europe, and the Asia Pacific region. In North America, Sage Publishing has offices in Los Angeles, Washington DC, and Toronto. The European operations are headquartered in London, United Kingdom. In the Asia Pacific region, Sage Publishing has established offices in Melbourne, Australia, India and Singapore. It publishes more than 1,000 journals, more than 800 books a year, reference works and electronic products covering business, humanities, social sciences, science, technology and medicine. SAGE also owns and publishes under the imprints of Corwin Press (since 1990), CQ Press (since 2008), Learning Matters (since 2011), and Adam Matthew Digital (since 2012). History World headquarters, Newbury Park neighborhood of Thousand Oaks, California SAGE was founded in 1965 in New York City by Sara Miller (later Sara Miller McCune) with Macmillan Inc. executive George D. McCune as a mentor; the name of the company is an acronym formed from the first letters of their given names. SAGE relocated to Southern California in 1966, after Miller and McCune married; McCune left Macmillan to formally join the company at that time. Sara Miller McCune remained president for 18 years, shifting to board chairmen in 1984 (and still retains the title of executive chairman). The couple continued to develop the company together until George McCune's death in 1990. In 2008, SAGE along with two other companies, sued Georgia State University for alleged copyright infringement due to faculty providing excerpts of materials to students. The case concluded in 2020 with the publishing companies losing. In 2018, SAGE reported a mean 2017 gender pay gap of 13.1% for its UK workforce, while the median was 10.3%. In 2018, SAGE acquired Lean Library, a browser extension and discovery service, which then faced opposition by part of the academic community for being owned by a for-profit, as opposed to open data, open source and non-profit products like Unpaywall which facilitates usage of open access works. OASPA membership SAGE Publishing was a founding member of the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) when it was established in 2008. In November 2013, OASPA reviewed SAGE's membership after the Journal of International Medical Research accepted a false and intentionally flawed paper created and submitted by a reporter for the journal Science as part of a "sting" to test the effectiveness of the peer-review processes of open access journals (see Who's Afraid of Peer Review?). SAGE's membership was reinstated at the end of the six month review period following changes to the journal's editorial processes. Acquisitions This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (June 2020) SAGE has acquired a number of other companies, including: Pion Limited, founded in 1959 by Adam Gelbtuch and John Ashby, was the publisher of four journals in the Environment and Planning series. SAGE acquired Pion in May 2015. Global Village Publishing, which develops software and services for electronic publishing, was acquired by SAGE in May 2018. Talis, an educational technology company that developed the learning management system Talis Aspire, was acquired by SAGE in August 2018. Publications Improving Schools, academic journal that covers education Journal of Developing Societies, academic journal that covers development See also Journals published by SAGE References ^ "Welcome to SAGE". UK.SagePub.com. SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on April 6, 2016. Retrieved April 2, 2016. ^ "SAGE Imprints". SAGE Imprints Page. SAGE Publications. Archived from the original on 4 March 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2012. ^ "Sage Publications USA acquires CQ Press from Times Publishing Co — May 30, 2008 - M&A Deal Snapshot". AlacraStore.com. Archived from the original on March 18, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2010. ^ "Sage acquires Learning Matters". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on January 7, 2014. Retrieved April 13, 2012. ^ Verma, Henrietta (October 11, 2012). "SAGE Acquires Adam Matthew". Library Journal Reviews. Media Source Inc. Archived from the original on October 18, 2017. Retrieved November 19, 2018. ^ "Sara Miller McCune: Executive Profile & Biography". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on November 17, 2018. Retrieved 2018-01-08. ^ a b c "The SAGE Story" (PDF). StudySites.SAGEpub.com. SAGE Publishing. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 19, 2018. Retrieved November 19, 2018. ^ "In Memoriam George D. McCune 1924–1990". Journal of Conflict Resolution. 34 (4): 587. December 1, 1990. doi:10.1177/0022002790034004001. S2CID 220985633. ^ a b Albanese, Andrew (2020-10-02). "Publishers Escape Fee Award as GSU E-Reserves Case Finally Ends". Publishers Weekly. Archived from the original on 2020-11-06. Retrieved 2021-07-02. ^ Onwuemezi, Natasha (Mar 28, 2018). "Four more academic publishers reveal gender pay gaps". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on 2019-08-11. Retrieved 2019-08-11. ^ Ferguson, Christine L. (2019). "Leaning Into Browser Extensions". Serials Review. 45 (1–2): 51–56. doi:10.1080/00987913.2019.1624909. S2CID 196180087. Archived from the original on 2023-01-27. Retrieved 2023-01-27. ^ Angelaki, Maria (2019-10-21). "Searching Open Access: steps towards improving discovery of OA in a less than 100% OA world". Unlocking Research. Archived from the original on 2020-07-19. Retrieved 2020-04-25. One area of concern is the ownership of Lean by SAGE Publications, in contrast to the ownership say of Unpaywall as a project of the open-source ImpactStory, and what this means for users' privacy. The concerns are shared by other libraries implementing Lean. ^ Brynko, Barbara (June 2011). "Simqu: Leading the Change at SAGE Publications". Information Today. Archived from the original on October 13, 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2014. ^ Malakoff, David (November 11, 2013). "Open-Access Group Sanctions Three Publishers After Science 'Sting'". Science Insider. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Archived from the original on October 14, 2018. Retrieved April 23, 2014. ^ Shaffi, Sarah (April 29, 2014). "OASPA reinstates Sage membership". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on October 14, 2018. Retrieved April 29, 2014. ^ Carpenter, Caroline (2015-05-28). "SAGE acquires Pion". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2020-06-10. ^ "In Other News". STM Publishing Newsletter. The Hub by The London Book Fair. May 2018. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2020-06-10. ^ Page, Benedicte (2018-08-16). "SAGE buys technology company Talis". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2020-06-10. External links Official website Sage Publishing on Facebook Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Czech Republic Australia Croatia Poland Academics CiNii People Trove Other IdRef
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In North America, Sage Publishing has offices in Los Angeles, Washington DC, and Toronto. The European operations are headquartered in London, United Kingdom. In the Asia Pacific region, Sage Publishing has established offices in Melbourne, Australia, India and Singapore.It publishes more than 1,000 journals, more than 800 books a year,[1] reference works and electronic products covering business, humanities, social sciences, science, technology and medicine. SAGE also owns and publishes under the imprints of Corwin Press[2] (since 1990), CQ Press[3] (since 2008), Learning Matters[4] (since 2011), and Adam Matthew Digital (since 2012).[5]","title":"Sage Publishing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sage_Publications_Headquarters_Newbury_Park.jpg"},{"link_name":"Newbury Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newbury_Park,_California"},{"link_name":"Thousand Oaks, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thousand_Oaks,_California"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Macmillan Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Inc."},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Story-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Story-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Story-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Georgia State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_State_University"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"The case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press_v._Patton"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"gender pay gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_pay_gap"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"academic community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academia"},{"link_name":"open data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_data"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source"},{"link_name":"non-profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit"},{"link_name":"Unpaywall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unpaywall"},{"link_name":"open access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"World headquarters, Newbury Park neighborhood of Thousand Oaks, CaliforniaSAGE was founded in 1965 in New York City by Sara Miller (later Sara Miller McCune)[6] with Macmillan Inc. executive George D. McCune as a mentor;[7] the name of the company is an acronym formed from the first letters of their given names.[7] SAGE relocated to Southern California in 1966, after Miller and McCune married; McCune left Macmillan to formally join the company at that time.[7] Sara Miller McCune remained president for 18 years, shifting to board chairmen in 1984 (and still retains the title of executive chairman). The couple continued to develop the company together until George McCune's death in 1990.[8]In 2008, SAGE along with two other companies, sued Georgia State University for alleged copyright infringement due to faculty providing excerpts of materials to students.[9] The case concluded in 2020 with the publishing companies losing.[9]In 2018, SAGE reported a mean 2017 gender pay gap of 13.1% for its UK workforce, while the median was 10.3%.[10]In 2018, SAGE acquired Lean Library, a browser extension and discovery service,[11] which then faced opposition by part of the academic community for being owned by a for-profit, as opposed to open data, open source and non-profit products like Unpaywall which facilitates usage of open access works.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Access_Scholarly_Publishers_Association"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)"},{"link_name":"sting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sting_operation"},{"link_name":"open access journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_access_journals"},{"link_name":"Who's Afraid of Peer Review?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%27s_Afraid_of_Peer_Review%3F"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"SAGE Publishing was a founding member of the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association (OASPA) when it was established in 2008.[13] In November 2013, OASPA reviewed SAGE's membership after the Journal of International Medical Research accepted a false and intentionally flawed paper created and submitted by a reporter for the journal Science as part of a \"sting\" to test the effectiveness of the peer-review processes of open access journals (see Who's Afraid of Peer Review?).[14] SAGE's membership was reinstated at the end of the six month review period following changes to the journal's editorial processes.[15]","title":"OASPA membership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"acquired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"link_name":"Environment and Planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_and_Planning"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"electronic publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_publishing"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"educational technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology"},{"link_name":"learning management system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_management_system"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"SAGE has acquired a number of other companies, including:Pion Limited, founded in 1959 by Adam Gelbtuch and John Ashby, was the publisher of four journals in the Environment and Planning series. SAGE acquired Pion in May 2015.[16]\nGlobal Village Publishing, which develops software and services for electronic publishing, was acquired by SAGE in May 2018.[17]\nTalis, an educational technology company that developed the learning management system Talis Aspire, was acquired by SAGE in August 2018.[18]","title":"Acquisitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Improving Schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Improving_Schools"},{"link_name":"Journal of Developing Societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Developing_Societies"}],"text":"Improving Schools, academic journal that covers education\nJournal of Developing Societies, academic journal that covers development","title":"Publications"}]
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Retrieved August 8, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120318001701/http://www.alacrastore.com/deal-snapshot/Sage_Publications_USA_acquires_CQ_Press_from_Times_Publishing_Co-504314","url_text":"\"Sage Publications USA acquires CQ Press from Times Publishing Co — May 30, 2008 - M&A Deal Snapshot\""},{"url":"http://www.alacrastore.com/deal-snapshot/Sage_Publications_USA_acquires_CQ_Press_from_Times_Publishing_Co-504314","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Sage acquires Learning Matters\". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on January 7, 2014. Retrieved April 13, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thebookseller.com/news/Sage-buys-learning-matters.html","url_text":"\"Sage acquires Learning Matters\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140107112519/http://www.thebookseller.com/news/sage-buys-learning-matters.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Verma, Henrietta (October 11, 2012). \"SAGE Acquires Adam Matthew\". Library Journal Reviews. 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Retrieved 2023-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://works.bepress.com/christine-l-ferguson/49/","url_text":"\"Leaning Into Browser Extensions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00987913.2019.1624909","url_text":"10.1080/00987913.2019.1624909"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:196180087","url_text":"196180087"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230127182526/https://works.bepress.com/christine-l-ferguson/49/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Angelaki, Maria (2019-10-21). \"Searching Open Access: steps towards improving discovery of OA in a less than 100% OA world\". Unlocking Research. Archived from the original on 2020-07-19. Retrieved 2020-04-25. 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Retrieved 23 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.infotoday.com/it/jun11/Simqu-Leading-the-Change-at-SAGE-Publications.shtml","url_text":"\"Simqu: Leading the Change at SAGE Publications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Today_(magazine)","url_text":"Information Today"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181013172210/http://www.infotoday.com/it/jun11/Simqu-Leading-the-Change-at-SAGE-Publications.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Malakoff, David (November 11, 2013). \"Open-Access Group Sanctions Three Publishers After Science 'Sting'\". Science Insider. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Archived from the original on October 14, 2018. 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Retrieved April 29, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181014053025/https://www.thebookseller.com/news/oaspa-reinstates-sage-membership","url_text":"\"OASPA reinstates Sage membership\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bookseller","url_text":"The Bookseller"},{"url":"http://www.thebookseller.com/news/oaspa-reinstates-sage-membership.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Carpenter, Caroline (2015-05-28). \"SAGE acquires Pion\". The Bookseller. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. Retrieved 2020-06-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182525/https://www.thebookseller.com/news/sage-acquires-pion","url_text":"\"SAGE acquires Pion\""},{"url":"https://www.thebookseller.com/news/sage-acquires-pion","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"In Other News\". STM Publishing Newsletter. The Hub by The London Book Fair. May 2018. Archived from the original on 2021-07-09. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla
Azolla
["1 Phylogeny","2 Ecology","2.1 Azolla filiculoides","3 Reproduction","4 Applications","4.1 Food and animal feed","4.2 Companion plant","4.3 Larvicide","4.4 Climate change","5 Invasive species","6 Importance in paleoclimatology","7 Bioremediation","8 References","9 External links"]
Genus of aquatic plants AzollaTemporal range: Maastrichtian-Holocene PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Azolla caroliniana Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Division: Polypodiophyta Class: Polypodiopsida Order: Salviniales Family: Salviniaceae Genus: AzollaLam. Type species Azolla filiculoidesLam. Species See text Synonyms Carpanthus Rafinesque Rhizosperma Meyen Azolla (mosquito fern, duckweed fern, fairy moss, water fern) is a genus of seven species of aquatic ferns in the family Salviniaceae. They are extremely reduced in form and specialized, looking nothing like other typical ferns but more resembling duckweed or some mosses. Azolla filiculoides is one of just two fern species for which a reference genome has been published. It is believed that this genus grew so prolifically during the Eocene (and thus absorbed such a large amount of carbon) that it triggered a global cooling event that has lasted to the present. Azolla taken from the Philippines Azolla may establish as an invasive plant in areas where it is not native . In such a situation it can alter aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity substantially. Phylogeny Phylogeny of Azolla Azolla A. nilotica Decne. ex Mett. (Nile Azolla) A. filiculoides Lam. (Large mosquito fern) A. rubra R.Br. A. caroliniana Willdenow 1810 (Eastern/Carolinian mosquito fern) Azolla cristata Kaulf. (Mexican mosquito fern) A. pinnata R.Br. (Ferny/Pacific Azolla; Feathered mosquitofern) Other species include: Drawing of Azolla filiculoides, about 5 mm. Upper green leaves perform photosynthesis, lower lack chlorophyll. At least six extinct species are known from the fossil record: Azolla intertrappea Sahni & H.S. Rao, 1934 (Eocene, India) Azolla berryi Brown, 1934 (Eocene, Green River Formation, Wyoming) Azolla prisca Chandler & Reid, 1926 (Oligocene, London Clay, Isle of Wight) Azolla tertiaria Berry, 1927 (Pliocene, Esmeralda Formation, Nevada) Azolla primaeva (Penhallow) Arnold, 1955 (Eocene, Allenby Formation, British Columbia) Azolla boliviensis Vajda & McLoughlin, 2005 (Maastrichtian – Paleocene, Eslaboacuten Formation and Flora Formation Bolivia) Ecology Azolla filiculoides root cross section Azolla covering the Canning River, Western Australia Azolla on the Canning River, Western Australia Azolla is a highly productive plant. It can double its biomass in as little as 1.9 days, depending on growing conditions, and yield can reach 8–10 tonnes fresh matter/ha in Asian rice fields. 37.8 t fresh weight/ha (2.78 t DM/ha dry weight) has been reported for Azolla pinnata in India (Hasan et al., 2009). Azolla floats on the surface of water by means of numerous small, closely overlapping scale-like leaves, with their roots hanging in the water. They form a symbiotic relationship with the cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae, an extracellular endosymbiont (living outside the host's cells) which fixes atmospheric nitrogen. The typical limiting factor on its growth is phosphorus; thus, an abundance of phosphorus—due for example to eutrophication or chemical runoff—often leads to Azolla blooms. Unlike all other known plants, its symbiotic microorganism transfers directly from one generation to the next. A. azollae is completely dependent on its host, as several of its genes have either been lost or transferred to the nucleus in Azolla's cells. SEM image of Azolla surface The nitrogen-fixing capability of Azolla has led to widespread use as a biofertiliser, especially in parts of southeast Asia. The plant has been used to bolster agricultural productivity in China for over a thousand years. When rice paddies are flooded in the spring, they can be planted with Azolla, which then quickly multiplies to cover the water, suppressing weeds. The rotting plant material resulting from the die off of this Azolla releases nitrogen into the water for the rice plants, providing up to nine tonnes of protein per hectare per year. Azolla are weeds in many parts of the world, entirely covering some bodies of water. The myth that no mosquito can penetrate the coating of fern to lay its eggs in the water gives the plant its common name "mosquito fern", and may deter the survival of some of the larvae. Most species can produce large amounts of deoxyanthocyanins in response to various stresses, including bright sunlight and extreme temperatures, causing the water surface to appear to be covered with an intensely red carpet. Herbivore feeding induces accumulation of deoxyanthocyanins and leads to a reduction in the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the fronds, thus lowering their palatability and nutritive value. Azolla cannot survive winters with prolonged freezing, so is often grown as an ornamental plant at high latitudes where it cannot establish itself firmly enough to become a weed. It is also not tolerant of salinity; normal plants cannot survive in greater than 1–1.6‰, and even conditioned organisms die if grown in water with a salinity above 5.5‰. Azolla filiculoides Azolla filiculoides (red azolla) is the only member of this genus and of the family Azollaceae in Tasmania. It is a common native aquatic plant in Tasmania. It is common behind farm dams and other still waterbodies. The plants are small (usually only a few cm across) and float, but they are fast growing, and can be abundant and form large mats. The plants are typically red, and have small, water repellent leaves. Reproduction Scanning electron micrograph of a megaspore of the genus Azolla with adhering massulae from postal sediments of Laguna El Junco, Galápagos Island of San Cristóbal Transmission electron micrograph of a megaspore of the genus Azolla from postglacial sediments of Laguna El Junco, Galápagos Island of San Cristobal Azolla reproduces sexually, and asexually (by splitting). Like all ferns, sexual reproduction leads to spore formation, but unlike other members of this group Azolla is heterosporous, producing spores of two kinds. During the summer months, numerous spherical structures called sporocarps form on the undersides of the branches. The male sporocarp is greenish or reddish and looks like the egg mass of an insect or spider. It is two millimeters in diameter, and bears numerous male sporangia. Male spores (microspores) are extremely small and are produced inside each microsporangium. Microspores tend to adhere in clumps called massulae. Female sporocarps are much smaller, containing one sporangium and one functional spore. Since an individual female spore is considerably larger than a male spore, it is termed a megaspore. Azolla has microscopic male and female gametophytes that develop inside the male and female spores. The female gametophyte protrudes from the megaspore and bears a small number of archegonia, each containing a single egg. The microspore forms a male gametophyte with a single antheridium which produces eight swimming sperm. The barbed glochidia on the male spore clusters cause them to cling to the female megaspores, thus facilitating fertilization. Applications Food and animal feed In addition to its traditional cultivation as a bio-fertilizer for wetland paddies, Azolla is finding increasing use for sustainable production of livestock feed. Azolla is rich in protein, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Studies describe feeding Azolla to dairy cattle, pigs, ducks, and chickens, with reported increases in milk production, weight of broiler chickens and egg production of layers, as compared to conventional feed. One FAO study describes how Azolla integrates into a tropical biomass agricultural system, reducing the need for food supplements. Concerns about biomagnification exist because the plant may contain the neurotoxin BMAA that remains present in the bodies of animals consuming it and BMAA has been documented as passing along the food chain. Azolla may contain this substance that is a possible cause of neurodegenerative diseases. Azolla has been suggested as a foodstuff for human consumption, however, no long-term studies of the safety of eating Azolla have been made on humans. Previous studies attributed neurotoxin production to Anabaena flos-aquae species, which is also a type of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria. Further research may be needed to ascertain if A. azollae produces neurotoxins. Companion plant Azolla has been used for at least one thousand years in rice paddies as a companion plant, to fix nitrogen and to block out light to prevent competition from other plants. Rice is planted when tall enough to poke through the Azolla layer. Mats of mature Azolla can also be used as a weed-suppressing mulch. Rice farmers used Azolla as a rice biofertilizer 1500 years ago. The earliest known written record of this practice is in a book written by Jia Ssu Hsieh (Jia Si Xue) in 540 AD on The Art of Feeding the People (Chih Min Tao Shu). By the end of the Ming dynasty in the early 17th century, Azolla's use as a green compost was documented in local records. Larvicide The myth that no mosquito can penetrate the coating of fern to lay its eggs in the water gives the plant its common name "mosquito fern". Azolla have been used to control mosquito larvae in rice fields. The plant grows in a thick mat on the surface of the water, making it more difficult for the larvae to reach the surface to breathe, effectively choking the larvae. Climate change Azolla has been proposed as a carbon sequestration modality. The proposal draws upon the hypothesized Azolla event that asserts that Azolla once covered the Arctic and then sank, permanently sequestering teratons of carbon that would otherwise have contributed to the planet's greenhouse effect and ending a warming event that reached 12–15 °C (22–27 °F) degrees warmer than twenty-first century averages. They contribute significantly to decreasing the atmospheric CO2 levels. Invasive species This fern has been introduced to other parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, where it has become a pest in some areas. A nominally tropical plant, it has adapted to the colder climate. It can form mats up to 30 centimetres (12 in) thick and cover 100% of a water surface, preventing local insects and amphibians from reaching the surface. Importance in paleoclimatology Main article: Azolla event A study of Arctic paleoclimatology reported that Azolla may have had a significant role in reversing an increase in greenhouse effect that occurred 55 million years ago that had caused the region around the north pole to turn into a hot, tropical environment. This research was conducted by the Institute of Environmental Biology at Utrecht University. It indicates that massive patches of Azolla growing on the (then) freshwater surface of the Arctic Ocean consumed enough carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for the global greenhouse effect to decline, eventually causing the formation of ice sheets in Antarctica and the current "icehouse period". This theory has been termed the Azolla event. Bioremediation See also: Bioremediation Azolla can remove chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, and lead from effluent. It can also remove lead from solutions containing 1–1000 ppm. References ^ a b In: Encyclopédie Méthodique, Botanique 1(1): 343. 1783. "Name - Azolla Lam". Tropicos. Saint Louis, Missouri: Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved February 19, 2010. Annotation: a sp. nov. reference for Azolla filiculoidesType Specimens HT: Azolla filiculoides ^ Li, Fay-Wei; Brouwer, Paul; Carretero-Paulet, Lorenzo; Cheng, Shifeng; de Vries, Jan; Delaux, Pierre-Marc; Eily, Ariana; Koppers, Nils; Kuo, Li-Yaung (July 2, 2018). "Fern genomes elucidate land plant evolution and cyanobacterial symbioses". Nature Plants. 4 (7): 460–472. doi:10.1038/s41477-018-0188-8. ISSN 2055-0278. PMC 6786969. PMID 29967517. ^ a b c Speelman, E. N.; Van Kempen, M. M. L.; Barke, J.; Brinkhuis, H.; Reichart, G. J.; Smolders, A. J. P.; Roelofs, J. G. M.; Sangiorgi, F.; De Leeuw, J. W.; Lotter, A. F.; Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. (March 2009). "The Eocene Arctic Azolla bloom: environmental conditions, productivity and carbon drawdown". Geobiology. 7 (2): 155–170. Bibcode:2009Gbio....7..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2009.00195.x. PMID 19323694. S2CID 13206343. ^ Weber, Ewald (2017). Invasive Plant Species of the World: A Reference Guide to Environmental Weeds. p. 65. ISBN 9781780643861. ^ Nitta, Joel H.; Schuettpelz, Eric; Ramírez-Barahona, Santiago; Iwasaki, Wataru; et al. (2022). "An Open and Continuously Updated Fern Tree of Life". Frontiers in Plant Science. 13: 909768. doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.909768. PMC 9449725. PMID 36092417. ^ "Tree viewer: interactive visualization of FTOL". FTOL v1.4.0 . 2023. Retrieved March 8, 2023. ^ Evrard, C.; Van Hove, C. (2004). "Taxonomy of the American Azolla species (Azollaceae): A critical review". Systematics and Geography of Plants. 74: 301–318. ^ "Name - Azolla Lam. subordinate taxa". Tropicos. Saint Louis, Missouri: Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved February 19, 2010. ^ "Query Results for Genus Azolla". IPNI. Retrieved February 19, 2010. ^ Hussner, A. (2006). "NOBANIS -- Invasive Alien Species Fact Sheet -- Azolla filiculoides" (PDF). Online Database of the North European and Baltic Network on Invasive Alien Species. Heinrich Heine Universität, Düsseldorf. Retrieved February 19, 2010. ^ a b c d e f Arnold, C.A. (1955). "A Tertiary Azolla from British Columbia" (PDF). Contributions from the Museum of. Paleontology, University of Michigan. 12 (4): 37–45. ^ Vajda, V; McLoughlin, S. (2005). "A new Maastrichtian-Paleocene Azolla species from Bolivia, with a comparison of the global record of coeval Azolla microfossils". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology. 29 (2): 305–329. Bibcode:2005Alch...29..305V. doi:10.1080/03115510508619308. S2CID 128643041. ^ Iwao Watanabe, Nilda S.Berja (1983). "The growth of four species of Azolla as affected by temperature". Aquatic Botany. 15 (2): 175–185. Bibcode:1983AqBot..15..175W. doi:10.1016/0304-3770(83)90027-X. ^ "Hasan, M. R.; Chakrabarti, R., 2009. Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes as feed in small-scale aquaculture: A review. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture technical paper, 531. FAO, Rome, Italy". fao.org/. Retrieved August 18, 2014. ^ Ran, L.; Larsson, J.; Vigil-Stenman, T.; Nylander, J. A.; Ininbergs, K.; Zheng, W. W.; Lapidus, A.; Lowry, S.; Haselkorn, R.; Bergman, B. (2010). "Genome Erosion in a Nitrogen-Fixing Vertically Transmitted Endosymbiotic Multicellular Cyanobacterium". PLOS ONE. 5 (7): e11486. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...511486R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011486. PMC 2900214. PMID 20628610. ^ "The Geological Society of London - The Arctic Azolla event". www.geolsoc.org.uk. ^ "FAO figures". ^ a b "Mosquito Fern". America's Wetland Resource Center. Loyola University, New Orleans. Archived from the original on May 16, 2006. Retrieved November 10, 2007. ^ Wagner, G.M. (1997). "Azolla: a review of its biology and utilization". Bot. Rev. 63 (1): 1–26. Bibcode:1997BotRv..63....1W. doi:10.1007/BF02857915. S2CID 347780. ^ Moore, A. W. (1969). "Azolla: Biology and agronomic significance". Bot. Rev. 35 (1): 17–35. Bibcode:1969BotRv..35...17M. doi:10.1007/BF02859886. S2CID 42431293. ^ Zimmerman, William J. (1985). "Biomass and Pigment Production in Three Isolates of Azolla II. Response to Light and Temperature Stress". Ann. Bot. 56 (5): 701–709. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a087059. ^ Cohen, M.F.; Meziane, T.; Tsuchiya, M.; Yamasaki, H. (2002). "Feeding deterrence of Azolla in relation to deoxyanthocyanin and fatty acid composition" (PDF). Aquatic Botany. 74 (2): 181–187. Bibcode:2002AqBot..74..181C. doi:10.1016/S0304-3770(02)00077-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 22, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2010. ^ Brinkhuis, H.; Schouten, S.; Collinson, M.E.; Sluijs, A.; Sinninghe Damsté, J.S.; Dickens, G.R.; Huber, M.; Cronin, T.M.; Onodera, J.; Takahashi, K.; et al. (2006). "Episodic fresh surface waters in the Eocene Arctic Ocean". Nature. 441 (7093): 606–9. Bibcode:2006Natur.441..606B. doi:10.1038/nature04692. hdl:11250/174278. PMID 16752440. S2CID 4412107. Retrieved October 17, 2007. ^ a b Kempf, E.K. (1976). "Low Magnifications - A Marginal Area of Electron Microscopy". ZEISS Information. 21 (83): 57–60. ^ Scagel, Robert F.; Bandoni, Robert J.; Rouse, Glenn E.; Schofield, W.B.; Stein, Janet R.; Taylor, T.M. (1965). An Evolutionary Survey of the Plant Kingdom. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. 658 pp. ^ Pillai, P. Kamalasanana; Premalatha, S.; Rajamony, S. "Azolla – a sustainable feed substitute for livestock". Small animals in focus. Farming Matters magazine. Azolla livestock feed. Retrieved January 14, 2008. ^ Preston, T.R.; Murgueitio, E. (1992–1993). "Sustainable intensive livestock systems for the humid tropics". World Animal Review. Sustainable animal production. 71. UN FAO. ISSN 1014-6954. Retrieved September 28, 2011. ^ Banack, S.A.; Cox, P.A. (2003). "Biomagnification of cycad neurotoxins in flying foxes: Implications for ALS-PDC in Guam". Neurology. 61 (3): 387–389. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000078320.18564.9f. PMID 12913204. S2CID 38943437. ^ Sjodin, Erik (December 2014). "Azolla, BMAA, and neurodegenerative diseases". Retrieved January 8, 2015. ^ "Are toxins in seafood causing ALS, Alzheimer's, and Parkinson's?". Discover Magazine. May 2011. Retrieved September 13, 2019. ^ Williams, Amy Bennett (August 7, 2019). "Documentary about algae and public health debuts to sold-out crowd". Fort Myers News-Press. ^ Sjodin, Erik (2012). The Azolla Cooking and Cultivation Project. Erik Sjödin. ISBN 978-9198068603. ^ Agnihotri, Vijai K. (2014). "Anabaena flos-aquae". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 44 (18): 1995–2037. Bibcode:2014CREST..44.1995A. doi:10.1080/10643389.2013.803797. S2CID 84472933. ^ "The East discovers Azolla". Azolla Foundation. Retrieved August 18, 2014. ^ Myer, Landon; Okech, Bernard A.; Mwobobia, Isaac K.; Kamau, Anthony; Muiruri, Samuel; Mutiso, Noah; Nyambura, Joyce; Mwatele, Cassian; Amano, Teruaki (2008). Myer, Landon (ed.). "Use of Integrated Malaria Management Reduces Malaria in Kenya". PLOS ONE. 3 (12): e4050. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.4050O. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0004050. PMC 2603594. PMID 19115000. ^ Wang, Brian. "Fix Hothouse Earth Just Like Last Time | NextBigFuture.com". Retrieved August 14, 2021. ^ "Invasive non-native species (UK) – Water fern". Inside Ecology. November 1, 2017. ^ "Can A Tiny Fern Help Fight Climate Change and Cut Fertilizer Use?". Yale E360. July 11, 2018. Retrieved November 25, 2021. ^ Robert L. Irvine; Subhas K. Sikdar (January 8, 1998). Bioremediation Technologies: Principles and Practice. CRC Press. p. 102. ISBN 9781566765619. External links The Azolla Foundation: Azolla Non-Profit Information & Guidance Website Azolla Philippines: A website dedicated to the distribution of Azolla for propagation as alternative livestock feed. Marriage Between A Fern & Cyanobacterium Archived 2010-03-14 at the Wayback Machine NSW Flora online: Azolla vteClassification of Archaeplastida or Plantae s.l. Domain Archaea Bacteria Eukaryota (major groups Excavata Diaphoretickes Hacrobia Rhizaria Alveolata Stramenopiles Plants Amorphea Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Animals Fungi) ArchaeplastidaPicozoa Picomonas Rhodelphidia Rhodelphis Rhodophyta(red algae) Cyanidiophyceae Porphyridiophyceae Stylonematophyceae Compsopogonophyceae Rhodellophyceae Bangiophyceae Florideophyceae Glaucophyta Glaucocystophyceae incertae sedis Algospongia Viridiplantae or Plantae s.s.(green algae & land plants)Prasinodermophyta Prasinodermophyceae Palmophyllophyceae  ChlorophytaPrasinophytina Mamiellophyceae Pyramimonadophyceae Chlorophytina Nephroselmidophyceae Picocystophyceae Chloropicophyceae Pedinophyceae Chlorodendrophyceae UTC clade Ulvophyceae Trebouxiophyceae Chlorophyceae Streptophyta Mesostigmatophyceae Chlorokybophyceae Spirotaenia Klebsormidiophyceae Phragmoplastophyta Charophyceae Coleochaetophyceae Anydrophyta Zygnematophyceae Embryophyta(land plants) (see below↓) Embryophytes or Plantae sensu strictissimoBryophytesMarchantiophyta(liverworts) Haplomitriopsida Marchantiopsida Jungermanniopsida Anthocerotophyta(hornworts) Leiosporocerotopsida Anthocerotopsida Bryophyta(mosses) Takakiopsida Sphagnopsida Andreaeobryopsida Andreaeopsida Oedipodiopsida Tetraphidopsida Polytrichopsida Bryopsida  Polysporangiophytes†Protracheophytes* †Horneophytopsida †Aglaophyton Tracheophytes(vascular plants)†Paratracheophytes* †Cooksoniopsida †Rhyniopsida †Renaliales EutracheophytesLycophytes †Barinophytopsida †Zosterophyllopsida Lycopodiopsida (clubmosses, spikemosses & quillworts) Euphyllophytes †Eophyllophytopsida †Trimerophytopsida Moniliformopses †Ibykales †Cladoxylopsida Polypodiopsida (ferns and horsetails) Lignophytes†Progymnosperms* †Noeggerathiopsida †Aneurophytopsida †Archaeopteridopsida †Protopityales Spermatophytes(seed plants)†Pteridosperms*(seed ferns)and other extinct seed plant groups †Bennettitales †Calamopityales †Callistophytales †Caytoniales †Cordaitales †Corystospermales †Czekanowskiales †Gigantopteridales †Glossopteridales †Lyginopteridopsida †Medullosales †Peltaspermopsida †Pentoxylopsida †Petriellales Acrogymnospermae(living gymnosperms) Cycadopsida (cycads) Ginkgoales (Ginkgo) Pinopsida (conifers) Gnetopsida Angiospermae(flowering plants) Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms Magnoliids Monocots Eudicots *paraphyletic groups † = extinct List of plant orders Current definitions of Plantae vteFern classification Supergroup Plant: Bryophyta Marchantiophyta Polypodiophyta Acrogymnospermae Angiospermae Basal clade †Ibykales †Ibykaceae †Cladoxylopsida †Cladoxylales †Cladoxylaceae †Voelkeliaceae †Hyeniales †Hyeniaceae †Iridopteridales †Iridopteridaceae †Pseudosporochnales †Pseudosporochnaceae †Steloxylales †Steloxylaceae Polypodiopsida†Stauropterididae †Stauropteridales †Stauropteridaceae †Zygopterididae †Rhacophytales †Rhacophytaceae †Zygopteridales †Zygopteridaceae Equisetidae †Pseudoborniales †Pseudoborniaceae †Sphenophyllales †Aspidostachyaceae †Boegendorfiaceae †Boegendorfiaceae †Eviostachyaceae †Sphenophyllaceae Equisetales †Asterocalamitaceae †Autophyllitaceae †Honseleriaceae †Archaeocalamitaceae †Paracalamitaceae †Calamitaceae †Apocalamitaceae †Konnostachyaceae †Manchurostachyaceae †Notocalamitaceae †Schizoneuraceae †Sorocaulinaceae †Echinostachyaceae †Gondwanostachyaceae †Tchernoviaceae Equisetaceae OphioglossidaePsilotales Psilotaceae Ophioglossales Ophioglossaceae MarattiidaeMarattiales †Knorripteridaceae †Pecopteridaceae †Ptychocarpaceae †Weichseliaceae †Asterothecaceae †Danaeopsidaceae Marattiaceae Polypodiidae †Anachoropteridales †Anachoropteridaceae †Psalixochlaenaceae †Sermayaceae †Botryopteridiales †Botryopteridiaceae †Senftenbergiales †Senftenbergiaceae †Urnatopteridales †Crossothecaceae †Discopteridaceae †Urnatopteridaceae Osmundales †Guaireaceae Osmundaceae Hymenophyllales Hymenophyllaceae Gleicheniales †Oligocarpiaceae Dipteridaceae Gleicheniaceae Matoniaceae Schizaeales †Acrostichopteridaceae †Cynepteridaceae †Klukiaceae †Stachypteridaceae †Tempskyaceae Anemiaceae Lygodiaceae Schizaeaceae Salviniales †Heroleandraceae Marsileaceae †Hydropteridiaceae Salviniaceae CyathealesThyrsopteridineae Thyrsopteridaceae Loxsomataceae Plagiogyriaceae Culcitaceae Cyatheineae †Tanydoraceae Metaxyaceae Cibotiaceae Dicksoniaceae Cyatheaceae PolypodialesSaccolomatineaeSaccolomataceaeLindsaeineae Cystodiaceae Lonchitidaceae Lindsaeaceae PteridineaePteridaceaeDennstaedtiineaeDennstaedtiaceaeAspleniineae Cystopteridaceae Rhachidosoridaceae Diplaziopsidaceae Hemidictyaceae Desmophlebiaceae Aspleniaceae Thelypteridaceae Woodsiaceae Onocleaceae Blechnaceae Athyriaceae Polypodiineae Hypodematiaceae Didymochlaenaceae Dryopteridaceae Lomariopsidaceae Nephrolepidaceae Tectariaceae Oleandraceae Davalliaceae Polypodiaceae Taxon identifiersAzolla Wikidata: Q1128633 Wikispecies: Azolla APDB: 188482 APNI: 115307 CoL: 36X4 eFloraSA: Azolla EoL: 72876 EPPO: 1AZOG FloraBase: 20915 FNA: 103297 FoAO2: Azolla FoC: 103297 GBIF: 2650103 GRIN: 1209 iNaturalist: 52631 IPNI: 165753-3 IRMNG: 1072855 ITIS: 18006 NBN: NHMSYS0000456383 NCBI: 39630 NZOR: b23d00e0-d5cd-45e3-83f5-b064f099b161 Open Tree of Life: 226599 Paleobiology Database: 55880 PLANTS: AZOLL POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:17056870-1 Tropicos: 40023609 VASCAN: 882 VicFlora: e9e985c9-bf09-493c-805d-52feda1f4663 WFO: wfo-4000003824 Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"aquatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_plant"},{"link_name":"ferns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern"},{"link_name":"Salviniaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salviniaceae"},{"link_name":"duckweed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemnoideae"},{"link_name":"mosses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss"},{"link_name":"Azolla filiculoides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_filiculoides"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speelman-2009-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Azolla_Plant.jpg"},{"link_name":"invasive plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_plant"},{"link_name":"where?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)"},{"link_name":"aquatic ecosystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem"},{"link_name":"biodiversity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Azolla (mosquito fern, duckweed fern, fairy moss, water fern) is a genus of seven species of aquatic ferns in the family Salviniaceae. They are extremely reduced in form and specialized, looking nothing like other typical ferns but more resembling duckweed or some mosses. Azolla filiculoides is one of just two fern species for which a reference genome has been published.[2] It is believed that this genus grew so prolifically during the Eocene (and thus absorbed such a large amount of carbon) that it triggered a global cooling event that has lasted to the present.[3]Azolla taken from the PhilippinesAzolla may establish as an invasive plant in areas where it is not native [where?]. In such a situation it can alter aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity substantially.[4]","title":"Azolla"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"A. nilotica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_nilotica"},{"link_name":"Decne.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decne."},{"link_name":"Mett.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mett."},{"link_name":"A. filiculoides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_filiculoides"},{"link_name":"Lam.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck"},{"link_name":"A. rubra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_rubra"},{"link_name":"R.Br.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.Br."},{"link_name":"A. caroliniana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_caroliniana"},{"link_name":"Azolla cristata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_cristata"},{"link_name":"Kaulf.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaulf."},{"link_name":"A. pinnata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_pinnata"},{"link_name":"R.Br.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.Br."},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trop2-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ipni-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nobanis-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Azolla_filiculoides_drawing.png"},{"link_name":"extinct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinct"},{"link_name":"fossil record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_record"},{"link_name":"Azolla intertrappea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla_intertrappea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sahni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birbal_Sahni"},{"link_name":"Eocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocene"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arnold1955-11"},{"link_name":"Azolla berryi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla_berryi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rowland_W._Brown&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Eocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocene"},{"link_name":"Green River Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_River_Formation"},{"link_name":"Wyoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyoming"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arnold1955-11"},{"link_name":"Azolla prisca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla_prisca&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjorie_Elizabeth_Jane_Chandler"},{"link_name":"Reid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Mary_Reid"},{"link_name":"Oligocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligocene"},{"link_name":"London Clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Clay"},{"link_name":"Isle of Wight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Wight"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arnold1955-11"},{"link_name":"Azolla tertiaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla_tertiaria&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_W._Berry"},{"link_name":"Pliocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliocene"},{"link_name":"Esmeralda Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esmeralda_Formation"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arnold1955-11"},{"link_name":"Azolla primaeva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_primaeva"},{"link_name":"Penhallow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_P._Penhallow"},{"link_name":"Arnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chester_A._Arnold"},{"link_name":"Eocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eocene"},{"link_name":"Allenby Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allenby_Formation"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arnold1955-11"},{"link_name":"Azolla boliviensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Azolla_boliviensis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vajda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivi_Vajda"},{"link_name":"McLoughlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stephen_McLoughlin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Maastrichtian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maastrichtian"},{"link_name":"Paleocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleocene"},{"link_name":"Eslaboacuten Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eslaboacuten_Formation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Flora Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flora_Formation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bolivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vajda2005-12"}],"text":"Phylogeny of Azolla[5][6]Azolla\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA. nilotica Decne. ex Mett. (Nile Azolla)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA. filiculoides Lam. (Large mosquito fern)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA. rubra R.Br.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA. caroliniana Willdenow 1810 (Eastern/Carolinian mosquito fern)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAzolla cristata Kaulf. (Mexican mosquito fern)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA. pinnata R.Br. (Ferny/Pacific Azolla; Feathered mosquitofern)Other species include:[7][8][9][10]Drawing of Azolla filiculoides, about 5 mm. Upper green leaves perform photosynthesis, lower lack chlorophyll.At least six extinct species are known from the fossil record:Azolla intertrappea Sahni & H.S. Rao, 1934 (Eocene, India)[11]\nAzolla berryi Brown, 1934 (Eocene, Green River Formation, Wyoming)[11]\nAzolla prisca Chandler & Reid, 1926 (Oligocene, London Clay, Isle of Wight)[11]\nAzolla tertiaria Berry, 1927 (Pliocene, Esmeralda Formation, Nevada)[11]\nAzolla primaeva (Penhallow) Arnold, 1955 (Eocene, Allenby Formation, British Columbia)[11]\nAzolla boliviensis Vajda & McLoughlin, 2005 (Maastrichtian – Paleocene, Eslaboacuten Formation and Flora Formation Bolivia)[12]","title":"Phylogeny"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Azolla-13.3348RGB.tif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canning_rv_azolla_10_gnangarra.jpg"},{"link_name":"Canning River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canning_River_(Western_Australia)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canning_rv_azolla_02_gnangarra.jpg"},{"link_name":"productive plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_growth"},{"link_name":"biomass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Azolla pinnata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_pinnata"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"symbiotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiosis"},{"link_name":"cyanobacterium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacterium"},{"link_name":"Anabaena azollae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabaena"},{"link_name":"endosymbiont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosymbiont"},{"link_name":"fixes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation"},{"link_name":"atmospheric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric"},{"link_name":"nitrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus"},{"link_name":"eutrophication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophication"},{"link_name":"transfers directly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_transmission"},{"link_name":"nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Azolla01.jpg"},{"link_name":"biofertiliser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofertiliser"},{"link_name":"southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"rice paddies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddy_field"},{"link_name":"protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"weeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weed"},{"link_name":"mosquito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mosquito_Fern-18"},{"link_name":"deoxyanthocyanins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3-deoxyanthocyanin"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Herbivore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbivore"},{"link_name":"polyunsaturated fatty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyunsaturated_fat"},{"link_name":"fronds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronds"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"ornamental plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornamental_plant"},{"link_name":"salinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinity"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brinkhuis2006-23"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speelman-2009-3"}],"text":"Azolla filiculoides root cross sectionAzolla covering the Canning River, Western AustraliaAzolla on the Canning River, Western AustraliaAzolla is a highly productive plant. It can double its biomass in as little as 1.9 days,[13] depending on growing conditions, and yield can reach 8–10 tonnes fresh matter/ha in Asian rice fields. 37.8 t fresh weight/ha (2.78 t DM/ha dry weight) has been reported for Azolla pinnata in India (Hasan et al., 2009).[14]Azolla floats on the surface of water by means of numerous small, closely overlapping scale-like leaves, with their roots hanging in the water. They form a symbiotic relationship with the cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae, an extracellular endosymbiont (living outside the host's cells) which fixes atmospheric nitrogen.[15] The typical limiting factor on its growth is phosphorus; thus, an abundance of phosphorus—due for example to eutrophication or chemical runoff—often leads to Azolla blooms. Unlike all other known plants, its symbiotic microorganism transfers directly from one generation to the next. A. azollae is completely dependent on its host, as several of its genes have either been lost or transferred to the nucleus in Azolla's cells.[16]SEM image of Azolla surfaceThe nitrogen-fixing capability of Azolla has led to widespread use as a biofertiliser, especially in parts of southeast Asia. The plant has been used to bolster agricultural productivity in China for over a thousand years. When rice paddies are flooded in the spring, they can be planted with Azolla, which then quickly multiplies to cover the water, suppressing weeds. The rotting plant material resulting from the die off of this Azolla releases nitrogen into the water for the rice plants, providing up to nine tonnes of protein per hectare per year.[17]Azolla are weeds in many parts of the world, entirely covering some bodies of water. The myth that no mosquito can penetrate the coating of fern to lay its eggs in the water gives the plant its common name \"mosquito fern\",[18] and may deter the survival of some of the larvae.Most species can produce large amounts of deoxyanthocyanins in response to various stresses,[19] including bright sunlight and extreme temperatures,[20][21] causing the water surface to appear to be covered with an intensely red carpet. Herbivore feeding induces accumulation of deoxyanthocyanins and leads to a reduction in the proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the fronds, thus lowering their palatability and nutritive value.[22]Azolla cannot survive winters with prolonged freezing, so is often grown as an ornamental plant at high latitudes where it cannot establish itself firmly enough to become a weed. It is also not tolerant of salinity; normal plants cannot survive in greater than 1–1.6‰, and even conditioned organisms die if grown in water with a salinity above 5.5‰.[23][3]","title":"Ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tasmania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania"},{"link_name":"Tasmania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania"}],"sub_title":"Azolla filiculoides","text":"Azolla filiculoides (red azolla) is the only member of this genus and of the family Azollaceae in Tasmania. It is a common native aquatic plant in Tasmania. It is common behind farm dams and other still waterbodies. The plants are small (usually only a few cm across) and float, but they are fast growing, and can be abundant and form large mats. The plants are typically red, and have small, water repellent leaves.","title":"Ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Azolla_megaspore_and_massulae_Postglacial_Galapagos_Islands_SEM_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kempf1976-24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Azolla_megaspore_Postglacial_Galapagos_Islands_TEM_longitudinal_section_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kempf1976-24"},{"link_name":"asexually","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction"},{"link_name":"spore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore"},{"link_name":"heterosporous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterosporous"},{"link_name":"sporocarps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporocarp_(ferns)"},{"link_name":"sporangia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporangia"},{"link_name":"microsporangium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsporangium"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Arnold1955-11"},{"link_name":"megaspore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaspore"},{"link_name":"spores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore"},{"link_name":"gametophyte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gametophyte"},{"link_name":"megaspore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaspore"},{"link_name":"archegonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archegonia"},{"link_name":"antheridium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antheridium"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"glochidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glochidia"}],"text":"Scanning electron micrograph of a megaspore of the genus Azolla with adhering massulae from postal sediments of Laguna El Junco, Galápagos Island of San Cristóbal[24]Transmission electron micrograph of a megaspore of the genus Azolla from postglacial sediments of Laguna El Junco, Galápagos Island of San Cristobal[24]Azolla reproduces sexually, and asexually (by splitting).Like all ferns, sexual reproduction leads to spore formation, but unlike other members of this group Azolla is heterosporous, producing spores of two kinds. During the summer months, numerous spherical structures called sporocarps form on the undersides of the branches. The male sporocarp is greenish or reddish and looks like the egg mass of an insect or spider. It is two millimeters in diameter, and bears numerous male sporangia. Male spores (microspores) are extremely small and are produced inside each microsporangium. Microspores tend to adhere in clumps called massulae.[11]Female sporocarps are much smaller, containing one sporangium and one functional spore. Since an individual female spore is considerably larger than a male spore, it is termed a megaspore.Azolla has microscopic male and female gametophytes that develop inside the male and female spores. The female gametophyte protrudes from the megaspore and bears a small number of archegonia, each containing a single egg. The microspore forms a male gametophyte with a single antheridium which produces eight swimming sperm.[25] The barbed glochidia on the male spore clusters cause them to cling to the female megaspores, thus facilitating fertilization.","title":"Reproduction"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"livestock feed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livestock_feed"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"dairy cattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy_cattle"},{"link_name":"milk production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dairy"},{"link_name":"FAO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAO"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"biomagnification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnification"},{"link_name":"BMAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMAA"},{"link_name":"food chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_chain"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banack-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Food and animal feed","text":"In addition to its traditional cultivation as a bio-fertilizer for wetland paddies, Azolla is finding increasing use for sustainable production of livestock feed.[26] Azolla is rich in protein, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. Studies describe feeding Azolla to dairy cattle, pigs, ducks, and chickens, with reported increases in milk production, weight of broiler chickens and egg production of layers, as compared to conventional feed. One FAO study describes how Azolla integrates into a tropical biomass agricultural system, reducing the need for food supplements.[27] Concerns about biomagnification exist because the plant may contain the neurotoxin BMAA that remains present in the bodies of animals consuming it and BMAA has been documented as passing along the food chain.[28] Azolla may contain this substance that is a possible cause of neurodegenerative diseases.[29][30][31] Azolla has been suggested as a foodstuff for human consumption, however, no long-term studies of the safety of eating Azolla have been made on humans.[32] Previous studies attributed neurotoxin production to Anabaena flos-aquae species, which is also a type of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria.[33] Further research may be needed to ascertain if A. azollae produces neurotoxins.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"companion plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companion_plant"},{"link_name":"mulch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulch"},{"link_name":"Ming dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ming_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Companion plant","text":"Azolla has been used for at least one thousand years in rice paddies as a companion plant, to fix nitrogen and to block out light to prevent competition from other plants. Rice is planted when tall enough to poke through the Azolla layer. Mats of mature Azolla can also be used as a weed-suppressing mulch.Rice farmers used Azolla as a rice biofertilizer 1500 years ago. The earliest known written record of this practice is in a book written by Jia Ssu Hsieh (Jia Si Xue) in 540 AD on The Art of Feeding the People (Chih Min Tao Shu). By the end of the Ming dynasty in the early 17th century, Azolla's use as a green compost was documented in local records.[34]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mosquito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mosquito_Fern-18"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"sub_title":"Larvicide","text":"The myth that no mosquito can penetrate the coating of fern to lay its eggs in the water gives the plant its common name \"mosquito fern\".[18] Azolla have been used to control mosquito larvae in rice fields. The plant grows in a thick mat on the surface of the water, making it more difficult for the larvae to reach the surface to breathe, effectively choking the larvae.[35]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carbon sequestration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_sequestration"},{"link_name":"Azolla event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_event"},{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic"},{"link_name":"teratons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonne"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Speelman-2009-3"}],"sub_title":"Climate change","text":"Azolla has been proposed as a carbon sequestration modality. The proposal draws upon the hypothesized Azolla event that asserts that Azolla once covered the Arctic and then sank, permanently sequestering teratons of carbon that would otherwise have contributed to the planet's greenhouse effect and ending a warming event that reached 12–15 °C (22–27 °F) degrees warmer than twenty-first century averages.[36]They contribute significantly to decreasing the atmospheric CO2 levels.[3]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"This fern has been introduced to other parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, where it has become a pest in some areas. A nominally tropical plant, it has adapted to the colder climate. It can form mats up to 30 centimetres (12 in) thick and cover 100% of a water surface, preventing local insects and amphibians from reaching the surface.[37]","title":"Invasive species"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic"},{"link_name":"paleoclimatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoclimatology"},{"link_name":"greenhouse effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect"},{"link_name":"north pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_pole"},{"link_name":"Utrecht University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_University"},{"link_name":"Arctic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"ice sheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_sheet"},{"link_name":"Antarctica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica"},{"link_name":"\"icehouse period\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_and_icehouse_earth"},{"link_name":"Azolla event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azolla_event"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"A study of Arctic paleoclimatology reported that Azolla may have had a significant role in reversing an increase in greenhouse effect that occurred 55 million years ago that had caused the region around the north pole to turn into a hot, tropical environment. This research was conducted by the Institute of Environmental Biology at Utrecht University. It indicates that massive patches of Azolla growing on the (then) freshwater surface of the Arctic Ocean consumed enough carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for the global greenhouse effect to decline, eventually causing the formation of ice sheets in Antarctica and the current \"icehouse period\". This theory has been termed the Azolla event.[38]","title":"Importance in paleoclimatology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bioremediation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioremediation"},{"link_name":"chromium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"See also: BioremediationAzolla can remove chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, and lead from effluent. It can also remove lead from solutions containing 1–1000 ppm.[39]","title":"Bioremediation"}]
[{"image_text":"Azolla taken from the Philippines","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Azolla_Plant.jpg/220px-Azolla_Plant.jpg"},{"image_text":"Drawing of Azolla filiculoides, about 5 mm. Upper green leaves perform photosynthesis, lower lack chlorophyll.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Azolla_filiculoides_drawing.png/220px-Azolla_filiculoides_drawing.png"},{"image_text":"Azolla filiculoides root cross section","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Azolla-13.3348RGB.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Azolla-13.3348RGB.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"Azolla covering the Canning River, Western Australia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Canning_rv_azolla_10_gnangarra.jpg/220px-Canning_rv_azolla_10_gnangarra.jpg"},{"image_text":"Azolla on the Canning River, Western Australia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Canning_rv_azolla_02_gnangarra.jpg/220px-Canning_rv_azolla_02_gnangarra.jpg"},{"image_text":"SEM image of Azolla surface","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Azolla01.jpg/220px-Azolla01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Scanning electron micrograph of a megaspore of the genus Azolla with adhering massulae from postal sediments of Laguna El Junco, Galápagos Island of San Cristóbal[24]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Azolla_megaspore_and_massulae_Postglacial_Galapagos_Islands_SEM_1.jpg/220px-Azolla_megaspore_and_massulae_Postglacial_Galapagos_Islands_SEM_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Transmission electron micrograph of a megaspore of the genus Azolla from postglacial sediments of Laguna El Junco, Galápagos Island of San Cristobal[24]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Azolla_megaspore_Postglacial_Galapagos_Islands_TEM_longitudinal_section_1.jpg/220px-Azolla_megaspore_Postglacial_Galapagos_Islands_TEM_longitudinal_section_1.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"Name - Azolla Lam\". Tropicos. Saint Louis, Missouri: Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved February 19, 2010. Annotation: a sp. nov. reference for Azolla filiculoidesType Specimens HT: Azolla filiculoides","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40023609","url_text":"\"Name - Azolla Lam\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Louis,_Missouri","url_text":"Saint Louis, Missouri"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_Botanical_Garden","url_text":"Missouri Botanical Garden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotype","url_text":"HT"}]},{"reference":"Li, Fay-Wei; Brouwer, Paul; Carretero-Paulet, Lorenzo; Cheng, Shifeng; de Vries, Jan; Delaux, Pierre-Marc; Eily, Ariana; Koppers, Nils; Kuo, Li-Yaung (July 2, 2018). \"Fern genomes elucidate land plant evolution and cyanobacterial symbioses\". Nature Plants. 4 (7): 460–472. doi:10.1038/s41477-018-0188-8. ISSN 2055-0278. PMC 6786969. PMID 29967517.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6786969","url_text":"\"Fern genomes elucidate land plant evolution and cyanobacterial symbioses\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41477-018-0188-8","url_text":"10.1038/s41477-018-0188-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2055-0278","url_text":"2055-0278"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6786969","url_text":"6786969"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29967517","url_text":"29967517"}]},{"reference":"Speelman, E. N.; Van Kempen, M. M. L.; Barke, J.; Brinkhuis, H.; Reichart, G. J.; Smolders, A. J. P.; Roelofs, J. G. M.; Sangiorgi, F.; De Leeuw, J. W.; Lotter, A. F.; Sinninghe Damsté, J. S. (March 2009). \"The Eocene Arctic Azolla bloom: environmental conditions, productivity and carbon drawdown\". Geobiology. 7 (2): 155–170. Bibcode:2009Gbio....7..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2009.00195.x. PMID 19323694. 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Retrieved August 14, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2021/08/fix-hothouse-earth-just-like-last-time.html","url_text":"\"Fix Hothouse Earth Just Like Last Time | NextBigFuture.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Invasive non-native species (UK) – Water fern\". Inside Ecology. November 1, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://insideecology.com/2017/11/01/invasive-non-native-species-uk-water-fern/","url_text":"\"Invasive non-native species (UK) – Water fern\""}]},{"reference":"\"Can A Tiny Fern Help Fight Climate Change and Cut Fertilizer Use?\". Yale E360. July 11, 2018. Retrieved November 25, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://e360.yale.edu/digest/can-a-tiny-fern-help-fight-climate-change-and-cut-fertilizer-use-azolla","url_text":"\"Can A Tiny Fern Help Fight Climate Change and Cut Fertilizer Use?\""}]},{"reference":"Robert L. Irvine; Subhas K. Sikdar (January 8, 1998). Bioremediation Technologies: Principles and Practice. CRC Press. p. 102. ISBN 9781566765619.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oLNtgk_VKXsC&q=Bioremediation+of+gypsum&pg=PA81","url_text":"Bioremediation Technologies: Principles and Practice"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781566765619","url_text":"9781566765619"}]}]
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R.; Chakrabarti, R., 2009. Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes as feed in small-scale aquaculture: A review. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture technical paper, 531. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azotobacteraceae
Pseudomonadaceae
["1 History","2 Distinguishing characteristics","3 References"]
Family of gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonadaceae P. aeruginosa colonies on an agar plate Scientific classification Domain: Bacteria Phylum: Pseudomonadota Class: Gammaproteobacteria Order: Pseudomonadales Family: PseudomonadaceaeWinslow et al., 1917 Type genus PseudomonasMigula 1894 (Approved Lists 1980) Genera Atopomonas Rudra and Gupta 2021 Azomonas Winogradsky 1938 (Approved Lists 1980) Azorhizophilus Thompson and Skerman 1981 Azotobacter Beijerinck 1901 (Approved Lists 1980) Denitrificimonas Saati-Santamaría et al. 2021 Entomomonas Wang et al. 2020 Halopseudomonas Rudra and Gupta 2021 Mesophilobacter Nishimura et al. 1989 Oblitimonas Drobish et al. 2016 Permianibacter Wang et al. 2014 Pseudomonas Migula 1894 (Approved Lists 1980) Rhizobacter Goto and Kuwata 1988 Rugamonas Austin and Moss 1987 Thiopseudomonas Tan et al. 2015 Synonyms Azotobacteraceae Pribram 1933 (Approved Lists 1980) The Pseudomonadaceae are a family of bacteria which includes the genera Azomonas, Azorhizophilus, Azotobacter, Mesophilobacter, Pseudomonas (the type genus), and Rugamonas. The family Azotobacteraceae was recently reclassified into this family. History Pseudomonad literally means false unit, being derived from the Greek pseudo (ψευδο- – false) and monas (μονος – a single unit). The term "monad" was used in the early history of microbiology to denote single-celled organisms. Because of their widespread occurrence in nature, the pseudomonads were observed early in the history of microbiology. The generic name Pseudomonas created for these organisms was defined in rather vague terms in 1894 as a genus of Gram-negative, rod-shaped, and polar-flagellated bacteria. Soon afterwards, a large number of species was assigned to the genus. Pseudomonads were isolated from many natural niches. New methodology and the inclusion of approaches based on the studies of conservative macromolecules have reclassified many species. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is increasingly recognized as an emerging opportunistic pathogen of clinical relevance. Studies also suggest the emergence of antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa. In 2000, the complete genome of a Pseudomonas species was sequenced; more recently, the genomes of other species have been sequenced, including P. aeruginosa PAO1 (2000), P. putida KT2440 (2002), P. fluorescens Pf-5 (2005), P. fluorescens PfO-1, and P. entomophila L48. Several pathovars of Pseudomonas syringae have been sequenced, including pathovar tomato DC3000 (2003), pathovar syringae B728a (2005), and pathovar phaseolica 1448A (2005). Distinguishing characteristics Oxidase positive – due to the presence of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase. Nonfermentative Many metabolise glucose by the Entner Doudoroff pathway mediated by 6-phosphoglyceraldehyde dehydrogenase and aldolase Polar flagella, enabling motility Many members produce derivatives of the fluorescent pigment pyoverdin The presence of oxidase and polar flagella and inability to carry out fermentation differentiate pseudomonads from the Enterobacteriaceae. References ^ Kennedy C, Rudnick P, MacDonald ML, Melton T (2015). "Azotobacter". Bergey's Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1002/9781118960608.gbm01207. ISBN 9781118960608. ^ Skerman, McGowan; Sneath (1980). "Approved Lists of Bacterial Names". Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 30: 225–420. doi:10.1099/00207713-30-1-225. ^ a b Cornelis P (editor). (2008). Pseudomonas: Genomics and Molecular Biology (1st ed.). Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-19-6. . {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help) ^ Rediers H, Vanderleyden J, De Mot R (2004). "Azotobacter vinelandii: a Pseudomonas in disguise?". Microbiology. 150 (Pt 5): 1117–9. doi:10.1099/mic.0.27096-0. PMID 15133068. ^ Carmeli, Y; Troillet, N; Eliopoulos, GM; Samore, MH (1999). "Emergence of Antibiotic-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Comparison of Risks Associated with Different Antipseudomonal Agents". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 43 (6): 1379–82. doi:10.1128/AAC.43.6.1379. PMC 89282. PMID 10348756. ^ Meyer J (2000). "Pyoverdines: pigments, siderophores and potential taxonomic markers of fluorescent Pseudomonas species". Arch Microbiol. 174 (3): 135–42. doi:10.1007/s002030000188. PMID 11041343. S2CID 13283224. ^ Krieg, N.R. (Ed.) (1984) Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Volume 1. Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-683-04108-8 Taxon identifiersPseudomonadaceae Wikidata: Q138058 Wikispecies: Pseudomonadaceae CoL: F9G EoL: 326 EPPO: 1PSDMF GBIF: 5607 iNaturalist: 337406 IRMNG: 108793 ITIS: 73 LPSN: pseudomonadaceae.html NCBI: 135621 NZOR: 8230cd08-e007-4097-bb48-bab61c23cd90 Open Tree of Life: 767325 uBio: 5359285 WoRMS: 570641 Authority control databases: National Israel Czech Republic This Pseudomonadales article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_(biology)"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterium"},{"link_name":"Azomonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azomonas"},{"link_name":"Azorhizophilus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azorhizophilus"},{"link_name":"Azotobacter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azotobacter"},{"link_name":"Mesophilobacter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mesophilobacter&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pseudomonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas"},{"link_name":"Rugamonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rugamonas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornelis-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rediers_2004-4"}],"text":"The Pseudomonadaceae are a family of bacteria which includes the genera Azomonas, Azorhizophilus, Azotobacter, Mesophilobacter, Pseudomonas (the type genus), and Rugamonas.[2][3] The family Azotobacteraceae was recently reclassified into this family.[4]","title":"Pseudomonadaceae"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"ψευδο-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%88%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%BF-#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"microbiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiology"},{"link_name":"generic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"Pseudomonas aeruginosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa"},{"link_name":"antibiotic resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Pseudomonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas"},{"link_name":"P. putida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_putida"},{"link_name":"P. fluorescens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_fluorescens"},{"link_name":"pathovars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathovar"},{"link_name":"Pseudomonas syringae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_syringae"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cornelis-3"}],"text":"Pseudomonad literally means false unit, being derived from the Greek pseudo (ψευδο- – false) and monas (μονος – a single unit). The term \"monad\" was used in the early history of microbiology to denote single-celled organisms.\nBecause of their widespread occurrence in nature, the pseudomonads were observed early in the history of microbiology. The generic name Pseudomonas created for these organisms was defined in rather vague terms in 1894 as a genus of Gram-negative, rod-shaped, and polar-flagellated bacteria. Soon afterwards, a large number of species was assigned to the genus. Pseudomonads were isolated from many natural niches. New methodology and the inclusion of approaches based on the studies of conservative macromolecules have reclassified many species.Pseudomonas aeruginosa is increasingly recognized as an emerging opportunistic pathogen of clinical relevance. Studies also suggest the emergence of antibiotic resistance in P. aeruginosa.[5]In 2000, the complete genome of a Pseudomonas species was sequenced; more recently, the genomes of other species have been sequenced, including P. aeruginosa PAO1 (2000), P. putida KT2440 (2002), P. fluorescens Pf-5 (2005), P. fluorescens PfO-1, and P. entomophila L48. Several pathovars of Pseudomonas syringae have been sequenced, including pathovar tomato DC3000 (2003), pathovar syringae B728a (2005), and pathovar phaseolica 1448A (2005).[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oxidase positive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidase_positive"},{"link_name":"cytochrome c oxidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_c_oxidase"},{"link_name":"pyoverdin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyoverdine"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meyer_2000-6"},{"link_name":"Enterobacteriaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterobacteriaceae"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Oxidase positive – due to the presence of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase.\nNonfermentative\nMany metabolise glucose by the Entner Doudoroff pathway mediated by 6-phosphoglyceraldehyde dehydrogenase and aldolase\nPolar flagella, enabling motility\nMany members produce derivatives of the fluorescent pigment pyoverdin[6]The presence of oxidase and polar flagella and inability to carry out fermentation differentiate pseudomonads from the Enterobacteriaceae.[7]","title":"Distinguishing characteristics"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Kennedy C, Rudnick P, MacDonald ML, Melton T (2015). \"Azotobacter\". Bergey's Manual of Systematics of Archaea and Bacteria. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1002/9781118960608.gbm01207. ISBN 9781118960608.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118960608.gbm01207","url_text":"10.1002/9781118960608.gbm01207"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118960608","url_text":"9781118960608"}]},{"reference":"Skerman, McGowan; Sneath (1980). \"Approved Lists of Bacterial Names\". Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 30: 225–420. doi:10.1099/00207713-30-1-225.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00207713-30-1-225","url_text":"\"Approved Lists of Bacterial Names\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00207713-30-1-225","url_text":"10.1099/00207713-30-1-225"}]},{"reference":"Cornelis P (editor). (2008). Pseudomonas: Genomics and Molecular Biology (1st ed.). Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-19-6. [1].","urls":[{"url":"http://www.horizonpress.com/pseudo","url_text":"Pseudomonas: Genomics and Molecular Biology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-19-6","url_text":"978-1-904455-19-6"},{"url":"http://www.horizonpress.com/pseudo","url_text":"[1]"}]},{"reference":"Rediers H, Vanderleyden J, De Mot R (2004). \"Azotobacter vinelandii: a Pseudomonas in disguise?\". Microbiology. 150 (Pt 5): 1117–9. doi:10.1099/mic.0.27096-0. PMID 15133068.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.27096-0","url_text":"\"Azotobacter vinelandii: a Pseudomonas in disguise?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.27096-0","url_text":"10.1099/mic.0.27096-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15133068","url_text":"15133068"}]},{"reference":"Carmeli, Y; Troillet, N; Eliopoulos, GM; Samore, MH (1999). \"Emergence of Antibiotic-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Comparison of Risks Associated with Different Antipseudomonal Agents\". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 43 (6): 1379–82. doi:10.1128/AAC.43.6.1379. PMC 89282. PMID 10348756.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC89282","url_text":"\"Emergence of Antibiotic-Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Comparison of Risks Associated with Different Antipseudomonal Agents\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAAC.43.6.1379","url_text":"10.1128/AAC.43.6.1379"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC89282","url_text":"89282"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10348756","url_text":"10348756"}]},{"reference":"Meyer J (2000). \"Pyoverdines: pigments, siderophores and potential taxonomic markers of fluorescent Pseudomonas species\". Arch Microbiol. 174 (3): 135–42. doi:10.1007/s002030000188. PMID 11041343. S2CID 13283224.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs002030000188","url_text":"10.1007/s002030000188"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11041343","url_text":"11041343"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13283224","url_text":"13283224"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems_Taranis
BAE Systems Taranis
["1 Background","2 Design and development","2.1 Prototype","2.2 Flight testing","2.3 Follow-on development","3 Specifications","4 See also","5 References"]
Prototype British military drone Taranis Artist impression on the BAE Taranis Role Autonomous UCAVType of aircraft Manufacturer BAE Systems Military Air & Information First flight 10 August 2013 Status In development Primary user United Kingdom Produced 2010-present Number built 1 The BAE Systems Taranis is a British demonstrator programme for unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) technology, under development primarily by the defence contractor BAE Systems Military Air & Information. The aircraft, which is named after the Celtic god of thunder Taranis, first flew in 2013. An unmanned warplane, the Taranis is designed to fly intercontinental missions, and would carry a variety of weapons, enabling it to attack both aerial and ground targets. It uses stealth technology, giving it a low radar profile, and is controllable via satellite link from anywhere on Earth. Background The development of UAVs was a key part of the UK's Defence Industrial Strategy, which was announced in December 2005, and specified the need for the UK to maintain its "sovereign" aircraft and UAV/UCAV construction skills. The Strategic Unmanned Air Vehicles (Experiment) Integrated Project Team, or SUAV(E) IPT, was given responsibility for auditing and overseeing the Taranis project. Design and development The Taranis project is led by BAE Systems, and also involves Rolls-Royce, GE Aviation Systems, QinetiQ and the Ministry of Defence (MoD). As the prime contractor, BAE Systems is responsible for the overall programme, and also for many of the component technologies, including stealth technology, systems integration and system control infrastructure. BAE Systems and QinetiQ collaborated on all aspects relating to the autonomy of the system. GE Aviation Systems is responsible for providing Taranis' fuel-gauging and electrical power systems. having a 5% workshare in the project, while the Integrated Systems Technologies (Insyte) subsidiary of BAE Systems is providing C4ISTAR support. At the project's inception, BAE Systems stated that "Taranis will make use of at least 10 years of research and development into low observables, systems integration, control infrastructure and full autonomy. It follows the completion of risk-reduction activities to ensure the mix of technologies, materials and systems used are robust enough for the 'next logical step'." These "risk-reduction activities" included several earlier BAE stealth aircraft and UAV programmes, such as Replica, Nightjar I, Nightjar II, Kestrel, Corax, Raven and HERTI. Prototype A video of the Taranis prototype's test flight on 10 August 2013. The production began for the Taranis prototype in September 2007, and assembly began in February 2008. On 9 January 2009, the Ministry of Defence denied that the Taranis had been flying near the site of a damaged wind turbine, after local people claimed to have seen a UFO. The prototype, which had an initial development cost of £143 million, was unveiled by BAE Systems at Warton Aerodrome, Lancashire, on 12 July 2010. Ground tests of the prototype began in 2010. The aircraft's first flight was later delayed to 2012, then delayed further and finally took place on 10 August 2013. The prototype has a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of about 8,000 kg (18,000 lb), and is of a similar size to the BAE Hawk training jet. It has two internal weapons bays, and is intended to incorporate "full autonomy", allowing it to operate without human control for a large part of its mission. Flight testing On 25 October 2013, the Ministry of Defence revealed that initial flight tests had already taken place. Ground tests were conducted in 2010 and flight trials occurred in 2013. The MoD did not officially comment on the Taranis until the initial trials programme had been completed. On 5 February 2014, BAE revealed information on the Taranis' flight tests. The UCAV's first flight occurred on 10 August 2013 at Woomera Test Range in South Australia. This flight lasted for approximately 15 minutes. A second sortie was launched on 17 August, and subsequent flights surpassed expectations for the airframe, flying at various speeds and heights for as long as one hour. By 2014, the Taranis' development costs had reached £185 million, compared to £140 million as originally projected. The Taranis is planned to be operational "post 2030" and used in concert with manned aircraft. As of 2016 BAE Systems and the MoD were in discussions about a fourth series of flight tests. Follow-on development Under the terms of an Anglo-French development contract announced in 2014, parts from the Taranis would have been combined with the Dassault nEUROn in a joint European UCAV, the Future Combat Air System. Specifications Data from Airforce-Technology.comGeneral characteristics Length: 12.43 m (40 ft 9 in) Wingspan: 10 m (32 ft 10 in) (approximate) Height: 4 m (13 ft 1 in) Powerplant: 1 × Rolls-Royce Adour Moderate by-pass ratio turbofan engine, 44 kN (10,000 lbf) thrust (approximate) Armament 2 x internal missile bay provision See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to BAE Taranis. Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom List of unmanned aerial vehicles Similar aircraft AVIC 601-S Boeing Phantom Ray Dassault nEUROn DRDO AURA Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel Northrop Grumman X-47B Mikoyan Skat Sukhoi Okhotnik References ^ Allison, George (5 February 2014). "Taranis stealth drone test flights successful". UK Defence Journal. Retrieved 6 February 2014. ^ a b "Unmanned Taranis has flown, MoD reveals". Flightglobal.com. 25 October 2013. Retrieved 10 November 2014. ^ Emery, Daniel (12 July 2010). "MoD lifts lid on unmanned combat plane prototype". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 July 2010. Retrieved 12 July 2010. ^ a b c "BAE Systems to lead £124 million UAV technology demonstrator programme" (Press release). BAE Systems plc. 7 December 2006. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2006. ^ "MoD To Invest in UAV Technology". MoD Oracle. NSI (Holdings) Ltd. 7 December 2006. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2006. ^ "Strategic Unmanned Air Vehicles (Experiment) Integrated Project Team". Ministry of Defence. 2009. Archived from the original on 15 May 2009. Retrieved 13 July 2010. ^ a b c d "Taranis Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle (UCAV) Demonstrator, United Kingdom". Airforce Technology.com. 13 July 2010. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010. ^ "Assembly Starts of Taranis Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle". BAE. 2008. Retrieved 6 February 2013. ^ "Telegraph: UFO turbine mystery theories in full". The Daily Telegraph. London. 9 January 2009. Archived from the original on 17 January 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2009. ^ "Taranis unmanned stealth aircraft unveiled in Warton". BBC. 12 July 2010. Retrieved 11 November 2014. ^ "Taranis: The £143m Fighter Jet of the Future". Ministry of Defence. 2010. Archived from the original on 15 July 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010. ^ "Taranis". BAE Systems. Retrieved 3 June 2012. ^ "Europe's industry cuts jobs". Defense News. 2 October 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2011. ^ "Taranis test flights to inform design of future combat aircraft". The Engineer. 5 February 2014. Retrieved 6 February 2014. ^ "BAE Systems Taranis". UAVGlobal. ^ Marks, Paul (12 July 2010). "Warning sounded over British dogfighting drone". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 14 July 2010. Retrieved 12 July 2010. ^ a b "VIDEO: UK ends silence on Taranis testing". Flightglobal.com. 5 February 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014. ^ Ripley, Tim (14 June 2016). "More flights of UK's Taranis UCAV possible". www.janes.com. IHS Jane's Defence Weekly. Retrieved 18 December 2016. ^ "Award of £120M Anglo-French Defence Co-Operation Contract". Defense-Aerospace.com. 5 November 2014. Retrieved 11 November 2014. ^ "Taranis – looking to the future". DefenceIndustryDaily.com. Retrieved 16 July 2014. ^ "Image of Taranis in flight". BBC. 2013. Retrieved 10 November 2014. vteBritish Aerospace and BAE Systems aircraftCombat aircraft Harrier Harrier II Hawk 200 Jaguar Sea Harrier Tornado Tornado ADV Typhoon Global Combat Air Programme Patrol and surveillance Nimrod MR1 / MR2 Nimrod R1 Nimrod AEW3 Nimrod MRA4 Trainers Hawk Goshawk Airliners/transports ATP BAe 125 BAe 146 Concorde Jetstream 31/32 Jetstream 41 Jetstream 61 One-Eleven Drones (UAVs) Ampersand Corax Demon GA22 HERTI Mantis Phoenix Silver Fox Skylynx II Combat drones (UCAVs) Fury Taranis Development/concept aircraft ATSF EAP P.125 P.1216 P.1233-1 Replica Tempest vteStealth aircraftStealth technologyUnitedStatesExperimental Boeing Model 853-21 Quiet Bird Boeing–Sikorsky RAH-66 Comanche Boeing Bird of Prey Boeing X-32 Boeing X-45 F-19 Lockheed Have Blue Lockheed YF-22 Lockheed Martin FB-22 Lockheed Martin X-35 Lockheed Martin X-44 MANTA McDonnell Douglas A-12 Avenger II Northrop Tacit Blue Northrop Grumman X-47B Northrop YF-23 Fighters Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II Attack Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk Bombers Northrop B-2 Spirit Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider UAVs General Atomics MQ-20 Avenger Boeing MQ-25 Stingray Boeing MQ-28 Ghost Bat Boeing Phantom Ray Lockheed Martin Sea Ghost Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel Northrop Grumman RQ-180 Kratos XQ-58 Valkyrie General Atomics XQ-67A Programs Advanced Tactical Fighter F/A-XX Joint Strike Fighter Light Helicopter Experimental Long Range Strike Bomber Next Generation Air Dominance Next-Generation Bomber ChinaFighters Chengdu J-20 Shenyang FC-31 Bombers Xian H-20 UAVs Hongdu GJ-11 AVIC Dark Sword CAIG Wing Loong-10 CASC Rainbow-7 FL-71 RussiaExperimental Yakovlev Yak-43 Sukhoi Su-47 Mikoyan Project 1.44 Fighters Mikoyan LMFS Mikoyan PAK DP Sukhoi Su-57 Sukhoi Su-75 Checkmate Sukhoi/HAL FGFA Bombers Tupolev PAK DA UAVs Mikoyan Skat Sukhoi S-70 Okhotnik-B UnitedKingdomExperimental British Aerospace P.125 BAE Systems Replica Fighters Global Combat Air Programme UAVs BAE Systems Taranis JapanExperimental Mitsubishi X-2 Shinshin Fighters Global Combat Air Programme ItalyFighters Global Combat Air Programme IndiaFighters HAL AMCA Sukhoi/HAL FGFA UAVs DRDO Ghatak FranceFighters Future Combat Air System UAVs Dassault nEUROn SpainFighters Future Combat Air System UAVs Dassault nEUROn EADS Barracuda GermanyExperimentalMBB LampyridaeFighters Future Combat Air System UAVs EADS Barracuda Airbus Wingman SwedenFighters Flygsystem 2020 TurkeyFighters TAI TF Kaan UAVs Bayraktar Kızılelma TAI Anka-3 IndonesiaFighters KAI KF-21 Boramae South KoreaFighters KAI KF-21 Boramae IranFighters IAIO Qaher-313 HESA Shafaq
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The aircraft, which is named after the Celtic god of thunder Taranis, first flew in 2013.[1][2] An unmanned warplane, the Taranis is designed to fly intercontinental missions, and would carry a variety of weapons, enabling it to attack both aerial and ground targets. It uses stealth technology, giving it a low radar profile, and is controllable via satellite link from anywhere on Earth.[3]","title":"BAE Systems Taranis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Defence Industrial Strategy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Industrial_Strategy"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BAE_press-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ministry_of_Defence-6"}],"text":"The development of UAVs was a key part of the UK's Defence Industrial Strategy, which was announced in December 2005, and specified the need for the UK to maintain its \"sovereign\" aircraft and UAV/UCAV construction skills.[4][5] The Strategic Unmanned Air Vehicles (Experiment) Integrated Project Team, or SUAV(E) IPT, was given responsibility for auditing and overseeing the Taranis project.[6]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rolls-Royce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Holdings"},{"link_name":"GE Aviation Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GE_Aviation_Systems"},{"link_name":"QinetiQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QinetiQ"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BAE_press-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Airforce_Technology.com-7"},{"link_name":"unreliable source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Airforce_Technology.com-7"},{"link_name":"C4ISTAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4ISTAR"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Airforce_Technology.com-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BAE_press-4"},{"link_name":"Replica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Replica"},{"link_name":"Corax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Corax"},{"link_name":"HERTI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_HERTI"}],"text":"The Taranis project is led by BAE Systems, and also involves Rolls-Royce, GE Aviation Systems, QinetiQ and the Ministry of Defence (MoD).[4] As the prime contractor, BAE Systems is responsible for the overall programme, and also for many of the component technologies, including stealth technology, systems integration and system control infrastructure.[7][unreliable source?] BAE Systems and QinetiQ collaborated on all aspects relating to the autonomy of the system.GE Aviation Systems is responsible for providing Taranis' fuel-gauging and electrical power systems.[7] having a 5% workshare in the project, while the Integrated Systems Technologies (Insyte) subsidiary of BAE Systems is providing C4ISTAR support.[7]At the project's inception, BAE Systems stated that \"Taranis will make use of at least 10 years of research and development into low observables, systems integration, control infrastructure and full autonomy. It follows the completion of risk-reduction activities to ensure the mix of technologies, materials and systems used are robust enough for the 'next logical step'.\"[4] These \"risk-reduction activities\" included several earlier BAE stealth aircraft and UAV programmes, such as Replica, Nightjar I, Nightjar II, Kestrel, Corax, Raven and HERTI.","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"wind turbine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_turbine"},{"link_name":"UFO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFO"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Warton Aerodrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warton_Aerodrome"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sky_News-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BAE_Systems-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-firstflight-14"},{"link_name":"maximum takeoff weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_takeoff_weight"},{"link_name":"BAE Hawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Hawk"},{"link_name":"training jet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_trainer"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UAVGlobal-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Prototype","text":"A video of the Taranis prototype's test flight on 10 August 2013.The production began for the Taranis prototype in September 2007, and assembly began in February 2008.[8] On 9 January 2009, the Ministry of Defence denied that the Taranis had been flying near the site of a damaged wind turbine, after local people claimed to have seen a UFO.[9]The prototype, which had an initial development cost of £143 million, was unveiled by BAE Systems at Warton Aerodrome, Lancashire, on 12 July 2010.[10][11] Ground tests of the prototype began in 2010.[12] The aircraft's first flight was later delayed to 2012,[13] then delayed further and finally took place on 10 August 2013.[14]The prototype has a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of about 8,000 kg (18,000 lb), and is of a similar size to the BAE Hawk training jet. It has two internal weapons bays,[15] and is intended to incorporate \"full autonomy\", allowing it to operate without human control for a large part of its mission.[16]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FGlobal-2"},{"link_name":"Woomera Test Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woomera_Test_Range"},{"link_name":"South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FGsilence-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FGsilence-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Flight testing","text":"On 25 October 2013, the Ministry of Defence revealed that initial flight tests had already taken place. Ground tests were conducted in 2010 and flight trials occurred in 2013. The MoD did not officially comment on the Taranis until the initial trials programme had been completed.[2]On 5 February 2014, BAE revealed information on the Taranis' flight tests. The UCAV's first flight occurred on 10 August 2013 at Woomera Test Range in South Australia. This flight lasted for approximately 15 minutes. A second sortie was launched on 17 August, and subsequent flights surpassed expectations for the airframe, flying at various speeds and heights for as long as one hour.[17] By 2014, the Taranis' development costs had reached £185 million, compared to £140 million as originally projected. The Taranis is planned to be operational \"post 2030\" and used in concert with manned aircraft.[17]As of 2016 BAE Systems and the MoD were in discussions about a fourth series of flight tests.[18]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dassault nEUROn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dassault_nEUROn"},{"link_name":"Future Combat Air System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Combat_Air_System"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Follow-on development","text":"Under the terms of an Anglo-French development contract announced in 2014, parts from the Taranis would have been combined with the Dassault nEUROn in a joint European UCAV, the Future Combat Air System.[19]","title":"Design and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Airforce_Technology.com-7"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-media.defenceindustrydaily-20"},{"link_name":"Rolls-Royce Adour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolls-Royce_Turbomeca_Adour"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Data from Airforce-Technology.com[7]General characteristicsLength: 12.43 m (40 ft 9 in)\nWingspan: 10 m (32 ft 10 in) (approximate)[20]\nHeight: 4 m (13 ft 1 in)\nPowerplant: 1 × Rolls-Royce Adour Moderate by-pass ratio turbofan engine, 44 kN (10,000 lbf) thrust (approximate)Armament2 x internal missile bay provision[21]","title":"Specifications"}]
[{"image_text":"A video of the Taranis prototype's test flight on 10 August 2013."}]
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[{"reference":"Allison, George (5 February 2014). \"Taranis stealth drone test flights successful\". UK Defence Journal. Retrieved 6 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://ukdefencejournal.org.uk/taranis-stealth-drone-test-flights-successful/","url_text":"\"Taranis stealth drone test flights successful\""}]},{"reference":"Emery, Daniel (12 July 2010). \"MoD lifts lid on unmanned combat plane prototype\". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 July 2010. Retrieved 12 July 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/10602105.stm","url_text":"\"MoD lifts lid on unmanned combat plane prototype\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100712191703/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/10602105.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"BAE Systems to lead £124 million UAV technology demonstrator programme\" (Press release). BAE Systems plc. 7 December 2006. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. 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Archived from the original on 15 July 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100715051514/http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Taranis-MoD-And-BAE-Systems-Unveil-Futuristic-Unmanned-Fighter-Jet/Article/201007215663917?lpos=UK_News_Second_Home_Page_Article_Teaser_Region_0&lid=ARTICLE_15663917_Taranis%3A_MoD_And_BAE_Systems_Unveil_Futuristic_Unmanned_Fighter_Jet","url_text":"\"Taranis: The £143m Fighter Jet of the Future\""},{"url":"http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Taranis-MoD-And-BAE-Systems-Unveil-Futuristic-Unmanned-Fighter-Jet/Article/201007215663917?lpos=UK_News_Second_Home_Page_Article_Teaser_Region_0&lid=ARTICLE_15663917_Taranis:_MoD_And_BAE_Systems_Unveil_Futuristic_Unmanned_Fighter_Jet","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Taranis\". BAE Systems. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Self-Driving_Car_Project
Waymo
["1 History","1.1 Ground work","1.2 Pribot","1.3 Project Chauffeur","1.4 Waymo","2 Technology","3 Road testing","3.1 Chronology","3.2 Crashes","3.3 Limitations","3.4 Backlash","4 Services","4.1 Robotaxis","4.2 Trucking and delivery","5 Legal matters","5.1 Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al.","5.2 California disclosure dispute","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
Autonomous car technology company Waymo LLCCompany typeSubsidiaryIndustryAutonomous carsPredecessorGoogle Self-Driving Car ProjectFoundedJanuary 17, 2009; 15 years ago (January 17, 2009) (as the Google Self-Driving Car Project)December 13, 2016; 7 years ago (2016-12-13) (as Waymo)2004; 20 years ago (2004) (as Stanford Self-Driving Car Team)Founder Sebastian Thrun Anthony Levandowski HeadquartersMountain View, California, U.S.Area served Phoenix, Arizona, United States San Francisco, California, United States Key people Dmitri Dolgov (co-CEO) Tekedra Mawakana (co-CEO) Number of employees2,500 (2023) Parent Google, Inc. (2009–2016) Alphabet Inc. (2016–present) Websitewaymo.com Waymo Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay Area Waymo LLC, formerly known as the Google Self-Driving Car Project, is an American autonomous driving technology company headquartered in Mountain View, California. It is a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc, the parent company of Google. The company traces its origins to the Stanford Racing Team, which competed in the 2005 and 2007 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Grand Challenges. Google's development of self-driving technology began in January 2009, led by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL), and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots. After almost two years of road testing with seven vehicles, the New York Times revealed Google's project in October 2010. In fall 2015, Google provided "the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads". In December 2016, the project was renamed Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet. In October 2020, Waymo became the first company to offer service to the public without safety drivers in the vehicle. Waymo currently operates commercial robotaxi services in Phoenix, Arizona and San Francisco, with new services planned in Los Angeles and Austin, Texas. Waymo is run by co-CEOs Tekedra Mawakana and Dmitri Dolgov. The company raised $5.5 billion in multiple outside funding rounds. Waymo has partnerships with multiple vehicle manufacturers, including Stellantis, Mercedes-Benz Group AG, Jaguar Land Rover, and Volvo. History See also: History of self-driving cars Ground work Google's development of self-driving technology began on January 17, 2009, at Google X lab, run by co-founder Sergey Brin. The project was launched at Google by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots. The initial software code and artificial intelligence (AI) design of the effort started before the team worked at Google, when Thrun and 15 engineers, including Dmitri Dolgov, Mike Montemerlo, Hendrik Dahlkamp, Sven Strohband, and David Stavens, built Stanley and Junior, Stanford's entries in the 2005 and 2007 DARPA Challenges. Later, aspects of this technology were used in a digital mapping project for SAIL called VueTool. In 2007, Google acqui-hired the entire VueTool team to help advance Google's Street View technology. As part of Street View development, 100 Toyota Priuses were outfitted with Topcon digital mapping hardware developed by 510 Systems. In 2008, the Street View team launched project Ground Truth, to create accurate road maps by extracting data from satellites and street views. Pribot In February 2008, a Discovery Channel producer for the documentary series Prototype This! phoned Levandowski. The producer requested to borrow Levandowski's Ghost Rider, the autonomous two-wheeled motocycle Levandowski's Berkeley team had built for the 2004 DARPA Grand Challenge that Levandowski had later donated to the Smithsonian. Since the motorcycle was not available, Levandowski offered to retrofit a Toyota Prius as a self-driving pizza delivery car for the show. As a Google employee, Levandowski asked Larry Page and Thrun whether Google was interested in participating in the show. Both declined, citing liability issues. However, they authorized Levandowski to move forward with the project, as long as it was not associated with Google. Within weeks Levandowski founded Anthony's Robots to do so. He retrofitted the car with light detection and ranging technology (lidar), sensors, and cameras. The Stanford team (Stanley (vehicle)) provided its code base to the project. The ensuing episode depicting Pribot delivering pizza across the San Francisco Bay Bridge under police escort aired in December 2008. The project success led Google to greenlight Google's self-driving car program in January 2009. In 2011, Google acquired 510 Systems (co-founded by Levandowski, Pierre-Yves Droz and Andrew Schultz), and Anthony's Robots for an estimated US$20 million. Levandowski's vehicle and hardware, and Stanford's AI technology and software, became the nucleus of the project. A Firefly self-driving Waymo car Project Chauffeur After almost two years of road testing with seven vehicles, the New York Times revealed the existence of Google's project on October 9, 2010. Google announced its initiative later the same day. Starting in 2010, lawmakers in various states expressed concerns over how to regulate autonomous vehicles. A related Nevada law went into effect on March 1, 2012. Google had been lobbying for such laws. A modified Prius was licensed by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in May 2012. The car was "driven" by Chris Urmson with Levandowski in the passenger seat. This was the first US license for a self-driven car. In January 2014 Google was granted a patent for a transportation service funded by advertising that included autonomous vehicles as a transport method. In late May, Google revealed an autonomous prototype, which had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal. In December, Google unveiled a Firefly prototype that was planned to be tested on San Francisco Bay Area roads beginning in early 2015. A self-driving car with the previous Google brandingIn 2015, Levandowski left the project. In August 2015, Google hired former Hyundai Motor executive, John Krafcik, as CEO. In fall 2015, Google provided "the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads" in Austin, Texas to Steve Mahan, former CEO of the Santa Clara Valley Blind Center, who was a legally blind friend of principal engineer Nathaniel Fairfield. It was the first entirely autonomous trip on a public road. It was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort. The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals. By the end of 2015, Project Chauffeur had covered more than a million miles. Google spent $1.1 billion on the project between 2009 and 2015. For comparison, the acquisition of Cruise Automation by General Motors in March 2016 was for $500 million, and Uber's acquisition of Otto in August 2016 was for $680 million. Waymo In May 2016, Google and Stellantis announced an order of 100 Chrysler Pacifica hybrid minivans to test the self-driving technology. In December 2016, the project was renamed Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet. The name was derived from "a new way forward in mobility". In May 2016, the company opened a 53,000-square-foot (4,900 m2) technology center in Novi, Michigan. In 2017, Waymo sued Uber for allegedly stealing trade secrets. Waymo began testing minivans without a safety driver on public roads in Chandler, Arizona, in October 2017. In 2017, Waymo unveiled new sensors and chips that are less expensive to manufacture, cameras that improve visibility, and wipers to clear the lidar system. At the beginning of the self-driving car program, they used a $75,000 lidar system from Velodyne. In 2017, the cost decreased approximately 90 percent, as Waymo converted to in-house built lidar. Waymo has applied its technology to various cars including the Prius, Audi TT, Fiat Chrysler Pacifica, and Lexus RX450h. Waymo partners with Lyft on pilot projects and product development. Waymo ordered an additional 500 Pacifica hybrids in 2017. Waymo-operated Jaguar I-Pace in San Francisco In March 2018, Jaguar Land Rover announced that Waymo had ordered up to 20,000 of its I-Pace electric SUVs at an estimated cost of more than $1 billion. In late May 2018, Alphabet announced plans to add up to 62,000 Pacifica Hybrid minivans to the fleet. Also in May 2018, Waymo established Huimo Business Consulting subsidiary in Shanghai. In April 2019, Waymo announced plans for vehicle assembly in Detroit at the former American Axle & Manufacturing plant, bringing between 100 and 400 jobs to the area. Waymo used vehicle assembler Magna to turn Jaguar I-PACE electric SUVs and Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans into Waymo Level 4 autonomous vehicles. Waymo subsequently reverted to retrofitting existing models rather than a custom design. In March 2020, Waymo Via was launched after the company's announcement that it had raised $2.25 billion from investors. In May 2020, Waymo raised an additional $750 million. In July 2020, the company announced an exclusive partnership with auto manufacturer Volvo to integrate Waymo technology. In April 2021, Krafcik was replaced by two co-CEOs: Waymo's COO Tekedra Mawakana and CTO Dmitri Dolgov. Waymo raised $2.5 billion in another funding round in June 2021, with total funding of $5.5 billion. Waymo launched a consumer testing program in San Francisco in August 2021. Geely Holding said it would partner with Waymo to make electric vehicles from its premium electric mobility brand, Zeekr, to be deployed as fully autonomous ride-hailing vehicles across the United States. In May 2022, Waymo launched its Waymo One Trusted Tester program for residents in downtown Phoenix, Arizona. In May 2022, Waymo announced that it would expand the program to more areas of Phoenix. In 2023, coverage of the Waymo One area was increased by 45 square miles (120 km2), expanding to include downtown Mesa, uptown Phoenix, and South Mountain Village. In June 2022, Waymo announced a partnership with Uber, under which Waymo will integrate its autonomous technology into Uber's freight truck service. Plans to expand the program to Los Angeles were announced in late 2022. On December 13, 2022 Waymo applied for the final permit necessary to operate fully autonomous taxis, without a backup driver present, within the state of California. In January 2023, The Information reported that Waymo staff were among those affected by Google's layoffs of around 12,000 workers. TechCrunch reported that Waymo was set to kill its trucking program. Technology A Lexus RX450h retrofitted by Google for its self-driving car project Google has invested heavily in matrix multiplication and video processing hardware such as the Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) to augment Nvidia's graphics processing units (GPUs) and Intel central processing units (CPUs). Much of this is shrouded in trade secrets, but transformer (machine learning) technology for inference is probably involved. Waymo manufactures a suite of self-driving hardware developed in-house. This includes sensors and hardware-enhanced vision system, radar, and lidar. Sensors give 360-degree views while lidar detects objects up to 300 metres (980 ft) away. Short-range lidar images objects near the vehicle, while radar is used to see around other vehicles and track objects in motion. Riders push buttons to control functions such as "help", "lock", "pull over", and "start ride". Waymo's deep-learning architecture VectorNet predicts vehicle trajectories in complex traffic scenarios. It uses a graph neural network to model the interactions between vehicles and has demonstrated state-of-the-art performance on several benchmark datasets for trajectory prediction. Waymo Carcraft is a virtual world where Waymo can simulate driving conditions. The simulator was named after the video game World of Warcraft. With Carcraft, 25,000 virtual self-driving cars navigate through models of Austin, Texas; Mountain View, California; Phoenix, Arizona; and other cities. Road testing Chronology A Toyota Prius modified to operate as a Google driverless car, navigating a test course In 2009, Google began testing its self-driving cars in the San Francisco Bay Area. By December 2013, Nevada, Florida, California, and Michigan had passed laws permitting autonomous cars. A law proposed in Texas allowed testing. In June 2015, Waymo announced that their vehicles had driven over 1,000,000 mi (1,600,000 km) and that in the process they had encountered 200,000 stop signs, 600,000 traffic lights, and 180 million other vehicles. Prototype vehicles were driving in Mountain View. Speeds were limited to 25 mph (40 km/h) and had safety drivers aboard. Google took its first driverless ride on public roads in October 2015, when Mahan took a 10-minute ride around Austin in a Google "pod car" with no steering wheel or pedals. Google expanded its road-testing to Texas, where regulations did not prohibit cars without pedals or a steering wheel. In 2016, road testing expanded to Phoenix and Kirkland, Washington, which has a wet climate. As of June 2016, Google had test driven its fleet of vehicles in autonomous mode a total of 1,725,911 mi (2,777,585 km). In August 2016 alone, their cars traveled a "total of 170,000 miles; of those, 126,000 miles were autonomous (i.e., the car was fully in control)". In 2017, Waymo reported a total of 636,868 miles covered by the fleet in autonomous mode, and the associated 124 disengagements, for the period from December 1, 2015, through November 30, 2016. In November Waymo altered its Arizona testing by removing safety drivers. The cars were geofenced within a 100-square-mile (260 km2) region surrounding Chandler, Arizona. In 2017, Waymo began testing its level 4 cars in Arizona to take advantage of good weather, simple roads, and reasonable laws. In 2017, Waymo began testing in Michigan. Also, in 2017, Waymo unveiled its Castle test facility in Central Valley, California. Castle, a former airbase, has served as the project's training course since 2012. In March 2018, Waymo announced its plans for experiments with the company's self-driving trucks delivering freight to Google data centers in Atlanta, Georgia. In October 2018, the California Department of Motor Vehicles issued a permit for Waymo to operate cars without safety drivers. Waymo was the first company to receive a permit that allowed day and night testing on public roads and highways. Waymo announced that its service would include Mountain View, Sunnyvale, Los Altos, and Palo Alto. In July 2019, Waymo received permission to transport passengers. In December 2018, Waymo launched Waymo One, transporting passengers. The service used safety drivers to monitor some rides, with others provided in select areas without them. In November 2019, Waymo One became the first autonomous service worldwide to operate without safety drivers. By January 2020, Waymo had completed twenty million miles (32,000,000 km) of driving on public roads. In August 2021, commercial Waymo One test service started in San Francisco, beginning with a "trusted tester" rollout. In March 2022, Waymo began offering rides for Waymo staff in San Francisco without a driver. Crashes By July 2015, Google's 23 self-driving cars had been involved in 14 minor collisions on public roads. Google maintained that, in all but one case, the vehicle was not at fault because the cars were either driven manually or the driver of another vehicle was at fault. By July 2021, the NHTSA had found 150 crashes by Waymo. Under NHTSA rules, crashes were reported if the system was in use in the prior 30 seconds, though most crashes did not have injuries. Waymo regularly publishes safety reports. Waymo is required by the California DMV to report the number of incidents where the safety driver took control for safety reasons. Some incidents were not reported when simulations indicated that the car would have stopped safely on its own. In 2023, Waymo claimed only 3 crashes with injuries over 7.1 million miles driven, nearly twice as safe as a human driver. A Waymo robotaxi killed a dog in San Francisco while in "autonomous mode" in May 2023. In February 2024, a driverless Waymo robotaxi struck a cyclist in San Francisco. Later that same month, Waymo issued recalls for 444 of its vehicles after two hit the same truck being towed on a highway. Limitations Waymo operates in some of its testing markets, such as Chandler, Arizona, at L4 autonomy with no one sitting behind the steering wheel, sharing roadways with other drivers and pedestrians. Waymo's earlier testing focused on areas without harsh weather, extreme density, or complicated road systems, but it has moved on to test under new conditions. As a result, beginning in 2017, Waymo began testing in areas with harsher conditions, such as its winter testing in Michigan. In 2014, a critic wrote in the MIT Technology Review that unmapped stoplights would cause problems with Waymo's technology and the self-driving technology could not detect potholes. Additionally, the lidar technology cannot spot some potholes or discern when humans, such as a police officers, signal the car to stop, the critic wrote. Waymo has worked to improve how its technology responds in construction zones. California regulators do not require Waymo to disclose every incident involving erratic behavior in its fleet. In the first five months of 2023, San Francisco officials said they had logged more than 240 incidents in which a Cruise or Waymo vehicle might have created a safety hazard. In 2021, it was noted that Waymo cars kept routing through the Richmond District of San Francisco, with up to 50 cars each day driving to a dead end street before turning around. In 2023, ABC7 News Bay Area posted a video of a journalist taking a ride in a Waymo vehicle, which notably stopped at a green light and dropped the journalist at the wrong stop twice, despite support intervention. Backlash In 2023, the San Francisco group Safe Street Rebels used a practice called "coning" to trap Waymo and Cruise cars with traffic cones as a form of protest after claiming that the cars had been involved in hundreds of incidents. During the 2024 Lunar New Year in San Francisco Chinatown, protestors attacked, graffitied, and set fire to a Waymo car. No one was injured. In 2024, passengers during a Waymo ride described an attack by an onlooker who attempted to cover the car's sensors. In 2024, a San Francisco city attorney had attempted to sue to prevent expansion of driverless vehicles including Waymo into San Francisco. San Mateo County government soon after also sent a letter to regulators opposing expansion to its county. In May 2024, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) launched an investigation into potential flaws in Waymo vehicles, focusing on 31 incidents that included Waymo vehicles ramming into a closing gate, driving on the wrong side of the road, and at least 17 crashes or fires. Services Waymo highlighted four specific business uses for its autonomous tech in 2017: Robotaxis, trucking and logistics, urban public transportation, and passenger cars. Robotaxis This section is an excerpt from Robotaxi. Part of a series onSelf-driving cars & self-driving vehicles Enablers Assured clear distance ahead Autonomous racing Datasets History Impact Lane centering Pedestrian crash avoidance mitigation Vehicle infrastructure integration Topics Automatic parking Platoon Regulation Liability Robotaxi Self-driving truck Tunnel problem Related topics Automatic train operation Unmanned surface vehicle Vehicular automation vte A robotaxi, also known as robot taxi, robo-taxi, self-driving taxi or driverless taxi, is an autonomous car (SAE automation level 4 or 5) operated for a ridesharing company. Waymo offers robotaxi services in Phoenix, Arizona and San Francisco, with plans to expand to Los Angeles, California. Waymo's autonomous robotaxi was developed by Zeekr and CEVT. Trucking and delivery Waymo Via, launched in 2020 to work with OEMs to get its technology into vehicles. The company is testing Class 8 tractor-trailers in Atlanta, and southwest shipping routes across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. The company operates a trucking hub in Dallas, Texas. It is partnering with Daimler to integrate autonomous technology into a fleet of Freightliner Cascadia trucks. Waymo operates 48 Class 8 autonomous trucks with safety drivers. In 2023 Waymo issued a joint application along with Aurora Innovation to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration for a five-year exemption from rules that require drivers to place reflective triangles or a flare around a stopped tractor-trailer truck, to avoid needing human drivers, in favor of warning beacons mounted on the truck cab. Waymo tested its technology in commercial delivery vehicles with United Parcel Service. In July 2020 Waymo and Stellantis expanded their partnership, including the development of Ram ProMaster delivery vehicles. Legal matters Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al. In February 2017, Waymo sued Uber and its subsidiary self-driving trucking company, Otto, alleging trade secret theft and patent infringement. The company claimed that three ex-Google employees, including Anthony Levandowski, had stolen trade secrets, including thousands of files, from Google before joining Uber. The alleged infringement was related to Waymo's proprietary lidar technology, Google accused Uber of colluding with Levandowski. Levandowski allegedly downloaded 9 gigabytes of data that included over a hundred trade secrets; eight of which were at stake during the trial. An ensuing settlement gave Waymo 0.34% of Uber stock, the equivalent of $245 million. Uber agreed not to infringe Waymo's intellectual property. Part of the agreement included a guarantee that "Waymo confidential information is not being incorporated in Uber Advanced Technologies Group hardware and software." In statements released after the settlement, Uber maintained that it received no trade secrets. In May, according to an Uber spokesman, Uber had fired Levandowski, which resulted in the loss of roughly $250 million of his equity in Uber, which almost exactly equaled the settlement. Uber announced that it was halting production of self-driving trucks through Otto in July 2018, and the subsidiary company was shuttered. California disclosure dispute In January 2022, Waymo sued the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) to prevent data on driverless crashes from being released to the public. Waymo maintained that such information constituted a trade secret. According to The Los Angeles Times, the "topics Waymo wants to keep hidden include how it plans to handle driverless car emergencies, what it would do if a robot taxi started driving itself where it wasn't supposed to go, and what constraints there are on the car's ability to traverse San Francisco's tunnels, tight curves and steep hills." 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Retrieved February 17, 2024. ^ Kerr, Dana (August 26, 2023). "Armed with traffic cones, protesters are immobilizing driverless cars". NPR. ^ Javaid, Maham (February 12, 2024). "San Francisco crowd sets self-driving car on fire". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved February 13, 2024. ^ Quintana, Sergio (February 13, 2024). "Authorities work to identify people who set Waymo car on fire in San Francisco". NBC Bay Area. Retrieved February 17, 2024. ^ Pena, Luz (February 8, 2024). "SF couple describes feeling 'trapped' riding in Waymo driverless car that was being attacked". ABC7 San Francisco. Retrieved February 17, 2024. ^ writer |, Greg Wong | Examiner staff (January 24, 2024). "SF sues state regulators for robotaxi expansion". San Francisco Examiner. Retrieved February 13, 2024. ^ "San Mateo County opposes Waymo's driverless-car expansion". The Mercury News. February 15, 2024. Retrieved February 17, 2024. ^ Thadani, Trisha; Duncan, Ian (May 24, 2024). "Major robotaxi firms face federal safety investigations after crashes". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved May 26, 2024. ^ Korosec, Kirsten (October 19, 2022). "Waymo to launch robotaxi service in Los Angeles". TechCrunch. Retrieved October 19, 2022. ^ Bassett, Abigail (November 21, 2022). "Waymo's new robotaxi is an all-electric people mover with no steering wheel". The Verge. Retrieved January 15, 2024. ^ Liao, Rita (October 9, 2023). "Waymo-Zeekr robotaxi poised for US testing by end of 2023". TechCrunch. Retrieved January 15, 2024. ^ a b "Waymo Targets Southwest Freight Corridor for Autonomous Truck Tests". Transport Topics. June 30, 2020. Retrieved July 2, 2020. ^ "Waymo Via - Same Driver. Different Vehicle". Retrieved July 22, 2020. ^ a b Andrew J. Hawkins (March 9, 2018). "Waymo's self-driving trucks will start delivering freight in Atlanta". The Verge. Retrieved June 27, 2018. ^ Ohnsman, Alan (August 25, 2020). "Waymo Taps Texas As Its Robot Truck Hub With Dallas Depot". Forbes. Retrieved September 14, 2020. ^ Hawkins, Andrew (October 27, 2020). "Waymo and Daimler are teaming up to build fully driverless semi trucks - 'A broad, global, strategic partnership'". The Verge. Retrieved October 27, 2020. ^ Shepardson, David (April 12, 2023). "US union opposes driverless trucks waiver for Waymo, Aurora". Reuters. Retrieved April 12, 2023. ^ "Federal Register :: Parts and Accessories Necessary for Safe Operation; Exemption Application From Waymo LLC, and Aurora Operations, Inc". Federal Register. March 9, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2023. ^ McFarland, Matt (January 29, 2020). "UPS teams up with Waymo to test self-driving delivery vans". CNN. Retrieved July 22, 2020. ^ "How the Waymo Driver is revolutionizing shipping - It's not only more efficient. Delivery networks, energy conservation, warehouse design, and more will all be affected—for the better". Fast Company. July 28, 2020. Retrieved July 29, 2020. ^ Gitlin, Jonathan (July 22, 2020). "Waymo is working on autonomous Ram ProMaster Vans for goods deliveries - FCA was Waymo's first OEM partner in 2016, deal will continue post-merger with PSA". Ars Technica. Retrieved July 22, 2020. ^ a b c Wakabayashi, Daisuke (February 9, 2018). "Uber and Waymo Settle Trade Secrets Suit Over Driverless Cars". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved February 23, 2019. ^ "Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc; Ottomotto LLC; Otto Trucking LLC". Trade Secrets Institute. Brook law. Retrieved March 18, 2017. ^ "Waymo's Complaint Against Uber". The New York Times. February 23, 2017. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 18, 2017. ^ "Secrets or Knowledge? Uber-Waymo Trial Tests Silicon Valley Culture". The New York Times. January 30, 2018. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved June 4, 2018. ^ "I'm not so sure Waymo's going to win against Uber". The Verge. Retrieved June 4, 2018. ^ Larson, Selena (February 7, 2018). "The tech at the center of the Waymo vs. Uber trade secrets case". CNN. Retrieved June 13, 2018. ^ Farivar, Cyrus (February 9, 2018). "Silicon Valley's most-watched trial ends as Waymo and Uber settle". Ars Technica. Retrieved February 9, 2018. ^ Larson 2018. ^ Lien, Russ; Mitchell, Tracey (February 10, 2018). "Uber reaches settlement with Waymo in dispute over trade secrets". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 4, 2018. ^ Korosec, Kirsten (July 30, 2018). "Uber's self-driving trucks division is dead, long live Uber self-driving cars". TechCrunch. Retrieved December 31, 2022. ^ Hawkins, Andrew J. (January 28, 2022). "Waymo sues California DMV to keep driverless crash data under wraps". The Verge. Retrieved January 25, 2023. ^ Mitchell, Russ (January 28, 2022). "Waymo sues state DMV to keep robotaxi safety details secret". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 25, 2023. ^ Hawkins, Andrew J. (February 23, 2022). "Waymo wins bid to keep some of its robotaxi safety details secret". The Verge. Retrieved January 25, 2023. Further reading Grant, Christian (May 2007). "Episode Exe006: Sebastian Thrun, Director, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory". Executive Talks. Archived from the original on April 1, 2021. Retrieved January 3, 2013. Lin, Patrick (July 30, 2013). "The Ethics of Saving Lives with Autonomous Cars Are Far Murkier Than You Think". Wired. Retrieved August 24, 2013. Marcus, Gary (November 27, 2012). "Moral Machines". The New Yorker. Retrieved August 24, 2013. Muller, Joann (May 27, 2013). "Silicon Valley vs. Detroit: The Battle for the Car of the Future". Forbes. Stock, Kyle (April 3, 2014). "The Problem with Self-Driving Cars". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on April 4, 2014. Retrieved April 6, 2014. Walker Smith, Bryant (November 1, 2012), Automated Vehicles Are Probably Legal in the United States, Stanford Law School, retrieved August 24, 2013 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Waymo. Scalability in Perception for Autonomous Driving: Waymo Open Dataset Waymo Self Driving Car Videos - citizen journalist recording Waymo autonomous trips in Phoenix area Official website Https://www.waymo.com vteAlphabet Inc.SubsidiariesCurrent Access Google Fiber Calico CapitalG Google DeepMind AlphaFold AlphaGo vs. Fan Hui vs. Ke Jie vs. Lee Sedol film Future of Go Summit AlphaGo Zero AlphaStar AlphaZero Master MuZero WaveNet DoubleClick Firebase Fitbit Tenor Waze YouTube GV Isomorphic Labs Verily Baseline Study X Development Waymo Wing Former Boston Dynamics Chronicle Security Jigsaw Loon Makani Meka Robotics Nest Labs Sidewalk Labs Toronto PeopleExecutivesCurrent Sundar Pichai (CEO) Ruth Porat (CFO) Former Larry Page (CEO) Sergey Brin (President) David Drummond (CLO) Board of directorsCurrent Frances Arnold Sergey Brin R. Martin Chavez John Doerr John L. Hennessy Ann Mather Larry Page Sundar Pichai Ram Shriram Roger W. 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Levinson David Krane Astro Teller Category Companies portal Internet portal vteSelf-driving cars, self-driving vehicles and enabling technologiesOverview and context History of self-driving cars Impact of self-driving cars Intelligent transportation system Context-aware pervasive systems Mobile computing Smart, connected products Ubiquitous computing Ambient intelligence Internet of things SAE LevelsHuman driver monitors the driving environment(Levels 0,1,2) Lane departure warning system Automatic parking Automated emergency braking system Collision avoidance system Cruise control Adaptive cruise control Advanced driver-assistance system Driver drowsiness detection Intelligent speed adaptation Blind spot monitor System monitors the driving environment(Levels 3,4,5) Automated Lane Keeping Systems Vehicular ad hoc network (V2V) Connected car Automotive navigation system VehiclesCars VaMP (1994) Spirit of Berlin (2007) General Motors EN-V (2010) MadeInGermany (2011) Waymo, formerly Google Car (2012) Tesla Model S with Autopilot (2015) LUTZ Pathfinder (2015) Yandex self-driving car (2017) Honda Legend (2021) Buses and commercial vehicles Automated guideway transit CAVForth ParkShuttle Navia shuttle NuTonomy taxi Freightliner Inspiration Driverless tractor Self-driving truck Mobility as a service Regulation Legislation IEEE 802.11p Safe speed automotive common law Automated lane keeping system (unece regulation 157) Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 LiabilitySelf-driving car liabilityEnabling technologies Radar Laser LIDAR Artificial neural network Computer stereo vision Image recognition Dedicated short-range communications Real-time Control System rFpro Eye tracking Radio-frequency identification Automotive navigation system Organizations, Projects & PeopleOrganizations, projects and events American Center for Mobility DAVI European Land-Robot Trial Navlab DARPA Grand Challenge VisLab Intercontinental Autonomous Challenge Eureka Prometheus Project IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Society People Harold Goddijn Alberto Broggi Anthony Levandowski
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waymo_Chrysler_Pacifica_in_Los_Altos,_2017.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Pacifica_Hybrid"},{"link_name":"autonomous driving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_driving"},{"link_name":"Mountain View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_View,_California"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Alphabet Inc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet_Inc."},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"competed in the 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_(vehicle)"},{"link_name":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency"},{"link_name":"Grand Challenges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Grand_Challenge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-16-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"Sebastian Thrun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_Thrun"},{"link_name":"Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Anthony Levandowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Levandowski"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-5"},{"link_name":"the New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT2010-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Google-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tc-levandowski-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:16-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-journey-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"robotaxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-driving_taxi"},{"link_name":"Phoenix, Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Austin, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Tekedra Mawakana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tekedra_Mawakana"},{"link_name":"Dmitri Dolgov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Dolgov"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-may22-18"},{"link_name":"Stellantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellantis"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"Mercedes-Benz Group AG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercedes-Benz_Group_AG"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Jaguar Land Rover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_Land_Rover"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bergen18-21"},{"link_name":"Volvo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-22"}],"text":"Waymo Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay AreaWaymo LLC, formerly known as the Google Self-Driving Car Project, is an American autonomous driving technology company headquartered in Mountain View, California. It is a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc, the parent company of Google.The company traces its origins to the Stanford Racing Team, which competed in the 2005 and 2007 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Grand Challenges.[1] Google's development of self-driving technology began in January 2009,[2][3] led by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL), and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots.[4][5] After almost two years of road testing with seven vehicles, the New York Times revealed Google's project in October 2010.[6][7][8]In fall 2015, Google provided \"the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads\".[9] In December 2016, the project was renamed Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet.[10] In October 2020, Waymo became the first company to offer service to the public without safety drivers in the vehicle.[11][12][13][14] Waymo currently operates commercial robotaxi services in Phoenix, Arizona and San Francisco, with new services planned in Los Angeles[15] and Austin, Texas.[16]Waymo is run by co-CEOs Tekedra Mawakana and Dmitri Dolgov.[17] The company raised $5.5 billion in multiple outside funding rounds.[18] Waymo has partnerships with multiple vehicle manufacturers, including Stellantis,[19] Mercedes-Benz Group AG,[20] Jaguar Land Rover,[21] and Volvo.[22]","title":"Waymo"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of self-driving cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_self-driving_cars"}],"text":"See also: History of self-driving cars","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-3"},{"link_name":"Google X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_X"},{"link_name":"Sergey Brin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Brin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AP-16-2"},{"link_name":"Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Artificial_Intelligence_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Anthony Levandowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Levandowski"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-5"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"David Stavens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Stavens"},{"link_name":"DARPA Challenges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Grand_Challenge"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT2010-6"},{"link_name":"acqui-hired","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acqui-hiring"},{"link_name":"Street View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Street_View"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Google-7"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hull17-25"},{"link_name":"Toyota Priuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Prius"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-5"},{"link_name":"Topcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topcon"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-26"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-5"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Ground work","text":"Google's development of self-driving technology began on January 17, 2009,[3] at Google X lab, run by co-founder Sergey Brin.[2] The project was launched at Google by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots.[4][5]The initial software code and artificial intelligence (AI) design of the effort started before the team worked at Google, when Thrun and 15 engineers, including Dmitri Dolgov, Mike Montemerlo, Hendrik Dahlkamp, Sven Strohband, and David Stavens, built Stanley and Junior, Stanford's entries in the 2005 and 2007 DARPA Challenges. Later, aspects of this technology were used in a digital mapping project for SAIL called VueTool.[23][24][6] In 2007, Google acqui-hired the entire VueTool team to help advance Google's Street View technology.[23][24][7][25]As part of Street View development, 100 Toyota Priuses[5] were outfitted with Topcon digital mapping hardware developed by 510 Systems.[26][24][5]In 2008, the Street View team launched project Ground Truth,[27] to create accurate road maps by extracting data from satellites and street views.[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Discovery Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery_Channel"},{"link_name":"Prototype This!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype_This!"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"2004 DARPA Grand Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_DARPA_Grand_Challenge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-1"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_American_Art_Museum"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"pizza delivery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizza_delivery"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"Larry Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Page"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-1"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-24"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-31"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"light detection and ranging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_detection_and_ranging"},{"link_name":"Stanley (vehicle)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_(vehicle)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-1"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-32"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-4"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-31"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"greenlight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlight"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-26"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-23"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-32"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-4"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waymo_self-driving_car_front_view.gk.jpg"}],"sub_title":"Pribot","text":"In February 2008, a Discovery Channel producer for the documentary series Prototype This! phoned Levandowski.[24][29] The producer requested to borrow Levandowski's Ghost Rider, the autonomous two-wheeled motocycle Levandowski's Berkeley team had built for the 2004 DARPA Grand Challenge[1] that Levandowski had later donated to the Smithsonian.[30] Since the motorcycle was not available, Levandowski offered to retrofit a Toyota Prius as a self-driving pizza delivery car for the show.[24]As a Google employee, Levandowski asked Larry Page and Thrun whether Google was interested in participating in the show. Both declined, citing liability issues.[1] However, they authorized Levandowski to move forward with the project, as long as it was not associated with Google.[24][31] Within weeks Levandowski founded Anthony's Robots to do so.[23] He retrofitted the car with light detection and ranging technology (lidar), sensors, and cameras. The Stanford team (Stanley (vehicle)) provided its code base to the project.[1] The ensuing episode depicting Pribot delivering pizza across the San Francisco Bay Bridge under police escort aired in December 2008.[32][4][31][33]The project success led Google to greenlight Google's self-driving car program in January 2009.[1] In 2011, Google acquired 510 Systems (co-founded by Levandowski, Pierre-Yves Droz and Andrew Schultz), and Anthony's Robots for an estimated US$20 million.[26][23][32][4][34] Levandowski's vehicle and hardware, and Stanford's AI technology and software, became the nucleus of the project.[1]A Firefly self-driving Waymo car","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT2010-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Google-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tc-levandowski-8"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1stLicense-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GCC0611-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Forbes0611-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT0511-38"},{"link_name":"Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_Department_of_Motor_Vehicles"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-39"},{"link_name":"Chris Urmson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Urmson"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-39"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1stLicense-35"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"prototype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lynch17-45"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Google_driverless_car_at_intersection.gk.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hyundai Motor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyundai_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"John Krafcik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Krafcik"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-spinoff-46"},{"link_name":"Austin, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"legally blind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legally_blind"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:16-9"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-26"},{"link_name":"Cruise Automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_Automation"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"Otto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_(company)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"}],"sub_title":"Project Chauffeur","text":"After almost two years of road testing with seven vehicles, the New York Times revealed the existence of Google's project on October 9, 2010.[6] Google announced its initiative later the same day.[7][8]Starting in 2010, lawmakers in various states expressed concerns over how to regulate autonomous vehicles. A related Nevada law went into effect on March 1, 2012.[35] Google had been lobbying for such laws.[36][37][38] A modified Prius was licensed by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in May 2012.[39] The car was \"driven\" by Chris Urmson with Levandowski in the passenger seat.[39] This was the first US license for a self-driven car.[35]In January 2014[40] Google was granted a patent for a transportation service funded by advertising that included autonomous vehicles as a transport method.[41] In late May, Google revealed an autonomous prototype, which had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal.[42][43] In December, Google unveiled a Firefly prototype that was planned to be tested on San Francisco Bay Area roads beginning in early 2015.[44][45]A self-driving car with the previous Google brandingIn 2015, Levandowski left the project. In August 2015, Google hired former Hyundai Motor executive, John Krafcik, as CEO.[46] In fall 2015, Google provided \"the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads\" in Austin, Texas to Steve Mahan, former CEO of the Santa Clara Valley Blind Center, who was a legally blind friend of principal engineer Nathaniel Fairfield.[9] It was the first entirely autonomous trip on a public road. It was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort.[47] The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals.[48] By the end of 2015, Project Chauffeur had covered more than a million miles.[26]Google spent $1.1 billion on the project between 2009 and 2015. For comparison, the acquisition of Cruise Automation by General Motors in March 2016 was for $500 million, and Uber's acquisition of Otto in August 2016 was for $680 million.[49]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chrysler Pacifica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Pacifica_(minivan)"},{"link_name":"hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ebhardt16-50"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-journey-10"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-51"},{"link_name":"Novi, Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novi,_Michigan"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-michigan-winter-52"},{"link_name":"Uber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uber"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hull17-25"},{"link_name":"Chandler, Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Randazzo18-53"},{"link_name":"lidar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidar"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bergen17-54"},{"link_name":"Velodyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velodyne_LiDAR"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Adams17-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Amadeo17-56"},{"link_name":"Audi TT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_TT"},{"link_name":"Fiat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat"},{"link_name":"Chrysler Pacifica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Pacifica_(RU)"},{"link_name":"Lexus RX450h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexus_RX450h"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wired2012-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Isaac17-59"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waymo_Jaguar_I-Pace_in_San_Francisco_2023_dllu.jpg"},{"link_name":"I-Pace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_I-Pace"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Higgins18-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins18-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Magna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Steyr"},{"link_name":"Jaguar I-PACE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_I-PACE"},{"link_name":"Chrysler Pacifica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Pacifica_(minivan)"},{"link_name":"Level 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation#Autonomy_levels"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-waymovia-2020-03-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-funding-fool-69"},{"link_name":"Volvo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volvo_Cars"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-22"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"COO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_operating_officer"},{"link_name":"CTO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_technology_officer"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-may22-18"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-75"},{"link_name":"Geely","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geely"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Phoenix, Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:13-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:15-75"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"The Information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Information_(website)"},{"link_name":"TechCrunch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechCrunch"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"}],"sub_title":"Waymo","text":"In May 2016, Google and Stellantis announced an order of 100 Chrysler Pacifica hybrid minivans to test the self-driving technology.[50] In December 2016, the project was renamed Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet.[10] The name was derived from \"a new way forward in mobility\".[51] In May 2016, the company opened a 53,000-square-foot (4,900 m2) technology center in Novi, Michigan.[52]In 2017, Waymo sued Uber for allegedly stealing trade secrets.[25] Waymo began testing minivans without a safety driver on public roads in Chandler, Arizona, in October 2017.[53] In 2017, Waymo unveiled new sensors and chips that are less expensive to manufacture, cameras that improve visibility, and wipers to clear the lidar system.[54] At the beginning of the self-driving car program, they used a $75,000 lidar system from Velodyne.[55] In 2017, the cost decreased approximately 90 percent, as Waymo converted to in-house built lidar.[56] Waymo has applied its technology to various cars including the Prius, Audi TT, Fiat Chrysler Pacifica, and Lexus RX450h.[57][58] Waymo partners with Lyft on pilot projects and product development.[59] Waymo ordered an additional 500 Pacifica hybrids in 2017.Waymo-operated Jaguar I-Pace in San FranciscoIn March 2018, Jaguar Land Rover announced that Waymo had ordered up to 20,000 of its I-Pace electric SUVs at an estimated cost of more than $1 billion.[60][61] In late May 2018, Alphabet announced plans to add up to 62,000 Pacifica Hybrid minivans to the fleet.[62][63] Also in May 2018, Waymo established Huimo Business Consulting subsidiary in Shanghai.[64]In April 2019, Waymo announced plans for vehicle assembly in Detroit at the former American Axle & Manufacturing plant, bringing between 100 and 400 jobs to the area. Waymo used vehicle assembler Magna to turn Jaguar I-PACE electric SUVs and Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans into Waymo Level 4 autonomous vehicles.[65][66] Waymo subsequently reverted to retrofitting existing models rather than a custom design.[67]In March 2020, Waymo Via was launched after the company's announcement that it had raised $2.25 billion from investors.[68] In May 2020, Waymo raised an additional $750 million.[69] In July 2020, the company announced an exclusive partnership with auto manufacturer Volvo to integrate Waymo technology.[22][70]In April 2021, Krafcik was replaced by two co-CEOs: Waymo's COO Tekedra Mawakana and CTO Dmitri Dolgov.[71] Waymo raised $2.5 billion in another funding round in June 2021,[72][73] with total funding of $5.5 billion.[18] Waymo launched a consumer testing program in San Francisco in August 2021.[74][75] Geely Holding said it would partner with Waymo to make electric vehicles from its premium electric mobility brand, Zeekr, to be deployed as fully autonomous ride-hailing vehicles across the United States.[76]In May 2022, Waymo launched its Waymo One Trusted Tester program for residents in downtown Phoenix, Arizona.[74][75] In May 2022, Waymo announced that it would expand the program to more areas of Phoenix.[77] In 2023, coverage of the Waymo One area was increased by 45 square miles (120 km2), expanding to include downtown Mesa, uptown Phoenix, and South Mountain Village.[78][79][80]In June 2022, Waymo announced a partnership with Uber, under which Waymo will integrate its autonomous technology into Uber's freight truck service.[81] Plans to expand the program to Los Angeles were announced in late 2022.[82] On December 13, 2022 Waymo applied for the final permit necessary to operate fully autonomous taxis, without a backup driver present, within the state of California.[83]In January 2023, The Information reported that Waymo staff were among those affected by Google's layoffs of around 12,000 workers. TechCrunch reported that Waymo was set to kill its trucking program.[84]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Google%27s_Lexus_RX_450h_Self-Driving_Car.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lexus RX450h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexus_RX450h"},{"link_name":"matrix multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_multiplication"},{"link_name":"video processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_processing"},{"link_name":"Tensor Processing Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"central processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"transformer (machine learning)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_(machine_learning)"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gibbs17-87"},{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gibbs17-87"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-della_Cava17-88"},{"link_name":"deep-learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep-learning"},{"link_name":"graph neural network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_neural_network"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Madrigal17-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seppala17-91"},{"link_name":"video game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"World of Warcraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_of_Warcraft"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Madrigal17-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seppala17-91"},{"link_name":"Mountain View, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_View,_California"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Madrigal17-90"}],"text":"A Lexus RX450h retrofitted by Google for its self-driving car projectGoogle has invested heavily in matrix multiplication and video processing hardware such as the Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) to augment Nvidia's graphics processing units (GPUs) and Intel central processing units (CPUs).[85] Much of this is shrouded in trade secrets, but transformer (machine learning) technology for inference is probably involved.[86]Waymo manufactures a suite of self-driving hardware developed in-house.[87] This includes sensors and hardware-enhanced vision system, radar, and lidar.[19][87]Sensors give 360-degree views while lidar detects objects up to 300 metres (980 ft) away.[19] Short-range lidar images objects near the vehicle, while radar is used to see around other vehicles and track objects in motion.[19]Riders push buttons to control functions such as \"help\", \"lock\", \"pull over\", and \"start ride\".[88]Waymo's deep-learning architecture VectorNet predicts vehicle trajectories in complex traffic scenarios. It uses a graph neural network to model the interactions between vehicles and has demonstrated state-of-the-art performance on several benchmark datasets for trajectory prediction.[89]Waymo Carcraft is a virtual world where Waymo can simulate driving conditions.[90][91] The simulator was named after the video game World of Warcraft.[90][91] With Carcraft, 25,000 virtual self-driving cars navigate through models of Austin, Texas; Mountain View, California; Phoenix, Arizona; and other cities.[90]","title":"Technology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Road testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jurvetson_Google_driverless_car_trimmed.jpg"},{"link_name":"Toyota Prius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Prius"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Etherington18-93"},{"link_name":"autonomous cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_car"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies17-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-yahoo.com-101"},{"link_name":"Kirkland, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkland,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shepardson16-102"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waymo&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"Chandler, Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler,_Arizona"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"level 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_car#Classification"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-della_Cava17-88"},{"link_name":"Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Central Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"Atlanta, Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"California Department of Motor Vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Department_of_Motor_Vehicles"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-201911-110"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-201912-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vox-2020-02-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sf-08021-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sf-03022-116"}],"sub_title":"Chronology","text":"A Toyota Prius modified to operate as a Google driverless car, navigating a test course[92]In 2009, Google began testing its self-driving cars in the San Francisco Bay Area.[93]By December 2013, Nevada, Florida, California, and Michigan had passed laws permitting autonomous cars.[94] A law proposed in Texas allowed testing.[95][96]In June 2015, Waymo announced that their vehicles had driven over 1,000,000 mi (1,600,000 km) and that in the process they had encountered 200,000 stop signs, 600,000 traffic lights, and 180 million other vehicles.[97] Prototype vehicles were driving in Mountain View.[98] Speeds were limited to 25 mph (40 km/h) and had safety drivers aboard.[99] Google took its first driverless ride on public roads in October 2015, when Mahan took a 10-minute ride around Austin in a Google \"pod car\" with no steering wheel or pedals.[100] Google expanded its road-testing to Texas, where regulations did not prohibit cars without pedals or a steering wheel.[101]In 2016, road testing expanded to Phoenix and Kirkland, Washington, which has a wet climate.[102] As of June 2016[update], Google had test driven its fleet of vehicles in autonomous mode a total of 1,725,911 mi (2,777,585 km).[103] In August 2016 alone, their cars traveled a \"total of 170,000 miles; of those, 126,000 miles were autonomous (i.e., the car was fully in control)\".[104]In 2017, Waymo reported a total of 636,868 miles covered by the fleet in autonomous mode, and the associated 124 disengagements, for the period from December 1, 2015, through November 30, 2016.[105] In November Waymo altered its Arizona testing by removing safety drivers.[19] The cars were geofenced within a 100-square-mile (260 km2) region surrounding Chandler, Arizona.[19]In 2017, Waymo began testing its level 4 cars in Arizona to take advantage of good weather, simple roads, and reasonable laws.[19]In 2017, Waymo began testing in Michigan.[88] Also, in 2017, Waymo unveiled its Castle test facility in Central Valley, California. Castle, a former airbase, has served as the project's training course since 2012.[19]In March 2018, Waymo announced its plans for experiments with the company's self-driving trucks delivering freight to Google data centers in Atlanta, Georgia.[106] In October 2018, the California Department of Motor Vehicles issued a permit for Waymo to operate cars without safety drivers. Waymo was the first company to receive a permit that allowed day and night testing on public roads and highways. Waymo announced that its service would include Mountain View, Sunnyvale, Los Altos, and Palo Alto.[107][108] In July 2019, Waymo received permission to transport passengers.[109]In December 2018, Waymo launched Waymo One, transporting passengers. The service used safety drivers to monitor some rides, with others provided in select areas without them. In November 2019, Waymo One became the first autonomous service worldwide to operate without safety drivers.[110][111][112]By January 2020, Waymo had completed twenty million miles (32,000,000 km) of driving on public roads.[113][114]In August 2021, commercial Waymo One test service started in San Francisco, beginning with a \"trusted tester\" rollout.[115]In March 2022, Waymo began offering rides for Waymo staff in San Francisco without a driver.[116]","title":"Road testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11accidents-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_View-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laris17-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"}],"sub_title":"Crashes","text":"By July 2015, Google's 23 self-driving cars had been involved in 14 minor collisions on public roads.[117] Google maintained that, in all but one case, the vehicle was not at fault because the cars were either driven manually or the driver of another vehicle was at fault.[118][119][120]By July 2021, the NHTSA had found 150 crashes by Waymo. Under NHTSA rules, crashes were reported if the system was in use in the prior 30 seconds, though most crashes did not have injuries.[121]Waymo regularly publishes safety reports.[122] Waymo is required by the California DMV to report the number of incidents where the safety driver took control for safety reasons. Some incidents were not reported when simulations indicated that the car would have stopped safely on its own.[123] In 2023, Waymo claimed only 3 crashes with injuries over 7.1 million miles driven, nearly twice as safe as a human driver.[124]A Waymo robotaxi killed a dog in San Francisco while in \"autonomous mode\" in May 2023.[125]In February 2024, a driverless Waymo robotaxi struck a cyclist in San Francisco.[126] Later that same month, Waymo issued recalls for 444 of its vehicles after two hit the same truck being towed on a highway.[127][128][129]","title":"Road testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"L4 autonomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAE_automation_level"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins17-19"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Etherington17-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ohnsman18-131"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies17-100"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-della_Cava17-88"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gomes14-132"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Castro18-133"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jaffe14-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"Richmond District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richmond_District,_San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"dead end street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_end_street"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"ABC7 News Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abc7_Bay_Area"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"}],"sub_title":"Limitations","text":"Waymo operates in some of its testing markets, such as Chandler, Arizona, at L4 autonomy with no one sitting behind the steering wheel, sharing roadways with other drivers and pedestrians.[19][130] Waymo's earlier testing focused on areas without harsh weather, extreme density, or complicated road systems, but it has moved on to test under new conditions.[131][100] As a result, beginning in 2017, Waymo began testing in areas with harsher conditions, such as its winter testing in Michigan.[88]In 2014, a critic wrote in the MIT Technology Review that unmapped stoplights would cause problems with Waymo's technology and the self-driving technology could not detect potholes. Additionally, the lidar technology cannot spot some potholes or discern when humans, such as a police officers, signal the car to stop, the critic wrote.[132] Waymo has worked to improve how its technology responds in construction zones.[133][134]California regulators do not require Waymo to disclose every incident involving erratic behavior in its fleet. In the first five months of 2023, San Francisco officials said they had logged more than 240 incidents in which a Cruise or Waymo vehicle might have created a safety hazard.[135]In 2021, it was noted that Waymo cars kept routing through the Richmond District of San Francisco, with up to 50 cars each day driving to a dead end street before turning around.[136] In 2023, ABC7 News Bay Area posted a video of a journalist taking a ride in a Waymo vehicle, which notably stopped at a green light and dropped the journalist at the wrong stop twice, despite support intervention.[137]","title":"Road testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Safe Street Rebels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Safe_Street_Rebels&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"San Mateo County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Mateo_County,_California"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"}],"sub_title":"Backlash","text":"In 2023, the San Francisco group Safe Street Rebels used a practice called \"coning\" to trap Waymo and Cruise cars with traffic cones as a form of protest after claiming that the cars had been involved in hundreds of incidents.[138] During the 2024 Lunar New Year in San Francisco Chinatown, protestors attacked, graffitied, and set fire to a Waymo car. No one was injured.[139][140] In 2024, passengers during a Waymo ride described an attack by an onlooker who attempted to cover the car's sensors.[141]In 2024, a San Francisco city attorney had attempted to sue to prevent expansion of driverless vehicles including Waymo into San Francisco.[142] San Mateo County government soon after also sent a letter to regulators opposing expansion to its county.[143]In May 2024, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) launched an investigation into potential flaws in Waymo vehicles, focusing on 31 incidents that included Waymo vehicles ramming into a closing gate, driving on the wrong side of the road, and at least 17 crashes or fires.[144]","title":"Road testing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-della_Cava17-88"}],"text":"Waymo highlighted four specific business uses for its autonomous tech in 2017: Robotaxis, trucking and logistics, urban public transportation, and passenger cars.[88]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robotaxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotaxi"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotaxi&action=edit"},{"link_name":"a series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Self-driving_cars"},{"link_name":"Self-driving cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-driving_car"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Selfdriving.svg"},{"link_name":"Assured clear distance ahead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assured_clear_distance_ahead"},{"link_name":"Autonomous racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_racing"},{"link_name":"Datasets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_datasets_for_autonomous_vehicles"},{"link_name":"History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_self-driving_cars"},{"link_name":"Impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_self-driving_cars"},{"link_name":"Lane centering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lane_centering"},{"link_name":"Pedestrian crash avoidance mitigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestrian_crash_avoidance_mitigation"},{"link_name":"Vehicle infrastructure integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_infrastructure_integration"},{"link_name":"Automatic parking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_parking"},{"link_name":"Platoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platoon_(automobile)"},{"link_name":"Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_self-driving_cars"},{"link_name":"Liability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-driving_car_liability"},{"link_name":"Robotaxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotaxi"},{"link_name":"Self-driving truck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-driving_truck"},{"link_name":"Tunnel problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_problem"},{"link_name":"Automatic train operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_train_operation"},{"link_name":"Unmanned surface vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmanned_surface_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Vehicular automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Self-driving_car"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Self-driving_car&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Self-driving_car"},{"link_name":"robotaxi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotaxi"},{"link_name":"autonomous car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_car"},{"link_name":"SAE automation level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAE_automation_level"},{"link_name":"ridesharing company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridesharing_company"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sf-08021-115"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"Zeekr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeekr"},{"link_name":"CEVT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEVT"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"}],"sub_title":"Robotaxis","text":"This section is an excerpt from Robotaxi.[edit]\nPart of a series onSelf-driving cars & self-driving vehicles\nEnablers\n\nAssured clear distance ahead\nAutonomous racing\nDatasets\nHistory\nImpact\nLane centering\nPedestrian crash avoidance mitigation\nVehicle infrastructure integration\n\n\nTopics\n\nAutomatic parking\nPlatoon\nRegulation\nLiability\nRobotaxi\nSelf-driving truck\nTunnel problem\n\n\nRelated topics\n\nAutomatic train operation\nUnmanned surface vehicle\nVehicular automation\n\nvte\nA robotaxi, also known as robot taxi, robo-taxi, self-driving taxi or driverless taxi, is an autonomous car (SAE automation level 4 or 5) operated for a ridesharing company.Waymo offers robotaxi services in Phoenix, Arizona and San Francisco,[115] with plans to expand to Los Angeles, California.[145] Waymo's autonomous robotaxi was developed by Zeekr and CEVT.[146][147]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:14-148"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-waymovia-2020-03-68"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-waymo-via-149"},{"link_name":"Class 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck_classification"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins03-09-2018-150"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hawkins03-09-2018-150"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:14-148"},{"link_name":"Dallas, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"Freightliner Cascadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freightliner_Cascadia"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-via-daimler-152"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reuters-202304-153"},{"link_name":"Aurora Innovation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurora_Innovation"},{"link_name":"Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Motor_Carrier_Safety_Administration"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"United Parcel Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Parcel_Service"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fc-ups-waymo-156"},{"link_name":"Stellantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellantis"},{"link_name":"Ram ProMaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram_ProMaster"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"}],"sub_title":"Trucking and delivery","text":"Waymo Via, launched in 2020 to work with OEMs to get its technology into vehicles.[148][68][149] The company is testing Class 8 tractor-trailers[150] in Atlanta,[150] and southwest shipping routes across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.[148] The company operates a trucking hub in Dallas, Texas.[151] It is partnering with Daimler to integrate autonomous technology into a fleet of Freightliner Cascadia trucks.[152]Waymo operates 48 Class 8 autonomous trucks with safety drivers.[153] In 2023 Waymo issued a joint application along with Aurora Innovation to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration for a five-year exemption from rules that require drivers to place reflective triangles or a flare around a stopped tractor-trailer truck, to avoid needing human drivers, in favor of warning beacons mounted on the truck cab.[154]Waymo tested its technology in commercial delivery vehicles with United Parcel Service.[155][156] In July 2020 Waymo and Stellantis expanded their partnership, including the development of Ram ProMaster delivery vehicles.[157]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Legal matters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Otto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_(company)"},{"link_name":"trade secret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secrets"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wakabayashi-158"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Larson18-163"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wakabayashi-158"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELarson2018-165"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wakabayashi-158"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"}],"sub_title":"Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al.","text":"In February 2017, Waymo sued Uber and its subsidiary self-driving trucking company, Otto, alleging trade secret theft and patent infringement. The company claimed that three ex-Google employees, including Anthony Levandowski, had stolen trade secrets, including thousands of files, from Google before joining Uber.[158] The alleged infringement was related to Waymo's proprietary lidar technology,[159][160] Google accused Uber of colluding with Levandowski.[161] Levandowski allegedly downloaded 9 gigabytes of data that included over a hundred trade secrets; eight of which were at stake during the trial.[162][163]An ensuing settlement gave Waymo 0.34% of Uber stock,[158] the equivalent of $245 million. Uber agreed not to infringe Waymo's intellectual property.[164] Part of the agreement included a guarantee that \"Waymo confidential information is not being incorporated in Uber Advanced Technologies Group hardware and software.\"[165] In statements released after the settlement, Uber maintained that it received no trade secrets.[166] In May, according to an Uber spokesman, Uber had fired Levandowski, which resulted in the loss of roughly $250 million of his equity in Uber, which almost exactly equaled the settlement.[158] Uber announced that it was halting production of self-driving trucks through Otto in July 2018, and the subsidiary company was shuttered.[167]","title":"Legal matters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California Department of Motor Vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Department_of_Motor_Vehicles"},{"link_name":"trade secret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_secret"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"The Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"}],"sub_title":"California disclosure dispute","text":"In January 2022, Waymo sued the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) to prevent data on driverless crashes from being released to the public. Waymo maintained that such information constituted a trade secret.[168] According to The Los Angeles Times, the \"topics Waymo wants to keep hidden include how it plans to handle driverless car emergencies, what it would do if a robot taxi started driving itself where it wasn't supposed to go, and what constraints there are on the car's ability to traverse San Francisco's tunnels, tight curves and steep hills.\"[169]In February 2022, Waymo was successful in preventing the release of robotaxi safety records. A Waymo spokesperson affirmed that the company would be transparent about its safety record.[170]","title":"Legal matters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Episode Exe006: Sebastian Thrun, Director, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210401042828/https://www.youtube.com/embed/tbGVWRIzZr4"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.executivetalks.com/exe006.html"},{"link_name":"\"The Ethics of Saving Lives with Autonomous Cars Are Far Murkier Than You Think\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wired.com/opinion/2013/07/the-surprising-ethics-of-robot-cars/"},{"link_name":"\"Moral Machines\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2012/11/google-driverless-car-morality.html"},{"link_name":"\"Silicon Valley vs. Detroit: The Battle for the Car of the Future\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.forbes.com/sites/joannmuller/2013/05/08/silicon-valley-vs-detroit-the-battle-for-the-car-of-the-future/"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"\"The Problem with Self-Driving Cars\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140404154928/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-04-03/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-they-dont-cry#r=hpt-ls"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-04-03/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-they-dont-cry#r=hpt-ls"},{"link_name":"Automated Vehicles Are Probably Legal in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cyberlaw.stanford.edu/publications/automated-vehicles-are-probably-legal-united-states"}],"text":"Grant, Christian (May 2007). \"Episode Exe006: Sebastian Thrun, Director, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory\". Executive Talks. Archived from the original on April 1, 2021. Retrieved January 3, 2013.\nLin, Patrick (July 30, 2013). \"The Ethics of Saving Lives with Autonomous Cars Are Far Murkier Than You Think\". Wired. Retrieved August 24, 2013.\nMarcus, Gary (November 27, 2012). \"Moral Machines\". The New Yorker. Retrieved August 24, 2013.\nMuller, Joann (May 27, 2013). \"Silicon Valley vs. Detroit: The Battle for the Car of the Future\". Forbes.\nStock, Kyle (April 3, 2014). \"The Problem with Self-Driving Cars\". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on April 4, 2014. Retrieved April 6, 2014.\nWalker Smith, Bryant (November 1, 2012), Automated Vehicles Are Probably Legal in the United States, Stanford Law School, retrieved August 24, 2013","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Waymo Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid undergoing testing in the San Francisco Bay Area","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Waymo_Chrysler_Pacifica_in_Los_Altos%2C_2017.jpg/220px-Waymo_Chrysler_Pacifica_in_Los_Altos%2C_2017.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Firefly self-driving Waymo car","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Waymo_self-driving_car_front_view.gk.jpg/220px-Waymo_self-driving_car_front_view.gk.jpg"},{"image_text":"A self-driving car with the previous Google branding","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Google_driverless_car_at_intersection.gk.jpg/220px-Google_driverless_car_at_intersection.gk.jpg"},{"image_text":"Waymo-operated Jaguar I-Pace in San Francisco","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Waymo_Jaguar_I-Pace_in_San_Francisco_2023_dllu.jpg/220px-Waymo_Jaguar_I-Pace_in_San_Francisco_2023_dllu.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Lexus RX450h retrofitted by Google for its self-driving car project","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Google%27s_Lexus_RX_450h_Self-Driving_Car.jpg/220px-Google%27s_Lexus_RX_450h_Self-Driving_Car.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Toyota Prius modified to operate as a Google driverless car, navigating a test course[92]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Jurvetson_Google_driverless_car_trimmed.jpg/220px-Jurvetson_Google_driverless_car_trimmed.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"How a robot lover pioneered the driverless car, and why he's selling his latest to Uber\". the Guardian. August 19, 2016. Retrieved July 1, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/aug/19/self-driving-car-anthony-levandowski-uber-otto-google","url_text":"\"How a robot lover pioneered the driverless car, and why he's selling his latest to Uber\""}]},{"reference":"\"Google's self-driving-car project becomes a separate company: Waymo\". The Associated Press. December 13, 2016. Retrieved June 13, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-hy-google-waymo-self-driving-20161213-story.html","url_text":"\"Google's self-driving-car project becomes a separate company: Waymo\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Associated_Press","url_text":"The Associated Press"}]},{"reference":"Krafcik, John (January 17, 2019). \"Our #tenyearchallenge has been building the world's most experienced driver. Thanks to two visionary @Google characters for getting us started & to the @Waymo One riders in #Phoenix we're serving. HBD #Waymo pic.twitter.com/Ew4fdXjM7c\". John Krafcik's official Twitter account. Archived from the original on January 23, 2019. Retrieved January 17, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://twitter.com/johnkrafcik/status/1085944196186304512","url_text":"\"Our #tenyearchallenge has been building the world's most experienced driver. Thanks to two visionary @Google characters for getting us started & to the @Waymo One riders in #Phoenix we're serving. HBD #Waymo pic.twitter.com/Ew4fdXjM7c\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190123193629/https://twitter.com/johnkrafcik/status/1085944196186304512","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Unknown Start-up That Built Google's First Self-Driving Car\". IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News. November 19, 2014. Retrieved July 1, 2020. 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heading\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2017/11/7/16615290/waymo-self-driving-safety-driver-chandler-autonomous","external_links_name":"\"Waymo is first to put fully self-driving cars on US roads without a safety driver\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2020/10/27/daimler-trucks-partners-with-waymo-to-build-self-driving-semi-trucks","external_links_name":"Daimler Trucks partners with Waymo to build self-driving semi trucks"},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2018-04-02/waymo-isn-t-slowing-down-pact-with-honda-could-include-delivery","external_links_name":"\"Waymo isn't going to slow down now\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidsilver/2020/06/29/waymo-and-volvo-form-exclusive-self-driving-partnership/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo And Volvo Form Exclusive Self-Driving Partnership\""},{"Link":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-a-star-engineer-sparked-a-war-between-google-and-uber-1495556308","external_links_name":"\"Google vs. Uber: How One Engineer 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Where are our self-driving cars? - In the age of AI advances, self-driving cars turned out to be harder than people expected\""},{"Link":"https://medium.com/waymo/where-the-next-10-million-miles-will-take-us-de51bebb67d3","external_links_name":"\"Where the next 10 million miles will take us\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/cars/2020/01/waymo-is-way-way-ahead-on-testing-miles-that-might-not-be-a-good-thing/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo is way, way ahead on testing miles - that might not be a good thing\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/08/waymo-expands-to-san-francisco-with-public-self-driving-test/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo expands to San Francisco with public self-driving test - Confidential testing starts in SF, featuring Waymo's 5th-gen Jaguar I-Pace cars\""},{"Link":"https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-03-30/google-s-waymo-to-offer-public-fully-driverless-rides-in-san-francisco","external_links_name":"\"Waymo, Chasing Cruise, Plans Fully Driverless Rides in San Francisco\""},{"Link":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/googles-autonomous-car-injuries-blame-the-human/","external_links_name":"\"Google's autonomous car injuries: Blame the human\""},{"Link":"https://medium.com/backchannel/the-view-from-the-front-seat-of-the-google-self-driving-car-46fc9f3e6088","external_links_name":"\"The View from the Front Seat of the Google Self-Driving Car\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/10/science/10google.html?_r=1","external_links_name":"\"Google Cars Drive Themselves, in Traffic\""},{"Link":"http://www.businessinsider.com/googles-self-driving-cars-get-in-their-first-accident-2011-8","external_links_name":"\"Human Driver Crashes Google's Self Driving Car\""},{"Link":"https://www.sfchronicle.com/bayarea/article/waymo-cruise-driverless-cars-18304792.php","external_links_name":"\"Here's how many Waymo and Cruise vehicles have been in crashes in past 2 years\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/trafficandcommuting/waymo-is-first-company-to-deliver-federal-officials-a-detailed-self-driving-safety-report/2017/10/12/1f9a207e-af73-11e7-be94-fabb0f1e9ffb_story.html","external_links_name":"\"Waymo gives federal officials a detailed safety report on self-driving vehicles\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/jan/12/google-self-driving-cars-mistakes-data-reports","external_links_name":"\"Google reports self-driving car mistakes: 272 failures and 13 near misses\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/cars/2023/12/human-drivers-crash-a-lot-more-than-waymos-software-data-shows/","external_links_name":"\"7.1 million miles, 3 minor injuries: Waymo's safety data looks good\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jun/07/waymo-car-kills-dog-self-driving-robotaxi-san-francisco","external_links_name":"\"Self-driving Waymo car kills dog amid increasing concern over robotaxis\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/world/us/driverless-waymo-car-hits-cyclist-san-francisco-causes-minor-scratches-2024-02-07/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo robotaxi accident with San Francisco cyclist draws regulatory review\""},{"Link":"https://apnews.com/article/waymo-google-selfdriving-recall-software-eb492a89b32789cacd0b6a18dee9aaf9","external_links_name":"\"Waymo issues recall after 2 of its vehicles strike the same pickup truck\""},{"Link":"https://www.sfchronicle.com/tech/article/waymo-recall-collisions-18667463.php","external_links_name":"\"Waymo recalls robotaxi software after collisions in Phoenix\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/technology/waymo-updates-software-over-400-recalled-vehicles-nhtsa-2024-02-15/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo recalls 444 self-driving vehicles over software error\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2017/11/07/waymo-now-testing-its-self-driving-cars-on-public-roads-with-no-one-at-the-wheel/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo now testing its self-driving cars on public roads with no one at the wheel\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanohnsman/2018/03/02/waymo-is-millions-of-miles-ahead-in-robot-car-tests-does-it-need-a-billion-more/#719d148b1ef4","external_links_name":"\"Waymo Is Millions Of Miles Ahead In Robot Car Tests; Does It Need A Billion More?\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150316001705/http://www.technologyreview.com/news/530276/hidden-obstacles-for-googles-self-driving-cars/","external_links_name":"\"Hidden Obstacles for Google's Self-driving Car\""},{"Link":"http://www.technologyreview.com/news/530276/hidden-obstacles-for-googles-self-driving-cars/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/9/17307156/google-waymo-driverless-cars-deep-learning-neural-net-interview","external_links_name":"\"Inside Waymo's strategy to grow the best brains for self-driving cars\""},{"Link":"https://www.citylab.com/life/2014/04/first-look-how-googles-self-driving-car-handles-city-streets/8977/","external_links_name":"\"The first look at how Google's self-driving car handles city streets\""},{"Link":"https://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory/recalling-wild-ride-robotaxi-named-peaches-regulators-mull-102044826","external_links_name":"\"Recalling a wild ride with a robotaxi named Peaches as regulators mull San Francisco expansion plan\""},{"Link":"https://www.npr.org/2021/10/16/1046752123/self-driving-cars-waymo-san-francisco","external_links_name":"\"Self-driving Waymo cars gather in a San Francisco neighborhood, confusing residents\""},{"Link":"https://abc7news.com/self-driving-cars-san-francisco-robo-taxi-waymo-cruise-car/13442069/","external_links_name":"\"Journalist documents wild ride inside Waymo self-driving car in SF\""},{"Link":"https://www.npr.org/2023/08/26/1195695051/driverless-cars-san-francisco-waymo-cruise","external_links_name":"\"Armed with traffic cones, protesters are immobilizing driverless cars\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2024/02/12/waymo-set-on-fire-san-francisco/","external_links_name":"\"San Francisco crowd sets self-driving car on fire\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286","external_links_name":"0190-8286"},{"Link":"https://www.nbcbayarea.com/news/local/san-francisco/waymo-car-fire-san-francisco/3452091/","external_links_name":"\"Authorities work to identify people who set Waymo car on fire in San Francisco\""},{"Link":"https://abc7news.com/waymo-sf-attacked-self-driving-car-incidents/14397184/","external_links_name":"\"SF couple describes feeling 'trapped' riding in Waymo driverless car that was being attacked\""},{"Link":"https://www.sfexaminer.com/news/transit/san-francisco-sues-cpuc-for-authorizing-waymo-expansion/article_7ebe569a-bb03-11ee-9ca3-ff53bee30f57.html","external_links_name":"\"SF sues state regulators for robotaxi expansion\""},{"Link":"https://www.mercurynews.com/2024/02/15/san-mateo-county-opposes-waymos-driverless-car-expansion/","external_links_name":"\"San Mateo County opposes Waymo's driverless-car expansion\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2024/05/24/all-major-robotaxi-firms-are-facing-federal-safety-investigations/","external_links_name":"\"Major robotaxi firms face federal safety investigations after crashes\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286","external_links_name":"0190-8286"},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2022/10/19/waymo-robotaxi-los-angeles/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo to launch robotaxi service in Los Angeles\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2022/11/21/23471183/waymo-zeekr-geely-autonomous-vehicle-av-robotaxi","external_links_name":"\"Waymo's new robotaxi is an all-electric people mover with no steering wheel\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2023/10/08/geely-waymo-robotaxi-to-test-in-us/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo-Zeekr robotaxi poised for US testing by end of 2023\""},{"Link":"https://www.ttnews.com/articles/waymo-targets-southwest-freight-corridor-autonomous-truck-tests-0","external_links_name":"\"Waymo Targets Southwest Freight Corridor for Autonomous Truck Tests\""},{"Link":"https://waymo.com/waymo-via/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo Via - Same Driver. Different Vehicle\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2018/3/9/17100518/waymo-self-driving-truck-google-atlanta","external_links_name":"\"Waymo's self-driving trucks will start delivering freight in Atlanta\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/alanohnsman/2020/08/25/waymo-taps-texas-as-its-robot-truck-hub-with-new-dallas-depot/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo Taps Texas As Its Robot Truck Hub With Dallas Depot\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2020/10/27/21536048/waymo-daimler-driverless-semi-trucks-cascadia-freightliner","external_links_name":"\"Waymo and Daimler are teaming up to build fully driverless semi trucks - 'A broad, global, strategic partnership'\""},{"Link":"https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/union-opposes-driverless-trucks-exemption-waymo-aurora-2023-04-11/","external_links_name":"\"US union opposes driverless trucks waiver for Waymo, Aurora\""},{"Link":"https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/03/09/2023-04841/parts-and-accessories-necessary-for-safe-operation-exemption-application-from-waymo-llc-and-aurora","external_links_name":"\"Federal Register :: Parts and Accessories Necessary for Safe Operation; Exemption Application From Waymo LLC, and Aurora Operations, Inc\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/29/tech/ups-waymo-self-driving-package-delivery/index.html","external_links_name":"\"UPS teams up with Waymo to test self-driving delivery vans\""},{"Link":"https://www.fastcompany.com/90532791/how-the-waymo-driver-is-revolutionizing-shipping","external_links_name":"\"How the Waymo Driver is revolutionizing shipping - It's not only more efficient. Delivery networks, energy conservation, warehouse design, and more will all be affected—for the better\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/cars/2020/07/waymo-is-working-on-autonomous-ram-promaster-vans-for-goods-deliveries/","external_links_name":"\"Waymo is working on autonomous Ram ProMaster Vans for goods deliveries - FCA was Waymo's first OEM partner in 2016, deal will continue post-merger with PSA\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/09/technology/uber-waymo-lawsuit-driverless.html","external_links_name":"\"Uber and Waymo Settle Trade Secrets Suit Over Driverless Cars\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"http://tsi.brooklaw.edu/cases/waymo-llc-v-uber-technologies-inc-ottomotto-llc-otto-trucking-llc","external_links_name":"\"Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc; Ottomotto LLC; Otto Trucking LLC\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/02/23/technology/document-waymo-uber-complaint.html","external_links_name":"\"Waymo's Complaint Against Uber\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/30/technology/waymo-uber-lawsuit.html","external_links_name":"\"Secrets or Knowledge? Uber-Waymo Trial Tests Silicon Valley Culture\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/8/16993208/waymo-v-uber-trial-trade-secrets-lidar","external_links_name":"\"I'm not so sure Waymo's going to win against Uber\""},{"Link":"https://money.cnn.com/2018/02/07/technology/waymo-v-uber-technology/index.html","external_links_name":"\"The tech at the center of the Waymo vs. Uber trade secrets case\""},{"Link":"https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2018/02/waymo-and-uber-end-trial-with-sudden-244-million-settlement/","external_links_name":"\"Silicon Valley's most-watched trial ends as Waymo and Uber settle\""},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-uber-waymo-settlement-20180209-story.html","external_links_name":"\"Uber reaches settlement with Waymo in dispute over trade secrets\""},{"Link":"https://techcrunch.com/2018/07/30/ubers-self-driving-trucks-division-is-dead-long-live-uber-self-driving-cars/","external_links_name":"\"Uber's self-driving trucks division is dead, long live Uber self-driving cars\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2022/1/28/22906513/waymo-lawsuit-california-dmv-crash-data-foia","external_links_name":"\"Waymo sues California DMV to keep driverless crash data under wraps\""},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/business/story/2022-01-28/waymo-robot-taxi-sues-state-secret-black-ice","external_links_name":"\"Waymo sues state DMV to keep robotaxi safety details secret\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2022/2/23/22947595/waymo-lawsuit-california-dmv-secret-win-injunction","external_links_name":"\"Waymo wins bid to keep some of its robotaxi safety details secret\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210401042828/https://www.youtube.com/embed/tbGVWRIzZr4","external_links_name":"\"Episode Exe006: Sebastian Thrun, Director, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory\""},{"Link":"http://www.executivetalks.com/exe006.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.wired.com/opinion/2013/07/the-surprising-ethics-of-robot-cars/","external_links_name":"\"The Ethics of Saving Lives with Autonomous Cars Are Far Murkier Than You Think\""},{"Link":"https://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/newsdesk/2012/11/google-driverless-car-morality.html","external_links_name":"\"Moral Machines\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/joannmuller/2013/05/08/silicon-valley-vs-detroit-the-battle-for-the-car-of-the-future/","external_links_name":"\"Silicon Valley vs. Detroit: The Battle for the Car of the Future\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140404154928/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-04-03/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-they-dont-cry#r=hpt-ls","external_links_name":"\"The Problem with Self-Driving Cars\""},{"Link":"http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-04-03/the-problem-with-self-driving-cars-they-dont-cry#r=hpt-ls","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/publications/automated-vehicles-are-probably-legal-united-states","external_links_name":"Automated Vehicles Are Probably Legal in the United States"},{"Link":"https://openaccess.thecvf.com/content_CVPR_2020/html/Sun_Scalability_in_Perception_for_Autonomous_Driving_Waymo_Open_Dataset_CVPR_2020_paper.html","external_links_name":"Scalability in Perception for Autonomous Driving: Waymo Open Dataset"},{"Link":"https://www.jjricks.com/videos","external_links_name":"Waymo Self Driving Car Videos"},{"Link":"https://www.waymo.com/","external_links_name":"Https://www.waymo.com"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_application_development
Rapid application development
["1 History","2 The James Martin RAD method","3 Advantages","4 Disadvantages","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading"]
Concept of software development "RAD tool" and "Rapid Application Development Tool" redirect here. For development focused on making graphical user interfaces, see graphical user interface builder. Part of a series onSoftware development Core activities Data modeling Processes Requirements Design Construction Engineering Testing Debugging Deployment Maintenance Paradigms and models Agile Cleanroom Incremental Prototyping Spiral V model Waterfall Methodologies and frameworks ASD DevOps DAD DSDM FDD IID Kanban Lean SD LeSS MDD MSF PSP RAD RUP SAFe Scrum SEMAT TDD TSP OpenUP UP XP Supporting disciplines Configuration management Documentation Software quality assurance Project management User experience Practices ATDD BDD CCO CI CD DDD PP SBE Stand-up TDD Tools Compiler Debugger Profiler GUI designer UML Modeling IDE Build automation Release automation Infrastructure as code Standards and bodies of knowledge CMMI IEEE standards ISO 9001 ISO/IEC standards PMBOK SWEBOK ITIL IREB OMG Glossaries Artificial intelligence Computer science Electrical and electronics engineering Outlines Outline of software development vte Rapid application development (RAD), also called rapid application building (RAB), is both a general term for adaptive software development approaches, and the name for James Martin's method of rapid development. In general, RAD approaches to software development put less emphasis on planning and more emphasis on an adaptive process. Prototypes are often used in addition to or sometimes even instead of design specifications. RAD is especially well suited for (although not limited to) developing software that is driven by user interface requirements. Graphical user interface builders are often called rapid application development tools. Other approaches to rapid development include the adaptive, agile, spiral, and unified models. History Rapid application development was a response to plan-driven waterfall processes, developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM). One of the problems with these methods is that they were based on a traditional engineering model used to design and build things like bridges and buildings. Software is an inherently different kind of artifact. Software can radically change the entire process used to solve a problem. As a result, knowledge gained from the development process itself can feed back to the requirements and design of the solution. Plan-driven approaches attempt to rigidly define the requirements, the solution, and the plan to implement it, and have a process that discourages changes. RAD approaches, on the other hand, recognize that software development is a knowledge intensive process and provide flexible processes that help take advantage of knowledge gained during the project to improve or adapt the solution. The first such RAD alternative was developed by Barry Boehm and was known as the spiral model. Boehm and other subsequent RAD approaches emphasized developing prototypes as well as or instead of rigorous design specifications. Prototypes had several advantages over traditional specifications: Risk reduction. A prototype could test some of the most difficult potential parts of the system early on in the life-cycle. This can provide valuable information as to the feasibility of a design and can prevent the team from pursuing solutions that turn out to be too complex or time-consuming to implement. This benefit of finding problems earlier in the life-cycle rather than later was a key benefit of the RAD approach. The earlier a problem can be found the cheaper it is to address. Users are better at using and reacting than at creating specifications. In the waterfall model it was common for a user to sign off on a set of requirements but then when presented with an implemented system to suddenly realize that a given design lacked some critical features or was too complex. In general most users give much more useful feedback when they can experience a prototype of the running system rather than abstractly define what that system should be. Prototypes can be usable and can evolve into the completed product. One approach used in some RAD methods was to build the system as a series of prototypes that evolve from minimal functionality to moderately useful to the final completed system. The advantage of this besides the two advantages above was that the users could get useful business functionality much earlier in the process. Starting with the ideas of Barry Boehm and others, James Martin developed the rapid application development approach during the 1980s at IBM and finally formalized it by publishing a book in 1991, Rapid Application Development. This has resulted in some confusion over the term RAD even among IT professionals. It is important to distinguish between RAD as a general alternative to the waterfall model and RAD as the specific method created by Martin. The Martin method was tailored toward knowledge intensive and UI intensive business systems. These ideas were further developed and improved upon by RAD pioneers like James Kerr and Richard Hunter, who together wrote the seminal book on the subject, Inside RAD, which followed the journey of a RAD project manager as he drove and refined the RAD Methodology in real-time on an actual RAD project. These practitioners, and those like them, helped RAD gain popularity as an alternative to traditional systems project life cycle approaches. The RAD approach also matured during the period of peak interest in business re-engineering. The idea of business process re-engineering was to radically rethink core business processes such as sales and customer support with the new capabilities of Information Technology in mind. RAD was often an essential part of larger business re engineering programs. The rapid prototyping approach of RAD was a key tool to help users and analysts "think out of the box" about innovative ways that technology might radically reinvent a core business process. Much of James Martin's comfort with RAD stemmed from Dupont's Information Engineering division and its leader Scott Schultz and their respective relationships with John Underwood who headed up a bespoke RAD development company that pioneered many successful RAD projects in Australia and Hong Kong. Successful projects that included ANZ Bank, Lend Lease, BHP, Coca-Cola Amatil, Alcan, Hong Kong Jockey Club and numerous others. Success that led to both Scott Shultz and James Martin both spending time in Australia with John Underwood to understand the methods and details of why Australia was disproportionately successful in implementing significant mission critical RAD projects. The James Martin RAD method Phases in the James Martin approach to RAD The James Martin approach to RAD divides the process into four distinct phases: Requirements planning phase – combines elements of the system planning and systems analysis phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC). Users, managers, and IT staff members discuss and agree on business needs, project scope, constraints, and system requirements. It ends when the team agrees on the key issues and obtains management authorization to continue. User design phase – during this phase, users interact with systems analysts and develop models and prototypes that represent all system processes, inputs, and outputs. The RAD groups or subgroups typically use a combination of joint application design (JAD) techniques and CASE tools to translate user needs into working models. User design is a continuous interactive process that allows users to understand, modify, and eventually approve a working model of the system that meets their needs. Construction phase – focuses on program and application development task similar to the SDLC. In RAD, however, users continue to participate and can still suggest changes or improvements as actual screens or reports are developed. Its tasks are programming and application development, coding, unit-integration and system testing. Cutover phase – resembles the final tasks in the SDLC implementation phase, including data conversion, testing, changeover to the new system, and user training. Compared with traditional methods, the entire process is compressed. As a result, the new system is built, delivered, and placed in operation much sooner. Advantages In modern Information Technology environments, many systems are now built using some degree of Rapid Application Development (not necessarily the James Martin approach). In addition to Martin's method, agile methods and the Rational Unified Process are often used for RAD development. The purported advantages of RAD include: Better quality. By having users interact with evolving prototypes the business functionality from a RAD project can often be much higher than that achieved via a waterfall model. The software can be more usable and has a better chance to focus on business problems that are critical to end users rather than technical problems of interest to developers. However, this excludes other categories of what are usually known as Non-functional requirements (AKA constraints or quality attributes) including security and portability. Risk control. Although much of the literature on RAD focuses on speed and user involvement a critical feature of RAD done correctly is risk mitigation. It's worth remembering that Boehm initially characterized the spiral model as a risk based approach. A RAD approach can focus in early on the key risk factors and adjust to them based on empirical evidence collected in the early part of the process. E.g., the complexity of prototyping some of the most complex parts of the system. More projects completed on time and within budget. By focusing on the development of incremental units the chances for catastrophic failures that have dogged large waterfall projects is reduced. In the Waterfall model it was common to come to a realization after six months or more of analysis and development that required a radical rethinking of the entire system. With RAD this kind of information can be discovered and acted upon earlier in the process. Disadvantages The purported disadvantages of RAD include: The risk of a new approach. For most IT shops RAD was a new approach that required experienced professionals to rethink the way they worked. Humans are virtually always averse to change and any project undertaken with new tools or methods will be more likely to fail the first time simply due to the requirement for the team to learn. Lack of emphasis on Non-functional requirements, which are often not visible to the end user in normal operation. Requires time of scarce resources. One thing virtually all approaches to RAD have in common is that there is much more interaction throughout the entire life-cycle between users and developers. In the waterfall model, users would define requirements and then mostly go away as developers created the system. In RAD users are involved from the beginning and through virtually the entire project. This requires that the business is willing to invest the time of application domain experts. The paradox is that the better the expert, the more they are familiar with their domain, the more they are required to actually run the business and it may be difficult to convince their supervisors to invest their time. Without such commitments RAD projects will not succeed. Less control. One of the advantages of RAD is that it provides a flexible adaptable process. The ideal is to be able to adapt quickly to both problems and opportunities. There is an inevitable trade-off between flexibility and control, more of one means less of the other. If a project (e.g. life-critical software) values control more than agility RAD is not appropriate. Poor design. The focus on prototypes can be taken too far in some cases resulting in a "hack and test" methodology where developers are constantly making minor changes to individual components and ignoring system architecture issues that could result in a better overall design. This can especially be an issue for methodologies such as Martin's that focus so heavily on the user interface of the system. Lack of scalability. RAD typically focuses on small to medium-sized project teams. The other issues cited above (less design and control) present special challenges when using a RAD approach for very large scale systems. See also Practical concepts to implement RAD: Graphical user interface builder, where main software tools for RAD are represented Fourth-generation programming language, e.g. FileMaker, 4th Dimension, dBase and Visual FoxPro Other similar concepts: Flow-based programming Lean software development Platform as a service Low-code development platforms No-code development platform References ^ Brooks, Fred (1986). Kugler, H.J. (ed.). No Silver Bullet Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering (PDF). Information Processing '86. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V (North-Holland). ISBN 0-444-70077-3. Retrieved 2 July 2014. ^ a b Boehm, Barry (May 1988). "A Spiral Model of Software Development" (PDF). IEEE Computer. doi:10.1109/2.59. S2CID 1781829. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2018. Retrieved 1 July 2014. ^ Kerr, James M.; Hunter, Richard (1993). Inside RAD: How to Build a Fully Functional System in 90 Days or Less. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-034223-7. ^ Drucker, Peter (3 November 2009). Post-Capitalist Society. Harper Collins e-books. ISBN 978-0887306204. ^ Martin, James (1991). Rapid Application Development. Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-376775-8. ^ Martin, James (1991). Rapid Application Development. Macmillan. pp. 81–90. ISBN 0-02-376775-8. ^ "The Disintegration of AD: Putting it Back Together Again" (PDF). gartner.com.br. Retrieved 13 April 2010. ^ Beck, Kent (2000). Extreme Programming Explained. Addison Wesley. pp. 3–7. ISBN 0201616416. ^ Gerber, Aurona; Van Der Merwe, Alta; Alberts, Ronell (16–18 November 2007). "Practical Implications of Rapid Development Methodologies". Proceedings of the Computer Science and Information technology Education Conference, CSITEd-2007. Computer Science and IT Education Conference. Mauritius. pp. 233–245. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.100.645. ISBN 978-99903-87-47-6. ^ Andrew Begel, Nachiappan Nagappan (September 2007). "Usage and Perceptions of Agile Software Development in an Industrial Context: An Exploratory Study" (PDF). First International Symposium on Empirical Software Engineering and Measurement (ESEM 2007). pp. 255–264. doi:10.1109/esem.2007.12. ISBN 978-0-7695-2886-1. S2CID 1941370. ^ Maximilien, E.M.; Williams, L. (2003). "Assessing test-driven development at IBM". 25th International Conference on Software Engineering, 2003. Proceedings. pp. 564–569. doi:10.1109/icse.2003.1201238. ISBN 0-7695-1877-X. S2CID 16919353. ^ Stephens, Matt; Rosenberg, Doug (2003). Extreme Programming Refactored: The Case Against XP. doi:10.1007/978-1-4302-0810-5. ISBN 978-1-59059-096-6. S2CID 29042153. Further reading Steve McConnell (1996). Rapid Development: Taming Wild Software Schedules, Microsoft Press Books, ISBN 978-1-55615-900-8 Kerr, James M.; Hunter, Richard (1993). Inside RAD: How to Build a Fully Functional System in 90 Days or Less. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-034223-7. Ellen Gottesdiener (1995). "RAD Realities: Beyond the Hype to How RAD Really Works" Application Development Trends Ken Schwaber (1996). Agile Project Management with Scrum, Microsoft Press Books, ISBN 978-0-7356-1993-7 Steve McConnell (2003). Professional Software Development: Shorter Schedules, Higher Quality Products, More Successful Projects, Enhanced Careers, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-321-19367-4 Dean Leffingwell (2007). Scaling Software Agility: Best Practices for Large Enterprises, Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 978-0-321-45819-3 Scott Stiner (2016). Forbes List: "Rapid Application Development (RAD): A Smart, Quick And Valuable Process For Software Developers" vteSoftware engineeringFields Computer programming DevOps Empirical software engineering Experimental software engineering Formal methods Requirements engineering Search-based software engineering Site reliability engineering Social software engineering Software deployment Software design Software maintenance Software testing Systems analysis Concepts Abstraction Component-based software engineering Software compatibility Backward compatibility Compatibility layer Compatibility mode Forward compatibility Software incompatibility Data modeling Enterprise architecture Functional specification Modeling language Programming paradigm Software Software archaeology Software architecture Software configuration management Software development process/methodology Software quality Software quality assurance Software verification and validation Software system Structured analysis Essential analysis CI/CD Orientations Agile Aspect-oriented Object orientation Ontology Service orientation SDLC ModelsDevelopmental Agile EUP Executable UML Incremental model Iterative model Prototype model RAD UP Scrum Spiral model V-model Waterfall model XP Model-driven engineering Round-trip engineering Other SPICE CMMI Data model ER model Function model Information model Metamodeling Object model Systems model View model Languages IDEF UML USL SysML Related fields Computer science Computer engineering Information science Project management Risk management Systems engineering Commons Category vteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware Printed circuit board Peripheral Integrated circuit Very Large Scale Integration Systems on Chip (SoCs) Energy consumption (Green computing) Electronic design automation Hardware acceleration Computer systems organization Computer architecture Computational complexity Dependability Embedded system Real-time computing Networks Network architecture Network protocol Network components Network scheduler Network performance evaluation Network service Software organization Interpreter Middleware Virtual machine Operating system Software quality Software notations and tools Programming paradigm Programming language Compiler Domain-specific language Modeling language Software framework Integrated development environment Software configuration management Software library Software repository Software development Control variable Software development process Requirements analysis Software design Software construction Software deployment Software engineering Software maintenance Programming team Open-source model Theory of computation Model of computation Formal language Automata theory Computability theory Computational complexity theory Logic Semantics Algorithms Algorithm design Analysis of algorithms Algorithmic efficiency Randomized algorithm Computational geometry Mathematics of computing Discrete mathematics Probability Statistics Mathematical software Information theory Mathematical analysis Numerical analysis Theoretical computer science Information systems Database management system Information storage systems Enterprise information system Social information systems Geographic information system Decision support system Process control system Multimedia information system Data mining Digital library Computing platform Digital marketing World Wide Web Information retrieval Security Cryptography Formal methods Security hacker Security services Intrusion detection system Hardware security Network security Information security Application security Human–computer interaction Interaction design Social computing Ubiquitous computing Visualization Accessibility Concurrency Concurrent computing Parallel computing Distributed computing Multithreading Multiprocessing Artificial intelligence Natural language processing Knowledge representation and reasoning Computer vision Automated planning and scheduling Search methodology Control method Philosophy of artificial intelligence Distributed artificial intelligence Machine learning Supervised learning Unsupervised learning Reinforcement learning Multi-task learning Cross-validation Graphics Animation Rendering Photograph manipulation Graphics processing unit Mixed reality Virtual reality Image compression Solid modeling Applied computing Quantum Computing E-commerce Enterprise software Computational mathematics Computational physics Computational chemistry Computational biology Computational social science Computational engineering Differentiable computing Computational healthcare Digital art Electronic publishing Cyberwarfare Electronic voting Video games Word processing Operations research Educational technology Document management Category Outline WikiProject Commons
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graphical user interface builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface_builder"},{"link_name":"software development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development"},{"link_name":"James Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Martin_(author)"},{"link_name":"Prototypes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_prototype"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface"},{"link_name":"requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_requirements"},{"link_name":"Graphical user interface builders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface_builder"},{"link_name":"adaptive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_software_development"},{"link_name":"agile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_software_development"},{"link_name":"spiral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_model"},{"link_name":"unified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Process"}],"text":"\"RAD tool\" and \"Rapid Application Development Tool\" redirect here. For development focused on making graphical user interfaces, see graphical user interface builder.Rapid application development (RAD), also called rapid application building (RAB), is both a general term for adaptive software development approaches, and the name for James Martin's method of rapid development. In general, RAD approaches to software development put less emphasis on planning and more emphasis on an adaptive process. Prototypes are often used in addition to or sometimes even instead of design specifications.RAD is especially well suited for (although not limited to) developing software that is driven by user interface requirements. Graphical user interface builders are often called rapid application development tools. Other approaches to rapid development include the adaptive, agile, spiral, and unified models.","title":"Rapid application development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"waterfall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterfall_model"},{"link_name":"Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_Systems_Analysis_and_Design_Method"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Barry Boehm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Boehm"},{"link_name":"spiral model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_model"},{"link_name":"life-cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_lifecycle"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dimap.ufrn.br-2"},{"link_name":"Barry Boehm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Boehm"},{"link_name":"James Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Martin_(author)"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"business re-engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_process_re-engineering"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Dupont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuPont_(1802%E2%80%932017)"},{"link_name":"ANZ Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANZ_Bank"},{"link_name":"Lend Lease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lend_Lease"},{"link_name":"BHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BHP"},{"link_name":"Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola"},{"link_name":"Alcan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcan"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong Jockey Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_Jockey_Club"}],"text":"Rapid application development was a response to plan-driven waterfall processes, developed in the 1970s and 1980s, such as the Structured Systems Analysis and Design Method (SSADM). One of the problems with these methods is that they were based on a traditional engineering model used to design and build things like bridges and buildings. Software is an inherently different kind of artifact. Software can radically change the entire process used to solve a problem. As a result, knowledge gained from the development process itself can feed back to the requirements and design of the solution.[1] Plan-driven approaches attempt to rigidly define the requirements, the solution, and the plan to implement it, and have a process that discourages changes. RAD approaches, on the other hand, recognize that software development is a knowledge intensive process and provide flexible processes that help take advantage of knowledge gained during the project to improve or adapt the solution.The first such RAD alternative was developed by Barry Boehm and was known as the spiral model. Boehm and other subsequent RAD approaches emphasized developing prototypes as well as or instead of rigorous design specifications. Prototypes had several advantages over traditional specifications:Risk reduction. A prototype could test some of the most difficult potential parts of the system early on in the life-cycle. This can provide valuable information as to the feasibility of a design and can prevent the team from pursuing solutions that turn out to be too complex or time-consuming to implement. This benefit of finding problems earlier in the life-cycle rather than later was a key benefit of the RAD approach. The earlier a problem can be found the cheaper it is to address.\nUsers are better at using and reacting than at creating specifications. In the waterfall model it was common for a user to sign off on a set of requirements but then when presented with an implemented system to suddenly realize that a given design lacked some critical features or was too complex. In general most users give much more useful feedback when they can experience a prototype of the running system rather than abstractly define what that system should be.\nPrototypes can be usable and can evolve into the completed product. One approach used in some RAD methods was to build the system as a series of prototypes that evolve from minimal functionality to moderately useful to the final completed system. The advantage of this besides the two advantages above was that the users could get useful business functionality much earlier in the process.[2]Starting with the ideas of Barry Boehm and others, James Martin developed the rapid application development approach during the 1980s at IBM and finally formalized it by publishing a book in 1991, Rapid Application Development. This has resulted in some confusion over the term RAD even among IT professionals. It is important to distinguish between RAD as a general alternative to the waterfall model and RAD as the specific method created by Martin. The Martin method was tailored toward knowledge intensive and UI intensive business systems.These ideas were further developed and improved upon by RAD pioneers like James Kerr and Richard Hunter, who together wrote the seminal book on the subject, Inside RAD,[3] which followed the journey of a RAD project manager as he drove and refined the RAD Methodology in real-time on an actual RAD project. These practitioners, and those like them, helped RAD gain popularity as an alternative to traditional systems project life cycle approaches.The RAD approach also matured during the period of peak interest in business re-engineering. The idea of business process re-engineering was to radically rethink core business processes such as sales and customer support with the new capabilities of Information Technology in mind. RAD was often an essential part of larger business re engineering programs. The rapid prototyping approach of RAD was a key tool to help users and analysts \"think out of the box\" about innovative ways that technology might radically reinvent a core business process.[4][5]Much of James Martin's comfort with RAD stemmed from Dupont's Information Engineering division and its leader Scott Schultz and their respective relationships with John Underwood who headed up a bespoke RAD development company that pioneered many successful RAD projects in Australia and Hong Kong.Successful projects that included ANZ Bank, Lend Lease, BHP, Coca-Cola Amatil, Alcan, Hong Kong Jockey Club and numerous others.Success that led to both Scott Shultz and James Martin both spending time in Australia with John Underwood to understand the methods and details of why Australia was disproportionately successful in implementing significant mission critical RAD projects.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RADModel.JPG"},{"link_name":"systems development life cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_development_life_cycle"},{"link_name":"business needs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_requirements"},{"link_name":"project scope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scope_(project_management)"},{"link_name":"systems analysts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analyst"},{"link_name":"models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model"},{"link_name":"prototypes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prototype"},{"link_name":"inputs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"outputs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_(computing)"},{"link_name":"joint application design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_application_design"},{"link_name":"CASE tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CASE_tools"},{"link_name":"coding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming"},{"link_name":"unit-integration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_integration"},{"link_name":"system testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_testing"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Phases in the James Martin approach to RADThe James Martin approach to RAD divides the process into four distinct phases:Requirements planning phase – combines elements of the system planning and systems analysis phases of the systems development life cycle (SDLC). Users, managers, and IT staff members discuss and agree on business needs, project scope, constraints, and system requirements. It ends when the team agrees on the key issues and obtains management authorization to continue.\nUser design phase – during this phase, users interact with systems analysts and develop models and prototypes that represent all system processes, inputs, and outputs. The RAD groups or subgroups typically use a combination of joint application design (JAD) techniques and CASE tools to translate user needs into working models. User design is a continuous interactive process that allows users to understand, modify, and eventually approve a working model of the system that meets their needs.\nConstruction phase – focuses on program and application development task similar to the SDLC. In RAD, however, users continue to participate and can still suggest changes or improvements as actual screens or reports are developed. Its tasks are programming and application development, coding, unit-integration and system testing.\nCutover phase – resembles the final tasks in the SDLC implementation phase, including data conversion, testing, changeover to the new system, and user training. Compared with traditional methods, the entire process is compressed. As a result, the new system is built, delivered, and placed in operation much sooner.[6]","title":"The James Martin RAD method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"agile methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agile_methods"},{"link_name":"Rational Unified Process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rational_Unified_Process"},{"link_name":"usable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usability"},{"link_name":"Non-functional requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-functional_requirement"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"portability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dimap.ufrn.br-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In modern Information Technology environments, many systems are now built using some degree of Rapid Application Development[7] (not necessarily the James Martin approach). In addition to Martin's method, agile methods and the Rational Unified Process are often used for RAD development.The purported advantages of RAD include:Better quality. By having users interact with evolving prototypes the business functionality from a RAD project can often be much higher than that achieved via a waterfall model. The software can be more usable and has a better chance to focus on business problems that are critical to end users rather than technical problems of interest to developers. However, this excludes other categories of what are usually known as Non-functional requirements (AKA constraints or quality attributes) including security and portability.\nRisk control. Although much of the literature on RAD focuses on speed and user involvement a critical feature of RAD done correctly is risk mitigation. It's worth remembering that Boehm initially characterized the spiral model as a risk based approach. A RAD approach can focus in early on the key risk factors and adjust to them based on empirical evidence collected in the early part of the process. E.g., the complexity of prototyping some of the most complex parts of the system.\nMore projects completed on time and within budget. By focusing on the development of incremental units the chances for catastrophic failures that have dogged large waterfall projects is reduced. In the Waterfall model it was common to come to a realization after six months or more of analysis and development that required a radical rethinking of the entire system. With RAD this kind of information can be discovered and acted upon earlier in the process.[2][8]","title":"Advantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Non-functional requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-functional_requirement"},{"link_name":"life-critical software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-critical_system"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PratImp-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SpecsOnLine-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RAD2-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RAD3-12"}],"text":"The purported disadvantages of RAD include:The risk of a new approach. For most IT shops RAD was a new approach that required experienced professionals to rethink the way they worked. Humans are virtually always averse to change and any project undertaken with new tools or methods will be more likely to fail the first time simply due to the requirement for the team to learn.\nLack of emphasis on Non-functional requirements, which are often not visible to the end user in normal operation.\nRequires time of scarce resources. One thing virtually all approaches to RAD have in common is that there is much more interaction throughout the entire life-cycle between users and developers. In the waterfall model, users would define requirements and then mostly go away as developers created the system. In RAD users are involved from the beginning and through virtually the entire project. This requires that the business is willing to invest the time of application domain experts. The paradox is that the better the expert, the more they are familiar with their domain, the more they are required to actually run the business and it may be difficult to convince their supervisors to invest their time. Without such commitments RAD projects will not succeed.\nLess control. One of the advantages of RAD is that it provides a flexible adaptable process. The ideal is to be able to adapt quickly to both problems and opportunities. There is an inevitable trade-off between flexibility and control, more of one means less of the other. If a project (e.g. life-critical software) values control more than agility RAD is not appropriate.\nPoor design. The focus on prototypes can be taken too far in some cases resulting in a \"hack and test\" methodology where developers are constantly making minor changes to individual components and ignoring system architecture issues that could result in a better overall design. This can especially be an issue for methodologies such as Martin's that focus so heavily on the user interface of the system.[9]\nLack of scalability. RAD typically focuses on small to medium-sized project teams. The other issues cited above (less design and control) present special challenges when using a RAD approach for very large scale systems.[10][11][12]","title":"Disadvantages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Steve McConnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_McConnell"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-55615-900-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55615-900-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-07-034223-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-034223-7"},{"link_name":"RAD Realities: Beyond the Hype to How RAD Really Works","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ebgconsulting.com/Pubs/Articles/RAD_Realities_Beyond_the_Hype_Gottesdiener.pdf"},{"link_name":"Ken Schwaber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Schwaber"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7356-1993-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7356-1993-7"},{"link_name":"Steve McConnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_McConnell"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-321-19367-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-19367-4"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-321-45819-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-45819-3"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Software_engineering"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Software_engineering"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Computer programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming"},{"link_name":"DevOps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DevOps"},{"link_name":"Empirical software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Experimental software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental_software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Formal methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_methods"},{"link_name":"Requirements engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requirements_engineering"},{"link_name":"Search-based software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Search-based_software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Site reliability engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site_reliability_engineering"},{"link_name":"Social software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Software deployment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_deployment"},{"link_name":"Software design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_design"},{"link_name":"Software maintenance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance"},{"link_name":"Software testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_testing"},{"link_name":"Systems analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analysis"},{"link_name":"Abstraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstraction_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"Component-based software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Component-based_software_engineering"},{"link_name":"Software compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_compatibility"},{"link_name":"Backward compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_compatibility"},{"link_name":"Compatibility layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatibility_layer"},{"link_name":"Compatibility mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compatibility_mode"},{"link_name":"Forward compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward_compatibility"},{"link_name":"Software incompatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_incompatibility"},{"link_name":"Data modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_modeling"},{"link_name":"Enterprise architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_architecture"},{"link_name":"Functional specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_specification"},{"link_name":"Modeling language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modeling_language"},{"link_name":"Programming paradigm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_paradigm"},{"link_name":"Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"Software archaeology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_archaeology"},{"link_name":"Software architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_architecture"},{"link_name":"Software configuration management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_configuration_management"},{"link_name":"Software development process/methodology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development_process"},{"link_name":"Software quality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_quality"},{"link_name":"Software quality assurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_quality_assurance"},{"link_name":"Software verification and validation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_verification_and_validation"},{"link_name":"Software system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_system"},{"link_name":"Structured analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structured_analysis"},{"link_name":"Essential 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reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_reality"},{"link_name":"Virtual reality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_reality"},{"link_name":"Image compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_compression"},{"link_name":"Solid modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_modeling"},{"link_name":"Quantum Computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_Computing"},{"link_name":"E-commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-commerce"},{"link_name":"Enterprise software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_software"},{"link_name":"Computational mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Computational physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_physics"},{"link_name":"Computational chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_chemistry"},{"link_name":"Computational biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_biology"},{"link_name":"Computational social science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_social_science"},{"link_name":"Computational engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_engineering"},{"link_name":"Differentiable computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Differentiable_computing"},{"link_name":"Computational healthcare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_informatics"},{"link_name":"Digital art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_art"},{"link_name":"Electronic publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_publishing"},{"link_name":"Cyberwarfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberwarfare"},{"link_name":"Electronic voting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_voting"},{"link_name":"Video games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game"},{"link_name":"Word processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor"},{"link_name":"Operations research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operations_research"},{"link_name":"Educational technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_technology"},{"link_name":"Document management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_management_system"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_science"},{"link_name":"Outline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_computer_science"},{"link_name":"WikiProject","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Computer_science"},{"link_name":"Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_science"}],"text":"Steve McConnell (1996). Rapid Development: Taming Wild Software Schedules, Microsoft Press Books, ISBN 978-1-55615-900-8\nKerr, James M.; Hunter, Richard (1993). Inside RAD: How to Build a Fully Functional System in 90 Days or Less. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-034223-7.\nEllen Gottesdiener (1995). \"RAD Realities: Beyond the Hype to How RAD Really Works\" Application Development Trends\nKen Schwaber (1996). Agile Project Management with Scrum, Microsoft Press Books, ISBN 978-0-7356-1993-7\nSteve McConnell (2003). Professional Software Development: Shorter Schedules, Higher Quality Products, More Successful Projects, Enhanced Careers, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-321-19367-4\nDean Leffingwell (2007). Scaling Software Agility: Best Practices for Large Enterprises, Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 978-0-321-45819-3\nScott Stiner (2016). Forbes List: \"Rapid Application Development (RAD): A Smart, Quick And Valuable Process For Software Developers\"vteSoftware engineeringFields\nComputer programming\nDevOps\nEmpirical software engineering\nExperimental software engineering\nFormal methods\nRequirements engineering\nSearch-based software engineering\nSite reliability engineering\nSocial software engineering\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware design\nSoftware maintenance\nSoftware testing\nSystems analysis\nConcepts\nAbstraction\nComponent-based software engineering\nSoftware compatibility\nBackward compatibility\nCompatibility layer\nCompatibility mode\nForward compatibility\nSoftware incompatibility\nData modeling\nEnterprise architecture\nFunctional specification\nModeling language\nProgramming paradigm\nSoftware\nSoftware archaeology\nSoftware architecture\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware development process/methodology\nSoftware quality\nSoftware quality assurance\nSoftware verification and validation\nSoftware system\nStructured analysis\nEssential analysis\nCI/CD\nOrientations\nAgile\nAspect-oriented\nObject orientation\nOntology\nService orientation\nSDLC\nModelsDevelopmental\nAgile\nEUP\nExecutable UML\nIncremental model\nIterative model\nPrototype model\nRAD\nUP\nScrum\nSpiral model\nV-model\nWaterfall model\nXP\nModel-driven engineering\nRound-trip engineering\nOther\nSPICE\nCMMI\nData model\nER model\nFunction model\nInformation model\nMetamodeling\nObject model\nSystems model\nView model\nLanguages\nIDEF\nUML\nUSL\nSysML\nRelated fields\nComputer science\nComputer engineering\nInformation science\nProject management\nRisk management\nSystems engineering\n\n Commons\n CategoryvteComputer scienceNote: This template roughly follows the 2012 ACM Computing Classification System.Hardware\nPrinted circuit board\nPeripheral\nIntegrated circuit\nVery Large Scale Integration\nSystems on Chip (SoCs)\nEnergy consumption (Green computing)\nElectronic design automation\nHardware acceleration\nComputer systems organization\nComputer architecture\nComputational complexity\nDependability\nEmbedded system\nReal-time computing\nNetworks\nNetwork architecture\nNetwork protocol\nNetwork components\nNetwork scheduler\nNetwork performance evaluation\nNetwork service\nSoftware organization\nInterpreter\nMiddleware\nVirtual machine\nOperating system\nSoftware quality\nSoftware notations and tools\nProgramming paradigm\nProgramming language\nCompiler\nDomain-specific language\nModeling language\nSoftware framework\nIntegrated development environment\nSoftware configuration management\nSoftware library\nSoftware repository\nSoftware development\nControl variable\nSoftware development process\nRequirements analysis\nSoftware design\nSoftware construction\nSoftware deployment\nSoftware engineering\nSoftware maintenance\nProgramming team\nOpen-source model\nTheory of computation\nModel of computation\nFormal language\nAutomata theory\nComputability theory\nComputational complexity theory\nLogic\nSemantics\nAlgorithms\nAlgorithm design\nAnalysis of algorithms\nAlgorithmic efficiency\nRandomized algorithm\nComputational geometry\nMathematics of computing\nDiscrete mathematics\nProbability\nStatistics\nMathematical software\nInformation theory\nMathematical analysis\nNumerical analysis\nTheoretical computer science\nInformation systems\nDatabase management system\nInformation storage systems\nEnterprise information system\nSocial information systems\nGeographic information system\nDecision support system\nProcess control system\nMultimedia information system\nData mining\nDigital library\nComputing platform\nDigital marketing\nWorld Wide Web\nInformation retrieval\nSecurity\nCryptography\nFormal methods\nSecurity hacker\nSecurity services\nIntrusion detection system\nHardware security\nNetwork security\nInformation security\nApplication security\nHuman–computer interaction\nInteraction design\nSocial computing\nUbiquitous computing\nVisualization\nAccessibility\nConcurrency\nConcurrent computing\nParallel computing\nDistributed computing\nMultithreading\nMultiprocessing\nArtificial intelligence\nNatural language processing\nKnowledge representation and reasoning\nComputer vision\nAutomated planning and scheduling\nSearch methodology\nControl method\nPhilosophy of artificial intelligence\nDistributed artificial intelligence\nMachine learning\nSupervised learning\nUnsupervised learning\nReinforcement learning\nMulti-task learning\nCross-validation\nGraphics\nAnimation\nRendering\nPhotograph manipulation\nGraphics processing unit\nMixed reality\nVirtual reality\nImage compression\nSolid modeling\nApplied computing\nQuantum Computing\nE-commerce\nEnterprise software\nComputational mathematics\nComputational physics\nComputational chemistry\nComputational biology\nComputational social science\nComputational engineering\nDifferentiable computing\nComputational healthcare\nDigital art\nElectronic publishing\nCyberwarfare\nElectronic voting\nVideo games\nWord processing\nOperations research\nEducational technology\nDocument management\n\n Category\n Outline\nWikiProject\n Commons","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Phases in the James Martin approach to RAD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/RADModel.JPG/320px-RADModel.JPG"}]
[{"title":"Graphical user interface builder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface_builder"},{"title":"Fourth-generation programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth-generation_programming_language"},{"title":"FileMaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FileMaker"},{"title":"4th Dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th_Dimension_(software)"},{"title":"dBase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBase"},{"title":"Visual FoxPro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_FoxPro"},{"title":"Flow-based programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow-based_programming"},{"title":"Lean software development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_software_development"},{"title":"Platform as a service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_as_a_service"},{"title":"Low-code development platforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-code_development_platforms"},{"title":"No-code development platform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No-code_development_platform"}]
[{"reference":"Brooks, Fred (1986). Kugler, H.J. (ed.). No Silver Bullet Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering (PDF). Information Processing '86. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V (North-Holland). ISBN 0-444-70077-3. Retrieved 2 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sci.brooklyn.cuny.edu/~sklar/teaching/s10/cis20.2/papers/brooks-no-silver-bullet.pdf","url_text":"No Silver Bullet Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-70077-3","url_text":"0-444-70077-3"}]},{"reference":"Boehm, Barry (May 1988). \"A Spiral Model of Software Development\" (PDF). IEEE Computer. doi:10.1109/2.59. S2CID 1781829. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2018. 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ISBN 978-0887306204.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/postcapitalistso00druc","url_text":"Post-Capitalist Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0887306204","url_text":"978-0887306204"}]},{"reference":"Martin, James (1991). Rapid Application Development. Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-376775-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/rapidapplication00mart","url_text":"Rapid Application Development"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-02-376775-8","url_text":"0-02-376775-8"}]},{"reference":"Martin, James (1991). Rapid Application Development. Macmillan. pp. 81–90. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank_Future:_Tools_of_Destruction
Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction
["1 Gameplay","2 Plot","3 Development","4 Reception","4.1 Critical response","4.2 Awards","4.3 Sales","5 Sequel","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
2007 video game 2007 video gameRatchet & Clank Future: Tools of DestructionNorth American box artDeveloper(s)Insomniac GamesPublisher(s)Sony Computer EntertainmentDirector(s)Brian AllgeierWriter(s)T.J FixmanBrian HastingsAdam MooreComposer(s)David BergeaudSeriesRatchet & ClankPlatform(s)PlayStation 3ReleaseNA: October 23, 2007EU: November 9, 2007AU: November 15, 2007Genre(s)Platform, action-adventureMode(s)Single-player Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction (known as Ratchet & Clank: Tools of Destruction in most PAL countries, or Ratchet & Clank Future) is a 2007 action-adventure platform game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3. It is the fifth main installment of the Ratchet & Clank series, following the spin-off Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters. The game was released on October 23, 2007 in North America and on November 9, 2007 in Europe. It is the first PlayStation 3 installment of the series, as well as the first of the Future saga. It was also one of the first PlayStation 3 games to support DualShock 3 rumble without any accessories. Tools of Destruction received critical acclaim upon release, with praise for the game's engaging gameplay and graphics, but criticism for its technical issues. The game was nominated for several awards from gaming publications and was considered a commercial success. Gameplay See also: Common gameplay elements in the Ratchet and Clank series Tools of Destruction retains much of the basic gameplay found in previous Ratchet & Clank games, the game being primarily a shooter-platformer. The player controls Ratchet most of the time, with some sections using Clank, as they explore various worlds to complete missions, using Ratchet's wrench and other exotic weapons gained during the course of the game. At times, Ratchet may enter free-fall, or with an upgrade to Clank, will be able to fly; during these periods, the player uses the tilt functionality of the SIXAXIS controller to maneuver Ratchet. The tilt-sensing abilities of the SIXAXIS are also used to control some weapons and gadgets. On occasion, Cronk and Zephyr (and Talwyn on the latter two and after breaking her out of Zordoom Prison) accompany Ratchet and fight alongside him. While immune to damage, their weapons are far less potent than Ratchet's. Tools of Destruction is the first game where Ratchet, Clank and other characters converse with one another with lipsynced dialogue during gameplay, outside of cutscenes. In various stages of gameplay, Talwyn, Qwark, the Smuggler, Cronk and Zephyr also contact Ratchet by comlink. As with Going Commando, Up Your Arsenal, Deadlocked and Size Matters, there is an arena gameplay area, called the Imperial Fight Festival in this installment. The player also has the ability to pilot a ship against enemy forces in certain levels, similar to those in previous installments; however, the free-flying controls were changed to more of a rail shooter-style experience, and upgrade options for the ship are not present. At times, the player will control Clank in a mode similar to previous games, using beings of pure energy called Zoni to fight foes, remove debris or reconstruct bridges, and to power devices in the level. Clank possesses the ability to slow down time as well during these sections, allowing him, for example, to make his way under a rapidly closing door as well as levitate. Weapons gain experience as previously implemented in the series, but in addition, the player can collect Raritanium crystals and use them to upgrade the weapon in additional ways beyond the experience path; weapon improvements are presented in a tree-like structure and require that all previous upgrades be obtained for that weapon first before later upgrades can be purchased. The recurring R.Y.N.O series of weapons make an appearance in Tools of Destruction with the R.Y.N.O IV, which can be obtained by collecting thirteen Holo-Plan fragments hidden throughout the game. In addition to weapons are items known as "devices". While they are selected and used similar to weapons, they may or may not directly damage foes but instead provide an effect beneficial to the player. The "Groovitron", for example, is a disco ball that causes all foes to dance for a brief time, allowing the player to deal with them while distracted. The carrying capacity of such devices are generally very low (2 or 3 units for each). Device vendors in addition to weapon vendors can be found in the game, and device ammo can be found in Raritanium chests, although these are usually hard to find. Armor can be bought from an armor vendor on certain planets. Each upgrade to the armor decreases the amount of damage the player takes from enemy weapons. Each armor upgrade costs a large amount of bolts. Plot On planet Kerwan, in Metropolis, Ratchet and Clank are working on a hovercraft, when they receive a distress call from Captain Qwark. After fighting through an army of heavily armed commandos attacking the city, they are confronted by Emperor Percival Tachyon, self-proclaimed "crown prince of the Cragmites”, who demands Ratchet offer his life to save the city. At the last second, the duo slip past him and escape on his private cruiser. After experiencing a deep hyper sleep, they wake up to find themselves on planet Cobalia in the Polaris galaxy. Learning that Tachyon has already conquered many neighboring planets, they decide to learn more about him. In the course of their investigation, Clank is visited by small creatures called the Zoni that only he can see. The Zoni explain that Clank was built for a special purpose, and provide him with new abilities to aid Ratchet. The duo eventually discover a remote space station in an asteroid field, where they meet Talwyn Apogee and her allies Cronk and Zephyr. Talwyn explains that her father, explorer Max Apogee, was the galaxy's leading expert on Lombax technology and thus may hold the secret to their disappearance. With their help, Ratchet learns of the Great War, a conflict between the Lombaxes and the Cragmite Empire that ended with the complete eradication of the latter; however, he also learns that the Cragmites were not killed but instead banished to a distant star, using a powerful Lombax device known as the "Dimensionator", a helmet capable of opening wormholes to other dimensions. Years later, a single Cragmite egg was recovered on the Lombax home world, Fastoon. Rather than destroy it, they decided to raise it as one of their own. However, when the young Tachyon learned of his true origins, he raised an army and attacked Fastoon in a genocidal campaign. Unable to defeat him, the survivors used the Dimensionator to escape, leaving behind its guardian and his young son to hide it from Tachyon. Sacrificing himself to protect his son, the guardian sent him to the planet Veldin in the Solana galaxy. Ratchet realizes that the guardian was his father and becomes determined to find the Dimensionator so that he can save his people. Using clues left by Max Apogee, Ratchet locates the Dimensionator on planet Jasindu, defeating the Kerchu tribe sworn to protect it. The device is swiped by space pirates led by Captain Romulus Slag, but the duo pursues them and reclaims it. Captain Qwark, having escaped Tachyon's custody, then takes the Dimensionator to the Cragmite home planet, where he plans to destroy it. Before Ratchet and his friends can catch up to him however, he is recaptured by Tachyon's forces. With the Dimensionator now in his possession, Tachyon frees the Cragmites and sets out to conquer the rest of the galaxy. After a fierce battle on Fastoon, Tachyon offers Ratchet the chance to rejoin his fellow Lombaxes, but Ratchet refuses and challenges him to personal combat. The Dimensionator is damaged during the battle, opening a black hole that swallows Tachyon, and while Ratchet and Clank are able to fix it with a 33⁄4 cubits hexagonal washer they received from the Plumber, the device shuts down for good as soon as they return. As Ratchet, Clank, and their allies gather to celebrate, the Zoni show up, now visible to everyone. Claiming that Clank is ready to learn his true purpose, they take him to another dimension, despite Ratchet's protests. As his friends gather around him, Ratchet silently vows to rescue Clank, leading into the events of Quest for Booty. Development The game was first announced at the 2006 Game Developers Conference, where a Ratchet & Clank next-gen tech demonstration was shown for the PlayStation 3. Many new worlds and weapons were introduced into the game like in previous installments of the series. It is also a platform game, as Insomniac wanted to stop the series from becoming the more weapon-based combat game it had become in the previous games Up Your Arsenal and Deadlocked. There are reported to be a total of 31 weapons, gadgets, and combat devices, further divided into 15 weapons, 8 gadgets, and 8 devices. Unlike Going Commando and Up Your Arsenal, the player cannot unlock weapons from previous games using a memory card. Reception Critical response ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreMetacritic89/100Review scoresPublicationScore1Up.comA−GameProGameRevolutionBGameSpot7.5/10GameSpyGameTrailers9/10IGN9.4/10AwardPublicationAwardSpike TVBest PS3 Game The game received positive reviews from critics. On Metacritic, it has received an aggregate score of 89 from 70 reviews, giving the game a ranking of "generally favorable reviews". IGN, who gave the game a 9.4 out of 10, said "Not only has it supplanted Going Commando as the best title in the franchise, it's also the best game of any series on the PlayStation 3 thus far -- and that's saying a lot when you're up against Oblivion, Ninja Gaiden, Warhawk and Insomniac's very own previous effort, Resistance: Fall of Man." Also on IGN's weekly PS3 podcast, they called it the best video game they've played on any platform in 2007. Cheat Code Central gave the game 5/5 across the board saying it is one of the best games of all time. X-Play gave it 5/5 with its own personal episode. NTSC-uk said "...it never stops being anything less than great fun to play and hugely engaging". Awards Tools of Destruction earned the following award nominations and wins: Spike TV Awards: Best PS3 Game (Won), Best Action Game . Gaming Target: "52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2007" selection. It also placed runner-up for various awards in IGN's Best of 2007, including PS3 Game of the Year. During the 11th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Tools of Destruction in three categories: "Adventure Game of the Year", "Outstanding Achievement in Animation", and "Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering". Sales Tools of Destruction sold nearly 75,000 units during October 2007. While this value is lower than other previous PlayStation 3 titles (such as Warhawk and Heavenly Sword, both which broke 100,000 sales in their first month of release), the game has outsold Ratchet: Deadlocked's first month of sales by nearly 20,000 units. Sony Computer Entertainment of America stated that they were "very happy" with the initial sales figures. Sequel A downloadable pirate-themed sequel titled Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty was released on the PSN. It is set after the events of Tools of Destruction and is much shorter than the predecessor. It takes place on planet Merdegraw, which is mostly populated by pirates and townspeople. The European version of the game could also be bought on a disc complete with a manual and box, for those who did not have a fast enough internet connection to use PSN. See also List of Sony Greatest Hits games References ^ "PlayStation.Blog » Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Coming Soon(er)". 18 October 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-10-20. Retrieved 2007-10-20. ^ "PS3 Fanboy interviews Ratchet and Clank's Ryan Schneider". Archived from the original on 2007-10-05. Retrieved 2007-10-03. ^ a b "Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction for PlayStation 3 Reviews, Ratings, Credits and More". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 2012-08-27. Retrieved 2008-04-16. ^ Rybicki, Joe (2007-10-23). "Ratchet & Clank Review for PS3". 1UP.com. News Corporation. Archived from the original on 2012-10-20. ^ Melick, Todd (2007-10-23). "Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review". GamePro. IDG. Archived from the original on 2008-09-23. ^ "Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review for the PS3". Game Revolution. Atomic Online. 2007-10-24. Archived from the original on 2012-09-26. ^ Thomas, Aaron (2007-10-23). "Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review". GameSpot. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 2007-10-25. ^ Graziani, Gabe (2007-10-23). "GameSpy: Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction". GameSpy. News Corporation. Archived from the original on 2020-08-13. Retrieved 2011-08-16. ^ "Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction: Reviews, Trailers and Interviews". GameTrailers. MTV Networks. Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved 2011-08-16. ^ a b c Dunham, Jeremy (2007-10-23). "Ratchet and Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review". IGN. News Corporation. Archived from the original on 2012-08-16. Retrieved 2007-10-24. ^ a b Magrino, Tom (2007-11-11). "Halo 3, BioShock top Spike TV noms". GameSpot. Archived from the original on 2009-02-02. Retrieved 2007-11-11. ^ "NTSC-uk Ratchet and Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review". NTSC-uk. Archived from the original on May 22, 2008. Retrieved December 12, 2007. ^ "52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2007". Gaming Target. 2008-01-02. Archived from the original on 2008-01-05. Retrieved 2008-01-02. ^ "D.I.C.E. Awards By Video Game Details Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction". interactive.org. Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 8 November 2023. ^ Klepek, Patrick (2007-11-19). "NPD Fallout: Did Ratchet Actually Sell Just Fine?". 1UP. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 2007-11-20. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction. Official website (No longer works; may work on the Wayback Machine) Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction at MobyGames Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction at Curlie vteRatchet & ClankTitle charactersGamesOriginal series Ratchet & Clank (2016 re-imagining) Going Commando Up Your Arsenal Deadlocked Future series Tools of Destruction Quest for Booty A Crack in Time Into the Nexus Post-Future series Rift Apart Other games Going Mobile Size Matters Secret Agent Clank All 4 One Full Frontal Assault Related Film Everybody's Golf 4 Jak X: Combat Racing PlayStation Move Heroes Ratchet & Clank Collection PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale Super Bomberman R Fall Guys Developers Insomniac Games High Impact Games Sanzaru Games Idol Minds Rainmaker Entertainment vteInsomniac GamesSpyro Spyro the Dragon Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! Spyro: Year of the Dragon Ratchet & Clank Ratchet & Clank (2002) Going Commando Up Your Arsenal Deadlocked Tools of Destruction Quest for Booty A Crack in Time All 4 One Full Frontal Assault Into the Nexus Ratchet & Clank (2016) Rift Apart Resistance Resistance: Fall of Man Resistance 2 Resistance 3 Marvel Comics seriesMarvel's Spider-Man Marvel's Spider-Man accolades The City That Never Sleeps Miles Morales Spider-Man 2 Others Marvel's Wolverine Other games Disruptor Outernauts Fuse Sunset Overdrive Edge of Nowhere Song of the Deep Stormland Characters Ratchet and Clank Spyro Related Ratchet & Clank (film) Category Portal: Video games Authority control databases: National France BnF data
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It is the fifth main installment of the Ratchet & Clank series, following the spin-off Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters. The game was released on October 23, 2007 in North America and on November 9, 2007 in Europe. It is the first PlayStation 3 installment of the series, as well as the first of the Future saga. It was also one of the first PlayStation 3 games to support DualShock 3 rumble without any accessories.Tools of Destruction received critical acclaim upon release, with praise for the game's engaging gameplay and graphics, but criticism for its technical issues. The game was nominated for several awards from gaming publications and was considered a commercial success.","title":"Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Common gameplay elements in the Ratchet and Clank series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank#Gameplay"},{"link_name":"shooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooter_game"},{"link_name":"platformer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_game"},{"link_name":"free-fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-fall"},{"link_name":"SIXAXIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIXAXIS"},{"link_name":"rail shooter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_shooter#Types"},{"link_name":"disco ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disco_ball"}],"text":"See also: Common gameplay elements in the Ratchet and Clank seriesTools of Destruction retains much of the basic gameplay found in previous Ratchet & Clank games, the game being primarily a shooter-platformer. The player controls Ratchet most of the time, with some sections using Clank, as they explore various worlds to complete missions, using Ratchet's wrench and other exotic weapons gained during the course of the game. At times, Ratchet may enter free-fall, or with an upgrade to Clank, will be able to fly; during these periods, the player uses the tilt functionality of the SIXAXIS controller to maneuver Ratchet. The tilt-sensing abilities of the SIXAXIS are also used to control some weapons and gadgets.On occasion, Cronk and Zephyr (and Talwyn on the latter two and after breaking her out of Zordoom Prison) accompany Ratchet and fight alongside him. While immune to damage, their weapons are far less potent than Ratchet's. Tools of Destruction is the first game where Ratchet, Clank and other characters converse with one another with lipsynced dialogue during gameplay, outside of cutscenes. In various stages of gameplay, Talwyn, Qwark, the Smuggler, Cronk and Zephyr also contact Ratchet by comlink. As with Going Commando, Up Your Arsenal, Deadlocked and Size Matters, there is an arena gameplay area, called the Imperial Fight Festival in this installment. The player also has the ability to pilot a ship against enemy forces in certain levels, similar to those in previous installments; however, the free-flying controls were changed to more of a rail shooter-style experience, and upgrade options for the ship are not present.At times, the player will control Clank in a mode similar to previous games, using beings of pure energy called Zoni to fight foes, remove debris or reconstruct bridges, and to power devices in the level. Clank possesses the ability to slow down time as well during these sections, allowing him, for example, to make his way under a rapidly closing door as well as levitate.Weapons gain experience as previously implemented in the series, but in addition, the player can collect Raritanium crystals and use them to upgrade the weapon in additional ways beyond the experience path; weapon improvements are presented in a tree-like structure and require that all previous upgrades be obtained for that weapon first before later upgrades can be purchased. The recurring R.Y.N.O series of weapons make an appearance in Tools of Destruction with the R.Y.N.O IV, which can be obtained by collecting thirteen Holo-Plan fragments hidden throughout the game.In addition to weapons are items known as \"devices\". While they are selected and used similar to weapons, they may or may not directly damage foes but instead provide an effect beneficial to the player. The \"Groovitron\", for example, is a disco ball that causes all foes to dance for a brief time, allowing the player to deal with them while distracted. The carrying capacity of such devices are generally very low (2 or 3 units for each). Device vendors in addition to weapon vendors can be found in the game, and device ammo can be found in Raritanium chests, although these are usually hard to find.Armor can be bought from an armor vendor on certain planets. Each upgrade to the armor decreases the amount of damage the player takes from enemy weapons. Each armor upgrade costs a large amount of bolts.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ratchet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_(Ratchet_%26_Clank)"},{"link_name":"Clank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clank_(Ratchet_%26_Clank)"},{"link_name":"Talwyn Apogee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank#Talwyn_Apogee"},{"link_name":"Cronk and Zephyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank#Cronk_and_Zephyr"},{"link_name":"Quest for Booty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank_Future:_Quest_for_Booty"}],"text":"On planet Kerwan, in Metropolis, Ratchet and Clank are working on a hovercraft, when they receive a distress call from Captain Qwark. After fighting through an army of heavily armed commandos attacking the city, they are confronted by Emperor Percival Tachyon, self-proclaimed \"crown prince of the Cragmites”, who demands Ratchet offer his life to save the city. At the last second, the duo slip past him and escape on his private cruiser. After experiencing a deep hyper sleep, they wake up to find themselves on planet Cobalia in the Polaris galaxy. Learning that Tachyon has already conquered many neighboring planets, they decide to learn more about him. In the course of their investigation, Clank is visited by small creatures called the Zoni that only he can see. The Zoni explain that Clank was built for a special purpose, and provide him with new abilities to aid Ratchet. The duo eventually discover a remote space station in an asteroid field, where they meet Talwyn Apogee and her allies Cronk and Zephyr. Talwyn explains that her father, explorer Max Apogee, was the galaxy's leading expert on Lombax technology and thus may hold the secret to their disappearance.With their help, Ratchet learns of the Great War, a conflict between the Lombaxes and the Cragmite Empire that ended with the complete eradication of the latter; however, he also learns that the Cragmites were not killed but instead banished to a distant star, using a powerful Lombax device known as the \"Dimensionator\", a helmet capable of opening wormholes to other dimensions. Years later, a single Cragmite egg was recovered on the Lombax home world, Fastoon. Rather than destroy it, they decided to raise it as one of their own. However, when the young Tachyon learned of his true origins, he raised an army and attacked Fastoon in a genocidal campaign. Unable to defeat him, the survivors used the Dimensionator to escape, leaving behind its guardian and his young son to hide it from Tachyon. Sacrificing himself to protect his son, the guardian sent him to the planet Veldin in the Solana galaxy. Ratchet realizes that the guardian was his father and becomes determined to find the Dimensionator so that he can save his people.Using clues left by Max Apogee, Ratchet locates the Dimensionator on planet Jasindu, defeating the Kerchu tribe sworn to protect it. The device is swiped by space pirates led by Captain Romulus Slag, but the duo pursues them and reclaims it. Captain Qwark, having escaped Tachyon's custody, then takes the Dimensionator to the Cragmite home planet, where he plans to destroy it. Before Ratchet and his friends can catch up to him however, he is recaptured by Tachyon's forces. With the Dimensionator now in his possession, Tachyon frees the Cragmites and sets out to conquer the rest of the galaxy. After a fierce battle on Fastoon, Tachyon offers Ratchet the chance to rejoin his fellow Lombaxes, but Ratchet refuses and challenges him to personal combat. The Dimensionator is damaged during the battle, opening a black hole that swallows Tachyon, and while Ratchet and Clank are able to fix it with a 33⁄4 cubits hexagonal washer they received from the Plumber, the device shuts down for good as soon as they return.As Ratchet, Clank, and their allies gather to celebrate, the Zoni show up, now visible to everyone. Claiming that Clank is ready to learn his true purpose, they take him to another dimension, despite Ratchet's protests. As his friends gather around him, Ratchet silently vows to rescue Clank, leading into the events of Quest for Booty.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Game Developers Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Developers_Conference"},{"link_name":"Up Your Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank:_Up_Your_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"Deadlocked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet:_Deadlocked"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Going Commando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank:_Going_Commando"}],"text":"The game was first announced at the 2006 Game Developers Conference, where a Ratchet & Clank next-gen tech demonstration was shown for the PlayStation 3. Many new worlds and weapons were introduced into the game like in previous installments of the series. It is also a platform game, as Insomniac wanted to stop the series from becoming the more weapon-based combat game it had become in the previous games Up Your Arsenal and Deadlocked.There are reported to be a total of 31 weapons, gadgets, and combat devices,[2] further divided into 15 weapons, 8 gadgets, and 8 devices. Unlike Going Commando and Up Your Arsenal, the player cannot unlock weapons from previous games using a memory card.","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-metacritic-3"},{"link_name":"1Up.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1Up.com"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1up-4"},{"link_name":"GamePro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamepro-5"},{"link_name":"GameRevolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameRevolution"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamerevolution-6"},{"link_name":"GameSpot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespot-7"},{"link_name":"GameSpy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gamespy-8"},{"link_name":"GameTrailers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameTrailers"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gametrailers-9"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-10"},{"link_name":"Spike TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_TV"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spike_tv_award-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-10"},{"link_name":"Metacritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacritic"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-metacritic-3"},{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ign-10"},{"link_name":"Going Commando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank:_Going_Commando"},{"link_name":"Oblivion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elder_Scrolls_IV:_Oblivion"},{"link_name":"Ninja Gaiden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninja_Gaiden_Sigma"},{"link_name":"Warhawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warhawk_(2007_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Resistance: Fall of Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance:_Fall_of_Man"},{"link_name":"X-Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-Play"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ratchetreview3-12"}],"sub_title":"Critical response","text":"ReceptionAggregate scoreAggregatorScoreMetacritic89/100[3]Review scoresPublicationScore1Up.comA−[4]GamePro[5]GameRevolutionB[6]GameSpot7.5/10[7]GameSpy[8]GameTrailers9/10[9]IGN9.4/10[10]AwardPublicationAwardSpike TVBest PS3 Game[11]The game received positive reviews from critics.[10] On Metacritic, it has received an aggregate score of 89 from 70 reviews, giving the game a ranking of \"generally favorable reviews\".[3]IGN, who gave the game a 9.4 out of 10,[10] said \"Not only has it supplanted Going Commando as the best title in the franchise, it's also the best game of any series on the PlayStation 3 thus far -- and that's saying a lot when you're up against Oblivion, Ninja Gaiden, Warhawk and Insomniac's very own previous effort, Resistance: Fall of Man.\" Also on IGN's weekly PS3 podcast, they called it the best video game they've played on any platform in 2007. Cheat Code Central gave the game 5/5 across the board saying it is one of the best games of all time. X-Play gave it 5/5 with its own personal episode.\nNTSC-uk said \"...it never stops being anything less than great fun to play and hugely engaging\".[12]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spike TV Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spike_TV"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-spike_tv_award-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"11th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Annual_Interactive_Achievement_Awards"},{"link_name":"Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Interactive_Arts_%26_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Adventure Game of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.I.C.E._Award_for_Adventure_Game_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Outstanding Achievement in Animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.I.C.E._Award_for_Outstanding_Achievement_in_Animation"},{"link_name":"Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.I.C.E._Award_for_Outstanding_Technical_Achievement"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"Tools of Destruction earned the following award nominations and wins:Spike TV Awards: Best PS3 Game (Won), Best Action Game .[11]\nGaming Target: \"52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2007\" selection.[13]It also placed runner-up for various awards in IGN's Best of 2007, including PS3 Game of the Year. During the 11th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Tools of Destruction in three categories: \"Adventure Game of the Year\", \"Outstanding Achievement in Animation\", and \"Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering\".[14]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Warhawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warhawk_(2007_video_game)"},{"link_name":"Heavenly Sword","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavenly_Sword"},{"link_name":"Ratchet: Deadlocked","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet:_Deadlocked"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Sales","text":"Tools of Destruction sold nearly 75,000 units during October 2007. While this value is lower than other previous PlayStation 3 titles (such as Warhawk and Heavenly Sword, both which broke 100,000 sales in their first month of release), the game has outsold Ratchet: Deadlocked's first month of sales by nearly 20,000 units. Sony Computer Entertainment of America stated that they were \"very happy\" with the initial sales figures.[15]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratchet_%26_Clank_Future:_Quest_for_Booty"},{"link_name":"PSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlayStation_Network"}],"text":"A downloadable pirate-themed sequel titled Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty was released on the PSN. It is set after the events of Tools of Destruction and is much shorter than the predecessor. It takes place on planet Merdegraw, which is mostly populated by pirates and townspeople. The European version of the game could also be bought on a disc complete with a manual and box, for those who did not have a fast enough internet connection to use PSN.","title":"Sequel"}]
[]
[{"title":"List of Sony Greatest Hits games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greatest_Hits_(PlayStation_range)#List_of_official_Greatest_Hits_titles"}]
[{"reference":"\"PlayStation.Blog » Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Coming Soon(er)\". 18 October 2007. Archived from the original on 2007-10-20. Retrieved 2007-10-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.us.playstation.com/2007/10/18/ratchet-clank-future-tools-of-destruction-coming-sooner/","url_text":"\"PlayStation.Blog » Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Coming Soon(er)\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071020143210/http://blog.us.playstation.com/2007/10/18/ratchet-clank-future-tools-of-destruction-coming-sooner/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"PS3 Fanboy interviews Ratchet and Clank's Ryan Schneider\". Archived from the original on 2007-10-05. Retrieved 2007-10-03.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ps3fanboy.com/2007/09/16/ps3-fanboy-interviews-ratchet-and-clanks-ryan-snyder/","url_text":"\"PS3 Fanboy interviews Ratchet and Clank's Ryan Schneider\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071005011932/http://www.ps3fanboy.com/2007/09/16/ps3-fanboy-interviews-ratchet-and-clanks-ryan-snyder/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction for PlayStation 3 Reviews, Ratings, Credits and More\". Metacritic. CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on 2012-08-27. 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Archived from the original on 2012-10-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121020014358/http://www.1up.com/reviews/ratchet-clank","url_text":"\"Ratchet & Clank Review for PS3\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1UP.com","url_text":"1UP.com"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_Corporation_(1980%E2%80%932013)","url_text":"News Corporation"},{"url":"http://www.1up.com/reviews/ratchet-clank","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Melick, Todd (2007-10-23). \"Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review\". GamePro. IDG. Archived from the original on 2008-09-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080923123106/http://www.gamepro.com/article/reviews/142748/ratchet-clank-future-tools-of-destruction/","url_text":"\"Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GamePro","url_text":"GamePro"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Group","url_text":"IDG"},{"url":"http://www.gamepro.com/article/reviews/142748/ratchet-clank-future-tools-of-destruction/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review for the PS3\". Game Revolution. Atomic Online. 2007-10-24. 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Archived from the original on 2007-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071025093055/http://www.gamespot.com/ps3/action/ratchetclank/review.html","url_text":"\"Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GameSpot","url_text":"GameSpot"},{"url":"http://www.gamespot.com/ps3/action/ratchetclank/review.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Graziani, Gabe (2007-10-23). \"GameSpy: Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction\". GameSpy. News Corporation. Archived from the original on 2020-08-13. 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Archived from the original on May 22, 2008. Retrieved December 12, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080522055816/http://www.ntsc-uk.com/review.php?platform=ps3&game=RatchetAndClankTOD","url_text":"\"NTSC-uk Ratchet and Clank Future: Tools of Destruction Review\""},{"url":"http://www.ntsc-uk.com/review.php?platform=ps3&game=RatchetAndClankTOD","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2007\". Gaming Target. 2008-01-02. Archived from the original on 2008-01-05. Retrieved 2008-01-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gamingtarget.com/article.php?artid=8075","url_text":"\"52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2007\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080105020510/http://www.gamingtarget.com/article.php?artid=8075","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"D.I.C.E. Awards By Video Game Details Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction\". interactive.org. Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 8 November 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.interactive.org/games/video_game_details.asp?idAward=2008&idGame=926","url_text":"\"D.I.C.E. Awards By Video Game Details Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Interactive_Arts_%26_Sciences","url_text":"Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences"}]},{"reference":"Klepek, Patrick (2007-11-19). \"NPD Fallout: Did Ratchet Actually Sell Just Fine?\". 1UP. Archived from the original on 2012-02-05. Retrieved 2007-11-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120205015242/http://www.1up.com/news/npd-fallout-ratchet-sell-fine","url_text":"\"NPD Fallout: Did Ratchet Actually Sell Just Fine?\""},{"url":"http://www.1up.com/news/npd-fallout-ratchet-sell-fine","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalisation_(mathematics)
Rationalisation (mathematics)
["1 Rationalisation of a monomial square root and cube root","2 Dealing with more square roots","3 Generalizations","4 References"]
Removal of square roots from denominators In elementary algebra, root rationalisation is a process by which radicals in the denominator of an algebraic fraction are eliminated. If the denominator is a monomial in some radical, say a x n k , {\displaystyle a{\sqrt{x}}^{k},} with k < n, rationalisation consists of multiplying the numerator and the denominator by x n n − k , {\displaystyle {\sqrt{x}}^{n-k},} and replacing x n n {\displaystyle {\sqrt{x}}^{n}} by x (this is allowed, as, by definition, a nth root of x is a number that has x as its nth power). If k ≥ n, one writes k = qn + r with 0 ≤ r < n (Euclidean division), and x n k = x q x n r ; {\displaystyle {\sqrt{x}}^{k}=x^{q}{\sqrt{x}}^{r};} then one proceeds as above by multiplying by x n n − r . {\displaystyle {\sqrt{x}}^{n-r}.} If the denominator is linear in some square root, say a + b x , {\displaystyle a+b{\sqrt {x}},} rationalisation consists of multiplying the numerator and the denominator by a − b x , {\displaystyle a-b{\sqrt {x}},} and expanding the product in the denominator. This technique may be extended to any algebraic denominator, by multiplying the numerator and the denominator by all algebraic conjugates of the denominator, and expanding the new denominator into the norm of the old denominator. However, except in special cases, the resulting fractions may have huge numerators and denominators, and, therefore, the technique is generally used only in the above elementary cases. Rationalisation of a monomial square root and cube root For the fundamental technique, the numerator and denominator must be multiplied by the same factor. Example 1: 10 5 {\displaystyle {\frac {10}{\sqrt {5}}}} To rationalise this kind of expression, bring in the factor 5 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {5}}} : 10 5 = 10 5 ⋅ 5 5 = 10 5 ( 5 ) 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {10}{\sqrt {5}}}={\frac {10}{\sqrt {5}}}\cdot {\frac {\sqrt {5}}{\sqrt {5}}}={\frac {10{\sqrt {5}}}{\left({\sqrt {5}}\right)^{2}}}} The square root disappears from the denominator, because ( 5 ) 2 = 5 {\displaystyle \left({\sqrt {5}}\right)^{2}=5} by definition of a square root: 10 5 ( 5 ) 2 = 10 5 5 , {\displaystyle {\frac {10{\sqrt {5}}}{\left({\sqrt {5}}\right)^{2}}}={\frac {10{\sqrt {5}}}{5}},} which is the result of the rationalisation. Example 2: 10 a 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {10}{\sqrt{a}}}} To rationalise this radical, bring in the factor a 3 2 {\displaystyle {\sqrt{a}}^{2}} : 10 a 3 = 10 a 3 ⋅ a 3 2 a 3 2 = 10 a 3 2 a 3 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {10}{\sqrt{a}}}={\frac {10}{\sqrt{a}}}\cdot {\frac {{\sqrt{a}}^{2}}{{\sqrt{a}}^{2}}}={\frac {10{\sqrt{a}}^{2}}{{\sqrt{a}}^{3}}}} The cube root disappears from the denominator, because it is cubed; so 10 a 3 2 a 3 3 = 10 a 3 2 a , {\displaystyle {\frac {10{\sqrt{a}}^{2}}{{\sqrt{a}}^{3}}}={\frac {10{\sqrt{a}}^{2}}{a}},} which is the result of the rationalisation. Dealing with more square roots For a denominator that is: 2 ± 3 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\pm {\sqrt {3}}\,} Rationalisation can be achieved by multiplying by the conjugate: 2 ∓ 3 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {2}}\mp {\sqrt {3}}\,} and applying the difference of two squares identity, which here will yield −1. To get this result, the entire fraction should be multiplied by 2 − 3 2 − 3 = 1. {\displaystyle {\frac {{\sqrt {2}}-{\sqrt {3}}}{{\sqrt {2}}-{\sqrt {3}}}}=1.} This technique works much more generally. It can easily be adapted to remove one square root at a time, i.e. to rationalise x ± y {\displaystyle x\pm {\sqrt {y}}\,} by multiplication by x ∓ y {\displaystyle x\mp {\sqrt {y}}} Example: 3 3 ± 5 {\displaystyle {\frac {3}{{\sqrt {3}}\pm {\sqrt {5}}}}} The fraction must be multiplied by a quotient containing 3 ∓ 5 {\displaystyle {{\sqrt {3}}\mp {\sqrt {5}}}} . 3 3 + 5 ⋅ 3 − 5 3 − 5 = 3 ( 3 − 5 ) 3 2 − 5 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {3}{{\sqrt {3}}+{\sqrt {5}}}}\cdot {\frac {{\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {5}}}{{\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {5}}}}={\frac {3({\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {5}})}{{\sqrt {3}}^{2}-{\sqrt {5}}^{2}}}} Now, we can proceed to remove the square roots in the denominator: 3 ( 3 − 5 ) 3 2 − 5 2 = 3 ( 3 − 5 ) 3 − 5 = 3 ( 3 − 5 ) − 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {3({\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {5}})}{{\sqrt {3}}^{2}-{\sqrt {5}}^{2}}}={\frac {3({\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {5}})}{3-5}}={\frac {3({\sqrt {3}}-{\sqrt {5}})}{-2}}} Example 2: This process also works with complex numbers with i = − 1 {\displaystyle i={\sqrt {-1}}} 7 1 ± − 5 {\displaystyle {\frac {7}{1\pm {\sqrt {-5}}}}} The fraction must be multiplied by a quotient containing 1 ∓ − 5 {\displaystyle {1\mp {\sqrt {-5}}}} . 7 1 + − 5 ⋅ 1 − − 5 1 − − 5 = 7 ( 1 − − 5 ) 1 2 − − 5 2 = 7 ( 1 − − 5 ) 1 − ( − 5 ) = 7 − 7 5 i 6 {\displaystyle {\frac {7}{1+{\sqrt {-5}}}}\cdot {\frac {1-{\sqrt {-5}}}{1-{\sqrt {-5}}}}={\frac {7(1-{\sqrt {-5}})}{1^{2}-{\sqrt {-5}}^{2}}}={\frac {7(1-{\sqrt {-5}})}{1-(-5)}}={\frac {7-7{\sqrt {5}}i}{6}}} Generalizations Rationalisation can be extended to all algebraic numbers and algebraic functions (as an application of norm forms). For example, to rationalise a cube root, two linear factors involving cube roots of unity should be used, or equivalently a quadratic factor. References This material is carried in classic algebra texts. For example: George Chrystal, Introduction to Algebra: For the Use of Secondary Schools and Technical Colleges is a nineteenth-century text, first edition 1889, in print (ISBN 1402159072); a trinomial example with square roots is on p. 256, while a general theory of rationalising factors for surds is on pp. 189–199.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"elementary algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_algebra"},{"link_name":"radicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root"},{"link_name":"denominator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denominator"},{"link_name":"algebraic fraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraction_(mathematics)#Algebraic_fractions"},{"link_name":"monomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomial"},{"link_name":"nth root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nth_root"},{"link_name":"Euclidean division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_division"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_function"},{"link_name":"algebraic conjugates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_conjugate"},{"link_name":"norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_norm"}],"text":"In elementary algebra, root rationalisation is a process by which radicals in the denominator of an algebraic fraction are eliminated.If the denominator is a monomial in some radical, say \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a{\\sqrt[{n}]{x}}^{k},}\n \n with k < n, rationalisation consists of multiplying the numerator and the denominator by \n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n n\n −\n k\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{n}]{x}}^{n-k},}\n \n and replacing \n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{n}]{x}}^{n}}\n \n by x (this is allowed, as, by definition, a nth root of x is a number that has x as its nth power). If k ≥ n, one writes k = qn + r with 0 ≤ r < n (Euclidean division), and \n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n q\n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n ;\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{n}]{x}}^{k}=x^{q}{\\sqrt[{n}]{x}}^{r};}\n \n then one proceeds as above by multiplying by \n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n n\n −\n r\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{n}]{x}}^{n-r}.}If the denominator is linear in some square root, say \n \n \n \n a\n +\n b\n \n \n x\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a+b{\\sqrt {x}},}\n \n rationalisation consists of multiplying the numerator and the denominator by \n \n \n \n a\n −\n b\n \n \n x\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a-b{\\sqrt {x}},}\n \n and expanding the product in the denominator.This technique may be extended to any algebraic denominator, by multiplying the numerator and the denominator by all algebraic conjugates of the denominator, and expanding the new denominator into the norm of the old denominator. However, except in special cases, the resulting fractions may have huge numerators and denominators, and, therefore, the technique is generally used only in the above elementary cases.","title":"Rationalisation (mathematics)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"square root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root"}],"text":"For the fundamental technique, the numerator and denominator must be multiplied by the same factor.Example 1:10\n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {10}{\\sqrt {5}}}}To rationalise this kind of expression, bring in the factor \n \n \n \n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {5}}}\n \n:10\n \n 5\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 10\n \n 5\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n 5\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 10\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {10}{\\sqrt {5}}}={\\frac {10}{\\sqrt {5}}}\\cdot {\\frac {\\sqrt {5}}{\\sqrt {5}}}={\\frac {10{\\sqrt {5}}}{\\left({\\sqrt {5}}\\right)^{2}}}}The square root disappears from the denominator, because \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left({\\sqrt {5}}\\right)^{2}=5}\n \n by definition of a square root:10\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 10\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n 5\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {10{\\sqrt {5}}}{\\left({\\sqrt {5}}\\right)^{2}}}={\\frac {10{\\sqrt {5}}}{5}},}which is the result of the rationalisation.Example 2:10\n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {10}{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}}}To rationalise this radical, bring in the factor \n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{2}}\n \n:10\n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 10\n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 10\n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {10}{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}}={\\frac {10}{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}}\\cdot {\\frac {{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{2}}{{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{2}}}={\\frac {10{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{2}}{{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{3}}}}The cube root disappears from the denominator, because it is cubed; so10\n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 10\n \n \n \n a\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n a\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {10{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{2}}{{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{3}}}={\\frac {10{\\sqrt[{3}]{a}}^{2}}{a}},}which is the result of the rationalisation.","title":"Rationalisation of a monomial square root and cube root"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"denominator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denominator"},{"link_name":"conjugate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"difference of two squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_of_two_squares"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_numbers"}],"text":"For a denominator that is:2\n \n \n ±\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {2}}\\pm {\\sqrt {3}}\\,}Rationalisation can be achieved by multiplying by the conjugate:2\n \n \n ∓\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {2}}\\mp {\\sqrt {3}}\\,}and applying the difference of two squares identity, which here will yield −1. To get this result, the entire fraction should be multiplied by2\n \n \n −\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {{\\sqrt {2}}-{\\sqrt {3}}}{{\\sqrt {2}}-{\\sqrt {3}}}}=1.}This technique works much more generally. It can easily be adapted to remove one square root at a time, i.e. to rationalisex\n ±\n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\pm {\\sqrt {y}}\\,}by multiplication byx\n ∓\n \n \n y\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\mp {\\sqrt {y}}}Example:3\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n ±\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {3}{{\\sqrt {3}}\\pm {\\sqrt {5}}}}}The fraction must be multiplied by a quotient containing \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n ∓\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {{\\sqrt {3}}\\mp {\\sqrt {5}}}}\n \n.3\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n +\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 3\n (\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {3}{{\\sqrt {3}}+{\\sqrt {5}}}}\\cdot {\\frac {{\\sqrt {3}}-{\\sqrt {5}}}{{\\sqrt {3}}-{\\sqrt {5}}}}={\\frac {3({\\sqrt {3}}-{\\sqrt {5}})}{{\\sqrt {3}}^{2}-{\\sqrt {5}}^{2}}}}Now, we can proceed to remove the square roots in the denominator:3\n (\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n 5\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 3\n (\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n 3\n −\n 5\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 3\n (\n \n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {3({\\sqrt {3}}-{\\sqrt {5}})}{{\\sqrt {3}}^{2}-{\\sqrt {5}}^{2}}}={\\frac {3({\\sqrt {3}}-{\\sqrt {5}})}{3-5}}={\\frac {3({\\sqrt {3}}-{\\sqrt {5}})}{-2}}}Example 2:This process also works with complex numbers with \n \n \n \n i\n =\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle i={\\sqrt {-1}}}7\n \n 1\n ±\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {7}{1\\pm {\\sqrt {-5}}}}}The fraction must be multiplied by a quotient containing \n \n \n \n \n 1\n ∓\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {1\\mp {\\sqrt {-5}}}}\n \n.7\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n \n 1\n −\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 7\n (\n 1\n −\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 7\n (\n 1\n −\n \n \n −\n 5\n \n \n )\n \n \n 1\n −\n (\n −\n 5\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n 7\n −\n 7\n \n \n 5\n \n \n i\n \n 6\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {7}{1+{\\sqrt {-5}}}}\\cdot {\\frac {1-{\\sqrt {-5}}}{1-{\\sqrt {-5}}}}={\\frac {7(1-{\\sqrt {-5}})}{1^{2}-{\\sqrt {-5}}^{2}}}={\\frac {7(1-{\\sqrt {-5}})}{1-(-5)}}={\\frac {7-7{\\sqrt {5}}i}{6}}}","title":"Dealing with more square roots"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"algebraic numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_number"},{"link_name":"algebraic functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_function"},{"link_name":"norm forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_form"},{"link_name":"cube root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_root"},{"link_name":"cube roots of unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cube_roots_of_unity"}],"text":"Rationalisation can be extended to all algebraic numbers and algebraic functions (as an application of norm forms). For example, to rationalise a cube root, two linear factors involving cube roots of unity should be used, or equivalently a quadratic factor.","title":"Generalizations"}]
[]
null
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raw_material
Raw material
["1 Raw material in supply chain","1.1 Raw materials markets","2 Raw material processing","2.1 Ceramic","2.2 Metallic","2.3 Iron ore","3 Conflicts of raw materials","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading"]
Basic material that is used to produce goods, finished products, energy, or intermediate materials "Raw Material" redirects here. For other uses, see Raw material (disambiguation). Sulfur at harbor in North Vancouver, British Columbia, ready to be loaded onto a ship Latex being collected from a tapped rubber tree A raw material, also known as a feedstock, unprocessed material, or primary commodity, is a basic material that is used to produce goods, finished goods, energy, or intermediate materials that are feedstock for future finished products. As feedstock, the term connotes these materials are bottleneck assets and are required to produce other products. The term raw material denotes materials in unprocessed or minimally processed states such as raw latex, crude oil, cotton, coal, raw biomass, iron ore, plastic, air, logs, and water. The term secondary raw material denotes waste material which has been recycled and injected back into use as productive material. Raw material in supply chain Supply chains typically begin with the acquisition or extraction of raw materials. For example, the European Commission notes that food supply chains commence in the agricultural phase of food production. A 2022 report on changes affecting international trade noted that improving sourcing of raw materials has become one of the main objectives of companies reconfiguring their supply chains. In a 2022 survey conducted by SAP, wherein 400 US-based leaders in logistics and supply chain were interviewed, 44% of respondents cited a lack of raw materials as a reason for their supply chain issues. Forecasting for 2023, 50% of respondents expect a reduced availability of raw materials in the US to drive supply chain disruptions. Raw materials markets Raw materials markets are affected by consumer behavior, supply chain uncertainty, manufacturing disruptions, and regulations, amongst other factors. This results in volatile raw materials markets that are difficult to optimize and manage. Companies can struggle when faced with raw material volatility due to a lack of understanding of market demands, poor or no visibility into the indirect supply chain, and the time lag of raw materials price changes. Volatility in the raw materials markets can also be driven by natural disasters and geopolitcal conflict. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the steel industry, and once demand rebounded, prices increased 250% in the US. The war in Ukraine caused the price of natural gas to increase by 50% in 2022. Raw material processing Ceramic While pottery originated in many different points around the world, it is certain that it was brought to light mostly through the Neolithic Revolution. That is important because it was a way for the first agrarians to store and carry a surplus of supplies. While most jars and pots were fire-clay ceramics, Neolithic communities also created kilns that were able to fire such materials to remove most of the water to create very stable and hard materials. Without the presence of clay on the riverbanks of the Tigris and Euphrates in the Fertile Crescent, such kilns would have been impossible for people in the region to have produced. Using these kilns, the process of metallurgy was possible once the Bronze and Iron Ages came upon the people that lived there. Metallic Many raw metallic materials used in industrial purposes must first be processed into a usable state. Metallic ores are first processed through a combination of crushing, roasting, magnetic separation, flotation, and leaching to make them suitable for use in a foundry. Foundries then smelt the ore into usable metal that may be alloyed with other materials to improve certain properties. One metallic raw material that is commonly found across the world is iron, and combined with nickel, this material makes up over 35% of the material in the Earth's inner and outer core. The iron that was initially used as early as 4000 BC was called meteoric iron and was found on the surface of the Earth. This type of iron came from the meteorites that struck the Earth before humans appeared, and was in very limited supply. This type is unlike most of the iron in the Earth, as the iron in the Earth was much deeper than the humans of that time period were able to excavate. The nickel content of the meteoric iron made it not necessary to be heated up, and instead, it was hammered and shaped into tools and weapons. Iron ore Vyasanakere Iron Ore Mine in Karnataka, India Iron ore can be found in a multitude of forms and sources. The primary forms of iron ore today are Hematite and Magnetite. While iron ore can be found throughout the world, only the deposits in the order of millions of tonnes are processed for industrial purposes. The top five exporters of Iron ore are Australia, Brazil, South Africa, Canada, and Ukraine. One of the first sources of iron ore is bog iron. Bog iron takes the form of pea-sized nodules that are created under peat bogs at the base of mountains. Conflicts of raw materials Places with plentiful raw materials and little economic development often show a phenomenon known as "Dutch disease" or the "resource curse", which occurs when the economy of a country is mainly based upon its exports because of its method of governance. An example of this is the Democratic Republic of the Congo. See also Bulk cargo Bulk materials Bulk liquids Biomaterial Commodity Conflict resource Critical mineral raw materials Downcycling List of building materials Marginal factor cost Material passport Materials science Nature References ^ Christophe Degryse, L'économie en 100 et quelques mots d'actualité, De Boeck, 2005, p. 140. ^ European Commission, Raw materials, updated 26 March 2020, accessed 31 December 2020 ^ "The Supply Chain: From Raw Materials to Order Fulfillment". Investopedia. Retrieved 2023-03-03. ^ European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: A better functioning food supply chain in Europe, page 2, provisional version published 28 October 2019, accessed 2 February 2023 ^ Economist Impact and DP World, Trade in Transition 2022: Key Findings, accessed 2 February 2023 ^ "New Research Forecasts the State of U.S. Supply Chains in 2023". SAP News Center. October 24, 2022. Retrieved March 14, 2023. ^ "Read @Kearney: How to navigate a volatile raw materials market". Kearney. Retrieved 2023-03-03. ^ "Gauging the Risks of Raw-Material Volatility". BCG Global. 2022-10-07. Retrieved 2023-03-03. ^ James E. McClellan III; Harold Dorn (2006). Science and Technology in World History: An Introduction. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8360-6. p. 21. ^ "Materials processing". Retrieved 8 February 2018. ^ Morgan, John W.; Anders, Edward (December 1980). "Chemical composition of Earth, Venus, and Mercury". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 77 (12): 6973–6977. Bibcode:1980PNAS...77.6973M. doi:10.1073/pnas.77.12.6973. PMC 350422. PMID 16592930. ^ Understanding materials science, p. 125, Rolf E. Hummel, Springer, 2004 ^ "Mineral Information Institute - IRON ORE". 2006-04-17. Archived from the original on 2006-04-17. Retrieved 2019-03-17. ^ Workman, Daniel (2018-12-08). "Iron Ore Exports by Country". World's Top Exports. Retrieved 2019-03-17. ^ "Hurstwic: Iron Production in the Viking Age". www.hurstwic.org. Retrieved 2019-03-17. ^ Bernard Tchibambelela, Le commerce mondial de la faim: stratégie de rupture positive au Congo-Brazzaville, Éditions L'Harmattan, 2009, p. 183. Further reading Elizabeth Kolbert, "Needful Things: The raw materials for the world we've built come at a cost" (largely based on Ed Conway, Material World: The Six Raw Materials That Shape Modern Civilization, Knopf, 2023; Vince Beiser, The World in a Grain; and Chip Colwell, So Much Stuff: How Humans Discovered Tools, Invented Meaning, and Made More of Everything, Chicago), The New Yorker, 30 October 2023, pp. 20–23. Kolbert mainly discusses the importance to modern civilization, and the finite sources of, six raw materials: high-purity quartz (needed to produce silicon chips), sand, iron, copper, petroleum (which Conway lumps together with another fossil fuel, natural gas), and lithium. Kolbert summarizes archeologist Colwell's review of the evolution of technology, which has ended up giving the Global North a superabundance of "stuff," at an unsustainable cost to the world's environment and reserves of raw materials. Karl Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, Part III, Chap. 7. Authority control databases National France BnF data Israel United States Czech Republic Other NARA
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For other uses, see Raw material (disambiguation).Sulfur at harbor in North Vancouver, British Columbia, ready to be loaded onto a shipLatex being collected from a tapped rubber treeA raw material, also known as a feedstock, unprocessed material, or primary commodity, is a basic material that is used to produce goods, finished goods, energy, or intermediate materials that are feedstock for future finished products. As feedstock, the term connotes these materials are bottleneck assets and are required to produce other products.The term raw material denotes materials in unprocessed or minimally processed states such as raw latex, crude oil, cotton, coal, raw biomass, iron ore, plastic, air, logs, and water.[1] The term secondary raw material denotes waste material which has been recycled and injected back into use as productive material.[2]","title":"Raw material"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Supply chains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"European Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"international trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_trade"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"SAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Supply chains typically begin with the acquisition or extraction of raw materials.[3] For example, the European Commission notes that food supply chains commence in the agricultural phase of food production.[4]A 2022 report on changes affecting international trade noted that improving sourcing of raw materials has become one of the main objectives of companies reconfiguring their supply chains.[5]In a 2022 survey conducted by SAP, wherein 400 US-based leaders in logistics and supply chain were interviewed, 44% of respondents cited a lack of raw materials as a reason for their supply chain issues. Forecasting for 2023, 50% of respondents expect a reduced availability of raw materials in the US to drive supply chain disruptions.[6]","title":"Raw material in supply chain"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"volatile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatility_(finance)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"natural disasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_disaster"},{"link_name":"geopolitcal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitics"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"US","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"war in Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Raw materials markets","text":"Raw materials markets are affected by consumer behavior, supply chain uncertainty, manufacturing disruptions, and regulations, amongst other factors. This results in volatile raw materials markets that are difficult to optimize and manage. Companies can struggle when faced with raw material volatility due to a lack of understanding of market demands, poor or no visibility into the indirect supply chain, and the time lag of raw materials price changes.[7]Volatility in the raw materials markets can also be driven by natural disasters and geopolitcal conflict. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the steel industry, and once demand rebounded, prices increased 250% in the US. The war in Ukraine caused the price of natural gas to increase by 50% in 2022.[8]","title":"Raw material in supply chain"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Raw material processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery"},{"link_name":"Neolithic Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution"},{"link_name":"ceramics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceramics"},{"link_name":"kilns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiln"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay"},{"link_name":"metallurgy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallurgy"},{"link_name":"Bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"Iron Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Ceramic","text":"While pottery originated in many different points around the world, it is certain that it was brought to light mostly through the Neolithic Revolution. 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Using these kilns, the process of metallurgy was possible once the Bronze and Iron Ages came upon the people that lived there.[9]","title":"Raw material processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore"},{"link_name":"processed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore_processing"},{"link_name":"foundry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundry"},{"link_name":"smelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smelting"},{"link_name":"alloyed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"inner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core"},{"link_name":"outer core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_outer_core"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"meteoric iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoric_iron"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Metallic","text":"Many raw metallic materials used in industrial purposes must first be processed into a usable state. Metallic ores are first processed through a combination of crushing, roasting, magnetic separation, flotation, and leaching to make them suitable for use in a foundry. Foundries then smelt the ore into usable metal that may be alloyed with other materials to improve certain properties.[10] One metallic raw material that is commonly found across the world is iron, and combined with nickel, this material makes up over 35% of the material in the Earth's inner and outer core.[11] The iron that was initially used as early as 4000 BC was called meteoric iron and was found on the surface of the Earth. This type of iron came from the meteorites that struck the Earth before humans appeared, and was in very limited supply. This type is unlike most of the iron in the Earth, as the iron in the Earth was much deeper than the humans of that time period were able to excavate. 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While iron ore can be found throughout the world, only the deposits in the order of millions of tonnes are processed for industrial purposes.[13] The top five exporters of Iron ore are Australia, Brazil, South Africa, Canada, and Ukraine.[14] One of the first sources of iron ore is bog iron. Bog iron takes the form of pea-sized nodules that are created under peat bogs at the base of mountains.[15]","title":"Raw material processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dutch disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_disease"},{"link_name":"resource curse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_curse"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Democratic Republic of the Congo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Places with plentiful raw materials and little economic development often show a phenomenon known as \"Dutch disease\" or the \"resource curse\", which occurs when the economy of a country is mainly based upon its exports because of its method of governance.[16] An example of this is the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[citation needed]","title":"Conflicts of raw materials"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elizabeth Kolbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Kolbert"},{"link_name":"Ed Conway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Conway"},{"link_name":"Vince Beiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vince_Beiser"},{"link_name":"Chip Colwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chip_Colwell&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"The New Yorker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Yorker"},{"link_name":"quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"},{"link_name":"silicon chips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_chip"},{"link_name":"sand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"petroleum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum"},{"link_name":"fossil fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel"},{"link_name":"natural gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas"},{"link_name":"lithium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium"},{"link_name":"technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology"},{"link_name":"Global North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_North"},{"link_name":"environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment"},{"link_name":"Karl Marx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx"},{"link_name":"Capital, Vol. 1, Part III, Chap. 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch07.htm"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q192355#identifiers"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950813f"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11950813f"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007563247205171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85111583"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph126283&CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"NARA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalog.archives.gov/id/10642018"}],"text":"Elizabeth Kolbert, \"Needful Things: The raw materials for the world we've built come at a cost\" (largely based on Ed Conway, Material World: The Six Raw Materials That Shape Modern Civilization, Knopf, 2023; Vince Beiser, The World in a Grain; and Chip Colwell, So Much Stuff: How Humans Discovered Tools, Invented Meaning, and Made More of Everything, Chicago), The New Yorker, 30 October 2023, pp. 20–23. Kolbert mainly discusses the importance to modern civilization, and the finite sources of, six raw materials: high-purity quartz (needed to produce silicon chips), sand, iron, copper, petroleum (which Conway lumps together with another fossil fuel, natural gas), and lithium. Kolbert summarizes archeologist Colwell's review of the evolution of technology, which has ended up giving the Global North a superabundance of \"stuff,\" at an unsustainable cost to the world's environment and reserves of raw materials.\nKarl Marx, Capital, Vol. 1, Part III, Chap. 7.Authority control databases National\nFrance\nBnF data\nIsrael\nUnited States\nCzech Republic\nOther\nNARA","title":"Further reading"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray-tracing_hardware
Ray-tracing hardware
["1 Introduction: Ray tracing and rasterization","2 Implementations","3 Notes","4 References","5 Further reading"]
Type of 3D graphics accelerator Quake Wars: Ray Traced was rendered using Intel's now-cancelled Xeon Phi PCI 3.0 board. Ray-tracing hardware is special-purpose computer hardware designed for accelerating ray tracing calculations. Introduction: Ray tracing and rasterization The problem of rendering 3D graphics can be conceptually presented as finding all intersections between a set of "primitives" (typically triangles or polygons) and a set of "rays" (typically one or more per pixel). Up to 2010, all typical graphic acceleration boards, called graphics processing units (GPUs), used rasterization algorithms. The ray tracing algorithm solves the rendering problem in a different way. In each step, it finds all intersections of a ray with a set of relevant primitives of the scene. Both approaches have their own benefits and drawbacks. Rasterization can be performed using devices based on a stream computing model, one triangle at the time, and access to the complete scene is needed only once. The drawback of rasterization is that non-local effects, required for an accurate simulation of a scene, such as reflections and shadows are difficult; and refractions nearly impossible to compute. The ray tracing algorithm is inherently suitable for scaling by parallelization of individual ray renders. However, anything other than ray casting requires recursion of the ray tracing algorithm (and random access to the scene graph) to complete their analysis, since reflected, refracted, and scattered rays require that various parts of the scene be re-accessed in a way not easily predicted. But it can easily compute various kinds of physically correct effects, providing much more realistic impression than rasterization. The complexity of a well implemented ray tracing algorithm scales logarithmically; this is due to objects (triangles and collections of triangles) being placed into BSP trees or similar structures, and only being analyzed if a ray intersects with the bounding volume of the binary space partition. Implementations Various implementations of ray tracing hardware have been created, both experimental and commercial: (1995) Advanced Rendering Technology (ART) founded in Cambridge, UK, based on a 1994 PhD thesis, to produce dedicated ray tracing silicon (initially the "AR250" chip, which accelerated ray-triangle intersection, bounding box traversal and shading), using a "RenderDrive" networked accelerator for off-line rendering. Products were first shipped to customers in 1998. Software provided integration with Autodesk Maya and Max data formats, and utilized the Renderman scene description language for sending data to the processors (the .RIB or Renderman Interface Bytestream file format). ART was re-founded as ART-VPS in 2002. As of 2010, ART-VPS no longer produces ray tracing hardware but continues to produce rendering software. (1996) Researchers at Princeton university proposed using DSPs to build a hardware unit for ray tracing acceleration, named "TigerSHARK". Implementations of volume rendering using ray tracing algorithms on custom hardware were carried out in 1999 by Hanspeter Pfister and researchers at Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories. with the vg500 / VolumePro ASIC based system and in 2002 with FPGAs by researchers at the University of Tübingen with VIZARD II (2002) The computer graphics laboratory at Saarland University headed by Dr.-Ing. Philipp Slusallek has produced prototype ray tracing hardware including the FPGA based fixed function data driven SaarCOR (Saarbrücken's Coherence Optimized Ray Tracer) chip and a more advanced programmable (2005) processor, the Ray Processing Unit (RPU) (2009–2010) Intel showcased their prototype "Larrabee" GPU and Knights Ferry MIC at the Intel Developer Forum in 2009 with a demonstration of real-time ray-tracing. Caustic Graphics produced a plug in card, the "CausticOne" (2009), that accelerated global illumination and other ray based rendering processes when coupled to a PC CPU and GPU. The hardware is designed to organize scattered rays (typically produced by global illumination problems) into more coherent sets (lower spatial or angular spread) for further processing by an external processor. Siliconarts developed a dedicated real-time ray tracing hardware (2010). RayCore (2011), which is the world's first real-time ray tracing semiconductor IP, was announced. In August 2013 Imagination Technologies, after acquiring Caustic Graphics, produced the Caustic Professional's R2500 and R2100 plug in cards containing RT2 ray trace units (RTUs). Each RTU was capable of calculating up to 50 million incoherent rays per second. In January 2018, Nvidia, partnering with Microsoft DirectX, announced the Nvidia RTX developer library, which promised fast GPU software ray tracing solutions in the Volta-generation GPUs. In September 2018, Nvidia introduced their GeForce RTX and Quadro RTX GPUs, based on the Turing architecture, with hardware-accelerated ray tracing using a separate functional block, publicly called an "RT core". This unit is somewhat comparable to a texture unit in size, latency, and interface to the processor core. The unit features BVH traversal, compressed BVH node decompression, ray-AABB intersection testing, and ray-triangle intersection testing. The GeForce RTX 2080 and 2080 Ti became the first consumer-oriented brand of graphics card that can perform ray tracing in real time,. In October 2020, AMD announced further information regarding the "refresh" of the RDNA micro-architecture. According to the company, the RDNA 2 micro-architecture supports real-time hardware accelerated ray tracing, consisting of BVH node decoding, ray-AABB intersection testing, and ray-triangle intersection testing. Intel released Arc Alchemist GPU in 2022, in which the GPU featured ray tracing acceleration core that are performing comparatively with RTX 3000 series mid-range GPU. On 4 November 2021, Imagination Technologies announced their IMG CXT GPU with hardware-accelerated ray tracing. On January 18, 2022, Samsung announced their Exynos 2200 AP SoC with hardware-accelerated ray tracing based on the AMD RDNA2 GPU architecture. On June 28, 2022, Arm announced their Immortalis-G715 with hardware-accelerated ray tracing. On November 16, 2022, Qualcomm announced their Snapdragon 8 Gen 2 with hardware-accelerated ray tracing. On September 12, 2023, Apple announced their Apple A17 with hardware-accelerated ray tracing. Notes ^ For additional visualisations such as shadows, or reflections such as produced by a large flat body of water an addition pass of the scene graph is required for each effect. ^ Rasterisation methods are capable of generating realistic shadows (including shadows produced by partially transparent objects), and plane reflections easily (as of 2010), but do not easily implement reflections from non planar surfaces (excluding approximations using normal maps) or refractions. ^ That is if X is the number of triangles, then the number of computations to complete the scene is proportional to log(X). ^ The same methods can be used in rasterization; in a simplistic implementation, culling is limited to those BSP partitions that lie within the much larger viewing frustum (more advanced implementations including those that implement occlusion culling or predicated rendering scale better than linearly for complex (especially high occluded) scenes (Note in common API's : DirectX 10 D3D10_QUERY_OCCLUSION_PREDICATE , in OpenGL 3.0 HP_occlusion_query ). With ray tracing the viewing frustum is replaced by the volume enclosed by a single ray (or ray bundle). References ^ Introduction to real time raytracing Course notes, Course 41, Philipp Slusallek, Peter Shirley, Bill Mark, Gordon Stoll, Ingo Wald, SIGGRAPH 2005, (powerpoint presentation), Slide 26 :Comparison Rasterization vs. Ray Tracing (Definitions) graphics.cg.uni-saarland.de ^ Chris Wyman's Research: Interactive Refractions Archived 2010-07-02 at the Wayback Machine Department of Computer Science at The University of Iowa, www.cs.uiowa.edu ^ SaarCOR —A Hardware Architecture for Ray Tracing, Jörg Schmittler, Ingo Wald, Philipp Slusallek, Section 2, "Previous work" ^ SaarCOR —A Hardware Architecture for Ray Tracing, Jörg Schmittler, Ingo Wald, Philipp Slusallek, Section 3, "The Ray Tracing Algorithm" ^ Ray Tracing and Gaming - One Year Later Daniel Pohl, 17/1/2008, via "PCperspective", www.pcper.com ^ Cold Chips: ART's RenderDrive ^ ART company website Archived 1996-12-27 at the Wayback Machine www.art.co.uk ^ ART press release Archived 1998-05-13 at the Wayback Machine ART Chips In To Accelerate Ray Traced Rendering ^ ALL ABOUT ARTVPS, PURE CARDS, RENDERDRIVES and RAYBOX Archived 2009-04-14 at the Wayback Machine Mark Segasby (Protograph Ltd), www.protograph.co.uk ^ a b About ArtVPS www.artvps ^ A Hardware Accelerated Ray-tracing Engine Greg Humphreys, C. Scott Ananian (Independent Work), Department of Computer Science, Princeton University, 14/5/1996, cscott.net. ^ The vg500 Real-Time Ray-Casting ASIC.Archived 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine Hanspeter Pfister, MERL - A Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratory, Cambridge MA (USA) www.hotchips.org ^ Hanspeter Pfister; Jan Hardenbergh; Jim Knittely; Hugh Lauery; Larry Seiler (April 1999). "The VolumePro Real-Time Ray-Casting System" (PDF). Mitsubishi Electric. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.69.4091. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2010-02-27. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ VIZARD II: An FPGA-based Interactive Volume Rendering System Archived 2008-11-21 at the Wayback Machine Urs Kanus, Gregor Wetekam, Johannes Hirche, Michael Meißner, University of Tübingen / Philips Research Hamburg, Graphics Hardware (2002), pp. 1–11, via www.doggetts.org ^ "SaarCOR - A Hardware Architekture for Ray Tracing". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Schmittler, Jörg; Wald, Ingo; Slusallek, Philipp (2002). "SaarCOR —A Hardware Architecture for Ray Tracing" (PDF). Graphics Hardware. Germany: Computer Graphics Group, Saarland University: 1–11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-14. Retrieved 2011-11-22. ^ Jörg Schmittler; Sven Woop; Daniel Wagner; Wolfgang J. Paul; Philipp Slusallek (2004). "Realtime Ray Tracing of Dynamic Scenes on an FPGA Chip". Graphics Hardware. Computer Science, Saarland University, Germany. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.72.2947. ^ Sven Woop; Jorg Schmittler; Philipp Slusallek. "RPU: A Programmable Ray Processing Unit for Realtime Ray Tracing" (PDF). Saarland University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-15. Retrieved 2011-11-22. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "Sean Maloney's IDF 2009 Larrabee graphics demo - YouTube". www.youtube.com. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2021-01-06. ^ Caustic Graphics company website www.caustic.com ^ "Caustic Graphics Ray Tracing Acceleration Technology Review - PC Perspective". pcper.com. 2009-04-20. Retrieved 2022-08-05. ^ Reinventing Ray Tracing 15/7/2009, Jonathan Erickson interview with James McCombe of Caustic Graphics, www.drdobbs.com ^ Siliconarts company website www.siliconarts.com ^ "The future of ray tracing, reviewed: Caustic's R2500 accelerator finally moves us towards real-time ray tracing | ExtremeTech". ExtremeTech. 2013-08-01. Retrieved 2015-10-05. ^ "NVIDIA RTX™ Technology". NVIDIA Developer. 2018-03-06. Retrieved 2018-04-20. ^ Oh, Nate. "NVIDIA Announces RTX Technology: Real Time Ray Tracing Acceleration for Volta GPUs and Later". Retrieved 2018-04-20. ^ Kilgariff, Emmett; Moreton, Henry; Stam, Nick; Bell, Brandon (2018-09-14). "NVIDIA Turing Architecture In-Depth". Nvidia Developer. Archived from the original on 2022-11-13. Retrieved 2022-11-13. ^ Takahashi, Dean (2018-08-20). "Nvidia unveils GeForce RTX graphics chips for real-time ray tracing games". VentureBeat. Archived from the original on 2022-11-13. Retrieved 2022-11-13. ^ Judd, Will (October 28, 2020). "AMD unveils three Radeon 6000 graphics cards with ray tracing and RTX-beating performance". Eurogamer. Retrieved October 28, 2020. ^ "AMD Announces Ryzen "Zen 3" and Radeon "RDNA2" Presentations for October: A New Journey Begins". anandtech.com. AnandTech. 2020-09-09. Retrieved 2020-10-25. ^ "Intel officially launches Arc A380 desktop graphics card in China, costs 153 USD". VideoCardz.com. Retrieved 2022-12-13. ^ updated, Mark Tyson last (2022-09-28). "Intel Arc A310 Graphics Card Quietly Goes Official". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved 2022-12-13. ^ "Intel Arc A770 and Arc A750 graphics cards now available to buy from $289". XDA Developers. 2022-10-12. Retrieved 2022-12-13. ^ "Does ray tracing work on the Intel Arc GPUs?". Digital Trends. 2022-10-08. Retrieved 2022-12-13. ^ 93digital (2021-11-04). "Imagination launches the most advanced ray tracing GPU". Imagination. Retrieved 2023-09-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ "Ray Tracing". Imagination. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ "Samsung Introduces Game Changing Exynos 2200 Processor With Xclipse GPU Powered by AMD RDNA 2 Architecture". news.samsung.com. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ "Gaming Performance Unleashed with Arm's new GPUs - Announcements - Arm Community blogs - Arm Community". community.arm.com. 2022-06-28. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ "Snapdragon 8 Gen 2 Defines a New Standard for Premium Smartphones". www.qualcomm.com. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ "New, Snapdragon 8 Gen 2: 8 extraordinary mobile experiences, unveiled". www.qualcomm.com. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ Bonshor, Ryan Smith, Gavin. "The Apple 2023 Fall iPhone Event Live Blog (Starts at 10am PT/17:00 UTC)". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2023-09-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Further reading State of the Art in Interactive Ray Tracing Ingo Wald and Philipp Slusallek, Computer Graphics Group, Saarland University, Review article to year 2001 vteGraphics processing unitGPUDesktop Intel Arc GT Nvidia GeForce Quadro Tesla Tegra AMD Radeon Radeon Pro Instinct Matrox InfiniteReality NEC µPD7220 3dfx Voodoo S3 Glaze3D Apple silicon Mobile Adreno Apple silicon Mali PowerVR VideoCore Vivante Imageon Intel 2700G Architecture Compute kernel Fabrication CMOS FinFET MOSFET Graphics pipeline Geometry Vertex HDR rendering MAC Rasterisation Shading Ray-tracing SIMD SIMT Tessellation T&L Tiled rendering Unified shader model Components Blitter Geometry processor Input–output memory management unit Render output unit Shader unit Stream processor Tensor unit Texture mapping unit Video display controller Video processing unit Memory DMA Framebuffer SGRAM GDDR GDDR2 GDDR3 GDDR4 GDDR5 GDDR6 GDDR7 HBM HBM2 HBM2E HBM3 HBM-PIM HBM3E Memory bandwidth Memory controller Shared graphics memory Texture memory VRAM Form factor IP core Discrete graphics Clustering Switching External graphics Integrated graphics System on a chip Performance Clock rate Display resolution Fillrate Pixel/s Texel/s FLOP/s Frame rate Performance per watt Transistor count Misc 2D Scrolling Sprite Tile 3D GI Texture ASIC GPGPU Graphics library Hardware acceleration Image processing Compression Parallel computing Vector processor Video coding Codec VLIW
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But it can easily compute various kinds of physically correct effects, providing much more realistic impression than rasterization.[b]The complexity of a well implemented ray tracing algorithm scales logarithmically;[c] this is due to objects (triangles and collections of triangles) being placed into BSP trees or similar structures, and only being analyzed if a ray intersects with the bounding volume of the binary space partition.[5][d]","title":"Introduction: Ray tracing and rasterization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Autodesk Maya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodesk_Maya"},{"link_name":"Max","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodesk_3ds_Max"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-art-14"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-art-14"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"volume rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_rendering"},{"link_name":"Hanspeter Pfister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanspeter_Pfister"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitsubishi_Electric_Research_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"FPGAs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FPGA"},{"link_name":"University of Tübingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Saarland University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarland_University"},{"link_name":"SaarCOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SaarCOR"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Intel Developer Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Developer_Forum"},{"link_name":"Caustic Graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caustic_Graphics"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"global illumination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_illumination"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Imagination Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination_Technologies"},{"link_name":"Caustic Graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caustic_Graphics"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"DirectX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Volta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"GeForce RTX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_20_series"},{"link_name":"Turing architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"BVH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounding_volume_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"RDNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDNA_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"RDNA 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RDNA_2"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Arc Alchemist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Xe#Intel_Arc"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"RTX 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_30_series"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Imagination Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination_Technologies"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Exynos 2200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exynos#Exynos_2000_series"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Arm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arm_(company)"},{"link_name":"Immortalis-G715","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_(processor)#Valhall_4th_Gen"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Qualcomm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualcomm"},{"link_name":"Snapdragon 8 Gen 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Qualcomm_Snapdragon_systems_on_chips#Snapdragon_8_Gen_2_(2023)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Apple A17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_A17"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"Various implementations of ray tracing hardware have been created, both experimental and commercial:(1995) Advanced Rendering Technology (ART) founded[6] in Cambridge, UK, based on a 1994 PhD thesis, to produce dedicated ray tracing silicon (initially the \"AR250\" chip, which accelerated ray-triangle intersection, bounding box traversal and shading), using a \"RenderDrive\" networked accelerator for off-line rendering.[7] Products were first shipped to customers in 1998.[8] Software provided integration with Autodesk Maya and Max data formats, and utilized the Renderman scene description language for sending data to the processors (the .RIB or Renderman Interface Bytestream file format).[9] ART was re-founded as ART-VPS in 2002.[10] As of 2010, ART-VPS no longer produces ray tracing hardware but continues to produce rendering software.[10]\n(1996) Researchers at Princeton university proposed using DSPs to build a hardware unit for ray tracing acceleration, named \"TigerSHARK\".[11]\nImplementations of volume rendering using ray tracing algorithms on custom hardware were carried out in 1999 by Hanspeter Pfister[12] and researchers at Mitsubishi Electric Research Laboratories.[13] with the vg500 / VolumePro ASIC based system and in 2002 with FPGAs by researchers at the University of Tübingen with VIZARD II[14]\n(2002) The computer graphics laboratory at Saarland University headed by Dr.-Ing. Philipp Slusallek has produced prototype ray tracing hardware including the FPGA based fixed function data driven SaarCOR (Saarbrücken's Coherence Optimized Ray Tracer) chip[15][16][17] and a more advanced programmable (2005) processor, the Ray Processing Unit (RPU)[18]\n(2009–2010) Intel[19] showcased their prototype \"Larrabee\" GPU and Knights Ferry MIC at the Intel Developer Forum in 2009 with a demonstration of real-time ray-tracing.\nCaustic Graphics[20] produced a plug in card, the \"CausticOne\" (2009),[21] that accelerated global illumination and other ray based rendering processes when coupled to a PC CPU and GPU. The hardware is designed to organize scattered rays (typically produced by global illumination problems) into more coherent sets (lower spatial or angular spread) for further processing by an external processor.[22]\nSiliconarts[23] developed a dedicated real-time ray tracing hardware (2010). RayCore (2011), which is the world's first real-time ray tracing semiconductor IP, was announced.\nIn August 2013 Imagination Technologies, after acquiring Caustic Graphics, produced the Caustic Professional's R2500 and R2100 plug in cards containing RT2 ray trace units (RTUs). Each RTU was capable of calculating up to 50 million incoherent rays per second.[24]\nIn January 2018, Nvidia, partnering with Microsoft DirectX, announced the Nvidia RTX developer library,[25] which promised fast GPU software ray tracing solutions in the Volta-generation GPUs.[26]\nIn September 2018, Nvidia introduced their GeForce RTX and Quadro RTX GPUs, based on the Turing architecture, with hardware-accelerated ray tracing using a separate functional block, publicly called an \"RT core\". This unit is somewhat comparable to a texture unit in size, latency, and interface to the processor core. The unit features BVH traversal, compressed BVH node decompression, ray-AABB intersection testing, and ray-triangle intersection testing.[27] The GeForce RTX 2080 and 2080 Ti became the first consumer-oriented brand of graphics card that can perform ray tracing in real time,.[28]\nIn October 2020, AMD announced further information regarding the \"refresh\" of the RDNA micro-architecture. According to the company, the RDNA 2 micro-architecture supports real-time hardware accelerated ray tracing, consisting of BVH node decoding, ray-AABB intersection testing, and ray-triangle intersection testing.[29][30]\nIntel released Arc Alchemist GPU in 2022,[31][32][33] in which the GPU featured ray tracing acceleration core that are performing comparatively with RTX 3000 series mid-range GPU.[34]\nOn 4 November 2021, Imagination Technologies announced their IMG CXT GPU with hardware-accelerated ray tracing.[35][36]\nOn January 18, 2022, Samsung announced their Exynos 2200 AP SoC with hardware-accelerated ray tracing based on the AMD RDNA2 GPU architecture.[37]\nOn June 28, 2022, Arm announced their Immortalis-G715 with hardware-accelerated ray tracing.[38]\nOn November 16, 2022, Qualcomm announced their Snapdragon 8 Gen 2 with hardware-accelerated ray tracing.[39][40]\nOn September 12, 2023, Apple announced their Apple A17 with hardware-accelerated ray tracing.[41]","title":"Implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"normal maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_mapping"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"viewing frustum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viewing_frustum"},{"link_name":"occlusion culling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occlusion_culling"},{"link_name":"predicated rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicated_rendering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ee415853(VS.85).aspx"}],"text":"^ For additional visualisations such as shadows, or reflections such as produced by a large flat body of water an addition pass of the scene graph is required for each effect.\n\n^ Rasterisation methods are capable of generating realistic shadows (including shadows produced by partially transparent objects), and plane reflections easily (as of 2010), but do not easily implement reflections from non planar surfaces (excluding approximations using normal maps) or refractions.\n\n^ That is if X is the number of triangles, then the number of computations to complete the scene is proportional to log(X).\n\n^ The same methods can be used in rasterization; in a simplistic implementation, culling is limited to those BSP partitions that lie within the much larger viewing frustum (more advanced implementations including those that implement occlusion culling or predicated rendering scale better than linearly for complex (especially high occluded) scenes (Note in common API's : DirectX 10 D3D10_QUERY_OCCLUSION_PREDICATE [1], in OpenGL 3.0 HP_occlusion_query ). With ray tracing the viewing frustum is replaced by the volume enclosed by a single ray (or ray bundle).","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"State of the Art in Interactive Ray Tracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.flipcode.net/archives/State-of-the-Art%20in%20interactive%20ray%20tracing.pdf"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Graphics_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Graphics_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Graphics_Processing_Unit"},{"link_name":"Graphics processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"Arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Arc"},{"link_name":"GT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Graphics_Technology"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nvidia_graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"GeForce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce"},{"link_name":"Quadro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadro"},{"link_name":"Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Tesla"},{"link_name":"Tegra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Tegra"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"Radeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radeon"},{"link_name":"Radeon Pro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radeon_Pro"},{"link_name":"Instinct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Instinct"},{"link_name":"Matrox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrox"},{"link_name":"InfiniteReality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfiniteReality"},{"link_name":"NEC µPD7220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NEC_%C2%B5PD7220"},{"link_name":"3dfx Voodoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_3dfx_graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"S3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Graphics"},{"link_name":"Glaze3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaze3D"},{"link_name":"Apple silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_silicon"},{"link_name":"Adreno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adreno"},{"link_name":"Apple silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_silicon"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_(GPU)"},{"link_name":"PowerVR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerVR"},{"link_name":"VideoCore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VideoCore"},{"link_name":"Vivante","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivante_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Imageon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imageon"},{"link_name":"Intel 2700G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_2700G"},{"link_name":"Compute kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compute_kernel"},{"link_name":"Fabrication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication"},{"link_name":"CMOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS"},{"link_name":"FinFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinFET"},{"link_name":"MOSFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"Graphics pipeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_pipeline"},{"link_name":"Geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry_pipelines"},{"link_name":"Vertex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertex_pipeline"},{"link_name":"HDR rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-dynamic-range_rendering"},{"link_name":"MAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiply%E2%80%93accumulate_operation"},{"link_name":"Rasterisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasterisation"},{"link_name":"Shading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shading"},{"link_name":"Ray-tracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"SIMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_data"},{"link_name":"SIMT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_threads"},{"link_name":"Tessellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tessellation_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"T&L","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transform,_clipping,_and_lighting"},{"link_name":"Tiled rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiled_rendering"},{"link_name":"Unified shader model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_shader_model"},{"link_name":"Blitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blitter"},{"link_name":"Geometry processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry_processing"},{"link_name":"Input–output memory management unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input%E2%80%93output_memory_management_unit"},{"link_name":"Render output unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Render_output_unit"},{"link_name":"Shader unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shader"},{"link_name":"Stream processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_processing"},{"link_name":"Tensor unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor"},{"link_name":"Texture mapping unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping_unit"},{"link_name":"Video display controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_display_controller"},{"link_name":"Video processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"DMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_memory_access"},{"link_name":"Framebuffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framebuffer"},{"link_name":"SGRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGRAM"},{"link_name":"GDDR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"GDDR2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR2"},{"link_name":"GDDR3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR3"},{"link_name":"GDDR4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR4"},{"link_name":"GDDR5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR5"},{"link_name":"GDDR6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR6"},{"link_name":"GDDR7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR7"},{"link_name":"HBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Bandwidth_Memory"},{"link_name":"HBM2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBM2"},{"link_name":"HBM2E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBM2E"},{"link_name":"HBM3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBM3"},{"link_name":"HBM-PIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBM-PIM"},{"link_name":"HBM3E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBM3E"},{"link_name":"Memory bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_bandwidth"},{"link_name":"Memory controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_controller"},{"link_name":"Shared graphics memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_graphics_memory"},{"link_name":"Texture memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_memory"},{"link_name":"VRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_RAM_(dual-ported_DRAM)"},{"link_name":"IP core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_intellectual_property_core"},{"link_name":"Discrete graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_card"},{"link_name":"Clustering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPU_cluster"},{"link_name":"Switching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPU_switching"},{"link_name":"External graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_GPU"},{"link_name":"Integrated graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_graphics"},{"link_name":"System on a chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_on_a_chip"},{"link_name":"Clock rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_rate"},{"link_name":"Display resolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_display_standard"},{"link_name":"Fillrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fillrate"},{"link_name":"Pixel/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigapixel_image"},{"link_name":"Texel/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texel_(graphics)"},{"link_name":"FLOP/s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS"},{"link_name":"Frame rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_rate"},{"link_name":"Performance per watt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_per_watt"},{"link_name":"Transistor count","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor_count"},{"link_name":"2D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"Scrolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrolling"},{"link_name":"Sprite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprite_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"Tile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tile-based_video_game"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"GI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_illumination"},{"link_name":"Texture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping"},{"link_name":"ASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"GPGPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General-purpose_computing_on_graphics_processing_units"},{"link_name":"Graphics library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_library"},{"link_name":"Hardware acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_acceleration"},{"link_name":"Image processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_image_processing"},{"link_name":"Compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_compression"},{"link_name":"Parallel computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"Vector processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_processor"},{"link_name":"Video coding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_coding_format"},{"link_name":"Codec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_codec"},{"link_name":"VLIW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very_long_instruction_word"}],"text":"State of the Art in Interactive Ray Tracing Ingo Wald and Philipp Slusallek, Computer Graphics Group, Saarland University, Review article to year 2001vteGraphics processing unitGPUDesktop\nIntel\nArc\nGT\nNvidia\nGeForce\nQuadro\nTesla\nTegra\nAMD\nRadeon\nRadeon Pro\nInstinct\nMatrox\nInfiniteReality\nNEC µPD7220\n3dfx Voodoo\nS3\nGlaze3D\nApple silicon\nMobile\nAdreno\nApple silicon\nMali\nPowerVR\nVideoCore\nVivante\nImageon\nIntel 2700G\nArchitecture\nCompute kernel\nFabrication\nCMOS\nFinFET\nMOSFET\nGraphics pipeline\nGeometry\nVertex\nHDR rendering\nMAC\nRasterisation\nShading\nRay-tracing\nSIMD\nSIMT\nTessellation\nT&L\nTiled rendering\nUnified shader model\nComponents\nBlitter\nGeometry processor\nInput–output memory management unit\nRender output unit\nShader unit\nStream processor\nTensor unit\nTexture mapping unit\nVideo display controller\nVideo processing unit\nMemory\nDMA\nFramebuffer\nSGRAM\nGDDR\nGDDR2\nGDDR3\nGDDR4\nGDDR5\nGDDR6\nGDDR7\nHBM\nHBM2\nHBM2E\nHBM3\nHBM-PIM\nHBM3E\nMemory bandwidth\nMemory controller\nShared graphics memory\nTexture memory\nVRAM\nForm factor\nIP core\nDiscrete graphics\nClustering\nSwitching\nExternal graphics\nIntegrated graphics\nSystem on a chip\nPerformance\nClock rate\nDisplay resolution\nFillrate\nPixel/s\nTexel/s\nFLOP/s\nFrame rate\nPerformance per watt\nTransistor count\nMisc\n2D\nScrolling\nSprite\nTile\n3D\nGI\nTexture\nASIC\nGPGPU\nGraphics library\nHardware acceleration\nImage processing\nCompression\nParallel computing\nVector processor\nVideo coding\nCodec\nVLIW","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Quake Wars: Ray Traced was rendered using Intel's now-cancelled Xeon Phi PCI 3.0 board."}]
null
[{"reference":"Hanspeter Pfister; Jan Hardenbergh; Jim Knittely; Hugh Lauery; Larry Seiler (April 1999). \"The VolumePro Real-Time Ray-Casting System\" (PDF). Mitsubishi Electric. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.69.4091. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-16. Retrieved 2010-02-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110616202224/http://people.csail.mit.edu/fredo/Book/Stuff/volumePro.pdf","url_text":"\"The VolumePro Real-Time Ray-Casting System\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)","url_text":"CiteSeerX"},{"url":"https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.69.4091","url_text":"10.1.1.69.4091"},{"url":"http://people.csail.mit.edu/fredo/Book/Stuff/volumePro.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"SaarCOR - A Hardware Architekture for Ray Tracing\".","urls":[{"url":"http://graphics.cg.uni-saarland.de/index.php?id=343","url_text":"\"SaarCOR - A Hardware Architekture for Ray Tracing\""}]},{"reference":"Schmittler, Jörg; Wald, Ingo; Slusallek, Philipp (2002). \"SaarCOR —A Hardware Architecture for Ray Tracing\" (PDF). Graphics Hardware. Germany: Computer Graphics Group, Saarland University: 1–11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-14. Retrieved 2011-11-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110814155510/http://graphics.cg.uni-saarland.de/fileadmin/cguds/papers/2002/gh02/Schmittler-AHardwareArchitectureForRayTracing.pdf","url_text":"\"SaarCOR —A Hardware Architecture for Ray Tracing\""},{"url":"http://graphics.cg.uni-saarland.de/fileadmin/cguds/papers/2002/gh02/Schmittler-AHardwareArchitectureForRayTracing.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jörg Schmittler; Sven Woop; Daniel Wagner; Wolfgang J. Paul; Philipp Slusallek (2004). \"Realtime Ray Tracing of Dynamic Scenes on an FPGA Chip\". Graphics Hardware. Computer Science, Saarland University, Germany. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Holt
Ray Holt
["1 References","2 External links"]
American computer scientist For the English footballer, see Ray Holt (footballer). Ray HoltBorn1944Compton, California, United StatesAlma materCalifornia State Polytechnic University, PomonaKnown forMP944Scientific careerFieldsElectrical engineeringMicroprocessorInstitutionsGarrett AiResearchMicrocomputer Associates Raymond M. Holt (born in 1944, in Compton, California) is a computer designer and businessman in Silicon Valley. Ray Holt graduated from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. From 1968 to 1970, Ray and his brother Bill Holt were on the Garrett AiResearch's small design team that developed what he claims is the world's first microprocessor chip set, the 20-bit Central Air Data Computer (CADC), for the F-14 Tomcat (although the Viatron 2101 multi-chip processor had already been available at the time of the CADC's release). The CADC was never deployed for any other purpose, thereby leaving room for the 4-bit Intel 4004 to become the first commercially produced microprocessor. Holt's story of the design and development of the CADC is presented in a podcast and a Wired article. Holt was co-founder with Manny Lemas of Microcomputer Associates, Incorporated, later known as Synertek Systems where he designed the Jolt, Super Jolt and SYM-1 microcomputer cards as well as the first microcomputer pinball game, Lucky Dice, using the Intel 4004. One of Holt's computer boards, the SYM-1, was used in the first two military robots, Robart I and Robart II. Holt is the founder and as of 2014 president of Mississippi Robotics, a non-profit organization serving rural schools and ministries in Mississippi, teaching a STEM/Robotics curriculum and holding robot competitions twice a year. References ^ Holt, Ray (Aug 27, 2022). The Accidental Engineer (2nd ed.). Lulu.com. pp. back cover. ISBN 978-1471078958. ^ a b c d e Sarah Fallon (December 23, 2020). "The Secret History of the First Microprocessor, the F-14, and Me". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2020-12-23. ^ "Ray Holt and the Origins of the Microchip Computer". theaccidentalengineer.com. Apr 17, 2018. Retrieved 2020-12-29. ^ old-computers.com museum ^ "Jolt: OLD-COMPUTERS.COM : The Museum". www.old-computers.com. Retrieved 2020-12-29. ^ "SYM1: OLD-COMPUTERS.COM : The Museum". www.old-computers.com. Retrieved 2020-12-29. ^ "Robart I". Archived from the original on 2015-09-05. Retrieved 2015-08-06. ^ "Robart II". Archived from the original on 2015-09-05. Retrieved 2015-08-06. ^ "Mississippi Robotics website". Retrieved 2020-12-23. External links First Microprocessor website Jolt Microcomputer This biographical article relating to a computer specialist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_W._Baker
Raymond W. Baker
["1 Education","2 Career","3 Published works","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
American businessman (born 1935) This article reads like a press release or a news article and may be largely based on routine coverage. Please help improve this article and add independent sources. (March 2017) Raymond W. BakerBorn (1935-10-30) October 30, 1935 (age 88)Shreveport, LANationality United StatesAlma materHarvard Business School (M.B.A.) Georgia Institute of TechnologyScientific careerFieldsInternational BusinessInstitutionsGlobal Financial Integrity Raymond W. Baker (born October 30, 1935) is an American businessman, scholar, author, and "authority on financial crime." He is the founder and president of Global Financial Integrity, a research and advocacy organization in Washington, DC working to curtail illicit financial flows. Education Baker is a 1960 graduate of Harvard Business School, and a 1957 graduate of Georgia Institute of Technology, where he was a member of the ANAK Society. Career Raymond Baker started in professional career by working as a businessman in Nigeria in various positions for 15 years. By the mid-1970s, the Bakers found that Nigeria had become unfit for an expatriate family with young children, so they moved to the United States and settled in the Washington, D.C. area. For the next 10 years, Raymond Baker did extensive business in Central and South America, other parts of Africa, Australia and New Zealand, Southeast Asia, and with the People’s Republic of China. Then in the late 1980s he shifted to providing trade and financial advisory services to governments in developing nations. With this accumulation of experiences, he associated with the Brookings Institution in 1996 as a guest scholar in economic studies. In 1996, Raymond Baker received a grant from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation for a project entitled, “Flight Capital, Poverty and Free-Market Economics.” The project took him to 23 countries where he interviewed over 335 bankers, politicians, government officials, economists, attorneys, tax collectors, security officers, and social scientists on the relationships between commercial tax evasion, bribery, money laundering, and economic growth. In 2006, Baker founded Global Financial Integrity, the Washington, DC-based research and advocacy organization of which he remains president, with the goal of quantifying and analyzing illicit financial flows while formulating and promoting policy solutions to curb them. Under Baker's leadership, GFI has published several economic reports estimating that nearly US$1 trillion per year flows illicitly out of developing countries. Driving Baker's passion about the issue is his underlying belief that these illegal outflows of capital are the greatest economic problem facing the world's poor. Baker has been quoted as saying, "This $1 trillion or more a year of illicit money that flows across borders and the structure that facilitates its movement is not only the biggest loophole in the global economic system. It is also the most damaging economic condition hurting the poor in developing and transitional economies." In January 2009, Baker brought together a coalition of research and advocacy organizations and over 50 governments to form the Task Force on Financial Integrity and Economic Development - an organization which advocates for transparency in the global financial system. He served as the first director of the Task Force from its inception in 2009 through the beginning of 2013. Baker's "work explaining how $1 trillion in dirty money leaves poor countries each year has helped get financial transparency onto the agenda of world leaders." A focus of his recent work has been on linking illicit financial flows to human rights abuses and economic inequality. Baker is additionally a member of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa, established by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa in February 2012. The panel is chaired by former South African President Thabo Mbeki. Baker serves as a member of the World Economic Forum's Council on Illicit Trade, and he has testified multiple times before congressional committees in the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate on money laundering, corruption, and illegal capital flight. Published works In 2005 Baker published Capitalism's Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free-Market System. This comprehensive study of illicit capital flows which includes a full exploration of their context and root causes, financial impact of world economy as well as avenues for their possible control and curtailing, confirmed him as a recognized international authority on corruption, money laundering, growth, and foreign policy issues concerning developing and transitional economies and their impact upon western economic and foreign interests. A former guest scholar at the Brookings Institution and former senior fellow at the Center for International Policy, Baker is also the author of The Biggest Loophole in the Free-Market System, Illegal Flight Capital: Dangers for Global Stability, How Dirty Money Binds the Poor, and other works. See also Global Financial Integrity Illicit financial flows References ^ a b Garry Emmons, "$how Me the Money" (Boston, MA: Alumni Bulletin, Harvard Business School, June 2010) ^ The Economist, "Storm survivors" (London: February 16, 2013) Retrieved 2013-02-28. ^ a b About GFI, Global Financial Integrity Website ^ John Dunn, "Out of Africa" (Atlanta, GA: Alumni Magazine, Georgia Institute of Technology, Winter 1994: 51-55) Retrieved 2014-09-26. ^ "ANAK Graduates, 1950-1959". ANAK Society. Archived from the original on 2011-05-22. Retrieved 2011-07-14. ^ a b Raymond W. Baker, "Capitalism's Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free-Market System" (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005). Online version ^ About Raymond W. Baker, Global Financial Integrity Website ^ Raymond Baker, "The Ugliest Chapter in Global Economic Affairs Since Slavery" (Washington, DC: Speech, Global Financial Integrity, Nov 1, 2007) Retrieved 2014-09-26. ^ "Baffling" banking laws must change, Swissinfo.ch, March 19, 2009 ^ Stella Dawson, “One Man's Campaign to Make Financial Transparency a Human Rights Issue” (Washington, DC: Thomson Reuters Foundation, January 24, 2013) Retrieved 2014-09-26. ^ Inauguration of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa, Africa Governance Institute, February 18, 2012 ^ "Illicit Financial Flows from Africa: The High Level Panel Concludes Consultations in Nigeria, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, May 29, 2013 ^ Global Agenda Council on Illicit Trade 2012-2013, World Economic Forum, Accessed October 11, 2013 ^ Criminal Money Laundering and Illegal Flight Capital, Testimony of Raymond W. Baker before the House Committee on Financial Services, March 9, 2000 ^ Capital Loss, Corruption and the Role of Western Financial Institutions, U.S. House Committee on Financial Services, May 19 2009 ^ Private Banking and Money Laundering: A Case Study of Opportunities and Vulnerabilities, U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee On Investigations, November 10, 1999 ^ Money Laundering: Current Status of Our Efforts To Coordinate and Combat Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing, Testimony of Raymond W. Baker before the U.S. Senate Caucus of International Narcotics Control, March 4, 2004 ^ a b Garry Emmons, "Q&A: Raymond Baker Explores the Free Market's Demimonde" (Boston, MA: Alumni Bulletin, Harvard Business School, February 2001) Retrieved 2014-09-26. ^ Raymond Baker, World Economic Forum, Accessed October 11, 2013 External links , Global Financial Integrity Website , Capitalism’s Achilles Heel on Amazon.com , Raymond Baker's blog on the Huffington Post vteCorruptionCorruption in different fields Corporate crime Corruption in local government Interest group corruption Police corruption Political corruption Measures of corruption Corruption Perceptions Index Economics of corruption Forms or aspectsof corruptionGeneral Baksheesh Black market / Grey market Bribery Collusion Commercial bribery Confidence trick Embezzlement Extortion Fraud Graft (politics) Honest services fraud Kickback Match fixing Money laundering Cryptocurrency and crime Hawala and crime Noble cause corruption Professional courtesy Slush fund Tax evasion Tax haven Offshore investment Offshore financial centre State Clientelism Coronelism Crony capitalism Cronyism Elite capture Failed state Kleptocracy Mafia state Nepotism Plutocracy Political scandal Regulatory capture Rent-seeking Rent-setting State capture State crime Elections Ballot stuffing Electoral fraud Election security Gerrymandering Vote pairing Vote suppression Institutions dealing with corruptionInternational Global Financial Integrity Global Witness Group of States Against Corruption International Anti-Corruption Academy Mo Ibrahim Foundation Transparency International UNCAC Coalition of Civil Society Organisations National Oficina Anticorrupción (Argentina) Australian Criminal Intelligence Commission Anti-Corruption Commission (Bangladesh) (Bangladesh) Anti-corruption and Economic Malpractice Observatory (Burundi) National Anti-Corruption Observatory (Cameroon) National Supervisory Commission (China) Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong) Commission Against Corruption (Macau) USKOK (Croatia) Fiji Independent Commission Against Corruption Central Vigilance Commission (India) KPK (Indonesia) Corruption Prevention and Combating Bureau (Latvia) Governance and Economic Management Assistance Program (Liberia) Special Investigation Service of the Republic of Lithuania BIANCO (Madagascar) Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission Anti-Corruption Commission of Myanmar (Myanmar) Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (Nigeria) National Accountability Bureau (Pakistan) Investigation Task Force Sweep (Papua New Guinea) Central Anticorruption Bureau (Poland) Anti-Corruption General Directorate (Romania) National Anticorruption Directorate (Romania) Investigative Committee of Russia (Russia) Sierra Leone Anti-corruption Commission Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau (Singapore) Commission for the Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Slovenia Anti-Corruption and Civil Rights Commission (South Korea) Servicio de Vigilancia Aduanera (Spain) National Anti-Corruption Bureau of Ukraine (Ukraine) Warioba Commission (Tanzania) Central Steering Committee for Anti-Corruption (Vietnam) Anti-corruptionLaws andenforcement Citizen's Charter and Grievance Redressal Bill 2011 (pending) Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Foreign Extortion Prevention Act Freedom of information laws by country The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 UK Bribery Act of 2010 Whistleblower protection Internationalinstrumentsand efforts Inter-American Convention Against Corruption International asset recovery International Association of Anti-Corruption Authorities OECD Anti-Bribery Convention United Nations Convention against Corruption Protestmovements 2011 Azerbaijani protests 2011 Indian anti-corruption movement 2012 Indian anti-corruption movement Anti-austerity movement in Spain Movement for Peace with Justice and Dignity Russian anti-corruption campaign Yo Soy 132 2017–2019 Romanian protests 2017–2018 Russian protests Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Catalonia Germany United States Korea Netherlands Other SNAC
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"illicit financial flows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-About_GFI-3"}],"text":"Raymond W. Baker (born October 30, 1935) is an American businessman, scholar, author, and \"authority on financial crime.\"[2] He is the founder and president of Global Financial Integrity, a research and advocacy organization in Washington, DC working to curtail illicit financial flows.[3]","title":"Raymond W. Baker"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alumni.hbs.edu-1"},{"link_name":"Georgia Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Baker is a 1960 graduate of Harvard Business School,[1] and a 1957 graduate of Georgia Institute of Technology,[4] where he was a member of the ANAK Society.[5]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brookings Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACH-6"},{"link_name":"John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._and_Catherine_T._MacArthur_Foundation"},{"link_name":"tax evasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_evasion"},{"link_name":"bribery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bribery"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-About_RWB-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-About_GFI-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Task Force on Financial Integrity and Economic Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_Force_on_Financial_Integrity_and_Economic_Development"},{"link_name":"global financial system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_financial_system"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"United Nations Economic Commission for Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Africa"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Thabo Mbeki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thabo_Mbeki"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Raymond Baker started in professional career by working as a businessman in Nigeria in various positions for 15 years. By the mid-1970s, the Bakers found that Nigeria had become unfit for an expatriate family with young children, so they moved to the United States and settled in the Washington, D.C. area. For the next 10 years, Raymond Baker did extensive business in Central and South America, other parts of Africa, Australia and New Zealand, Southeast Asia, and with the People’s Republic of China. Then in the late 1980s he shifted to providing trade and financial advisory services to governments in developing nations. With this accumulation of experiences, he associated with the Brookings Institution in 1996 as a guest scholar in economic studies.[6]In 1996, Raymond Baker received a grant from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation for a project entitled, “Flight Capital, Poverty and Free-Market Economics.” The project took him to 23 countries where he interviewed over 335 bankers, politicians, government officials, economists, attorneys, tax collectors, security officers, and social scientists on the relationships between commercial tax evasion, bribery, money laundering, and economic growth.[7]In 2006, Baker founded Global Financial Integrity, the Washington, DC-based research and advocacy organization of which he remains president, with the goal of quantifying and analyzing illicit financial flows while formulating and promoting policy solutions to curb them. Under Baker's leadership, GFI has published several economic reports estimating that nearly US$1 trillion per year flows illicitly out of developing countries.[3] Driving Baker's passion about the issue is his underlying belief that these illegal outflows of capital are the greatest economic problem facing the world's poor. Baker has been quoted as saying, \"This $1 trillion or more a year of illicit money that flows across borders and the structure that facilitates its movement is not only the biggest loophole in the global economic system. It is also the most damaging economic condition hurting the poor in developing and transitional economies.\"[8]In January 2009, Baker brought together a coalition of research and advocacy organizations and over 50 governments to form the Task Force on Financial Integrity and Economic Development - an organization which advocates for transparency in the global financial system.[9] He served as the first director of the Task Force from its inception in 2009 through the beginning of 2013.Baker's \"work explaining how $1 trillion in dirty money leaves poor countries each year has helped get financial transparency onto the agenda of world leaders.\" A focus of his recent work has been on linking illicit financial flows to human rights abuses and economic inequality.[10]Baker is additionally a member of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa, established by the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa in February 2012.[11] The panel is chaired by former South African President Thabo Mbeki.[12]Baker serves as a member of the World Economic Forum's Council on Illicit Trade,[13] and he has testified multiple times before congressional committees in the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate on money laundering, corruption, and illegal capital flight.[14][15][16][17]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACH-6"},{"link_name":"corruption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption"},{"link_name":"money laundering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_laundering"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alumni.hbs.edu2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Brookings Institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution"},{"link_name":"Center for International Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_International_Policy"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alumni.hbs.edu2-18"}],"text":"In 2005 Baker published Capitalism's Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free-Market System.[6] This comprehensive study of illicit capital flows which includes a full exploration of their context and root causes, financial impact of world economy as well as avenues for their possible control and curtailing, confirmed him as a recognized international authority on corruption, money laundering, growth, and foreign policy issues concerning developing and transitional economies and their impact upon western economic and foreign interests.[18][19]A former guest scholar at the Brookings Institution and former senior fellow at the Center for International Policy,[18] Baker is also the author of The Biggest Loophole in the Free-Market System, Illegal Flight Capital: Dangers for Global Stability, How Dirty Money Binds the Poor, and other works.","title":"Published works"}]
[]
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Baker, \"Capitalism's Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free-Market System\" (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2005)."},{"Link":"http://www.e-reading.club/bookreader.php/135381/Capitalism%252560s_Achilles_heel.pdf","external_links_name":"Online version"},{"Link":"http://www.gfintegrity.org/staff-member/raymond-baker/","external_links_name":"About Raymond W. Baker, Global Financial Integrity Website"},{"Link":"http://www.gfintegrity.org/press-release/ugliest-chapter-global-economic-affairs-since-slavery/","external_links_name":"Raymond Baker, \"The Ugliest Chapter in Global Economic Affairs Since Slavery\" (Washington, DC: Speech, Global Financial Integrity, Nov 1, 2007)"},{"Link":"http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/front/Baffling_banking_laws_must_change.html?siteSect=108&sid=10472475&cKey=1237541827000&ty=st","external_links_name":"\"Baffling\" banking laws must change, Swissinfo.ch, March 19, 2009"},{"Link":"http://www.trust.org/item/20130124120000-pjztm","external_links_name":"Stella Dawson, “One Man's Campaign to Make Financial Transparency a Human Rights Issue” (Washington, DC: Thomson Reuters Foundation, January 24, 2013)"},{"Link":"http://www.iag-agi.org/spip/Inauguration-of-the-High-Level.html","external_links_name":"Inauguration of the High Level Panel on Illicit Financial Flows from Africa, Africa Governance Institute, February 18, 2012"},{"Link":"http://www.uneca.org/media-centre/stories/illicit-financial-flows-africa-high-level-panel-concludes-consultations-nigeria","external_links_name":"\"Illicit Financial Flows from Africa: The High Level Panel Concludes Consultations in Nigeria, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, May 29, 2013"},{"Link":"http://www.weforum.org/content/global-agenda-council-illicit-trade-2012-2013","external_links_name":"Global Agenda Council on Illicit Trade 2012-2013, World Economic Forum, Accessed October 11, 2013"},{"Link":"http://archives.financialservices.house.gov/banking/3900bak.pdf","external_links_name":"Criminal Money Laundering and Illegal Flight Capital, Testimony of Raymond W. Baker before the House Committee on Financial Services, March 9, 2000"},{"Link":"http://democrats.financialservices.house.gov/Hearings/hearingDetails.aspx?NewsID=1268","external_links_name":"Capital Loss, Corruption and the Role of Western Financial Institutions, U.S. House Committee on Financial Services, May 19 2009"},{"Link":"http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/subcommittees/investigations/hearings/private-banking_and-money-laundering-a-case-study-of-opportunities-and-vulnerabilities","external_links_name":"Private Banking and Money Laundering: A Case Study of Opportunities and Vulnerabilities, U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee On Investigations, November 10, 1999"},{"Link":"http://www.drugcaucus.senate.gov/moneylaundering04baker.html","external_links_name":"Money Laundering: Current Status of Our Efforts To Coordinate and Combat Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing, Testimony of Raymond W. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_visualization
Scientific visualization
["1 History","2 Data visualization methods","2.1 Two-dimensional data sets","2.2 Three-dimensional data sets","3 Topics","3.1 Computer animation","3.2 Computer simulation","3.3 Information visualization","3.4 Interface technology and perception","3.5 Surface rendering","3.6 Volume rendering","3.7 Volume visualization","4 Applications","4.1 In the natural sciences","4.2 In geography and ecology","4.3 In mathematics","4.4 In the formal sciences","4.5 In the applied sciences","5 Organizations","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]
For Mathematical visualization, see mathematical visualization. Interdisciplinary branch of science concerned with presenting scientific data visually A scientific visualization of a simulation of a Rayleigh–Taylor instability caused by two mixing fluids. Surface rendering of Arabidopsis thaliana pollen grains with confocal microscope. Scientific visualization (also spelled scientific visualisation) is an interdisciplinary branch of science concerned with the visualization of scientific phenomena. It is also considered a subset of computer graphics, a branch of computer science. The purpose of scientific visualization is to graphically illustrate scientific data to enable scientists to understand, illustrate, and glean insight from their data. Research into how people read and misread various types of visualizations is helping to determine what types and features of visualizations are most understandable and effective in conveying information. History Charles Minard's flow map of Napoleon's March. One of the earliest examples of three-dimensional scientific visualisation was Maxwell's thermodynamic surface, sculpted in clay in 1874 by James Clerk Maxwell. This prefigured modern scientific visualization techniques that use computer graphics. Notable early two-dimensional examples include the flow map of Napoleon's March on Moscow produced by Charles Joseph Minard in 1869; the "coxcombs" used by Florence Nightingale in 1857 as part of a campaign to improve sanitary conditions in the British army; and the dot map used by John Snow in 1855 to visualise the Broad Street cholera outbreak. Data visualization methods Main article: Data visualization Criteria for classifications: dimension of the data method textura based methods geometry-based approaches such as arrow plots, streamlines, pathlines, timelines, streaklines, particle tracing, surface particles, stream arrows, stream tubes, stream balls, flow volumes and topological analysis Two-dimensional data sets Scientific visualization using computer graphics gained in popularity as graphics matured. Primary applications were scalar fields and vector fields from computer simulations and also measured data. The primary methods for visualizing two-dimensional (2D) scalar fields are color mapping and drawing contour lines. 2D vector fields are visualized using glyphs and streamlines or line integral convolution methods. 2D tensor fields are often resolved to a vector field by using one of the two eigenvectors to represent the tensor each point in the field and then visualized using vector field visualization methods. Three-dimensional data sets For 3D scalar fields the primary methods are volume rendering and isosurfaces. Methods for visualizing vector fields include glyphs (graphical icons) such as arrows, streamlines and streaklines, particle tracing, line integral convolution (LIC) and topological methods. Later, visualization techniques such as hyperstreamlines were developed to visualize 2D and 3D tensor fields. Topics Maximum intensity projection (MIP) of a whole body PET scan. Solar System image of the main asteroid belt and the Trojan asteroids. Scientific visualization of Fluid Flow: Surface waves in water Chemical imaging of a simultaneous release of SF6 and NH3. Topographic scan of a glass surface by an Atomic force microscope. Computer animation Computer animation is the art, technique, and science of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is becoming more common to be created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI (Computer-generated imagery or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films. Applications include medical animation, which is most commonly utilized as an instructional tool for medical professionals or their patients. Computer simulation Computer simulation is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of many natural systems in physics, and computational physics, chemistry and biology; human systems in economics, psychology, and social science; and in the process of engineering and new technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems, or to observe their behavior. The simultaneous visualization and simulation of a system is called visulation. Computer simulations vary from computer programs that run a few minutes, to network-based groups of computers running for hours, to ongoing simulations that run for months. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible (or perhaps even imaginable) using the traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling: over 10 years ago, a desert-battle simulation, of one force invading another, involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks, trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around Kuwait, using multiple supercomputers in the DoD High Performance Computing Modernization Program. Information visualization Information visualization is the study of "the visual representation of large-scale collections of non-numerical information, such as files and lines of code in software systems, library and bibliographic databases, networks of relations on the internet, and so forth". Information visualization focused on the creation of approaches for conveying abstract information in intuitive ways. Visual representations and interaction techniques take advantage of the human eye's broad bandwidth pathway into the mind to allow users to see, explore, and understand large amounts of information at once. The key difference between scientific visualization and information visualization is that information visualization is often applied to data that is not generated by scientific inquiry. Some examples are graphical representations of data for business, government, news and social media. Interface technology and perception Interface technology and perception shows how new interfaces and a better understanding of underlying perceptual issues create new opportunities for the scientific visualization community. Surface rendering Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three-dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. Important rendering techniques are: Scanline rendering and rasterisation A high-level representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels. These elements are referred to as primitives. In a schematic drawing, for instance, line segments and curves might be primitives. In a graphical user interface, windows and buttons might be the primitives. In 3D rendering, triangles and polygons in space might be primitives. Ray casting Ray casting is primarily used for realtime simulations, such as those used in 3D computer games and cartoon animations, where detail is not important, or where it is more efficient to manually fake the details in order to obtain better performance in the computational stage. This is usually the case when a large number of frames need to be animated. The resulting surfaces have a characteristic 'flat' appearance when no additional tricks are used, as if objects in the scene were all painted with matte finish. Radiosity Radiosity, also known as Global Illumination, is a method that attempts to simulate the way in which directly illuminated surfaces act as indirect light sources that illuminate other surfaces. This produces more realistic shading and seems to better capture the 'ambience' of an indoor scene. A classic example is the way that shadows 'hug' the corners of rooms. Ray tracing Ray tracing is an extension of the same technique developed in scanline rendering and ray casting. Like those, it handles complicated objects well, and the objects may be described mathematically. Unlike scanline and casting, ray tracing is almost always a Monte Carlo technique, that is one based on averaging a number of randomly generated samples from a model. Volume rendering Volume rendering is a technique used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely sampled data set. A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a CT or MRI scanner. Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a regular number of image pixels in a regular pattern. This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or voxel represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel. Volume visualization According to Rosenblum (1994) "volume visualization examines a set of techniques that allows viewing an object without mathematically representing the other surface. Initially used in medical imaging, volume visualization has become an essential technique for many sciences, portraying phenomena become an essential technique such as clouds, water flows, and molecular and biological structure. Many volume visualization algorithms are computationally expensive and demand large data storage. Advances in hardware and software are generalizing volume visualization as well as real time performances". Developments of web-based technologies, and in-browser rendering have allowed of simple volumetric presentation of a cuboid with a changing frame of reference to show volume, mass and density data. Applications This section will give a series of examples how scientific visualization can be applied today. In the natural sciences Star formation Gravitational waves Massive Star Supernovae Explosions Molecular rendering Star formation: The featured plot is a Volume plot of the logarithm of gas/dust density in an Enzo star and galaxy simulation. Regions of high density are white while less dense regions are more blue and also more transparent. Gravitational waves: Researchers used the Globus Toolkit to harness the power of multiple supercomputers to simulate the gravitational effects of black-hole collisions. Massive Star Supernovae Explosions: In the image, three-Dimensional Radiation Hydrodynamics Calculations of Massive Star Supernovae Explosions The DJEHUTY stellar evolution code was used to calculate the explosion of SN 1987A model in three dimensions. Molecular rendering: VisIt's general plotting capabilities were used to create the molecular rendering shown in the featured visualization. The original data was taken from the Protein Data Bank and turned into a VTK file before rendering. In geography and ecology Terrain rendering Climate visualization Atmospheric Anomaly in Times Square Terrain visualization: VisIt can read several file formats common in the field of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), allowing one to plot raster data such as terrain data in visualizations. The featured image shows a plot of a DEM dataset containing mountainous areas near Dunsmuir, CA. Elevation lines are added to the plot to help delineate changes in elevation. Tornado Simulation: This image was created from data generated by a tornado simulation calculated on NCSA's IBM p690 computing cluster. High-definition television animations of the storm produced at NCSA were included in an episode of the PBS television series NOVA called "Hunt for the Supertwister." The tornado is shown by spheres that are colored according to pressure; orange and blue tubes represent the rising and falling airflow around the tornado. Climate visualization: This visualization depicts the carbon dioxide from various sources that are advected individually as tracers in the atmosphere model. Carbon dioxide from the ocean is shown as plumes during February 1900. Atmospheric Anomaly in Times Square In the image the results from the SAMRAI simulation framework of an atmospheric anomaly in and around Times Square are visualized. View of a 4D cube projected into 3D: orthogonal projection (left) and perspective projection (right). In mathematics Main article: Mathematical visualization Scientific visualization of mathematical structures has been undertaken for purposes of building intuition and for aiding the forming of mental models. Domain coloring of f(x) = (x2−1)(x−2−i)2/x2+2+2i Higher-dimensional objects can be visualized in form of projections (views) in lower dimensions. In particular, 4-dimensional objects are visualized by means of projection in three dimensions. The lower-dimensional projections of higher-dimensional objects can be used for purposes of virtual object manipulation, allowing 3D objects to be manipulated by operations performed in 2D, and 4D objects by interactions performed in 3D. In complex analysis, functions of the complex plane are inherently 4-dimensional, but there is no natural geometric projection into lower dimensional visual representations. Instead, colour vision is exploited to capture dimensional information using techniques such as domain coloring. In the formal sciences Curve plots Image annotations Scatter plot Computer mapping of topographical surfaces: Through computer mapping of topographical surfaces, mathematicians can test theories of how materials will change when stressed. The imaging is part of the work on the NSF-funded Electronic Visualization Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Curve plots: VisIt can plot curves from data read from files and it can be used to extract and plot curve data from higher-dimensional datasets using lineout operators or queries. The curves in the featured image correspond to elevation data along lines drawn on DEM data and were created with the feature lineout capability. Lineout allows you to interactively draw a line, which specifies a path for data extraction. The resulting data was then plotted as curves. Image annotations: The featured plot shows Leaf Area Index (LAI), a measure of global vegetative matter, from a NetCDF dataset. The primary plot is the large plot at the bottom, which shows the LAI for the whole world. The plots on top are actually annotations that contain images generated earlier. Image annotations can be used to include material that enhances a visualization such as auxiliary plots, images of experimental data, project logos, etc. Scatter plot: VisIt's Scatter plot allows visualizing multivariate data of up to four dimensions. The Scatter plot takes multiple scalar variables and uses them for different axes in phase space. The different variables are combined to form coordinates in the phase space and they are displayed using glyphs and colored using another scalar variable. In the applied sciences Porsche 911 model YF-17 aircraft Plot City rendering Porsche 911 model (NASTRAN model): The featured plot contains a Mesh plot of a Porsche 911 model imported from a NASTRAN bulk data file. VisIt can read a limited subset of NASTRAN bulk data files, in general enough to import model geometry for visualization. YF-17 aircraft Plot: The featured image displays plots of a CGNS dataset representing a YF-17 jet aircraft. The dataset consists of an unstructured grid with solution. The image was created by using a pseudocolor plot of the dataset's Mach variable, a Mesh plot of the grid, and Vector plot of a slice through the Velocity field. City rendering: An ESRI shapefile containing a polygonal description of the building footprints was read in and then the polygons were resampled onto a rectilinear grid, which was extruded into the featured cityscape. Inbound traffic measured: This image is a visualization study of inbound traffic measured in billions of bytes on the NSFNET T1 backbone for the month of September 1991. The traffic volume range is depicted from purple (zero bytes) to white (100 billion bytes). It represents data collected by Merit Network, Inc. Organizations Important laboratories in the field are: Electronic Visualization Laboratory Kitware Los Alamos National Laboratory NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division National Center for Supercomputing Applications Sandia National Laboratory San Diego Supercomputer Center Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute Texas Advanced Computing Center Conferences in this field, ranked by significance in scientific visualization research, are: IEEE Visualization SIGGRAPH EuroVis Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) Eurographics PacificVis See further: Computer graphics organizations, Supercomputing facilities See also Science portal General Data Presentation Architecture Data visualization Mathematical visualization Molecular graphics Skin friction line Sonification Tensor glyph Visual analytics Publications ACM Transactions on Graphics IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics SIAM Journal on Scientific Computing The Visualization Handbook Software Amira Avizo Baudline Bitplane Datacopia Dataplot MeVisLab NCAR Command Language Orange OpenVisus Origin ParaView Tecplot tomviz VAPOR Vis5D VisAD VisIt VTK Category:Free data visualization software References ^ Visualizations that have been created with VisIt. at wci.llnl.gov. Updated: November 8, 2007 ^ a b c d e Michael Friendly (2008). "Milestones in the history of thematic cartography, statistical graphics, and data visualization". ^ Mason, Betsy (November 12, 2019). "Why scientists need to be better at data visualization". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-110919-1. S2CID 209062044.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) ^ O'Donoghue, Seán I.; Baldi, Benedetta Frida; Clark, Susan J.; Darling, Aaron E.; Hogan, James M.; Kaur, Sandeep; Maier-Hein, Lena; McCarthy, Davis J.; Moore, William J.; Stenau, Esther; Swedlow, Jason R.; Vuong, Jenny; Procter, James B. (2018-07-20). "Visualization of Biomedical Data". Annual Review of Biomedical Data Science. 1 (1): 275–304. doi:10.1146/annurev-biodatasci-080917-013424. hdl:10453/125943. S2CID 199591321. Retrieved 25 June 2021. ^ James Clerk Maxwell and P. M. Harman (2002), The Scientific Letters and Papers of James Clerk Maxwell, Volume 3; 1874–1879, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-25627-5, p. 148. ^ Thomas G.West (February 1999). "Images and reversals: James Clerk Maxwell, working in wet clay". ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics. 33 (1): 15–17. doi:10.1145/563666.563671. S2CID 13968486. ^ Delmarcelle, T; Hesselink, L. (1993). "Visualizing second-order tensor fields with hyperstreamlines". IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. 13 (4): 25–33. doi:10.1109/38.219447. hdl:2060/19950012873. S2CID 7698377. ^ Steven Strogatz (2007). "The End of Insight". In: What is your dangerous idea? John Brockman (ed). HarperCollins. ^ "Researchers stage largest military simulation ever". (news), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Caltech, December 1997. ^ James J. Thomas and Kristin A. Cook (Ed.) (2005). Illuminating the Path: The R&D Agenda for Visual Analytics Archived 2008-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. National Visualization and Analytics Center. p.30 ^ a b Lawrence J. Rosenblum (ed.) (1994). Scientific Visualization: Advances and challenges. Academic Press. ^ All examples both images and text here, unless another source is given, are from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), from the LLNL website, Retrieved 10–11 July 2008. ^ The data used to make this image were provided by Tom Abel Ph.D. and Matthew Turk of the Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and Cosmology. ^ BLACK-HOLE COLLISIONS The Globus software creators Ian Foster, Carl Kesselman and Steve Tuecke. Publication Summer 2002. ^ Image courtesy of Forrest Hoffman and Jamison Daniel of Oak Ridge National Laboratory ^ Andrew J. Hanson, Tamara Munzner, George Francis: Interactive methods for visualizable geometry, Computer, vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 73–83 (abstract) ^ Andrew J. Hanson: Constrained 3D navigation with 2D controller, Visualization '97., Proceedings, 24 October 1997, pp. 175-182 (abstract) ^ Hui Zhang, Andrew J. Hanson: Shadow-Driven 4D Haptic Visualization, IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 1688-1695 (abstract) ^ Image by Donna Cox and Robert Patterson. The National Science Foundation Press Release 08-112. ^ Kosara, Robert (11 November 2013). "A Guide to the Quality of Different Visualization Venues". eagereyes. Retrieved 7 April 2017. Further reading Charles D. Hansen and Christopher R. Johnson (eds.) (2005). The Visualization Handbook. Elsevier. Bruce H. McCormick, Thomas A. DeFanti and Maxine D. Brown (eds.) (1987). Visualization in Scientific Computing. ACM Press. Gregory M. Nielson, Hans Hagen and Heinrich Müller (1997). Scientific Visualization: Overviews, Methodologies, and Techniques. IEEE Computer Society. Clifford A. Pickover (ed.) (1994). Frontiers of Scientific Visualization. New York: John Wiley Inc. Lawrence J. Rosenblum (ed.) (1994). Scientific Visualization: Advances and challenges. Academic Press. Will Schroeder, Ken Martin, Bill Lorensen (2003). The Visualization Toolkit. Kitware, Inc. Leland Wilkinson (2005). The Grammar of Graphics, Springer. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scientific visualization. National Institute of Standards and Technology Scientific Visualizations, with an overview of applications. Scientific Visualization Tutorials, Georgia Tech NASA Scientific Visualization Studio. They facilitate scientific inquiry and outreach within NASA programs through visualization. Subunit Studios Scientific and Molecular Visualization Studio. Scientific illustration and animation services for scientists by scientists. scienceviz.com - Scientific Vizualisation, Simulation and CG Animation for Universities, Architects and Engineers vteVisualization of technical informationFields Biological data visualization Chemical imaging Crime mapping Data visualization Educational visualization Flow visualization Geovisualization Information visualization Mathematical visualization Medical imaging Molecular graphics Product visualization Scientific visualization Social visualization Software visualization Technical drawing User interface design Visual culture Volume visualization Image types Chart Diagram Engineering drawing Graph of a function Ideogram Map Photograph Pictogram Plot Sankey diagram Schematic Skeletal formula Statistical graphics Table Technical drawings Technical illustration PeoplePre-19th century Edmond Halley Charles-René de Fourcroy Joseph Priestley Gaspard Monge 19th century Charles Dupin Adolphe Quetelet André-Michel Guerry William Playfair August Kekulé Charles Joseph Minard Luigi Perozzo Francis Amasa Walker John Venn Oliver Byrne Matthew Sankey Charles Booth Georg von Mayr John Snow Florence Nightingale Karl Wilhelm Pohlke Toussaint Loua Francis Galton Early 20th century Edward Walter Maunder Otto Neurath W. E. B. Du Bois Henry Gantt Arthur Lyon Bowley Howard G. Funkhouser John B. Peddle Ejnar Hertzsprung Henry Norris Russell Max O. Lorenz Fritz Kahn Harry Beck Erwin Raisz Mid 20th century Jacques Bertin Rudolf Modley Arthur H. Robinson John Tukey Mary Eleanor Spear Edgar Anderson Howard T. Fisher Late 20th century Borden Dent Nigel Holmes William S. Cleveland George G. Robertson Bruce H. McCormick Catherine Plaisant Stuart Card Pat Hanrahan Edward Tufte Ben Shneiderman Michael Friendly Howard Wainer Clifford A. Pickover Lawrence J. Rosenblum Thomas A. DeFanti George Furnas Sheelagh Carpendale Cynthia Brewer Miriah Meyer Jock D. Mackinlay Alan MacEachren David Goodsell Kwan-Liu Ma Michael Maltz Leland Wilkinson Alfred Inselberg Early 21st century Ben Fry Hans Rosling Christopher R. Johnson David McCandless Mauro Martino John Maeda Tamara Munzner Jeffrey Heer Gordon Kindlmann Hanspeter Pfister Manuel Lima Aaron Koblin Martin Krzywinski Bang Wong Jessica Hullman Hadley Wickham Polo Chau Fernanda Viégas Martin Wattenberg Claudio Silva Ade Olufeko Moritz Stefaner Related topics Cartography Chartjunk Color coding Computer graphics in computer science CPK coloring Graph drawing Graphic design Graphic organizer Imaging science Information graphics Information science Misleading graph Neuroimaging Patent drawing Scientific modelling Spatial analysis Visual analytics Visual perception Volume cartography Volume rendering Information art
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematical visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_visualization"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rayleigh-Taylor_instability.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rayleigh–Taylor instability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh%E2%80%93Taylor_instability"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolmuterad.jpg"},{"link_name":"Arabidopsis thaliana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana"},{"link_name":"pollen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen"},{"link_name":"confocal microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confocal_microscopy"},{"link_name":"also spelled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ise_vs_ize"},{"link_name":"interdisciplinary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary"},{"link_name":"branch of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branches_of_science"},{"link_name":"visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visualization_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MF08-2"},{"link_name":"computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mason-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-O'Donoghue-4"}],"text":"For Mathematical visualization, see mathematical visualization.Interdisciplinary branch of science concerned with presenting scientific data visuallyA scientific visualization of a simulation of a Rayleigh–Taylor instability caused by two mixing fluids.[1]Surface rendering of Arabidopsis thaliana pollen grains with confocal microscope.Scientific visualization (also spelled scientific visualisation) is an interdisciplinary branch of science concerned with the visualization of scientific phenomena.[2] It is also considered a subset of computer graphics, a branch of computer science. The purpose of scientific visualization is to graphically illustrate scientific data to enable scientists to understand, illustrate, and glean insight from their data. Research into how people read and misread various types of visualizations is helping to determine what types and features of visualizations are most understandable and effective in conveying information.[3][4]","title":"Scientific visualization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Minard%27s_Map_(vectorized).svg"},{"link_name":"flow map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_map"},{"link_name":"Napoleon's March","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Maxwell's thermodynamic surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_thermodynamic_surface"},{"link_name":"James Clerk Maxwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"flow map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_map"},{"link_name":"Napoleon's March on Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Charles Joseph Minard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Joseph_Minard"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MF08-2"},{"link_name":"Florence Nightingale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MF08-2"},{"link_name":"dot map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_distribution_map"},{"link_name":"John Snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)"},{"link_name":"Broad Street cholera outbreak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854_Broad_Street_cholera_outbreak"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MF08-2"}],"text":"Charles Minard's flow map of Napoleon's March.One of the earliest examples of three-dimensional scientific visualisation was Maxwell's thermodynamic surface, sculpted in clay in 1874 by James Clerk Maxwell.[5] This prefigured modern scientific visualization techniques that use computer graphics.[6]Notable early two-dimensional examples include the flow map of Napoleon's March on Moscow produced by Charles Joseph Minard in 1869;[2] the \"coxcombs\" used by Florence Nightingale in 1857 as part of a campaign to improve sanitary conditions in the British army;[2] and the dot map used by John Snow in 1855 to visualise the Broad Street cholera outbreak.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"textura based methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_advection"}],"text":"Criteria for classifications:dimension of the data\nmethod\n textura based methods\ngeometry-based approaches such as arrow plots, streamlines, pathlines, timelines, streaklines, particle tracing, surface particles, stream arrows, stream tubes, stream balls, flow volumes and topological analysis","title":"Data visualization methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"contour lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_line"},{"link_name":"glyphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyph_(data_visualization)"},{"link_name":"streamlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamlines,_streaklines,_and_pathlines"},{"link_name":"line integral convolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_integral_convolution"}],"sub_title":"Two-dimensional data sets","text":"Scientific visualization using computer graphics gained in popularity as graphics matured. Primary applications were scalar fields and vector fields from computer simulations and also measured data. The primary methods for visualizing two-dimensional (2D) scalar fields are color mapping and drawing contour lines. 2D vector fields are visualized using glyphs and streamlines or line integral convolution methods. 2D tensor fields are often resolved to a vector field by using one of the two eigenvectors to represent the tensor each point in the field and then visualized using vector field visualization methods.","title":"Data visualization methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"volume rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_rendering"},{"link_name":"isosurfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isosurface"},{"link_name":"streamlines and streaklines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamlines,_streaklines,_and_pathlines"},{"link_name":"line integral convolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_integral_convolution"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Three-dimensional data sets","text":"For 3D scalar fields the primary methods are volume rendering and isosurfaces. Methods for visualizing vector fields include glyphs (graphical icons) such as arrows, streamlines and streaklines, particle tracing, line integral convolution (LIC) and topological methods. Later, visualization techniques such as hyperstreamlines[7] were developed to visualize 2D and 3D tensor fields.","title":"Data visualization methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PET-MIPS-anim.gif"},{"link_name":"Maximum intensity projection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_intensity_projection"},{"link_name":"PET scan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PET_scan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:InnerSolarSystem-en.png"},{"link_name":"Solar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2006-01-14_Surface_waves.jpg"},{"link_name":"Surface waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_waves"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FIRST_measurement_of_SF6_and_NH3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chemical imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_imaging"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AFMimageRoughGlass20x20.png"},{"link_name":"Atomic force microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_force_microscope"}],"text":"Maximum intensity projection (MIP) of a whole body PET scan.Solar System image of the main asteroid belt and the Trojan asteroids.Scientific visualization of Fluid Flow: Surface waves in waterChemical imaging of a simultaneous release of SF6 and NH3.Topographic scan of a glass surface by an Atomic force microscope.","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computer animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_animation"},{"link_name":"computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"3D computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"2D computer graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2D_computer_graphics"},{"link_name":"real-time rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_rendering"},{"link_name":"medium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recording_medium"},{"link_name":"film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film"},{"link_name":"Computer-generated imagery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-generated_imagery"},{"link_name":"medical animation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_animation"}],"sub_title":"Computer animation","text":"Computer animation is the art, technique, and science of creating moving images via the use of computers. It is becoming more common to be created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI (Computer-generated imagery or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films. Applications include medical animation, which is most commonly utilized as an instructional tool for medical professionals or their patients.","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computer simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation"},{"link_name":"simulate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulation"},{"link_name":"model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(abstract)"},{"link_name":"mathematical modelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_model"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"visulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Visulation&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"mathematical modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_modeling"},{"link_name":"Kuwait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait"},{"link_name":"DoD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"High Performance Computing Modernization Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Performance_Computing_Modernization_Program"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JPLsim-9"}],"sub_title":"Computer simulation","text":"Computer simulation is a computer program, or network of computers, that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system. Computer simulations have become a useful part of mathematical modelling of many natural systems in physics, and computational physics, chemistry and biology; human systems in economics, psychology, and social science; and in the process of engineering and new technology, to gain insight into the operation of those systems, or to observe their behavior.[8] The simultaneous visualization and simulation of a system is called visulation.Computer simulations vary from computer programs that run a few minutes, to network-based groups of computers running for hours, to ongoing simulations that run for months. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible (or perhaps even imaginable) using the traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling: over 10 years ago, a desert-battle simulation, of one force invading another, involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks, trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around Kuwait, using multiple supercomputers in the DoD High Performance Computing Modernization Program.[9]","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Information visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_visualization"},{"link_name":"visual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system"},{"link_name":"representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representation_(arts)"},{"link_name":"software systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_system"},{"link_name":"library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library"},{"link_name":"databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MF08-2"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Information visualization","text":"Information visualization is the study of \"the visual representation of large-scale collections of non-numerical information, such as files and lines of code in software systems, library and bibliographic databases, networks of relations on the internet, and so forth\".[2]Information visualization focused on the creation of approaches for conveying abstract information in intuitive ways. Visual representations and interaction techniques take advantage of the human eye's broad bandwidth pathway into the mind to allow users to see, explore, and understand large amounts of information at once.[10] The key difference between scientific visualization and information visualization is that information visualization is often applied to data that is not generated by scientific inquiry. Some examples are graphical representations of data for business, government, news and social media.","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Interface technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-computer_interaction"},{"link_name":"perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LR94-11"}],"sub_title":"Interface technology and perception","text":"Interface technology and perception shows how new interfaces and a better understanding of underlying perceptual issues create new opportunities for the scientific visualization community.[11]","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_model"},{"link_name":"texture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_mapping"},{"link_name":"lighting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting"},{"link_name":"shading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shading"},{"link_name":"digital image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_image"},{"link_name":"raster graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics"},{"link_name":"image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image"},{"link_name":"Scanline rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanline_rendering"},{"link_name":"Ray casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_casting"},{"link_name":"Radiosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiosity_(computer_graphics)"},{"link_name":"ambience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Available_light"},{"link_name":"Ray tracing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_tracing_(graphics)"}],"sub_title":"Surface rendering","text":"Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three-dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an \"artist's rendering\" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. Important rendering techniques are:Scanline rendering and rasterisation\nA high-level representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels. These elements are referred to as primitives. In a schematic drawing, for instance, line segments and curves might be primitives. In a graphical user interface, windows and buttons might be the primitives. In 3D rendering, triangles and polygons in space might be primitives.Ray casting\nRay casting is primarily used for realtime simulations, such as those used in 3D computer games and cartoon animations, where detail is not important, or where it is more efficient to manually fake the details in order to obtain better performance in the computational stage. This is usually the case when a large number of frames need to be animated. The resulting surfaces have a characteristic 'flat' appearance when no additional tricks are used, as if objects in the scene were all painted with matte finish.Radiosity\nRadiosity, also known as Global Illumination, is a method that attempts to simulate the way in which directly illuminated surfaces act as indirect light sources that illuminate other surfaces. This produces more realistic shading and seems to better capture the 'ambience' of an indoor scene. A classic example is the way that shadows 'hug' the corners of rooms.Ray tracing\nRay tracing is an extension of the same technique developed in scanline rendering and ray casting. Like those, it handles complicated objects well, and the objects may be described mathematically. Unlike scanline and casting, ray tracing is almost always a Monte Carlo technique, that is one based on averaging a number of randomly generated samples from a model.","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Volume rendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_rendering"},{"link_name":"sampled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"data set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_set"},{"link_name":"CT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_axial_tomography"},{"link_name":"MRI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging"},{"link_name":"pixels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pixel"},{"link_name":"voxel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voxel"}],"sub_title":"Volume rendering","text":"Volume rendering is a technique used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely sampled data set. A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a CT or MRI scanner. Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a regular number of image pixels in a regular pattern. This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or voxel represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel.","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rosenblum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_J._Rosenblum"},{"link_name":"medical imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_imaging"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LR94-11"}],"sub_title":"Volume visualization","text":"According to Rosenblum (1994) \"volume visualization examines a set of techniques that allows viewing an object without mathematically representing the other surface. Initially used in medical imaging, volume visualization has become an essential technique for many sciences, portraying phenomena become an essential technique such as clouds, water flows, and molecular and biological structure. Many volume visualization algorithms are computationally expensive and demand large data storage. Advances in hardware and software are generalizing volume visualization as well as real time performances\".Developments of web-based technologies, and in-browser rendering have allowed of simple volumetric presentation of a cuboid with a changing frame of reference to show volume, mass and density data.[11]","title":"Topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"This section will give a series of examples how scientific visualization can be applied today.[12]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Star_formation.jpg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gravitywaves.JPG"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Massive_Star_Supernovae_Explosions.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Molecular_rendering.jpg"},{"link_name":"VisIt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisIt"}],"sub_title":"In the natural sciences","text":"Star formation[13]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGravitational waves[14]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMassive Star Supernovae Explosions\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMolecular renderingStar formation: The featured plot is a Volume plot of the logarithm of gas/dust density in an Enzo star and galaxy simulation. Regions of high density are white while less dense regions are more blue and also more transparent.Gravitational waves: Researchers used the Globus Toolkit to harness the power of multiple supercomputers to simulate the gravitational effects of black-hole collisions.Massive Star Supernovae Explosions: In the image, three-Dimensional Radiation Hydrodynamics Calculations of Massive Star Supernovae Explosions The DJEHUTY stellar evolution code was used to calculate the explosion of SN 1987A model in three dimensions.Molecular rendering: VisIt's general plotting capabilities were used to create the molecular rendering shown in the featured visualization. The original data was taken from the Protein Data Bank and turned into a VTK file before rendering.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Terrain_rendering.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Climate_visualization.jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atmospheric_Anomaly_in_Times_Square.jpg"},{"link_name":"Terrain visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrain_rendering"},{"link_name":"VisIt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VisIt"},{"link_name":"Geographic Information Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_Information_Systems"}],"sub_title":"In geography and ecology","text":"Terrain rendering\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tClimate visualization[15]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAtmospheric Anomaly in Times SquareTerrain visualization: VisIt can read several file formats common in the field of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), allowing one to plot raster data such as terrain data in visualizations. The featured image shows a plot of a DEM dataset containing mountainous areas near Dunsmuir, CA. Elevation lines are added to the plot to help delineate changes in elevation.Tornado Simulation: This image was created from data generated by a tornado simulation calculated on NCSA's IBM p690 computing cluster. High-definition television animations of the storm produced at NCSA were included in an episode of the PBS television series NOVA called \"Hunt for the Supertwister.\" The tornado is shown by spheres that are colored according to pressure; orange and blue tubes represent the rising and falling airflow around the tornado.Climate visualization: This visualization depicts the carbon dioxide from various sources that are advected individually as tracers in the atmosphere model. Carbon dioxide from the ocean is shown as plumes during February 1900.Atmospheric Anomaly in Times Square In the image the results from the SAMRAI simulation framework of an atmospheric anomaly in and around Times Square are visualized.View of a 4D cube projected into 3D: orthogonal projection (left) and perspective projection (right).","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Domain_coloring_x2-1_x-2-i_x-2-i_d_x2%2B2%2B2i.xcf"},{"link_name":"Domain coloring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_coloring"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"complex analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_analysis"},{"link_name":"domain coloring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_coloring"}],"sub_title":"In mathematics","text":"Scientific visualization of mathematical structures has been undertaken for purposes of building intuition and for aiding the forming of mental models.[16]Domain coloring of f(x) = (x2−1)(x−2−i)2/x2+2+2iHigher-dimensional objects can be visualized in form of projections (views) in lower dimensions. In particular, 4-dimensional objects are visualized by means of projection in three dimensions. The lower-dimensional projections of higher-dimensional objects can be used for purposes of virtual object manipulation, allowing 3D objects to be manipulated by operations performed in 2D,[17] and 4D objects by interactions performed in 3D.[18]In complex analysis, functions of the complex plane are inherently 4-dimensional, but there is no natural geometric projection into lower dimensional visual representations. Instead, colour vision is exploited to capture dimensional information using techniques such as domain coloring.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Curve_plots.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Image_annotations.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Scatter_plot.jpg"}],"sub_title":"In the formal sciences","text":"Curve plots\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tImage annotations\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tScatter plotComputer mapping of topographical surfaces: Through computer mapping of topographical surfaces, mathematicians can test theories of how materials will change when stressed. The imaging is part of the work on the NSF-funded Electronic Visualization Laboratory at the University of Illinois at Chicago.Curve plots: VisIt can plot curves from data read from files and it can be used to extract and plot curve data from higher-dimensional datasets using lineout operators or queries. The curves in the featured image correspond to elevation data along lines drawn on DEM data and were created with the feature lineout capability. Lineout allows you to interactively draw a line, which specifies a path for data extraction. The resulting data was then plotted as curves.Image annotations: The featured plot shows Leaf Area Index (LAI), a measure of global vegetative matter, from a NetCDF dataset. The primary plot is the large plot at the bottom, which shows the LAI for the whole world. The plots on top are actually annotations that contain images generated earlier. Image annotations can be used to include material that enhances a visualization such as auxiliary plots, images of experimental data, project logos, etc.Scatter plot: VisIt's Scatter plot allows visualizing multivariate data of up to four dimensions. The Scatter plot takes multiple scalar variables and uses them for different axes in phase space. The different variables are combined to form coordinates in the phase space and they are displayed using glyphs and colored using another scalar variable.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Porsche_911_model_imported_from_a_NASTRAN_bulk_data_file.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:YF-17_aircraft_Plot.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:City_rendering.jpg"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"In the applied sciences","text":"Porsche 911 model\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tYF-17 aircraft Plot\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCity renderingPorsche 911 model (NASTRAN model): The featured plot contains a Mesh plot of a Porsche 911 model imported from a NASTRAN bulk data file. VisIt can read a limited subset of NASTRAN bulk data files, in general enough to import model geometry for visualization.YF-17 aircraft Plot: The featured image displays plots of a CGNS dataset representing a YF-17 jet aircraft. The dataset consists of an unstructured grid with solution. The image was created by using a pseudocolor plot of the dataset's Mach variable, a Mesh plot of the grid, and Vector plot of a slice through the Velocity field.City rendering: An ESRI shapefile containing a polygonal description of the building footprints was read in and then the polygons were resampled onto a rectilinear grid, which was extruded into the featured cityscape.Inbound traffic measured: This image is a visualization study of inbound traffic measured in billions of bytes on the NSFNET T1 backbone for the month of September 1991. The traffic volume range is depicted from purple (zero bytes) to white (100 billion bytes). It represents data collected by Merit Network, Inc.[19]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Electronic Visualization Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Visualization_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Kitware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitware"},{"link_name":"Los Alamos National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"NASA Advanced Supercomputing Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Division"},{"link_name":"National Center for Supercomputing Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Supercomputing_Applications"},{"link_name":"Sandia National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"San Diego Supercomputer Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_Supercomputer_Center"},{"link_name":"Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Computing_and_Imaging_Institute"},{"link_name":"Texas Advanced Computing Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Advanced_Computing_Center"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"IEEE Visualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Visualization"},{"link_name":"SIGGRAPH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGGRAPH"},{"link_name":"Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conference_on_Human_Factors_in_Computing_Systems"},{"link_name":"Eurographics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurographics"},{"link_name":"Computer graphics organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_graphics_organizations"},{"link_name":"Supercomputing facilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Supercomputer_sites"}],"text":"Important laboratories in the field are:Electronic Visualization Laboratory\nKitware\nLos Alamos National Laboratory\nNASA Advanced Supercomputing Division\nNational Center for Supercomputing Applications\nSandia National Laboratory\nSan Diego Supercomputer Center\nScientific Computing and Imaging Institute\nTexas Advanced Computing CenterConferences in this field, ranked by significance in scientific visualization research,[20] are:IEEE Visualization\nSIGGRAPH\nEuroVis\nConference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI)\nEurographics\nPacificVisSee further: Computer graphics organizations, Supercomputing facilities","title":"Organizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christopher R. Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_R._Johnson"},{"link_name":"The Visualization Handbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Visualization_Handbook"},{"link_name":"Bruce H. McCormick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_H._McCormick"},{"link_name":"Thomas A. DeFanti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._DeFanti"},{"link_name":"Maxine D. Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxine_D._Brown"},{"link_name":"Scientific Visualization: Overviews, Methodologies, and Techniques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=dvwHAAAACAAJ&dq=%22Scientific+visualization%22&lr="},{"link_name":"Clifford A. Pickover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_A._Pickover"},{"link_name":"Lawrence J. Rosenblum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_J._Rosenblum"},{"link_name":"The Visualization Toolkit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.amazon.com/dp/1930934076"},{"link_name":"Leland Wilkinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leland_Wilkinson"},{"link_name":"The Grammar of Graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=_kRX4LoFfGQC&dq=the+grammar+of+graphics&psp=1&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0"}],"text":"Charles D. Hansen and Christopher R. Johnson (eds.) (2005). The Visualization Handbook. Elsevier.\nBruce H. McCormick, Thomas A. DeFanti and Maxine D. Brown (eds.) (1987). Visualization in Scientific Computing. ACM Press.\nGregory M. Nielson, Hans Hagen and Heinrich Müller (1997). Scientific Visualization: Overviews, Methodologies, and Techniques. IEEE Computer Society.\nClifford A. Pickover (ed.) (1994). Frontiers of Scientific Visualization. New York: John Wiley Inc.\nLawrence J. Rosenblum (ed.) (1994). Scientific Visualization: Advances and challenges. Academic Press.\nWill Schroeder, Ken Martin, Bill Lorensen (2003). The Visualization Toolkit. Kitware, Inc.\nLeland Wilkinson (2005). The Grammar of Graphics, Springer.","title":"Further reading"}]
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[{"reference":"Mason, Betsy (November 12, 2019). \"Why scientists need to be better at data visualization\". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-110919-1. S2CID 209062044.","urls":[{"url":"https://knowablemagazine.org/article/mind/2019/science-data-visualization","url_text":"\"Why scientists need to be better at data visualization\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fknowable-110919-1","url_text":"10.1146/knowable-110919-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209062044","url_text":"209062044"}]},{"reference":"O'Donoghue, Seán I.; Baldi, Benedetta Frida; Clark, Susan J.; Darling, Aaron E.; Hogan, James M.; Kaur, Sandeep; Maier-Hein, Lena; McCarthy, Davis J.; Moore, William J.; Stenau, Esther; Swedlow, Jason R.; Vuong, Jenny; Procter, James B. (2018-07-20). \"Visualization of Biomedical Data\". Annual Review of Biomedical Data Science. 1 (1): 275–304. doi:10.1146/annurev-biodatasci-080917-013424. hdl:10453/125943. S2CID 199591321. Retrieved 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-biodatasci-080917-013424","url_text":"\"Visualization of Biomedical Data\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-biodatasci-080917-013424","url_text":"10.1146/annurev-biodatasci-080917-013424"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10453%2F125943","url_text":"10453/125943"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199591321","url_text":"199591321"}]},{"reference":"Thomas G.West (February 1999). \"Images and reversals: James Clerk Maxwell, working in wet clay\". ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics. 33 (1): 15–17. doi:10.1145/563666.563671. S2CID 13968486.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.siggraph.org/publications/newsletter/v33n1/columns/west.html","url_text":"\"Images and reversals: James Clerk Maxwell, working in wet clay\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F563666.563671","url_text":"10.1145/563666.563671"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13968486","url_text":"13968486"}]},{"reference":"Delmarcelle, T; Hesselink, L. (1993). \"Visualizing second-order tensor fields with hyperstreamlines\". IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications. 13 (4): 25–33. doi:10.1109/38.219447. hdl:2060/19950012873. S2CID 7698377.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F38.219447","url_text":"10.1109/38.219447"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2060%2F19950012873","url_text":"2060/19950012873"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7698377","url_text":"7698377"}]},{"reference":"Kosara, Robert (11 November 2013). \"A Guide to the Quality of Different Visualization Venues\". eagereyes. Retrieved 7 April 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://eagereyes.org/blog/2013/a-guide-to-the-quality-of-different-visualization-venues","url_text":"\"A Guide to the Quality of Different Visualization Venues\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortex86
Vortex86
["1 History","2 CPU","3 Software Compatibility","4 Versions","4.1 Vortex86 original","4.2 Vortex86SX","4.3 Vortex86DX","4.4 Vortex86MX","4.5 Vortex86MX+","4.6 Vortex86DX2","4.7 Vortex86EX","4.8 Vortex86DX3","4.9 Vortex86EX2","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
X86-compatible system-on-a-chip Vortex86DX The Vortex86 is a computing system-on-a-chip (SoC) based on a core compatible with the x86 microprocessor family. It is produced by DM&P Electronics, but originated with Rise Technology. History PC/104 module with DM&P M6117D Vortex86 previously belonged to SiS, which got the basic design from Rise Technology. SiS sold it to DM&P Electronics in Taiwan. Before adopting the Vortex86 series, DM&P manufactured the M6117D, an Intel 386SX compatible, 25–40 MHz SoC. CPU This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (July 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Vortex86 CPUs implement the IA-32 architecture but which instructions are implemented varies depending on the model. Vortex86SX and the early versions of Vortex86 do not have a floating point unit (FPU). Any code that runs on i586 but does not use floating point instructions will run on these models. Any i586 code will run on Vortex86DX and later. Some Linux kernels (by build-time option) emulate the FPU on any CPU that is missing one, so a program that uses i586-level floating point instructions will work on any Vortex86 family CPU under such a kernel, albeit more slowly on a model with no FPU. The more advanced models have FPUs that have i686-level instructions, such as FUCOMI. Code intended for i686 may fail on some models because they lack a Conditional Move (CMOV) instruction. Compilers asked to optimize code for a more advanced CPU (for example the GNU Compiler with its -march=i686 option) generate code that uses CMOV. Linux systems intended to run on i686 are generally not compatible with these Vortex86 models because the GNU C Library, when built for i686, uses a CMOV instruction in its assembly language strcmp function, which its dynamic loader (ld.so) uses. Hence, no program that uses shared libraries can execute. Below are the properties of a Vortex86 original CPU reported by the Linux kernel tool /proc/cpuinfo. Note that this CPU is a later version with an FPU. processor  : 0 vendor_id  : SiS SiS SiS cpu family  : 5 model  : 0 model name  : 05/00 stepping  : 5 cpu MHz  : 199.978 fdiv_bug  : no hlt_bug  : no f00f_bug  : no coma_bug  : no fpu  : yes fpu_exception  : yes cpuid level  : 1 wp  : yes flags  : fpu tsc cx8 mmx up bogomips  : 399.95 clflush size  : 32 cache_alignment : 32 address sizes  : 32 bits physical, 32 bits virtual power management: Software Compatibility DM&P maintained an embedded Linux distribution customized to use the SoCs features. Other operating systems may work depending on the SoC model, including various RTOS systems such as QNX and VxWorks, Linux distributions, FreeBSD or various versions of Microsoft Windows systems such as Windows Embedded Compact or Windows IoT. The ability to identify Vortex86 processors was added to Linux 5.16, released in January 2022. Versions Vortex86 original The Vortex86 (M6127D) is a rebadged SiS 551 system-on-chip (SoC). The CPU core is derived from the Rise mP6, which has three integer and MMX pipelines and branch prediction. Vortex86SX Introduced in February 2007, the Vortex86SX is an x86-compatible System-on-chip (SoC) with built-in north and south bridge on a 0.13 micron process in a 27x27 mm 581-ball BGA package. The CPU core is typically clocked at 300 MHz and is compatible with the 486SX instruction set. It has a six-stage pipeline with a direct-mapped write-through 16 KB Data + 16 KB Instruction L1 cache but, unlike the Vortex86, lacks L2 cache and an FPU. The memory controller allows 16-bit wide access to SDRAM up to 128 MB at 133 MHz and DDR2 up to 256 MB at 166 MHz. The SoC includes PCI 2.1 interface at 33 MHz ISA bus interface ATA controller with 2 channels at Ultra-DMA 100 Fast Ethernet MAC USB 2.0 host with 4 ports 5 FIFO UART ports compatible with 16C550/16C552 at up to 460.8 kbps GPIO with 40 pins Embedded 256 KB flash memory Unlike the original Vortex86, it does not integrate video or audio controllers. Vortex86DX Introduced in August 2008, the Vortex86DX retains the same BGA package as the SX and is pin-compatible. It is built on a 90 nm process. The CPU core is clocked at 600 MHz to 1 GHz (2.02 W @ 800 MHz ) and improves on the SX with a 4-way 16 KB Data + 16 KB Instruction L1 cache, adds a 4-way 256 KB L2 cache, in write-through or write-back mode, and an FPU. The memory controller drops the ability to use SDRAM but increases the amount and speed of DDR2 memory it can drive to 1 GB and 333 MHz. The SoC adds the ability to function as a USB 1.1 client on 1 port and increases the embedded flash capacity to 2 MB. The PDX-600 is a version of the Vortex86DX that differs only in the number of RS-232 ports (three instead of five) and has no I²C and servo controllers, thus targeting more the embedded than the industrial market. Netbooks similar to the Belco 450R use this chip. Vortex86MX The Vortex86MX uses a larger 31x31 mm 720-ball BGA package, still on a 90 nm process. The CPU core improves on the DX by adding branch prediction, cache-access optimisation and MMX instructions. The memory controller can drive up to 1 GB of DDR2 memory at 400 MHz. The SoC drops ISA bus attachment but adds a VGA-compatible 2D GPU, with separate DDR2 memory, and a HD Audio controller. It has only three FIFO UART ports at up to 460.8 kbps. The consumer grade version is known as the PMX-1000. Current models of the Gecko Edubook use the Xcore86, a rebadge of the Vortex86MX. Vortex86MX+ Introduced in June 2010, the Vortex86MX+ retains the same BGA package and CPU core as the MX. The memory controller allows wider 32-bit access to DDR2 up to 1 GB, still at 400 MHz. The integrated GPU switches to UMA, removing the requirement for separate video memory. The three FIFO UART ports can operate at data rates up to 115.2 kbps. Vortex86DX2 Introduced in May 2012, the Vortex86DX2 retains the same BGA package, CPU core, and GPU as the MX+. The memory controller allows 32-bit access to DDR2 up to 2 GB at 400 MHz. The SoC drops conventional PCI capability and adds PCI Express 1.0 interface SATA with one port at 1.5 Gbps nine FIFO UART ports compatible with 16C550/16C552 at up to 6 Mbps ISA bus interface GPIO with 88 pins Motor control interface with 3 groups of controllers, four controllers per group Vortex86EX Vortex86EX has a 32 KB write through 2-way L1 cache, 128 KB write through/write back 2-way L2 cache, PCI-e bus interface, 300 MHz DDR3, ROM controller, IPC (Internal Peripheral Controllers with DMA and interrupt timer/counter included), Fast Ethernet, FIFO UART, USB2.0 Host and ATA controller. The package is a single 288-pin TFBGA-package. Vortex86DX3 Vortex86DX3 has a 1.0 GHz dual-core i686-compatible CPU. It has an eight-way 32K I-Cache, an eight-way 32K D-Cache, a four-way 512 KB L2 cache with a write-through or write-back policy, ability to use up to 2 GB of DDR3 RAM, a PCI-e bus interface, 100 Mbit/s Ethernet, FIFO UART, a USB 2.0 host, integrated GPU, an ATA controller at Primary Channel, and a SATA 1.5 Gbit/s controller (one port) at Secondary Channel. The package is a single 720-pin BGA-package. Vortex86EX2 Vortex86EX2 has two asymmetrical master/slave CPU cores. The master core runs at 600 MHz, has 16K I-Cache, 16K D-Cache, and four-way 128 KB L2 cache with a write-through or write-back policy. The slave core operates at 400 MHz and also has 16 KB I-Cache, 16 KB D-Cache, but has no L2 cache. Both have a built-in FPU. Maximum DDR3 RAM capacity is 2 GB. It can also use ECC memory. It is produced using the 65 nm manufacturing process and uses the 19x19 mm LFBGA-441 package. See also Embedded x86 Manufacturers References ^ Cebit 2007: x86 Minisystem mit Vortex86SX (german) ^ Vortex86 Envision Embedded Design with Windows Embedded Technologies (archived copy) ^ M6117D Data Sheet ^ "M6117D overview". Archived from the original on 2009-03-03. Retrieved 2009-04-09. ^ DM&P Vortex86SX FAQ ^ X-Linux ^ Vortex86 Series Linux Support List ^ VEX2-6427 Datasheet ^ Vortex86 Series Windows Support List ^ "Vortex86 Processors detection in new release Linux 5.16". ^ SiS55x Embedded x86 Processors ^ Vortex86 Data Sheet ^ "Vortex86". ^ Vortex86SX documentation ^ Vortex86SX Data Sheet ^ "Vortex86". ^ "X86 system-on-chip adds VGA graphics". ^ Vortex86DX technical resource ^ Vortex86DX Data Sheet ^ Vortex86DX overview (archived copy) ^ engadget - "The world's cheapest laptop" ^ Vortex86MX technical resource ^ https://forum.robosavvy.com/viewtopic.php?p=31612#p31612 ^ Thomas, Alexander (November 2012). "BTplug Review". Dr. Lex' Site. Retrieved 2012-02-13. ^ Kauler, Barry (2010-01-16). "Xcore86 CPU in Gecko Edubook". Barry's Blog. Archived from the original on 2015-02-13. Retrieved 2015-02-13. — See blog comments for more information. ^ LoneRifle (2010-01-22). "CPU Features". Flickr. Retrieved 2015-02-13. ^ a b Angel, Jonathan (2008-12-11). "X86 system-on-chip adds VGA graphics". LinuxForDevices. Archived from the original on 2012-09-12. Retrieved 2009-12-11. ^ Vortex86MX+ product page ^ Vortex86DX2 product page ^ ICOP OS support list ^ Vortex86DX3 product overview ^ "Vortex86DX3 is a New x86 SoC for Embedded Systems - CNX Software". 9 April 2015. ^ Vortex86EX2 product overview ^ ICOP Vortex86 SoC website External links DM&P Electronics official website Vortex86 series comparison sheet Change CPU speed in DOS, Linux, Windows
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DM%26P_Vortex86DX.jpg"},{"link_name":"system-on-a-chip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System-on-a-chip"},{"link_name":"x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86"},{"link_name":"Rise Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_Technology"}],"text":"Vortex86DXThe Vortex86 is a computing system-on-a-chip (SoC) based on a core compatible with the x86 microprocessor family. It is produced by DM&P Electronics, but originated with Rise Technology.","title":"Vortex86"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PC104OrigSize.JPG"},{"link_name":"PC/104","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC/104"},{"link_name":"SiS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Integrated_Systems"},{"link_name":"Rise Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_Technology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"386SX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386#The_80386SX_variant"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"PC/104 module with DM&P M6117DVortex86 previously belonged to SiS, which got the basic design from Rise Technology.[1] SiS sold it to DM&P Electronics[2] in Taiwan.Before adopting the Vortex86 series, DM&P manufactured the M6117D, an Intel 386SX compatible, 25–40 MHz SoC.[3][4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IA-32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IA-32"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vortex86sxfaq-5"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"FUCOMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.felixcloutier.com/x86/fcomi:fcomip:fucomi:fucomip"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Conditional Move (CMOV)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predication_(computer_architecture)"},{"link_name":"cpuinfo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procfs#Linux"}],"text":"Vortex86 CPUs implement the IA-32 architecture but which instructions are implemented varies depending on the model. Vortex86SX[5] and the early versions of Vortex86[citation needed] do not have a floating point unit (FPU). Any code that runs on i586 but does not use floating point instructions will run on these models. Any i586 code will run on Vortex86DX and later. Some Linux kernels (by build-time option) emulate the FPU on any CPU that is missing one, so a program that uses i586-level floating point instructions will work on any Vortex86 family CPU under such a kernel, albeit more slowly on a model with no FPU. The more advanced models have FPUs that have i686-level instructions, such as FUCOMI[citation needed].Code intended for i686 may fail on some models because they lack a Conditional Move (CMOV) instruction. Compilers asked to optimize code for a more advanced CPU (for example the GNU Compiler with its -march=i686 option) generate code that uses CMOV. Linux systems intended to run on i686 are generally not compatible with these Vortex86 models because the GNU C Library, when built for i686, uses a CMOV instruction in its assembly language strcmp function, which its dynamic loader (ld.so) uses. Hence, no program that uses shared libraries can execute.Below are the properties of a Vortex86 original CPU reported by the Linux kernel tool /proc/cpuinfo.Note that this CPU is a later version with an FPU.processor  : 0\nvendor_id  : SiS SiS SiS\ncpu family  : 5\nmodel  : 0\nmodel name  : 05/00\nstepping  : 5\ncpu MHz  : 199.978\nfdiv_bug  : no\nhlt_bug  : no\nf00f_bug  : no\ncoma_bug  : no\nfpu  : yes\nfpu_exception  : yes\ncpuid level  : 1\nwp  : yes\nflags  : fpu tsc cx8 mmx up\nbogomips  : 399.95\nclflush size  : 32\ncache_alignment : 32\naddress sizes  : 32 bits physical, 32 bits virtual\npower management:","title":"CPU"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"SoCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System-on-a-chip"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"RTOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system"},{"link_name":"QNX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QNX"},{"link_name":"VxWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VxWorks"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Windows Embedded Compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Embedded_Compact"},{"link_name":"Windows IoT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_IoT"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"DM&P maintained an embedded Linux distribution customized to use the SoCs features.[6] Other operating systems may work depending on the SoC model, including various RTOS systems such as QNX and VxWorks, Linux distributions,[7] FreeBSD[8] or various versions of Microsoft Windows systems such as Windows Embedded Compact or Windows IoT.[9]The ability to identify Vortex86 processors was added to Linux 5.16,[10] released in January 2022.","title":"Software Compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SiS 551","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP6#Legacy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"mP6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP6"},{"link_name":"MMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMX_(instruction_set)"},{"link_name":"pipelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_(computing)"},{"link_name":"branch prediction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branch_prediction"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86 original","text":"The Vortex86 (M6127D) is a rebadged SiS 551 system-on-chip (SoC).[11] The CPU core is derived from the Rise mP6, which has three integer and MMX pipelines and branch prediction.[12]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"BGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_grid_array"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"486SX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80486SX"},{"link_name":"direct-mapped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_placement_policies#Direct-mapped_cache"},{"link_name":"write-through","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_(computing)#Writing_policies"},{"link_name":"cache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cache"},{"link_name":"FPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_unit"},{"link_name":"SDRAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDRAM"},{"link_name":"DDR2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDR2_SDRAM"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_PCI"},{"link_name":"ISA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industry_Standard_Architecture"},{"link_name":"ATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_ATA"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus"},{"link_name":"UART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UART"},{"link_name":"16C550","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16550_UART"},{"link_name":"GPIO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPIO"},{"link_name":"flash memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86SX","text":"Introduced in February 2007,[13] the Vortex86SX is an x86-compatible System-on-chip (SoC) with built-in north and south bridge on a 0.13 micron process in a 27x27 mm 581-ball BGA package.[14][15]The CPU core is typically clocked at 300 MHz and is compatible with the 486SX instruction set. It has a six-stage pipeline with a direct-mapped write-through 16 KB Data + 16 KB Instruction L1 cache but, unlike the Vortex86, lacks L2 cache and an FPU. The memory controller allows 16-bit wide access to SDRAM up to 128 MB at 133 MHz and DDR2 up to 256 MB at 166 MHz.The SoC includesPCI 2.1 interface at 33 MHz\nISA bus interface\nATA controller with 2 channels at Ultra-DMA 100\nFast Ethernet MAC\nUSB 2.0 host with 4 ports\n5 FIFO UART ports compatible with 16C550/16C552 at up to 460.8 kbps\nGPIO with 40 pins\nEmbedded 256 KB flash memoryUnlike the original Vortex86, it does not integrate video or audio controllers.","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"W","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watt"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"4-way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_placement_policies#Set-associative_cache"},{"link_name":"FPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-point_unit"},{"link_name":"I²C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2C"},{"link_name":"servo controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servo_drive"},{"link_name":"embedded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"Netbooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbook"},{"link_name":"Belco 450R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skytone_Alpha_400#Further.2C_similar_devices_by_Exon.2FSkytone"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86DX","text":"Introduced in August 2008,[16] the Vortex86DX retains the same BGA package as the SX and is pin-compatible.[17] It is built on a 90 nm process.[18][19]The CPU core is clocked at 600 MHz to 1 GHz (2.02 W @ 800 MHz [20]) and improves on the SX with a 4-way 16 KB Data + 16 KB Instruction L1 cache, adds a 4-way 256 KB L2 cache, in write-through or write-back mode, and an FPU. The memory controller drops the ability to use SDRAM but increases the amount and speed of DDR2 memory it can drive to 1 GB and 333 MHz.The SoC adds the ability to function as a USB 1.1 client on 1 port and increases the embedded flash capacity to 2 MB.The PDX-600 is a version of the Vortex86DX that differs only in the number of RS-232 ports (three instead of five) and has no I²C and servo controllers, thus targeting more the embedded than the industrial market. Netbooks similar to the Belco 450R use this chip.[21]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"MMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMX_(instruction_set)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"VGA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_Graphics_Array"},{"link_name":"GPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit#Integrated_graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"HD Audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_High_Definition_Audio"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-linuxfordevices-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-linuxfordevices-27"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86MX","text":"The Vortex86MX uses a larger 31x31 mm 720-ball BGA package, still on a 90 nm process.[22] The CPU core improves on the DX by adding branch prediction, cache-access optimisation[23] and MMX instructions.[24][25][26] The memory controller can drive up to 1 GB of DDR2 memory at 400 MHz.The SoC drops ISA bus attachment but adds a VGA-compatible 2D GPU, with separate DDR2 memory, and a HD Audio controller. It has only three FIFO UART ports at up to 460.8 kbps.The consumer grade version is known as the PMX-1000.[27] Current models of the Gecko Edubook use the Xcore86, a rebadge of the Vortex86MX.[27]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"UMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Memory_Architecture"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86MX+","text":"Introduced in June 2010, the Vortex86MX+ retains the same BGA package and CPU core as the MX.[28] The memory controller allows wider 32-bit access to DDR2 up to 1 GB, still at 400 MHz. The integrated GPU switches to UMA, removing the requirement for separate video memory. The three FIFO UART ports can operate at data rates up to 115.2 kbps.","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"PCI Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"link_name":"SATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SATA"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86DX2","text":"Introduced in May 2012, the Vortex86DX2 retains the same BGA package, CPU core, and GPU as the MX+. The memory controller allows 32-bit access to DDR2 up to 2 GB at 400 MHz.[29]The SoC drops conventional PCI capability and addsPCI Express 1.0 interface\nSATA with one port at 1.5 Gbps\nnine FIFO UART ports compatible with 16C550/16C552 at up to 6 Mbps\nISA bus interface\nGPIO with 88 pins\nMotor control interface with 3 groups of controllers, four controllers per group","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Vortex86EX","text":"Vortex86EX has a 32 KB write through 2-way L1 cache, 128 KB write through/write back 2-way L2 cache, PCI-e bus interface, 300 MHz DDR3, ROM controller, IPC (Internal Peripheral Controllers with DMA and interrupt timer/counter included), Fast Ethernet, FIFO UART, USB2.0 Host and ATA controller.The package is a single 288-pin TFBGA-package.","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-os-support-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86DX3","text":"Vortex86DX3 has a 1.0 GHz dual-core i686-compatible CPU.[30][31] It has an eight-way 32K I-Cache, an eight-way 32K D-Cache, a four-way 512 KB L2 cache with a write-through or write-back policy, ability to use up to 2 GB of DDR3 RAM, a PCI-e bus interface, 100 Mbit/s Ethernet, FIFO UART, a USB 2.0 host, integrated GPU, an ATA controller at Primary Channel, and a SATA 1.5 Gbit/s controller (one port) at Secondary Channel.The package is a single 720-pin BGA-package.[32]","title":"Versions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"ECC memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECC_memory"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"Vortex86EX2","text":"Vortex86EX2 has two asymmetrical master/slave CPU cores.[33] The master core runs at 600 MHz, has 16K I-Cache, 16K D-Cache, and four-way 128 KB L2 cache with a write-through or write-back policy. The slave core operates at 400 MHz and also has 16 KB I-Cache, 16 KB D-Cache, but has no L2 cache. Both have a built-in FPU. Maximum DDR3 RAM capacity is 2 GB. It can also use ECC memory. It is produced using the 65 nm manufacturing process[34] and uses the 19x19 mm LFBGA-441 package.","title":"Versions"}]
[{"image_text":"Vortex86DX","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/DM%26P_Vortex86DX.jpg/220px-DM%26P_Vortex86DX.jpg"},{"image_text":"PC/104 module with DM&P M6117D","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/PC104OrigSize.JPG/220px-PC104OrigSize.JPG"}]
[{"title":"Embedded x86 Manufacturers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_x86_manufacturers#x86-processors_for_embedded_designs_only"}]
[{"reference":"\"M6117D overview\". Archived from the original on 2009-03-03. Retrieved 2009-04-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090303004451/http://www.dmp.com.tw/tech/m6117d/","url_text":"\"M6117D overview\""},{"url":"http://dmp.com.tw/tech/m6117d/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Vortex86 Processors detection in new release Linux 5.16\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.icop.com.tw/news/858","url_text":"\"Vortex86 Processors detection in new release Linux 5.16\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vortex86\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vortex86.com/about","url_text":"\"Vortex86\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vortex86\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.vortex86.com/about","url_text":"\"Vortex86\""}]},{"reference":"\"X86 system-on-chip adds VGA graphics\".","urls":[{"url":"https://linuxdevices.org/x86-system-on-chip-adds-vga-graphics/","url_text":"\"X86 system-on-chip adds VGA graphics\""}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Alexander (November 2012). \"BTplug Review\". Dr. Lex' Site. Retrieved 2012-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://dr-lex.be/hardware/btplug_review.html#perfo","url_text":"\"BTplug Review\""}]},{"reference":"Kauler, Barry (2010-01-16). \"Xcore86 CPU in Gecko Edubook\". Barry's Blog. Archived from the original on 2015-02-13. Retrieved 2015-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150213090357/http://bkhome.org/blog/?viewDetailed=01341","url_text":"\"Xcore86 CPU in Gecko Edubook\""},{"url":"http://bkhome.org/blog/?viewDetailed=01341","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"LoneRifle (2010-01-22). \"CPU Features\". Flickr. Retrieved 2015-02-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/46578721@N08/4296160520/","url_text":"\"CPU Features\""}]},{"reference":"Angel, Jonathan (2008-12-11). \"X86 system-on-chip adds VGA graphics\". LinuxForDevices. Archived from the original on 2012-09-12. Retrieved 2009-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120912034818/http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/X86-systemonchip-adds-VGA-graphics/","url_text":"\"X86 system-on-chip adds VGA graphics\""},{"url":"http://www.linuxfordevices.com/c/a/News/X86-systemonchip-adds-VGA-graphics/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Vortex86DX3 is a New x86 SoC for Embedded Systems - CNX Software\". 9 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cnx-software.com/2015/04/09/vortex86dx3-is-a-new-x86-soc-for-embedded-systems/","url_text":"\"Vortex86DX3 is a New x86 SoC for Embedded Systems - CNX Software\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_II_supernova
Type II supernova
["1 Formation","2 Core collapse","3 Theoretical models","4 Light curves for Type II-L and Type II-P supernovae","5 Type IIn supernovae","6 Type IIb supernovae","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
Explosion of a star 8 to 45 times the mass of the Sun The expanding remnant of SN 1987A, a peculiar Type II supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud. NASA image. A Type II supernova or SNII (plural: supernovae) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star. A star must have at least eight times, but no more than 40 to 50 times, the mass of the Sun (M☉) to undergo this type of explosion. Type II supernovae are distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in their spectra. They are usually observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions, but not in elliptical galaxies; those are generally composed of older, low-mass stars, with few of the young, very massive stars necessary to cause a supernova. Stars generate energy by the nuclear fusion of elements. Unlike the Sun, massive stars possess the mass needed to fuse elements that have an atomic mass greater than hydrogen and helium, albeit at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures, causing correspondingly shorter stellar life spans. The degeneracy pressure of electrons and the energy generated by these fusion reactions are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing, maintaining stellar equilibrium. The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements, starting with hydrogen and then helium, progressing up through the periodic table until a core of iron and nickel is produced. Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output, so no further fusion can take place, leaving the nickel–iron core inert. Due to the lack of energy output creating outward thermal pressure, the core contracts due to gravity until the overlying weight of the star can be supported largely by electron degeneracy pressure. When the compacted mass of the inert core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 M☉, electron degeneracy is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational compression. A cataclysmic implosion of the core takes place within seconds. Without the support of the now-imploded inner core, the outer core collapses inwards under gravity and reaches a velocity of up to 23% of the speed of light, and the sudden compression increases the temperature of the inner core to up to 100 billion kelvins. Neutrons and neutrinos are formed via reversed beta-decay, releasing about 1046 joules (100 foe) in a ten-second burst. The collapse of the inner core is halted by the repulsive nuclear force and neutron degeneracy, causing the implosion to rebound and bounce outward. The energy of this expanding shock wave is sufficient to disrupt the overlying stellar material and accelerate it to escape velocity, forming a supernova explosion. The shock wave and extremely high temperature and pressure rapidly dissipate but are present for long enough to allow for a brief period during which the production of elements heavier than iron occurs. Depending on initial mass of the star, the remnants of the core form a neutron star or a black hole. Because of the underlying mechanism, the resulting supernova is also described as a core-collapse supernova. There exist several categories of Type II supernova explosions, which are categorized based on the resulting light curve—a graph of luminosity versus time—following the explosion. Type II-L supernovae show a steady (linear) decline of the light curve following the explosion, whereas Type II-P display a period of slower decline (a plateau) in their light curve followed by a normal decay. Type Ib and Ic supernovae are a type of core-collapse supernova for a massive star that has shed its outer envelope of hydrogen and (for Type Ic) helium. As a result, they appear to be lacking in these elements. Formation The onion-like layers of a massive, evolved star just before core collapse. (Not to scale.) Stars far more massive than the sun evolve in complex ways. In the core of the star, hydrogen is fused into helium, releasing thermal energy that heats the star's core and provides outward pressure that supports the star's layers against collapse - a situation known as stellar or hydrostatic equilibrium. The helium produced in the core accumulates there. Temperatures in the core are not yet high enough to cause it to fuse. Eventually, as the hydrogen at the core is exhausted, fusion starts to slow down, and gravity causes the core to contract. This contraction raises the temperature high enough to allow a shorter phase of helium fusion, which produces carbon and oxygen, and accounts for less than 10% of the star's total lifetime. In stars of less than eight solar masses, the carbon produced by helium fusion does not fuse, and the star gradually cools to become a white dwarf. If they accumulate more mass from another star, or some other source, they may become Type Ia supernovae. But a much larger star is massive enough to continue fusion beyond this point. The cores of these massive stars directly create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse when the star contracts at the end of the helium-burning stage. The core gradually becomes layered like an onion, as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center, with an outermost layer of hydrogen gas, surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium, surrounding a layer of helium fusing into carbon via the triple-alpha process, surrounding layers that fuse to progressively heavier elements. As a star this massive evolves, it undergoes repeated stages where fusion in the core stops, and the core collapses until the pressure and temperature are sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion, reigniting to halt collapse. Core-burning nuclear fusion stages for a 25-solar mass star Process Main fuel Main products 25 M☉ star Temperature(K) Density(g/cm3) Duration hydrogen burning hydrogen helium 7×107 10 107 years triple-alpha process helium carbon, oxygen 2×108 2000 106 years carbon-burning process carbon Ne, Na, Mg, Al 8×108 106 1000 years neon-burning process neon O, Mg 1.6×109 107 3 years oxygen-burning process oxygen Si, S, Ar, Ca 1.8×109 107 0.3 years silicon-burning process silicon nickel (decays into iron) 2.5×109 108 5 days Core collapse The factor limiting this process is the amount of energy that is released through fusion, which is dependent on the binding energy that holds together these atomic nuclei. Each additional step produces progressively heavier nuclei, which release progressively less energy when fusing. In addition, from carbon-burning onwards, energy loss via neutrino production becomes significant, leading to a higher rate of reaction than would otherwise take place. This continues until nickel-56 is produced, which decays radioactively into cobalt-56 and then iron-56 over the course of a few months. As iron and nickel have the highest binding energy per nucleon of all the elements, energy cannot be produced at the core by fusion, and a nickel-iron core grows. This core is under huge gravitational pressure. As there is no fusion to further raise the star's temperature to support it against collapse, it is supported only by degeneracy pressure of electrons. In this state, matter is so dense that further compaction would require electrons to occupy the same energy states. However, this is forbidden for identical fermion particles, such as the electron – a phenomenon called the Pauli exclusion principle. When the core's mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 M☉, degeneracy pressure can no longer support it, and catastrophic collapse ensues. The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70000 km/s (23% of the speed of light) as it collapses toward the center of the star. The rapidly shrinking core heats up, producing high-energy gamma rays that decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free neutrons via photodisintegration. As the core's density increases, it becomes energetically favorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay, producing neutrons and elementary particles called neutrinos. Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter, they can escape from the core, carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse, which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds. As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star, some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star's outer layers, beginning the supernova explosion. For Type II supernovae, the collapse is eventually halted by short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions, mediated by the strong force, as well as by degeneracy pressure of neutrons, at a density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus. When the collapse stops, the infalling matter rebounds, producing a shock wave that propagates outward. The energy from this shock dissociates heavy elements within the core. This reduces the energy of the shock, which can stall the explosion within the outer core. The core collapse phase is so dense and energetic that only neutrinos are able to escape. As the protons and electrons combine to form neutrons by means of electron capture, an electron neutrino is produced. In a typical Type II supernova, the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion kelvins, 104 times the temperature of the Sun's core. Much of this thermal energy must be shed for a stable neutron star to form, otherwise the neutrons would "boil away". This is accomplished by a further release of neutrinos. These 'thermal' neutrinos form as neutrino-antineutrino pairs of all flavors, and total several times the number of electron-capture neutrinos. The two neutrino production mechanisms convert the gravitational potential energy of the collapse into a ten-second neutrino burst, releasing about 1046 joules (100 foe). Through a process that is not clearly understood, about 1%, or 1044 joules (1 foe), of the energy released (in the form of neutrinos) is reabsorbed by the stalled shock, producing the supernova explosion. Neutrinos generated by a supernova were observed in the case of Supernova 1987A, leading astrophysicists to conclude that the core collapse picture is basically correct. The water-based Kamiokande II and IMB instruments detected antineutrinos of thermal origin, while the gallium-71-based Baksan instrument detected neutrinos (lepton number = 1) of either thermal or electron-capture origin. Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered shells of elements undergo fusion, forming a nickel-iron core; (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass and starts to collapse. (c) The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons, (d) causing infalling material to bounce and form an outward-propagating shock front (red). (e) The shock starts to stall, but it is re-invigorated by neutrino interaction. (f) The surrounding material is blasted away, leaving only a degenerate remnant. When the progenitor star is below about 20 M☉ – depending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back – the degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star. Above this mass, the remnant collapses to form a black hole. The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about 40–50 M☉. Above that mass, a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion, although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain. Theoretical models The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter. This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions. The energy per particle in a supernova is typically 1–150 picojoules (tens to hundreds of MeV). The per-particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct. But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model. In particular, Earth-based particle accelerators can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae, but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles, and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects. The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the weak nuclear force, which is believed to be well understood. However, the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force, which is much less well understood. The major unsolved problem with Type II supernovae is that it is not understood how the burst of neutrinos transfers its energy to the rest of the star producing the shock wave which causes the star to explode. From the above discussion, only one percent of the energy needs to be transferred to produce an explosion, but explaining how that one percent of transfer occurs has proven extremely difficult, even though the particle interactions involved are believed to be well understood. In the 1990s, one model for doing this involved convective overturn, which suggests that convection, either from neutrinos from below, or infalling matter from above, completes the process of destroying the progenitor star. Heavier elements than iron are formed during this explosion by neutron capture, and from the pressure of the neutrinos pressing into the boundary of the "neutrinosphere", seeding the surrounding space with a cloud of gas and dust which is richer in heavy elements than the material from which the star originally formed. Neutrino physics, which is modeled by the Standard Model, is crucial to the understanding of this process. The other crucial area of investigation is the hydrodynamics of the plasma that makes up the dying star; how it behaves during the core collapse determines when and how the shockwave forms and when and how it stalls and is reenergized. In fact, some theoretical models incorporate a hydrodynamical instability in the stalled shock known as the "Standing Accretion Shock Instability" (SASI). This instability comes about as a consequence of non-spherical perturbations oscillating the stalled shock thereby deforming it. The SASI is often used in tandem with neutrino theories in computer simulations for re-energizing the stalled shock. Computer models have been very successful at calculating the behavior of Type II supernovae when the shock has been formed. By ignoring the first second of the explosion, and assuming that an explosion is started, astrophysicists have been able to make detailed predictions about the elements produced by the supernova and of the expected light curve from the supernova. Light curves for Type II-L and Type II-P supernovae This graph of the luminosity as a function of time shows the characteristic shapes of the light curves for a Type II-L and II-P supernova. When the spectrum of a Type II supernova is examined, it normally displays Balmer absorption lines – reduced flux at the characteristic frequencies where hydrogen atoms absorb energy. The presence of these lines is used to distinguish this category of supernova from a Type I supernova. When the luminosity of a Type II supernova is plotted over a period of time, it shows a characteristic rise to a peak brightness followed by a decline. These light curves have an average decay rate of 0.008 magnitudes per day; much lower than the decay rate for Type Ia supernovae. Type II is subdivided into two classes, depending on the shape of the light curve. The light curve for a Type II-L supernova shows a steady (linear) decline following the peak brightness. By contrast, the light curve of a Type II-P supernova has a distinctive flat stretch (called a plateau) during the decline; representing a period where the luminosity decays at a slower rate. The net luminosity decay rate is lower, at 0.0075 magnitudes per day for Type II-P, compared to 0.012 magnitudes per day for Type II-L. The difference in the shape of the light curves is believed to be caused, in the case of Type II-L supernovae, by the expulsion of most of the hydrogen envelope of the progenitor star. The plateau phase in Type II-P supernovae is due to a change in the opacity of the exterior layer. The shock wave ionizes the hydrogen in the outer envelope – stripping the electron from the hydrogen atom – resulting in a significant increase in the opacity. This prevents photons from the inner parts of the explosion from escaping. When the hydrogen cools sufficiently to recombine, the outer layer becomes transparent. Type IIn supernovae The "n" denotes narrow, which indicates the presence of narrow or intermediate width hydrogen emission lines in the spectra. In the intermediate width case, the ejecta from the explosion may be interacting strongly with gas around the star – the circumstellar medium. The estimated circumstellar density required to explain the observational properties is much higher than that expected from the standard stellar evolution theory. It is generally assumed that the high circumstellar density is due to the high mass-loss rates of the Type IIn progenitors. The estimated mass-loss rates are typically higher than 10−3 M☉ per year. There are indications that they originate as stars similar to luminous blue variables with large mass losses before exploding. SN 1998S and SN 2005gl are examples of Type IIn supernovae; SN 2006gy, an extremely energetic supernova, may be another example. Some supernovae of type IIn show interactions with the circumstellar medium, which leads to an increased temperature of the cirumstellar dust. This warm dust can be observed as a brightening in the mid-infrared light. If the circumstellar medium extends further from the supernova, the mid-infrared brightening can cause an infrared echo, causing the brightening to last more than 1000 days. These kind of supernovae belong to the rare 2010jl-like supernovae, named after the archetypal SN 2010jl. Most 2010jl-like supernovae were discovered with the decommissioned Spitzer Space Telescope and the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer (e.g. SN 2014ab, SN 2017hcc). Type IIb supernovae A Type IIb supernova has a weak hydrogen line in its initial spectrum, which is why it is classified as a Type II. However, later on the H emission becomes undetectable, and there is also a second peak in the light curve that has a spectrum which more closely resembles a Type Ib supernova. The progenitor could have been a massive star that expelled most of its outer layers, or one which lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to interactions with a companion in a binary system, leaving behind the core that consisted almost entirely of helium. As the ejecta of a Type IIb expands, the hydrogen layer quickly becomes more transparent and reveals the deeper layers. The classic example of a Type IIb supernova is SN 1993J, while another example is Cassiopeia A. The IIb class was first introduced (as a theoretical concept) by Woosley et al. in 1987, and the class was soon applied to SN 1987K and SN 1993J. 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"A Parameter Study of Type II Supernova Light Curves Using 6 M He Cores". The Astrophysical Journal. 617 (2): 1233–1250. arXiv:astro-ph/0409284. Bibcode:2004ApJ...617.1233Y. doi:10.1086/425675. S2CID 16722121. ^ Rauscher, T.; Heger, A.; Hoffman, R. D.; Woosley, S. E. (2002). "Nucleosynthesis in Massive Stars With Improved Nuclear and Stellar Physics". The Astrophysical Journal. 576 (1): 323–348. arXiv:astro-ph/0112478. Bibcode:2002ApJ...576..323R. doi:10.1086/341728. S2CID 59039933. ^ a b Doggett, J. B.; Branch, D. (1985). "A Comparative Study of Supernova Light Curves". Astronomical Journal. 90: 2303–2311. Bibcode:1985AJ.....90.2303D. doi:10.1086/113934. ^ "Type II Supernova Light Curves". Swinburne University of Technology. Archived from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2007-03-17. ^ Filippenko, A. V. (1997). "Optical Spectra of Supernovae". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 35: 309–330. Bibcode:1997ARA&A..35..309F. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.35.1.309. 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"Caltech Core-Collapse Project (CCCP) observations of type IIn supernovae: typical properties and implications for their progenitor stars". The Astrophysical Journal. 744 (10): 10. arXiv:1010.2689. Bibcode:2012ApJ...744...10K. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/744/1/10. S2CID 119267259.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Smith, N.; Chornock, R.; Silverman, J. M.; Filippenko, A. V.; Foley, R. J. (2010). "Spectral Evolution of the Extraordinary Type IIn Supernova 2006gy". The Astrophysical Journal. 709 (2): 856–883. arXiv:0906.2200. Bibcode:2010ApJ...709..856S. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/709/2/856. S2CID 16959330. ^ Bevan, A. M.; Krafton, K.; Wesson, R.; Andrews, J. E.; Montiel, E.; Niculescu-Duvaz, M.; Barlow, M. J.; De Looze, I.; Clayton, G. C. (2020-05-01). "Disentangling Dust Components in SN 2010jl: The First 1400 Days". The Astrophysical Journal. 894 (2): 111. arXiv:2004.01503. Bibcode:2020ApJ...894..111B. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab86a2. ISSN 0004-637X. ^ Moriya, T. J.; Stritzinger, M. D.; Taddia, F.; Morrell, N.; Suntzeff, N. B.; Contreras, C.; Gall, C.; Hjorth, J.; Ashall, C.; Burns, C. R.; Busta, L.; Campillay, A.; Castellón, S.; Corco, C.; Davis, S. (2020-09-01). "The Carnegie Supernova Project II. Observations of SN 2014ab possibly revealing a 2010jl-like SN IIn with pre-existing dust". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 641: A148. arXiv:2006.10198. Bibcode:2020A&A...641A.148M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038118. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 237554659. ^ Thévenot, Melina (2020-12-01). "Mid-Infrared Detections of SNe II with NEOWISE". Research Notes of the American Astronomical Society. 4 (12): 243. Bibcode:2020RNAAS...4..243T. doi:10.3847/2515-5172/abd415. ISSN 2515-5172. 2017hcc is first mentioned in this research note as 2010jl-like, but sadly Moran et al. missed this research note. ^ Moran, S.; Fraser, M.; Kotak, R.; Pastorello, A.; Benetti, S.; Brennan, S. J.; Gutiérrez, C. P.; Kankare, E.; Kuncarayakti, H.; Mattila, S.; Reynolds, T. M.; Anderson, J. P.; Brown, P. J.; Campana, S.; Chambers, K. C. (2023-01-01). "A long life of excess: The interacting transient SN 2017hcc". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 669: A51. arXiv:2210.14076. Bibcode:2023A&A...669A..51M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244565. ISSN 0004-6361. S2CID 253107572. ^ a b Utrobin, V. P. (1996). "Nonthermal ionization and excitation in Type IIb supernova 1993J". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 306 (5940): 219–231. Bibcode:1996A&A...306..219U. ^ Nomoto, K.; Suzuki, T.; Shigeyama, T.; Kumagai, S.; Yamaoka, H.; Saio, H. (1993). "A type IIb model for supernova 1993J". Nature. 364 (6437): 507. Bibcode:1993Natur.364..507N. doi:10.1038/364507a0. S2CID 4363061. ^ Chevalier, R. A.; Soderberg, A. M. (2010). "Type IIb Supernovae with Compact and Extended Progenitors". The Astrophysical Journal. 711 (1): L40–L43. arXiv:0911.3408. Bibcode:2010ApJ...711L..40C. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/711/1/L40. S2CID 118321359. ^ Krause, O.; Birkmann, S.; Usuda, T.; Hattori, T.; Goto, M.; Rieke, G.; Misselt, K. (2008). "The Cassiopeia A supernova was of type IIb". Science. 320 (5880): 1195–1197. arXiv:0805.4557. Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1195K. doi:10.1126/science.1155788. PMID 18511684. S2CID 40884513. ^ Woosley, S. E.; Pinto, P. A.; Martin, P. G.; Weaver, Thomas A. (1987). "Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud - the explosion of an approximately 20 solar mass star which has experienced mass loss?". The Astrophysical Journal. 318: 664. Bibcode:1987ApJ...318..664W. doi:10.1086/165402. ^ Filippenko, Alexei V. (1988). "Supernova 1987K - Type II in youth, type Ib in old age". Astronomical Journal. 96: 1941. Bibcode:1988AJ.....96.1941F. doi:10.1086/114940. ^ Filippenko, Alexei V.; Matheson, Thomas; Ho, Luis C. (1993). "The Type IIb Supernova 1993J in M81: A Close Relative of Type Ib Supernovae". Astrophysical Journal Letters. 415: L103. Bibcode:1993ApJ...415L.103F. doi:10.1086/187043. External links "List of all known Type II supernovae". The Open Supernova Catalog. Merrifield, Michael. Haran, B. (ed.). Type II supernovae. Sixty Symbols (video lecture). Nottingham, UK: University of Nottingham. Gibney, Elizabeth (2018-04-18). "How to blow up a star". Nature. 556 (7701): 287–289. Bibcode:2018Natur.556..287G. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-04601-7. PMID 29670276. S2CID 4956943. vteSupernovaeClasses Type Ia Type Iax Type Ib and Ic Type II (IIP, IIL, IIn, and IIb) Hypernova Superluminous Pair-instability Calcium-rich Common envelope jets supernova Physics of Carbon detonation Foe/Bethe Near-Earth Phillips relationship Nucleosynthesis p-process r-process γ-process Neutrinos Related Failed Fast blue optical transient Fast radio burst Gamma-ray burst Gravitational wave Kilonova Luminous red nova Micronova Nova Pulsar kick Quark-nova Soft gamma repeater Imposter pulsational pair-instability Symbiotic nova Progenitors Hypergiant yellow Red Luminous blue variable Supergiant blue red yellow White dwarf Wolf–Rayet star Super-AGB star Population III star Remnants Supernova remnant Pulsar wind nebula Neutron star pulsar magnetar Stellar black hole Compact star electroweak exotic quark Zombie star Local Bubble Superbubble Orion–Eridanus Discovery Guest star History of supernova observation Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae Lists Candidates Notable Massive stars Most distant Remnants In fiction Notable Barnard's Loop Cassiopeia A SN 1054 Crab Nebula iPTF14hls SN 1000+0216 Tycho's Kepler's SN 1885A SN 1987A SN 1994D SN 185 SN 1006 SN 2003fg Remnant G1.9+0.3 SN 2007bi SN 2011fe SN 2014J SN Refsdal Vela Remnant SN 2006gy ASASSN-15lh SN 2016aps SN 2018cow SN 2022jli Research ASAS-SN Calán/Tololo Survey High-Z Supernova Search Team Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey Nearby Supernova Factory Sloan Supernova Survey Supernova/Acceleration Probe Supernova Cosmology Project SuperNova Early Warning System Supernova Legacy Survey Texas Supernova Search Category:Supernovae Commons:Supernovae Portals: Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Outer space Solar System
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HST_SN_1987A_20th_anniversary.jpg"},{"link_name":"SN 1987A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1987A"},{"link_name":"Large Magellanic Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"mass of the Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"M☉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-science304-2"},{"link_name":"supernovae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova"},{"link_name":"spectra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum"},{"link_name":"spiral arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_arm"},{"link_name":"galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxies"},{"link_name":"H II regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H_II_region"},{"link_name":"elliptical galaxies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptical_galaxies"},{"link_name":"nuclear fusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion"},{"link_name":"atomic mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_mass"},{"link_name":"temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"pressures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"degeneracy pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracy_pressure"},{"link_name":"fusion reactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"Chandrasekhar limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit"},{"link_name":"M☉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"implosion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implosion_(mechanical_process)"},{"link_name":"velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"kelvins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin"},{"link_name":"Neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"reversed beta-decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_capture"},{"link_name":"foe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foe_(unit)"},{"link_name":"repulsive nuclear force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_force"},{"link_name":"neutron degeneracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_degeneracy"},{"link_name":"shock wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_wave"},{"link_name":"production of elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"neutron star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"light curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_curve"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear"},{"link_name":"Type Ib and Ic supernovae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_Ib_and_Ic_supernovae"}],"text":"Explosion of a star 8 to 45 times the mass of the SunThe expanding remnant of SN 1987A, a peculiar Type II supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud. NASA image.A Type II supernova or SNII[1] (plural: supernovae) results from the rapid collapse and violent explosion of a massive star. A star must have at least eight times, but no more than 40 to 50 times, the mass of the Sun (M☉) to undergo this type of explosion.[2] Type II supernovae are distinguished from other types of supernovae by the presence of hydrogen in their spectra. They are usually observed in the spiral arms of galaxies and in H II regions, but not in elliptical galaxies; those are generally composed of older, low-mass stars, with few of the young, very massive stars necessary to cause a supernova.Stars generate energy by the nuclear fusion of elements. Unlike the Sun, massive stars possess the mass needed to fuse elements that have an atomic mass greater than hydrogen and helium, albeit at increasingly higher temperatures and pressures, causing correspondingly shorter stellar life spans. The degeneracy pressure of electrons and the energy generated by these fusion reactions are sufficient to counter the force of gravity and prevent the star from collapsing, maintaining stellar equilibrium. The star fuses increasingly higher mass elements, starting with hydrogen and then helium, progressing up through the periodic table until a core of iron and nickel is produced. Fusion of iron or nickel produces no net energy output, so no further fusion can take place, leaving the nickel–iron core inert. Due to the lack of energy output creating outward thermal pressure, the core contracts due to gravity until the overlying weight of the star can be supported largely by electron degeneracy pressure.When the compacted mass of the inert core exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 M☉, electron degeneracy is no longer sufficient to counter the gravitational compression. A cataclysmic implosion of the core takes place within seconds. Without the support of the now-imploded inner core, the outer core collapses inwards under gravity and reaches a velocity of up to 23% of the speed of light, and the sudden compression increases the temperature of the inner core to up to 100 billion kelvins. Neutrons and neutrinos are formed via reversed beta-decay, releasing about 1046 joules (100 foe) in a ten-second burst. The collapse of the inner core is halted by the repulsive nuclear force and neutron degeneracy, causing the implosion to rebound and bounce outward. The energy of this expanding shock wave is sufficient to disrupt the overlying stellar material and accelerate it to escape velocity, forming a supernova explosion. The shock wave and extremely high temperature and pressure rapidly dissipate but are present for long enough to allow for a brief period during which the\nproduction of elements heavier than iron occurs.[3] Depending on initial mass of the star, the remnants of the core form a neutron star or a black hole. Because of the underlying mechanism, the resulting supernova is also described as a core-collapse supernova.There exist several categories of Type II supernova explosions, which are categorized based on the resulting light curve—a graph of luminosity versus time—following the explosion. Type II-L supernovae show a steady (linear) decline of the light curve following the explosion, whereas Type II-P display a period of slower decline (a plateau) in their light curve followed by a normal decay. Type Ib and Ic supernovae are a type of core-collapse supernova for a massive star that has shed its outer envelope of hydrogen and (for Type Ic) helium. As a result, they appear to be lacking in these elements.","title":"Type II supernova"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"fused","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"thermal energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_energy"},{"link_name":"pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"hydrostatic equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitation"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"white dwarf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_dwarf"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-late_stages-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hinshaw-5"},{"link_name":"Type Ia supernovae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova"},{"link_name":"triple-alpha process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple-alpha_process"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-late_stages-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hinshaw-5"},{"link_name":"solar mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"M☉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WoosleyJanka-6"},{"link_name":"K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin"},{"link_name":"hydrogen burning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"triple-alpha process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple-alpha_process"},{"link_name":"helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"carbon-burning process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-burning_process"},{"link_name":"carbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon"},{"link_name":"Ne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon"},{"link_name":"Na","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"Mg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"Al","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium"},{"link_name":"neon-burning process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon-burning_process"},{"link_name":"neon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neon"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"Mg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"oxygen-burning process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"Si","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur"},{"link_name":"Ar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon"},{"link_name":"Ca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"},{"link_name":"silicon-burning process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon-burning_process"},{"link_name":"silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"}],"text":"The onion-like layers of a massive, evolved star just before core collapse. (Not to scale.)Stars far more massive than the sun evolve in complex ways. In the core of the star, hydrogen is fused into helium, releasing thermal energy that heats the star's core and provides outward pressure that supports the star's layers against collapse - a situation known as stellar or hydrostatic equilibrium. The helium produced in the core accumulates there. Temperatures in the core are not yet high enough to cause it to fuse. Eventually, as the hydrogen at the core is exhausted, fusion starts to slow down, and gravity causes the core to contract. This contraction raises the temperature high enough to allow a shorter phase of helium fusion, which produces carbon and oxygen, and accounts for less than 10% of the star's total lifetime.In stars of less than eight solar masses, the carbon produced by helium fusion does not fuse, and the star gradually cools to become a white dwarf.[4][5] If they accumulate more mass from another star, or some other source, they may become Type Ia supernovae. But a much larger star is massive enough to continue fusion beyond this point.The cores of these massive stars directly create temperatures and pressures needed to cause the carbon in the core to begin to fuse when the star contracts at the end of the helium-burning stage. The core gradually becomes layered like an onion, as progressively heavier atomic nuclei build up at the center, with an outermost layer of hydrogen gas, surrounding a layer of hydrogen fusing into helium, surrounding a layer of helium fusing into carbon via the triple-alpha process, surrounding layers that fuse to progressively heavier elements. As a star this massive evolves, it undergoes repeated stages where fusion in the core stops, and the core collapses until the pressure and temperature are sufficient to begin the next stage of fusion, reigniting to halt collapse.[4][5]Core-burning nuclear fusion stages for a 25-solar mass star\n\n\nProcess\n\nMain fuel\n\nMain products\n\n25 M☉ star[6]\n\n\nTemperature(K)\n\nDensity(g/cm3)\n\nDuration\n\n\nhydrogen burning\n\nhydrogen\n\nhelium\n\n7×107\n\n10\n\n107 years\n\n\ntriple-alpha process\n\nhelium\n\ncarbon, oxygen\n\n2×108\n\n2000\n\n106 years\n\n\ncarbon-burning process\n\ncarbon\n\nNe, Na, Mg, Al\n\n8×108\n\n106\n\n1000 years\n\n\nneon-burning process\n\nneon\n\nO, Mg\n\n1.6×109\n\n107\n\n3 years\n\n\noxygen-burning process\n\noxygen\n\nSi, S, Ar, Ca\n\n1.8×109\n\n107\n\n0.3 years\n\n\nsilicon-burning process\n\nsilicon\n\nnickel (decays into iron)\n\n2.5×109\n\n108\n\n5 days","title":"Formation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binding energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_energy"},{"link_name":"carbon-burning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-burning_process"},{"link_name":"neutrino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Clayton-7"},{"link_name":"nickel-56","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_burning_process"},{"link_name":"cobalt-56","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt"},{"link_name":"iron-56","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"binding energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_energy"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hinshaw-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"degeneracy pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracy_pressure"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrons"},{"link_name":"energy states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_level"},{"link_name":"fermion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermion"},{"link_name":"Pauli exclusion principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle"},{"link_name":"Chandrasekhar limit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit"},{"link_name":"M☉","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_mass"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chandrasekhar-10"},{"link_name":"speed of light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speed_of_light"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grav_waves-11"},{"link_name":"gamma rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_rays"},{"link_name":"nuclei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_nucleus"},{"link_name":"neutrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron"},{"link_name":"photodisintegration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodisintegration"},{"link_name":"density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density"},{"link_name":"electrons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron"},{"link_name":"protons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton"},{"link_name":"beta decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_decay"},{"link_name":"elementary particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particle"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hayakawa-12"},{"link_name":"strong force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_force"},{"link_name":"degeneracy pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracy_pressure"},{"link_name":"shock wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_wave"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collapse_scenario-13"},{"link_name":"electron capture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_capture"},{"link_name":"kelvins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-akmann-14"},{"link_name":"flavors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"gravitational potential energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitational_energy"},{"link_name":"foe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foe_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APS_study-16"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova_neutrinos"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-collapse_scenario-13"},{"link_name":"Neutrinos generated by a supernova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova_neutrinos"},{"link_name":"Supernova 1987A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova_1987A"},{"link_name":"Kamiokande II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamioka_Observatory"},{"link_name":"IMB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine-Michigan-Brookhaven_(detector)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-akmann-14"},{"link_name":"gallium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium"},{"link_name":"Baksan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baksan_Neutrino_Observatory"},{"link_name":"lepton number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepton_number"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Core_collapse_scenario.svg"},{"link_name":"neutron star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_star"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-grav_waves-11"},{"link_name":"black hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hinshaw-5"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fryer-18"}],"text":"The factor limiting this process is the amount of energy that is released through fusion, which is dependent on the binding energy that holds together these atomic nuclei. Each additional step produces progressively heavier nuclei, which release progressively less energy when fusing. In addition, from carbon-burning onwards, energy loss via neutrino production becomes significant, leading to a higher rate of reaction than would otherwise take place.[7] This continues until nickel-56 is produced, which decays radioactively into cobalt-56 and then iron-56 over the course of a few months. As iron and nickel have the highest binding energy per nucleon of all the elements,[8] energy cannot be produced at the core by fusion, and a nickel-iron core grows.[5][9] This core is under huge gravitational pressure. As there is no fusion to further raise the star's temperature to support it against collapse, it is supported only by degeneracy pressure of electrons. In this state, matter is so dense that further compaction would require electrons to occupy the same energy states. However, this is forbidden for identical fermion particles, such as the electron – a phenomenon called the Pauli exclusion principle.When the core's mass exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit of about 1.4 M☉, degeneracy pressure can no longer support it, and catastrophic collapse ensues.[10] The outer part of the core reaches velocities of up to 70000 km/s (23% of the speed of light) as it collapses toward the center of the star.[11] The rapidly shrinking core heats up, producing high-energy gamma rays that decompose iron nuclei into helium nuclei and free neutrons via photodisintegration. As the core's density increases, it becomes energetically favorable for electrons and protons to merge via inverse beta decay, producing neutrons and elementary particles called neutrinos. Because neutrinos rarely interact with normal matter, they can escape from the core, carrying away energy and further accelerating the collapse, which proceeds over a timescale of milliseconds. As the core detaches from the outer layers of the star, some of these neutrinos are absorbed by the star's outer layers, beginning the supernova explosion.[12]For Type II supernovae, the collapse is eventually halted by short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions, mediated by the strong force, as well as by degeneracy pressure of neutrons, at a density comparable to that of an atomic nucleus. When the collapse stops, the infalling matter rebounds, producing a shock wave that propagates outward. The energy from this shock dissociates heavy elements within the core. This reduces the energy of the shock, which can stall the explosion within the outer core.[13]The core collapse phase is so dense and energetic that only neutrinos are able to escape. As the protons and electrons combine to form neutrons by means of electron capture, an electron neutrino is produced. In a typical Type II supernova, the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion kelvins, 104 times the temperature of the Sun's core. Much of this thermal energy must be shed for a stable neutron star to form, otherwise the neutrons would \"boil away\". This is accomplished by a further release of neutrinos.[14] These 'thermal' neutrinos form as neutrino-antineutrino pairs of all flavors, and total several times the number of electron-capture neutrinos.[15] The two neutrino production mechanisms convert the gravitational potential energy of the collapse into a ten-second neutrino burst, releasing about 1046 joules (100 foe).[16]Through a process that is not clearly understood, about 1%, or 1044 joules (1 foe), of the energy released (in the form of neutrinos) is reabsorbed by the stalled shock, producing the supernova explosion.[13] Neutrinos generated by a supernova were observed in the case of Supernova 1987A, leading astrophysicists to conclude that the core collapse picture is basically correct. The water-based Kamiokande II and IMB instruments detected antineutrinos of thermal origin,[14] while the gallium-71-based Baksan instrument detected neutrinos (lepton number = 1) of either thermal or electron-capture origin.Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered shells of elements undergo fusion, forming a nickel-iron core; (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass and starts to collapse. (c) The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons, (d) causing infalling material to bounce and form an outward-propagating shock front (red). (e) The shock starts to stall, but it is re-invigorated by neutrino interaction. (f) The surrounding material is blasted away, leaving only a degenerate remnant.When the progenitor star is below about 20 M☉ – depending on the strength of the explosion and the amount of material that falls back – the degenerate remnant of a core collapse is a neutron star.[11] Above this mass, the remnant collapses to form a black hole.[5][17] The theoretical limiting mass for this type of core collapse scenario is about 40–50 M☉. Above that mass, a star is believed to collapse directly into a black hole without forming a supernova explosion,[18] although uncertainties in models of supernova collapse make calculation of these limits uncertain.","title":"Core collapse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Standard Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model"},{"link_name":"particle physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_physics"},{"link_name":"fundamental interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction"},{"link_name":"elementary particles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_particles"},{"link_name":"matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter"},{"link_name":"picojoules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picojoule"},{"link_name":"MeV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeV"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-izzard-19"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cc_sims-20"},{"link_name":"particle accelerators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_accelerator"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"weak nuclear force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_nuclear_force"},{"link_name":"strong nuclear force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_nuclear_force"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"convective overturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convective_overturn"},{"link_name":"neutrinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrino"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pop-sci-dec-2006-23"},{"link_name":"Neutrino physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_interaction"},{"link_name":"Standard Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Model"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cc_sims-20"},{"link_name":"hydrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamics"},{"link_name":"shockwave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shockwave"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Computer models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_model"},{"link_name":"astrophysicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysicist"},{"link_name":"light curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_curve"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"The Standard Model of particle physics is a theory which describes three of the four known fundamental interactions between the elementary particles that make up all matter. This theory allows predictions to be made about how particles will interact under many conditions. The energy per particle in a supernova is typically 1–150 picojoules (tens to hundreds of MeV).[19][failed verification] The per-particle energy involved in a supernova is small enough that the predictions gained from the Standard Model of particle physics are likely to be basically correct. But the high densities may require corrections to the Standard Model.[20] In particular, Earth-based particle accelerators can produce particle interactions which are of much higher energy than are found in supernovae,[21] but these experiments involve individual particles interacting with individual particles, and it is likely that the high densities within the supernova will produce novel effects. The interactions between neutrinos and the other particles in the supernova take place with the weak nuclear force, which is believed to be well understood. However, the interactions between the protons and neutrons involve the strong nuclear force, which is much less well understood.[22]The major unsolved problem with Type II supernovae is that it is not understood how the burst of neutrinos transfers its energy to the rest of the star producing the shock wave which causes the star to explode. From the above discussion, only one percent of the energy needs to be transferred to produce an explosion, but explaining how that one percent of transfer occurs has proven extremely difficult, even though the particle interactions involved are believed to be well understood. In the 1990s, one model for doing this involved convective overturn, which suggests that convection, either from neutrinos from below, or infalling matter from above, completes the process of destroying the progenitor star. Heavier elements than iron are formed during this explosion by neutron capture, and from the pressure of the neutrinos pressing into the boundary of the \"neutrinosphere\", seeding the surrounding space with a cloud of gas and dust which is richer in heavy elements than the material from which the star originally formed.[23]Neutrino physics, which is modeled by the Standard Model, is crucial to the understanding of this process.[20] The other crucial area of investigation is the hydrodynamics of the plasma that makes up the dying star; how it behaves during the core collapse determines when and how the shockwave forms and when and how it stalls and is reenergized.[24]In fact, some theoretical models incorporate a hydrodynamical instability in the stalled shock known as the \"Standing Accretion Shock Instability\" (SASI). This instability comes about as a consequence of non-spherical perturbations oscillating the stalled shock thereby deforming it. The SASI is often used in tandem with neutrino theories in computer simulations for re-energizing the stalled shock.[25]Computer models have been very successful at calculating the behavior of Type II supernovae when the shock has been formed. By ignoring the first second of the explosion, and assuming that an explosion is started, astrophysicists have been able to make detailed predictions about the elements produced by the supernova and of the expected light curve from the supernova.[26][27][28]","title":"Theoretical models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SNIIcurva.png"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_spectrum"},{"link_name":"Balmer absorption lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmer_series"},{"link_name":"frequencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"Type I supernova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova"},{"link_name":"magnitudes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_magnitude"},{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear"},{"link_name":"plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-comparative_study-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-comparative_study-29"},{"link_name":"opacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opacity_(optics)"},{"link_name":"ionizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionize"},{"link_name":"opacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opacity_(optics)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"text":"This graph of the luminosity as a function of time shows the characteristic shapes of the light curves for a Type II-L and II-P supernova.[clarification needed]When the spectrum of a Type II supernova is examined, it normally displays Balmer absorption lines – reduced flux at the characteristic frequencies where hydrogen atoms absorb energy. The presence of these lines is used to distinguish this category of supernova from a Type I supernova.When the luminosity of a Type II supernova is plotted over a period of time, it shows a characteristic rise to a peak brightness followed by a decline. These light curves have an average decay rate of 0.008 magnitudes per day; much lower than the decay rate for Type Ia supernovae. Type II is subdivided into two classes, depending on the shape of the light curve. The light curve for a Type II-L supernova shows a steady (linear) decline following the peak brightness. By contrast, the light curve of a Type II-P supernova has a distinctive flat stretch (called a plateau) during the decline; representing a period where the luminosity decays at a slower rate. The net luminosity decay rate is lower, at 0.0075 magnitudes per day for Type II-P, compared to 0.012 magnitudes per day for Type II-L.[29]The difference in the shape of the light curves is believed to be caused, in the case of Type II-L supernovae, by the expulsion of most of the hydrogen envelope of the progenitor star.[29] The plateau phase in Type II-P supernovae is due to a change in the opacity of the exterior layer. The shock wave ionizes the hydrogen in the outer envelope – stripping the electron from the hydrogen atom – resulting in a significant increase in the opacity. This prevents photons from the inner parts of the explosion from escaping. When the hydrogen cools sufficiently to recombine, the outer layer becomes transparent.[30]","title":"Light curves for Type II-L and Type II-P supernovae"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"luminous blue variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"SN 1998S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1998S"},{"link_name":"SN 2005gl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_2005gl"},{"link_name":"SN 2006gy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_2006gy"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"cirumstellar dust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumstellar_dust"},{"link_name":"mid-infrared","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-infrared"},{"link_name":"infrared echo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiopeia_A#Supernova_reflected_echo"},{"link_name":"SN 2010jl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_2010jl"},{"link_name":"Spitzer Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spitzer_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide-field_Infrared_Survey_Explorer"},{"link_name":"SN 2014ab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SN_2014ab&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SN 2017hcc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SN_2017hcc&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"The \"n\" denotes narrow, which indicates the presence of narrow or intermediate width hydrogen emission lines in the spectra. In the intermediate width case, the ejecta from the explosion may be interacting strongly with gas around the star – the circumstellar medium.[31][32] The estimated circumstellar density required to explain the observational properties is much higher than that expected from the standard stellar evolution theory.[33] It is generally assumed that the high circumstellar density is due to the high mass-loss rates of the Type IIn progenitors. The estimated mass-loss rates are typically higher than 10−3 M☉ per year. There are indications that they originate as stars similar to luminous blue variables with large mass losses before exploding.[34] SN 1998S and SN 2005gl are examples of Type IIn supernovae; SN 2006gy, an extremely energetic supernova, may be another example.[35]Some supernovae of type IIn show interactions with the circumstellar medium, which leads to an increased temperature of the cirumstellar dust. This warm dust can be observed as a brightening in the mid-infrared light. If the circumstellar medium extends further from the supernova, the mid-infrared brightening can cause an infrared echo, causing the brightening to last more than 1000 days. These kind of supernovae belong to the rare 2010jl-like supernovae, named after the archetypal SN 2010jl. Most 2010jl-like supernovae were discovered with the decommissioned Spitzer Space Telescope and the Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer (e.g. SN 2014ab, SN 2017hcc).[36][37][38][39]","title":"Type IIn supernovae"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Type Ib supernova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_Ib_and_Ic_supernovae"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Utrobin-40"},{"link_name":"more transparent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_thickness"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Utrobin-40"},{"link_name":"SN 1993J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1993J"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Cassiopeia A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiopeia_A"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-woosley1987-44"},{"link_name":"SN 1987K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SN_1987K&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-filippenko1988-45"},{"link_name":"SN 1993J","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1993J"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-filippenko-46"}],"text":"A Type IIb supernova has a weak hydrogen line in its initial spectrum, which is why it is classified as a Type II. However, later on the H emission becomes undetectable, and there is also a second peak in the light curve that has a spectrum which more closely resembles a Type Ib supernova. The progenitor could have been a massive star that expelled most of its outer layers, or one which lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to interactions with a companion in a binary system, leaving behind the core that consisted almost entirely of helium.[40] As the ejecta of a Type IIb expands, the hydrogen layer quickly becomes more transparent and reveals the deeper layers.[40]\nThe classic example of a Type IIb supernova is SN 1993J,[41][42] while another example is Cassiopeia A.[43] The IIb class was first introduced (as a theoretical concept) by Woosley et al. in 1987,[44] and the class was soon applied to SN 1987K[45] and SN 1993J.[46]","title":"Type IIb supernovae"}]
[{"image_text":"The expanding remnant of SN 1987A, a peculiar Type II supernova in the Large Magellanic Cloud. NASA image.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/HST_SN_1987A_20th_anniversary.jpg/320px-HST_SN_1987A_20th_anniversary.jpg"},{"image_text":"The onion-like layers of a massive, evolved star just before core collapse. (Not to scale.)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg/280px-Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered shells of elements undergo fusion, forming a nickel-iron core; (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass and starts to collapse. (c) The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons, (d) causing infalling material to bounce and form an outward-propagating shock front (red). (e) The shock starts to stall, but it is re-invigorated by neutrino interaction. (f) The surrounding material is blasted away, leaving only a degenerate remnant.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Core_collapse_scenario.svg/480px-Core_collapse_scenario.svg.png"},{"image_text":"This graph of the luminosity as a function of time shows the characteristic shapes of the light curves for a Type II-L and II-P supernova.[clarification needed]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/SNIIcurva.png/280px-SNIIcurva.png"}]
[{"title":"History of supernova observation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_supernova_observation"},{"title":"Supernova remnant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova_remnant"}]
[{"reference":"Prantzos, N (1996). \"Stellar nucleosynthesis and γ-ray line astronomy\". Astronomy & Astrophysics Supplement Series. 120: 330–310. Bibcode:1996A&AS..120C.303P – via SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS).","urls":[{"url":"https://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1996A%26AS..120C.303P","url_text":"\"Stellar nucleosynthesis and γ-ray line astronomy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996A&AS..120C.303P","url_text":"1996A&AS..120C.303P"}]},{"reference":"Gilmore, Gerry (2004). \"The Short Spectacular Life of a Superstar\". Science. 304 (5697): 1915–1916. doi:10.1126/science.1100370. PMID 15218132. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vue.js
Vue.js
["1 Overview","2 History","2.1 Versions","3 Features","3.1 Components","3.2 Templates","3.3 Reactivity","3.4 Transitions","3.5 Routing","4 Ecosystem","4.1 Official tooling","4.2 Official libraries","5 See also","6 Sources","7 References","8 External links"]
Open-source JavaScript library for building user interfaces This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Vue.js" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Vue.jsOriginal author(s)Evan YouInitial releaseFebruary 2014; 10 years ago (2014-02)Repositorygithub.com/vuejs/core Written inTypeScriptSize33.9 KB min+gzipTypeJavaScript libraryLicenseMIT LicenseWebsitevuejs.org  Vue.js (commonly referred to as Vue; pronounced "view") is an open-source model–view–viewmodel front end JavaScript framework for building user interfaces and single-page applications. It was created by Evan You and is maintained by him and the rest of the active core team members. Overview Vue.js features an incrementally adaptable architecture that focuses on declarative rendering and component composition. The core library is focused on the view layer only. Advanced features required for complex applications such as routing, state management and build tooling are offered via officially maintained supporting libraries and packages. Vue.js allows for extending HTML with HTML attributes called directives. The directives offer functionality to HTML applications, and come as either built-in or user defined directives. History Vue was created by Evan You after working for Google using AngularJS in several projects. He later summed up his thought process: "I figured, what if I could just extract the part that I really liked about Angular and build something really lightweight." The first source code commit to the project was dated July 2013, and Vue was first publicly announced the following February, in 2014. Version names are often derived from manga and anime. Versions Version Release date Title End of LTS End of Life 3.4 December 28, 2023 Slam Dunk 3.3 May 11, 2023 Rurouni Kenshin 3.2 August 5, 2021 Quintessential Quintuplets 3.1 June 7, 2021 Pluto 3.0 September 18, 2020 One Piece 2.7 July 1, 2022 Naruto December 31, 2023 December 31, 2023 2.6 February 4, 2019 Macross March 18, 2022 September 18, 2023 2.5 October 13, 2017 Level E 2.4 July 13, 2017 Kill la Kill 2.3 April 27, 2017 JoJo's Bizarre Adventure 2.2 February 26, 2017 Initial D 2.1 November 22, 2016 Hunter X Hunter 2.0 September 30, 2016 Ghost in the Shell 1.0 October 27, 2015 Evangelion 0.12 June 12, 2015 Dragon Ball 0.11 November 7, 2014 Cowboy Bebop 0.10 March 23, 2014 Blade Runner 0.9 February 25, 2014 Animatrix 0.8 January 27, 2014 — first version publicly announced 0.7 December 24, 2013 — 0.6 December 8, 2013 VueJS When a new major is released ie v3.y.z, the last minor ie 2.x.y will become a LTS release for 18 months (bug fixes and security patches) and for the following 18 months will be in maintenance mode (security patches only). Features Components Vue components extend basic HTML elements to encapsulate reusable code. At a high level, components are custom elements to which the Vue's compiler attaches behavior. In Vue, a component is essentially a Vue instance with pre-defined options. The code snippet below contains an example of a Vue component. The component presents a button and prints the number of times the button is clicked: <template> <div id="tuto"> <button-clicked v-bind:initial-count="0"></button-clicked> </div> </template> <script> Vue.component('button-clicked', { props: , data: () => ({ count: 0, }), template: '<button v-on:click="onClick">Clicked {{ count }} times</button>', computed: { countTimesTwo() { return this.count * 2; } }, watch: { count(newValue, oldValue) { console.log(`The value of count is changed from ${oldValue} to ${newValue}.`); } }, methods: { onClick() { this.count += 1; } }, mounted() { this.count = this.initialCount; } }); new Vue({ el: '#tuto', }); </script> Templates Vue uses an HTML-based template syntax that allows binding the rendered DOM to the underlying Vue instance's data. All Vue templates are valid HTML that can be parsed by specification-compliant browsers and HTML parsers. Vue compiles the templates into virtual DOM render functions. A virtual Document Object Model (or "DOM") allows Vue to render components in its memory before updating the browser. Combined with the reactivity system, Vue can calculate the minimal number of components to re-render and apply the minimal amount of DOM manipulations when the app state changes. Vue users can use template syntax or choose to directly write render functions using hyperscript either through function calls or JSX. Render functions allow applications to be built from software components. Reactivity Vue features a reactivity system that uses plain JavaScript objects and optimized re-rendering. Each component keeps track of its reactive dependencies during its render, so the system knows precisely when to re-render, and which components to re-render. Transitions Vue provides a variety of ways to apply transition effects when items are inserted, updated, or removed from the DOM. This includes tools to: Automatically apply classes for CSS transitions and animations Integrate third-party CSS animation libraries, such as Animate.css Use JavaScript to directly manipulate the DOM during transition hooks Integrate third-party JavaScript animation libraries, such as Velocity.js When an element wrapped in a transition component is inserted or removed, this is what happens: Vue will automatically sniff whether the target element has CSS transitions or animations applied. If it does, CSS transition classes will be added/removed at appropriate timings. If the transition component provided JavaScript hooks, these hooks will be called at appropriate timings. If no CSS transitions/animations are detected and no JavaScript hooks are provided, the DOM operations for insertion and/or removal will be executed immediately on next frame. Routing A traditional disadvantage of single-page applications (SPAs) is the inability to share links to the exact "sub" page within a specific web page. Because SPAs serve their users only one URL-based response from the server (it typically serves index.html or index.vue), bookmarking certain screens or sharing links to specific sections is normally difficult if not impossible. To solve this problem, many client-side routers delimit their dynamic URLs with a "hashbang" (#!), e.g. page.com/#!/. However, with HTML5 most modern browsers support routing without hashbangs. Vue provides an interface to change what is displayed on the page based on the current URL path – regardless of how it was changed (whether by emailed link, refresh, or in-page links). Additionally, using a front-end router allows for the intentional transition of the browser path when certain browser events (i.e. clicks) occur on buttons or links. Vue itself doesn't come with front-end hashed routing. But the open-source "vue-router" package provides an API to update the application's URL, supports the back button (navigating history), and email password resets or email verification links with authentication URL parameters. It supports mapping nested routes to nested components and offers fine-grained transition control. With Vue, developers are already composing applications with small building blocks building larger components. With vue-router added to the mix, components must merely be mapped to the routes they belong to, and parent/root routes must indicate where children should render. <div id="app"> <router-view></router-view> </div> ... <script> ... const User = { template: '<div>User {{ $route.params.id }}</div>' }; const router = new VueRouter({ routes: [ { path: '/user/:id', component: User } ] }); ... </script> The code above: Sets a front-end route at websitename.com/user/<id>. Which will render in the User component defined in (const User...) Allows the User component to pass in the particular id of the user which was typed into the URL using the $route object's params key: $route.params.id. This template (varying by the params passed into the router) will be rendered into <router-view></router-view> inside the DOM's div#app. The finally generated HTML for someone typing in: websitename.com/user/1 will be: <div id="app"> <div> <div>User 1</div> </div> </div> Ecosystem The core library comes with tools and libraries both developed by the core team and contributors. Official tooling Devtools – Browser devtools extension for debugging Vue.js applications Vite – Standard Tooling for rapid Vue.js development Vue Loader – a webpack loader that allows the writing of Vue components in a format called Single-File Components (SFCs) Official libraries Vue Router – The official router Vuex – Flux-inspired centralized state management Vue Server Renderer – Server-Side Rendering Pinia – New simple state management See also Free and open-source software portal Comparison of JavaScript-based web frameworks React AngularJS Angular Quasar Framework Web framework JavaScript library Model–view–ViewModel Nuxt.js Sources  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under MIT License (license statement/permission). Text taken from Vue.js Guide​, Vue.js, . References ^ "First Week of Launching Vue.js". Evan You. Archived from the original on February 5, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "@vue/runtime-dom v3.2.45". Bundlephobia. Archived from the original on January 29, 2023. Retrieved January 29, 2023. ^ "vue/LICENSE". Vue.js. Retrieved April 17, 2017 – via GitHub. ^ a b c "Introduction". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved January 3, 2020. ^ Macrae, Callum (2018). Vue.js: Up and Running: Building Accessible and Performant Web Apps. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-4919-9721-5. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019. ^ Nelson, Brett (2018). Getting to Know Vue.js: Learn to Build Single Page Applications in Vue from Scratch. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-3781-6. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019. ^ Yerburgh, Edd (2019). Testing Vue.js Applications. Manning Publications. ISBN 978-1-61729-524-9. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019. ^ Freeman, Adam (2018). Pro Vue.js 2. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-3805-9. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019. ^ Franklin, Jack; Wanyoike, Michael; Bouchefra, Ahmed; Silas, Kingsley; Campbell, Chad A.; Jacques, Nilson; Omole, Olayinka; Mulders, Michiel (2019). Working with Vue.js. SitePoint. ISBN 978-1-4920-7144-0. ^ ^ "Meet the Team". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 7, 2022. Retrieved September 23, 2019. ^ "Evan is creating Vue.js". Patreon. Archived from the original on March 3, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "What is Vue.js". W3Schools. Archived from the original on January 22, 2020. Retrieved January 21, 2020. ^ "Evan You". Between the Wires. November 3, 2016. Archived from the original on June 3, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017. ^ a b "Vue.js: JavaScript MVVM made simple". Hacker News. February 3, 2014. Archived from the original on January 29, 2023. Retrieved January 29, 2023. ^ a b "First Week of Launching Vue.js". Evan You. February 11, 2014. Archived from the original on April 12, 2017. Retrieved January 29, 2023. ^ "Announcing Vue 3.4". Vue.js. December 28, 2023. Archived from the original on March 24, 2024. Retrieved March 29, 2024. ^ "v3.3.0 Rurouni Kenshin". Vue.js. May 11, 2023. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved May 12, 2023 – via GitHub. ^ "v3.2.0 Quintessential Quintuplets". Vue.js. August 5, 2021. Archived from the original on August 10, 2021. Retrieved August 10, 2021 – via GitHub. ^ "v3.1.0 Pluto". Vue.js. June 7, 2021. Archived from the original on July 18, 2021. Retrieved July 18, 2021 – via GitHub. ^ "v3.0.0 One Piece". Vue.js. September 18, 2020. Archived from the original on September 19, 2020. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.7.0 Naruto". Vue.js. July 1, 2022. Archived from the original on July 1, 2022. Retrieved July 1, 2022 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.6.0 Macross". Vue.js. February 4, 2019. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.5.0 Level E". Vue.js. October 13, 2017. Archived from the original on September 18, 2020. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.4.0 Kill la Kill". Vue.js. July 13, 2017. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.3.0 JoJo's Bizarre Adventure". Vue.js. April 27, 2017. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.2.0 Initial D". Vue.js. February 26, 2017. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.1.0 Hunter X Hunter". Vue.js. November 22, 2016. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v2.0.0 Ghost in the Shell". Vue.js. September 30, 2016. Archived from the original on October 27, 2020. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "1.0.0 Evangelion". Vue.js. October 27, 2015. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "0.12.0: Dragon Ball". Vue.js. June 12, 2015. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v0.11.0: Cowboy Bebop". Vue.js. November 7, 2014. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v0.10.0: Blade Runner". Vue.js. March 23, 2014. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v0.9.0: Animatrix". Vue.js. February 25, 2014. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v0.8.0". Vue.js. January 27, 2014. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "v0.7.0". Vue.js. December 24, 2013. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "0.6.0: VueJS". Vue.js. December 8, 2013. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2020 – via GitHub. ^ "Vue Roadmap". Vue.js. November 6, 2022. Archived from the original on December 10, 2021. Retrieved December 10, 2021 – via GitHub. ^ "Components". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "Template Syntax". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "Vue 2.0 is Here!". The Vue Point. September 30, 2016. Archived from the original on March 12, 2017. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "Reactivity in Depth". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "Transition Effects". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on December 13, 2023. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "Transitioning State". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ "Routing". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved March 11, 2017. ^ You, Evan. "Vue Nested Routing (2)". Vue Home Page (subpage). Archived from the original on May 8, 2017. Retrieved May 10, 2017. External links Official website vteJavaScript templating librariesLibraries AngularJS Backbone.js Ember.js Handlebars.js KnockoutJS Mustache.js React.js Vue.js Svelte Concepts Model–view–controller (MVC) Model–view–viewmodel (MVVM) vteWeb frameworks Comparison .NET ASP.NET Core AJAX Dynamic Data MVC Razor Web Forms Blazor DNN BFC MonoRail Umbraco WebSharper C++ CppCMS Drogon Wt ColdFusion ColdBox Platform Common Lisp CL-HTTP Haskell Servant Snap Yesod Java AppFuse Grails GWT ICEfaces JHipster JWt Mojarra Play Remote Application Platform Seam Sling Spring Stripes Struts Tapestry Vaadin Vert.x Wicket WaveMaker ZK JavaScript Angular/AngularJS Backbone.js Closure Dojo Toolkit Ember.js Express.js Ext JS jQuery Knockout.js Meteor MooTools Next.js Node.js OpenUI5 Prototype React Remix Sencha Touch SproutCore Svelte Vue.js Perl Catalyst Dancer Maypole Mojolicious WebGUI PHP CakePHP CodeIgniter Drupal eZ Publish Fat-Free Flow FuelPHP Grav Gyroscope Horde Joomla! 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-introduction-4"},{"link_name":"model–view–viewmodel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%E2%80%93view%E2%80%93viewmodel"},{"link_name":"JavaScript framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript_framework"},{"link_name":"user interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface"},{"link_name":"single-page applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-page_application"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Vue.js (commonly referred to as Vue; pronounced \"view\"[4]) is an open-source model–view–viewmodel front end JavaScript framework for building user interfaces and single-page applications.[10] It was created by Evan You and is maintained by him and the rest of the active core team members.[11]","title":"Vue.js"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-introduction-4"},{"link_name":"routing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing"},{"link_name":"state management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_management"},{"link_name":"build tooling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Build_automation"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"HTML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"built-in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Builtin_function"}],"text":"Vue.js features an incrementally adaptable architecture that focuses on declarative rendering and component composition. The core library is focused on the view layer only.[4] Advanced features required for complex applications such as routing, state management and build tooling are offered via officially maintained supporting libraries and packages.[12]Vue.js allows for extending HTML with HTML attributes called directives.[13] The directives offer functionality to HTML applications, and come as either built-in or user defined directives.","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"AngularJS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AngularJS"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-16"},{"link_name":"manga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manga"},{"link_name":"anime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime"}],"text":"Vue was created by Evan You after working for Google using AngularJS in several projects. He later summed up his thought process: \"I figured, what if I could just extract the part that I really liked about Angular and build something really lightweight.\"[14] The first source code commit to the project was dated July 2013, and Vue was first publicly announced the following February, in 2014.[15][16]Version names are often derived from manga and anime.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"sub_title":"Versions","text":"When a new major is released ie v3.y.z, the last minor ie 2.x.y will become a LTS release for 18 months (bug fixes and security patches) and for the following 18 months will be in maintenance mode (security patches only).[38]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HTML elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML_element"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Components","text":"Vue components extend basic HTML elements to encapsulate reusable code. At a high level, components are custom elements to which the Vue's compiler attaches behavior. In Vue, a component is essentially a Vue instance with pre-defined options.[39]\nThe code snippet below contains an example of a Vue component. The component presents a button and prints the number of times the button is clicked:<template>\n <div id=\"tuto\">\n <button-clicked v-bind:initial-count=\"0\"></button-clicked>\n </div>\n</template>\n\n<script>\nVue.component('button-clicked', {\n props: ['initialCount'],\n data: () => ({\n count: 0,\n }),\n template: '<button v-on:click=\"onClick\">Clicked {{ count }} times</button>',\n computed: {\n countTimesTwo() {\n return this.count * 2;\n }\n },\n watch: {\n count(newValue, oldValue) {\n console.log(`The value of count is changed from ${oldValue} to ${newValue}.`);\n }\n },\n methods: {\n onClick() {\n this.count += 1;\n }\n },\n mounted() {\n this.count = this.initialCount;\n }\n});\n\nnew Vue({\n el: '#tuto',\n});\n</script>","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HTML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML"},{"link_name":"DOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_Object_Model"},{"link_name":"parsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing"},{"link_name":"virtual DOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_DOM"},{"link_name":"JSX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/React_(JavaScript_library)#JSX"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"software components","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_components"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Templates","text":"Vue uses an HTML-based template syntax that allows binding the rendered DOM to the underlying Vue instance's data. All Vue templates are valid HTML that can be parsed by specification-compliant browsers and HTML parsers. Vue compiles the templates into virtual DOM render functions. A virtual Document Object Model (or \"DOM\") allows Vue to render components in its memory before updating the browser. Combined with the reactivity system, Vue can calculate the minimal number of components to re-render and apply the minimal amount of DOM manipulations when the app state changes.Vue users can use template syntax or choose to directly write render functions using hyperscript either through function calls or JSX.[40] Render functions allow applications to be built from software components.[41]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Reactivity","text":"Vue features a reactivity system that uses plain JavaScript objects and optimized re-rendering. Each component keeps track of its reactive dependencies during its render, so the system knows precisely when to re-render, and which components to re-render.[42]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DOM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_Object_Model"},{"link_name":"CSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheets"},{"link_name":"Velocity.js","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity_(JavaScript_library)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Transitions","text":"Vue provides a variety of ways to apply transition effects when items are inserted, updated, or removed from the DOM. This includes tools to:Automatically apply classes for CSS transitions and animations\nIntegrate third-party CSS animation libraries, such as Animate.css\nUse JavaScript to directly manipulate the DOM during transition hooks\nIntegrate third-party JavaScript animation libraries, such as Velocity.jsWhen an element wrapped in a transition component is inserted or removed, this is what happens:Vue will automatically sniff whether the target element has CSS transitions or animations applied. If it does, CSS transition classes will be added/removed at appropriate timings.\nIf the transition component provided JavaScript hooks, these hooks will be called at appropriate timings.\nIf no CSS transitions/animations are detected and no JavaScript hooks are provided, the DOM operations for insertion and/or removal will be executed immediately on next frame.[43][44]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"single-page applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-page_application"},{"link_name":"hashbang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shebang_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Routing","text":"A traditional disadvantage of single-page applications (SPAs) is the inability to share links to the exact \"sub\" page within a specific web page. Because SPAs serve their users only one URL-based response from the server (it typically serves index.html or index.vue), bookmarking certain screens or sharing links to specific sections is normally difficult if not impossible. To solve this problem, many client-side routers delimit their dynamic URLs with a \"hashbang\" (#!), e.g. page.com/#!/. However, with HTML5 most modern browsers support routing without hashbangs.Vue provides an interface to change what is displayed on the page based on the current URL path – regardless of how it was changed (whether by emailed link, refresh, or in-page links). Additionally, using a front-end router allows for the intentional transition of the browser path when certain browser events (i.e. clicks) occur on buttons or links. Vue itself doesn't come with front-end hashed routing. But the open-source \"vue-router\" package provides an API to update the application's URL, supports the back button (navigating history), and email password resets or email verification links with authentication URL parameters. It supports mapping nested routes to nested components and offers fine-grained transition control. With Vue, developers are already composing applications with small building blocks building larger components. With vue-router added to the mix, components must merely be mapped to the routes they belong to, and parent/root routes must indicate where children should render.[45]<div id=\"app\">\n <router-view></router-view>\n</div>\n...\n\n<script>\n...\nconst User = {\n template: '<div>User {{ $route.params.id }}</div>'\n};\n\nconst router = new VueRouter({\n routes: [\n { path: '/user/:id', component: User }\n ]\n});\n...\n</script>The code above:Sets a front-end route at websitename.com/user/<id>.\nWhich will render in the User component defined in (const User...)\nAllows the User component to pass in the particular id of the user which was typed into the URL using the $route object's params key: $route.params.id.\nThis template (varying by the params passed into the router) will be rendered into <router-view></router-view> inside the DOM's div#app.\nThe finally generated HTML for someone typing in: websitename.com/user/1 will be:<div id=\"app\">\n <div>\n <div>User 1</div>\n </div>\n</div>[46]","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The core library comes with tools and libraries both developed by the core team and contributors.","title":"Ecosystem"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Official tooling","text":"Devtools – Browser devtools extension for debugging Vue.js applications\nVite – Standard Tooling for rapid Vue.js development\nVue Loader – a webpack loader that allows the writing of Vue components in a format called Single-File Components (SFCs)","title":"Ecosystem"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Official libraries","text":"Vue Router – The official router\nVuex – Flux-inspired centralized state management\nVue Server Renderer – Server-Side Rendering\nPinia – New simple state management","title":"Ecosystem"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg"},{"link_name":"free content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content"},{"link_name":"MIT License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_License"},{"link_name":"license statement/permission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/vuejs/vuejs.org/blob/fdc66945e18020cdbdc729fd7ab8005d123216a7/LICENSE"},{"link_name":"Vue.js Guide​","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//vuejs.org/guide/introduction.html"}],"text":"This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under MIT License (license statement/permission). Text taken from Vue.js Guide​, Vue.js, .","title":"Sources"}]
[]
[{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"Comparison of JavaScript-based web frameworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_JavaScript-based_web_frameworks"},{"title":"React","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/React_(software)"},{"title":"AngularJS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AngularJS"},{"title":"Angular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_(web_framework)"},{"title":"Quasar Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasar_framework"},{"title":"Web framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_framework"},{"title":"JavaScript library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript_library"},{"title":"Model–view–ViewModel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%E2%80%93view%E2%80%93viewmodel"},{"title":"Nuxt.js","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuxt.js"}]
[{"reference":"\"First Week of Launching Vue.js\". Evan You. Archived from the original on February 5, 2019. Retrieved March 11, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.evanyou.me/2014/02/11/first-week-of-launching-an-oss-project/","url_text":"\"First Week of Launching Vue.js\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190205111451/https://blog.evanyou.me/2014/02/11/first-week-of-launching-an-oss-project/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"@vue/runtime-dom v3.2.45\". Bundlephobia. Archived from the original on January 29, 2023. Retrieved January 29, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://bundlephobia.com/package/@vue/runtime-dom","url_text":"\"@vue/runtime-dom v3.2.45\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230129213124/https://bundlephobia.com/package/@vue/runtime-dom","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"vue/LICENSE\". Vue.js. Retrieved April 17, 2017 – via GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/vuejs/core/blob/dev/LICENSE","url_text":"\"vue/LICENSE\""}]},{"reference":"\"Introduction\". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved January 3, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://vuejs.org/guide/introduction.html","url_text":"\"Introduction\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220210104313/https://vuejs.org/guide/introduction.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Macrae, Callum (2018). Vue.js: Up and Running: Building Accessible and Performant Web Apps. O'Reilly Media. ISBN 978-1-4919-9721-5. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bJpNDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Vue.js: Up and Running: Building Accessible and Performant Web Apps"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media","url_text":"O'Reilly Media"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4919-9721-5","url_text":"978-1-4919-9721-5"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240530045409/https://books.google.com/books?id=bJpNDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nelson, Brett (2018). Getting to Know Vue.js: Learn to Build Single Page Applications in Vue from Scratch. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-3781-6. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mTpsDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Getting to Know Vue.js: Learn to Build Single Page Applications in Vue from Scratch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apress","url_text":"Apress"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3781-6","url_text":"978-1-4842-3781-6"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240530045418/https://books.google.com/books?id=mTpsDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Yerburgh, Edd (2019). Testing Vue.js Applications. Manning Publications. ISBN 978-1-61729-524-9. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7-FAtAEACAAJ","url_text":"Testing Vue.js Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manning_Publications","url_text":"Manning Publications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61729-524-9","url_text":"978-1-61729-524-9"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240530045404/https://books.google.com/books?id=7-FAtAEACAAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Freeman, Adam (2018). Pro Vue.js 2. Apress. ISBN 978-1-4842-3805-9. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved August 9, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=HQFuDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Pro Vue.js 2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apress","url_text":"Apress"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4842-3805-9","url_text":"978-1-4842-3805-9"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240530045404/https://books.google.com/books?id=HQFuDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Franklin, Jack; Wanyoike, Michael; Bouchefra, Ahmed; Silas, Kingsley; Campbell, Chad A.; Jacques, Nilson; Omole, Olayinka; Mulders, Michiel (2019). Working with Vue.js. SitePoint. ISBN 978-1-4920-7144-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OKScDwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Working with Vue.js"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SitePoint","url_text":"SitePoint"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4920-7144-0","url_text":"978-1-4920-7144-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Meet the Team\". Vuejs.org. Archived from the original on February 7, 2022. Retrieved September 23, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://vuejs.org/about/team.html","url_text":"\"Meet the Team\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220207050948/https://vuejs.org/about/team.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Evan is creating Vue.js\". Patreon. Archived from the original on March 3, 2019. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grab_(company)
Grab Holdings
["1 History","1.1 Founding and expansion","1.2 Rebranding and additional services","1.3 Public listing and partnerships","2 Funding","3 Driver issues","4 Regulation","5 References","6 External links"]
Singaporean technology company This article may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience. Please help by spinning off or relocating any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against Wikipedia's inclusion policy. (April 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Grab Holdings Inc.Formerly MyTeksi (2011–2013) GrabTaxi (2013–2016) Company typePublicTraded asNasdaq: GRAB (Class A)ISINKYG4124C1096IndustryTechnologyTransportationFood deliveryGrocery deliveryParcel deliveryE-commerceOnline paymentFinancial servicesVehicle rentalFoundedJune 2012; 12 years ago (2012-06) (as MyTeksi) in Kuala Lumpur, MalaysiaFoundersAnthony TanTan Hooi LingHeadquarters3 Media Cl, One-north, Singapore 138498Area servedSingapore, Malaysia, Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Philippines, Thailand, VietnamProductsMobile appRevenueUS$2.359 billion (2023)Number of employees6,000 (2019)SubsidiariesJaya GrocerTrans-cab Services Pte Ltd, SingaporeOVOWebsitewww.grab.com Grab Holdings Inc. is a Singaporean multinational technology company headquartered in One-North, Singapore. It is the developer of a super-app for ride-hailing, food delivery, and digital payment services on mobile devices that operates in Singapore, Malaysia, Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam. The company was founded as MyTeksi by Anthony Tan and Tan Hooi Ling in 2012 to make taxi rides safer in Malaysia. By 2016, it was rebranded as Grab with an expansion of partnerships in Southeast Asia that coincided with the development of products for couriers. Grab is Southeast Asia's first decacorn and the biggest technology startup in the region. It became publicly traded on the NASDAQ in 2021, following the largest SPAC merger at the time. In 2023, Fast Company listed Grab amongst the most innovative companies in the Asia-Pacific region. History Founding and expansion The idea of creating a taxi-booking mobile app for Southeast Asia came from Anthony Tan (陈炳耀, Chen Bingyao) while he was at Harvard Business School. He launched the "My Teksi" app in Malaysia in 2012 together with Tan Hooi Ling, another Harvard graduate. MyTeksi was started with an initial grant of US$25,000 from Harvard Business School and Tan's personal capital. GrabTaxi expanded to the Philippines in August 2013, and to Singapore and Thailand in October of the same year. In 2014, GrabTaxi further continued its growth and expansion to new countries: first launching in Sai Gon, Vietnam, in February, and Jakarta in Indonesia in June. In November 2014, GrabTaxi launched its first GrabBike service in Sai Gon as a trial service. By 2015, GrabBike's motorcycle service rides had spread throughout Vietnam and Indonesia. In February 2015, the company launched GrabCar+ in the Philippines. In November 2015, Grab launched GrabExpress courier service. Rebranding and additional services Parked motorcycles of GrabFood deliverers at Montien Hotel  in Bangkok In January 2016, GrabTaxi was rebranded as "Grab" with a new, redesigned logo. In October 2016, Grab added an in-app instant messaging feature called "GrabChat" to allow simple communication between riders and drivers and translate messages if the set languages of the driver and passenger are different. In December 2016, it launched GrabShare taxi and car-sharing services. In February 2017, Grab launched the GrabCoach service for booking large passenger vehicles. In March 2017, Grab introduced GrabFamily for young children below 7 years old, to fulfill regulations where children under 1.35 metres must be placed on a child booster seat or child restraint. In March 2018, Grab merged with Uber's Southeast Asian operations. As part of the acquisition, Grab took over Uber's assets and operations, including UberEats, which led to Grab's expansion of food delivery services. Grab also launched their eScooter rental service known as GrabWheels in March 2018. In April 2017, Grab confirmed the acquisition of Indonesian online payment startup Kudo which was integrated with Grab's payment system. In November 2017, Grab launched GrabPay payment service as a digital payment service among third-party merchants. In May 2018, Grab launched GrabFood food delivery service. In October 2018, Grab launched GrabExpress courier service. In 2018, Grab also launched Grab Financial, a financial arm of the company. In November 2018, Grab invested in Indonesian conglomerate Lippo Group's Ovo platform. In February 2019, the company launched GrabPet in Singapore which uses Grab drivers who have received training in pet handling and welcome animals in their vehicles. In April 2019, Grab launched its first cloud kitchen, GrabKitchen, in Indonesia under its food delivery service. 50 GrabKitchens were set up in six Southeast Asian countries within a year. Grab also launched their super app in April 2019 to consolidate its online services into one platform. The company partnered with Microsoft to help people in Southeast Asia to access digital literacy programs and certificates in September 2019. In December 2019, Grab and Mastercard launched the first numberless payment card in Asia. In February 2020, Grab launched GrabCare for healthcare workers in Singapore, starting with 24-hour services to Tan Tock Seng Hospital and National Centre for Infectious Diseases. Grab also expanded its GrabMart and GrabAssistant services to more cities and countries to meet increased demand for online food and grocery deliveries. Marriott International partnered with Grab to cover about 600 restaurants and bars in Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam and Thailand which would be added to the GrabFood delivery platform. In April 2020, top management salaries were cut by 20 percent and employees were encouraged to take up voluntary no-pay leave in an effort to manage costs during the COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2020, Grab retrenched 360 employees, which was just under 5 percent of the total headcount across its Southeast Asia offices at the time. In November 2020, Grab announced the launch of its Tech Center in Jakarta, Indonesia for micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs). In December 2020, Grab was granted a digital bank licence from Singapore together with Singtel. Public listing and partnerships The A.S. Watson Group began partnering with Grab at the beginning of 2021 to expand in Southeast Asia. In March 2021, Grab partnered with the Don Quijote discount store chain to deliver everyday goods such as food and cosmetics to customers in Southeast Asia. GrabPay formed a partnership with Stripe in May 2021 to include GrabPay Wallet as a payment option. In July 2021, Grab expanded its buy now, pay later deferred payment options through a partnership with Adyen. In November 2021, Grab partnered with McDonald's in Singapore to integrate GrabExpress, GrabPay and GrabRewards with the restaurant's online and in-store ordering. The company acquired Malaysia's Jaya Grocer by the end of 2021. Grab debuted on Nasdaq in December 2021 following a SPAC with Altimeter Growth Corp. In March 2022, the company announced that GrabFood, GrabPay, GrabGifts and its delivery system would be introduced at Starbucks in Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines. In June 2022, the company introduced GrabMaps mapping and location technology for use in "hyperlocal" routes in Southeast Asian cities. Grab also announced a partnership with Coca-Cola to increase each company's distribution network in the region. In June 2023, Grab announced an 11 percent reduction of its workforce at the time. Funding Grab's investors include venture and hedge funds, automobile companies and other ride-hailing firms. Investors include Japan's Softbank Group and MUFG, Booking Holdings, Toyota and Microsoft. The company has completed Series A through Series H funding, totaling billions of dollars. In January 2021, Grab Financial Group, the company's financial services unit, raised more than $300 million from South Korea's Hanwha Asset Management. Driver issues Cases of Grab drivers harassing their customers and the #MeToo movement in the United States and other countries have also recently emboldened women in Indonesia to speak out against harassment by Grab drivers, such as when a driver asks for personal information or sends them unsolicited messages after a trip. On 23 September 2016, a female passenger in Singapore was sexually assaulted by an elderly GrabCar driver after she fell asleep during the ride. The driver was jailed for 16 months the following year. On 25 March 2017, a female passenger in Singapore was assaulted by a Grab driver. The driver was subsequently suspended by his taxi company from call bookings, although he was still allowed to pick up passengers on the streets. In May, a GrabCar driver in Chiang Mai, Thailand was arrested for sexual assault. In response, Grab issued a statement and said it "would not tolerate physical violence or verbal abuse". Disputes have occurred between Grab drivers and local taxi operators as taxi drivers complained about a decline in their passenger numbers and income since Grab (and its competitor Uber) began to gain foothold in their areas. Until December 2016, around 65 assault cases towards GrabBike drivers by local taxibike drivers have been reported in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Much violence has erupted between Grab drivers and motorbike taxis in two major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam with another 47 assaults cases recorded in 2017. Grab drivers and passengers in Kuala Lumpur have also been the subject of harassment from local taxi drivers. On 4 March 2017, a drunk foreign man reportedly attacked a GrabCar driver in Singapore. The man was then arrested and jailed two weeks for his offence. On 26 October, a Grab driver was killed in Pasay, Philippines by a suspect disguised as a legitimate passenger, who subsequently fled with the victim's vehicle and personal belongings. The suspect finally surrendered to police two weeks later and confessed that he accidentally killed the latter after the victim refused to give his money. Claims out of Chiang Mai in November 2018 accuse Grab of pushing tuk-tuk renters and drivers out of business, which also resulted in violent encounter with enraged tuk-tuk driver in earlier October. In order to reduce the number of incidents between passengers and drivers, Grab has implemented a number of safety features. Grab installed an emergency button in the app in 2018. Later the same year, Grab rolled out a telematics program to encourage safe driving behaviour for its drivers. In 2019, Grab began asking passengers to take a selfie before riding for identify verification. Regulation In the Philippines, GrabCar was fully legalised after being accredited as a Transportation Network Company (TNC) by the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) in 2015. In 2016, Grab motorbike taxi services of Grab and Uber were suspended on claims the services are breaking local rules and clashing with registered transport companies. Further crackdown on the services was continued in early 2017 when a Thai transport official asked the government to ban them although little efforts being done as both services have gain popularity among Thais and foreign visitors in the country. In 2019, it was reported that the Thai government is taking steps to legalise Grab taxi services. In Singapore, laws that legalised the service were passed in February 2017. A few months later, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) in Singapore introduced a new regulation requiring private hire cars to have Private Hire Car Driver's Vocational Licence (PDVL) which took effect in July 2017. On 4 April 2017, the Malaysian government tabled amendments to existing transport laws that would regulate transport application services and protect drivers from harassment. Through the amendment, Grab and Uber vehicles were classified as public service vehicles as part of the move to legalise both services in its efforts to transform the country's public transport services. The amendments were passed by the Parliament of Malaysia on 28 July 2017, which directly legalised both services to operate in the country. In 2017, the Vietnamese Ministry of Transport set to review the legal status of both Grab and Uber to ensure a fair business environment for firms. A draft of a new circular was submitted in early 2018 that includes regulations for passenger transport (by car) through software such as Grab. In early 2020, a decree was passed to legalise Grab and other ride-hailing platforms in Vietnam. In Cambodia and Singapore, Grab supported local governments in traffic management and infrastructure development through its data and technology. In Malaysia, Grab has also received the support of the Malaysian Public Land Transport Commission (SPAD) when the government department introduced the use of technology using the GrabTaxi application to enhance the efficiency of taxi drivers in Malaysia. The company is working with the government department to improve the image of taxi drivers in the country by making it safer and more convenient to hail a taxi. References ^ Ong, Janet (11 August 2022). "Grab officially opens Singapore HQ, launches US$1m scholarship programme". sg.finance.yahoo.com. 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"SoftBank-backed Grab agrees to deal to go public in world's largest SPAC merger". CNBC. ^ Samar Marwan (2 March 2023). "The 10 most innovative Asia-Pacific companies of 2023". Fast Company. ^ 凤凰网：彭博2017全球50大最具影响力人物：刘炽平、孙正义上榜   ^ Siddharth, Philip (10 June 2014). "Harvard Inspires Man to Ditch Family Riches for Taxis" (PDF). Bloomberg. Singapore Management University. Archived from the original on 1 January 2018. Retrieved 17 April 2015. ^ Cheong, Kash (30 April 2014). "GrabTaxi: Currently the most prominent third-party taxi app in the region". The Straits Times. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 17 April 2015. ^ "MyTeksi launches GrabTaxi in Bangkok and Singapore". Digital News Asia. 21 October 2013. Retrieved 20 March 2015. ^ Do, Anh-Minh (26 February 2014). "MGrabTaxi enters Vietnam, intensifying the battle for mobile taxi booking apps". Tech in Asia. Retrieved 20 March 2015. ^ Luan, Thanh (28 November 2014). 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The Straits Times. 30 March 2016. Retrieved 31 March 2016. • "Grab versus Cab: Thai taxi drivers told to stop harassing Grab and Uber drivers". Coconuts Bangkok. 26 June 2017. Retrieved 27 June 2017. • "Hanoi taxis protest Grab, Uber with bumper stickers". Tuoi Tre News. 5 October 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2017. • "Sarawak cab drivers go on strike in protest against Grab, Uber". New Straits Times. Today Online. 9 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018. ^ "65 assaults on GrabBike drivers in Ho Chi Minh City this year: Grab Vietnam". Tuoi Tre News. 2 December 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2016. ^ Anh, Quoc (16 June 2017). "Turf war between Grab crew and motorbike taxis gets violent in Saigon". VnExpress. Retrieved 18 June 2017. ^ Bui, Trang; Le, Lam (25 June 2017). Violence erupts between Grab crews and traditional motorbike taxis in Hanoi, Saigon (01:33). VnExpress. Retrieved 26 June 2017. ^ Bavani, M; Ravindran, Shalini (14 April 2016). "KL's Uber, GrabCar drivers face increasing harassment from cabbies". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 2 December 2016. ^ Chong, Elena (21 September 2017). "Man jailed two weeks for attacking Grab driver". The Straits Times. The New Paper. Retrieved 22 September 2017. ^ "'Good Samaritan' Grab driver shot dead by carnappers posing as passengers". CNN Philippines. 28 October 2017. Archived from the original on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2017. ^ Peralta-Malonzo, Anne (31 October 2017). "3 'persons of interest' cleared by police in killing of Grab driver". Sun.Star Manila. Archived from the original on 1 November 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2017. ^ "Suspect in Grab driver slay surrenders". The Philippine Star. 8 November 2017. Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 8 November 2017. ^ Peralta-Malonzo, Anne (8 November 2017). "Suspect says he didn't mean to kill Grab driver". Sun.Star Manila. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2017. ^ "Grab installs emergency button on app". The Jakarta Post. 21 May 2018. ^ Choo, Cynthia (16 October 2018). "Grab pledges safer rides for passengers with alert system monitoring driver fatigue levels". Today. ^ Chu, Mei Mei (8 June 2019). "No selfie, no ride, Grab tells users". The Star. ^ "GrabCar fully legalised as a transport company in the Philippines". Digital News Asia. 7 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015. ^ "Thailand suspends Uber and Grab motorcycle taxi service". BBC News. 19 May 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2016. ^ Tanakasempipat, Patpicha; Thepgumpanat, Panarat; Tostevin, Matthew; Anantharaman, Muralikumar (7 March 2017). "Thai transport authorities crackdown on Uber, Grab drivers, seek ban". Reuters. Retrieved 8 March 2017. ^ "Singapore's Uber, Grab drivers now need to be licensed". Channel NewsAsia. 7 February 2017. Archived from the original on 8 May 2017. Retrieved 7 February 2017. ^ Yew Chin, Leow (10 February 2017). "Private Hire Cars Not Exempt from Child Seat Requirement". Land Transport Authority (Singapore). Retrieved 8 January 2018. ^ "Bills to legalise Grab, Uber tabled in Malaysian Parliament". Today Online. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017. ^ Lim, Shawn (28 July 2017). "Malaysia's parliament passes laws to legalise Uber and Grab". The Drum. Retrieved 28 July 2017. ^ "Vietnam to review Uber, Grab legal status". Vietnam News Agency. People's Army Website. 25 December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017. ^ "Uber, Grab under tighter supervision". Vietnam News Agency. Vietnam Net. 8 January 2018. Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2018. ^ "Grab and other ride-hailing platforms in Vietnam can now operate as legal businesses". Vietnam Times. 5 April 2020. ^ Abdullah, Zhaki (29 August 2018). "URA partners Grab to study commuter travel patterns". The Straits Times. ^ Darlyne Chow, Melissa (14 September 2014). "MyTeksi app to drive Penang tourism". New Straits Times. Retrieved 20 March 2015. ^ Carvalho, Martin (21 October 2014). "Myteksi calls for 'level playing field' to compete with Uber". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 20 March 2015. ^ "SPAD introduces MyTeksi, TaxiMonger apps to enhance efficiency of cabbies of cabbies". Bernama. The Borneo Post. 12 December 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2015. External links Official website vteOnline food ordering servicesMeal delivery Bolt Food Coupang Eats Chowbus Deliveroo Delivery.com Delivery Hero Baedal Minjok Foodpanda Foodora Glovo Talabat Yemeksepeti PedidosYa DiDi Food DoorDash Wolt EatStreet ele.me GoFood GrabFood iFood Just Eat Takeaway.com Grubhub OrderUp Seamless Tapingo Just Eat Menulog SkipTheDishes Meituan Waimai Pathao Foods PickMe Rappi ShopeeFood Square Eats Swiggy Uber Eats Postmates Waiter.com ASAP Delivery Dudes Yandex.Eda Zomato Blinkit Meal kits Blue Apron Goodfood Gousto HelloFresh Home Chef Purple Carrot Tovala Online grocery delivery Amazon Fresh Blinkit Chaldal.com Crowd Cow Favor FreshDirect Getir GoMart Gopuff Gorillas GrabMart Instacart JioMart Milkrun Ocado PC Express PickMe Robomart Samokat Shipt Reservations Eat App OpenTable Resy TheFork Bookatable Yelp Defunct Baidu Waimai Foodler Hello Curry Hungryhouse Munchery OrderAhead Plated Software Brightloom ChowNow OpenRest Slice Toast POS Upserve Category Food portal vteSoftBank GroupPeople Masayoshi Son (founder) Nikesh Arora Marcelo Claure Eric Hippeau Rajeev Misra Shigenobu Nagamori Sachio Semmoto Akshay Naheta Companies Arm Holdings IPO Aldebaran Robotics Brightstar Corporation DramaFever Fortress Investment Group LY Corporation RadioShack SB Creative SoftBank Mobile T-Mobile US (4.5%) India Blinkit Flipkart Hike InMobi Ola Cabs OYO Paytm Snapdeal Southeast Asia GoTo Gojek Tokopedia Grab OVO Affiliated companies GungHo Online Entertainment (3.80%) Alibaba Group (36%) Related articles Boston Dynamics Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks SBI Group SoftBank Capital SoftBank Vision Fund Sprint Corporation vteSharing economyCompaniesTransportation AloPeyk BlaBlaCar Beat Bolt Bykea Cabify Co-Op Ride DiDi 99 Fasten Free Now Gett Gojek Grab inDrive KakaoTaxi Lyft Ola Cabs Pathao PickMe Snapp Swvl TAPSI Turo Uber Careem Via Waymo Wingly Yandex.Taxi Yourdrive HospitalityFor-profit Airbnb CouchSurfing misterb&b Non-profit BeWelcome Dachgeber Hospitality Club Pasporta Servo Servas International Trustroots Warm Showers Unknown Helpx Project funding GiveSendGo GoFundMe Indiegogo Kickstarter Patreon Retail Craigslist MercadoLibre Vinted Kijiji Music and film Sofar Sounds Tudou Services and freelancing Pickle TaskRabbit Thumbtack Swap and renting The Freecycle Network Streetbank Olio Tourism ToursByLocals Withlocals ConceptsSocial peer-to-peer processes Peer-to-peer banking Peer-to-peer carsharing Peer-to-peer lending Peer-to-peer ridesharing Barter Bicycle-sharing system Blockchain Book swapping Borrowing center Decentralization Carpool Carsharing Clothing swap Co-living Collaborative consumption Crowdfunding Crowdsourcing Expert network Flight sharing Garden sharing Gig worker Home exchange Homestay Intentional community Open innovation Platform cooperative Platform economy Product-service system Reuse Ridesharing company Scooter-sharing system Tool library Two-sided market Upcycling Wiki LabourGlobal International Alliance of App-based Transport Workers Germany Gorillas Workers Collective strikes India Indian Federation of App-based Transport Workers United States National Taxi Workers' Alliance (NY) Rideshare Drivers United (CA) Nigeria Professional E-Hailing Drivers and Private Owners Association
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Singaporean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"multinational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"link_name":"One-North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-North"},{"link_name":"super-app","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-app"},{"link_name":"ride-hailing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ride-hailing"},{"link_name":"food delivery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_delivery"},{"link_name":"mobile devices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_devices"},{"link_name":"Anthony Tan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Tan_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Tan Hooi Ling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan_Hooi_Ling"},{"link_name":"couriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courier"},{"link_name":"decacorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decacorn"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"NASDAQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASDAQ"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnbc-spac-9"},{"link_name":"Fast Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Company"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Grab Holdings Inc. is a Singaporean multinational technology company headquartered in One-North, Singapore. It is the developer of a super-app for ride-hailing, food delivery, and digital payment services on mobile devices that operates in Singapore, Malaysia, Cambodia, Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam.The company was founded as MyTeksi by Anthony Tan and Tan Hooi Ling in 2012 to make taxi rides safer in Malaysia. By 2016, it was rebranded as Grab with an expansion of partnerships in Southeast Asia that coincided with the development of products for couriers.Grab is Southeast Asia's first decacorn[6][7] and the biggest technology startup in the region.[8] It became publicly traded on the NASDAQ in 2021, following the largest SPAC merger at the time.[9] In 2023, Fast Company listed Grab amongst the most innovative companies in the Asia-Pacific region.[10]","title":"Grab Holdings"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Harvard Business School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_School"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bloomberg_2014-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StraitsTimes2014-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Sai Gon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sai_Gon"},{"link_name":"Vietnam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxis_of_Vietnam"},{"link_name":"Jakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-relaunches-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Founding and expansion","text":"The idea of creating a taxi-booking mobile app for Southeast Asia came from Anthony Tan (陈炳耀, Chen Bingyao)[11] while he was at Harvard Business School. He launched the \"My Teksi\" app in Malaysia in 2012 together with Tan Hooi Ling, another Harvard graduate. MyTeksi was started with an initial grant of US$25,000 from Harvard Business School and Tan's personal capital.[12][13]GrabTaxi expanded to the Philippines in August 2013, and to Singapore and Thailand in October of the same year.[14] In 2014, GrabTaxi further continued its growth and expansion to new countries: first launching in Sai Gon, Vietnam, in February, and Jakarta in Indonesia in June.[15] In November 2014, GrabTaxi launched its first GrabBike service in Sai Gon as a trial service.[16]By 2015, GrabBike's motorcycle service rides had spread throughout Vietnam and Indonesia.[17][18] In February 2015, the company launched GrabCar+ in the Philippines.[19] In November 2015, Grab launched GrabExpress courier service.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Motien_Hotel,_Si_Lom,_Bangkok_(2022)_-_Grab.jpg"},{"link_name":"Montien Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Montien_Hotel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%93%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%91%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3"},{"link_name":"Bangkok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rebrand_2016-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Ovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OVO_(payment)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Mastercard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mastercard"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Tan Tock Seng Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan_Tock_Seng_Hospital"},{"link_name":"National Centre for Infectious Diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Centre_for_Infectious_Diseases"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Marriott International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marriott_International"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Singtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singtel"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Rebranding and additional services","text":"Parked motorcycles of GrabFood deliverers at Montien Hotel [th] in BangkokIn January 2016, GrabTaxi was rebranded as \"Grab\" with a new, redesigned logo.[21] In October 2016, Grab added an in-app instant messaging feature called \"GrabChat\" to allow simple communication between riders and drivers and translate messages if the set languages of the driver and passenger are different.[22] In December 2016, it launched GrabShare taxi and car-sharing services.[23]In February 2017, Grab launched the GrabCoach service for booking large passenger vehicles.[24] In March 2017, Grab introduced GrabFamily for young children below 7 years old, to fulfill regulations where children under 1.35 metres must be placed on a child booster seat or child restraint.[citation needed]In March 2018, Grab merged with Uber's Southeast Asian operations.[25] As part of the acquisition, Grab took over Uber's assets and operations, including UberEats, which led to Grab's expansion of food delivery services.[26] Grab also launched their eScooter rental service known as GrabWheels in March 2018.[27][28]In April 2017, Grab confirmed the acquisition of Indonesian online payment startup Kudo which was integrated with Grab's payment system.[29] In November 2017, Grab launched GrabPay payment service as a digital payment service among third-party merchants.[30]In May 2018, Grab launched GrabFood food delivery service.[31] In October 2018, Grab launched GrabExpress courier service.[32] In 2018, Grab also launched Grab Financial, a financial arm of the company.[33] In November 2018, Grab invested in Indonesian conglomerate Lippo Group's Ovo platform.[34]In February 2019, the company launched GrabPet in Singapore which uses Grab drivers who have received training in pet handling and welcome animals in their vehicles.[35]In April 2019, Grab launched its first cloud kitchen, GrabKitchen, in Indonesia under its food delivery service.[36] 50 GrabKitchens were set up in six Southeast Asian countries within a year.[37] Grab also launched their super app in April 2019 to consolidate its online services into one platform.[38]The company partnered with Microsoft to help people in Southeast Asia to access digital literacy programs and certificates in September 2019.[39]In December 2019, Grab and Mastercard launched the first numberless payment card in Asia.[40]In February 2020, Grab launched GrabCare for healthcare workers in Singapore, starting with 24-hour services to Tan Tock Seng Hospital and National Centre for Infectious Diseases.[41] Grab also expanded its GrabMart and GrabAssistant services to more cities and countries to meet increased demand for online food and grocery deliveries.[42]Marriott International partnered with Grab to cover about 600 restaurants and bars in Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Vietnam and Thailand which would be added to the GrabFood delivery platform.[43] In April 2020, top management salaries were cut by 20 percent and employees were encouraged to take up voluntary no-pay leave[44] in an effort to manage costs during the COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2020, Grab retrenched 360 employees, which was just under 5 percent of the total headcount across its Southeast Asia offices at the time.[45] In November 2020, Grab announced the launch of its Tech Center in Jakarta, Indonesia for micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs).[46] In December 2020, Grab was granted a digital bank licence from Singapore together with Singtel.[47][48]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A.S. Watson Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.S._Watson_Group"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Don Quijote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Quijote_(store)"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Stripe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stripe,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"buy now, pay later","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buy_now,_pay_later"},{"link_name":"Adyen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adyen"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"McDonald's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonald%27s"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Jaya Grocer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaya_Grocer"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Nasdaq","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasdaq"},{"link_name":"SPAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special-purpose_acquisition_company"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Starbucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starbucks"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca-Cola"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"}],"sub_title":"Public listing and partnerships","text":"The A.S. Watson Group began partnering with Grab at the beginning of 2021 to expand in Southeast Asia.[49] In March 2021, Grab partnered with the Don Quijote discount store chain to deliver everyday goods such as food and cosmetics to customers in Southeast Asia.[50]GrabPay formed a partnership with Stripe in May 2021 to include GrabPay Wallet as a payment option.[51] In July 2021, Grab expanded its buy now, pay later deferred payment options through a partnership with Adyen.[52]In November 2021, Grab partnered with McDonald's in Singapore to integrate GrabExpress, GrabPay and GrabRewards with the restaurant's online and in-store ordering.[53] The company acquired Malaysia's Jaya Grocer by the end of 2021.[54]Grab debuted on Nasdaq in December 2021 following a SPAC with Altimeter Growth Corp.[55][56]In March 2022, the company announced that GrabFood, GrabPay, GrabGifts and its delivery system would be introduced at Starbucks in Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam, and the Philippines.[57]In June 2022, the company introduced GrabMaps mapping and location technology for use in \"hyperlocal\" routes in Southeast Asian cities.[58] Grab also announced a partnership with Coca-Cola to increase each company's distribution network in the region.[59]In June 2023, Grab announced an 11 percent reduction of its workforce at the time.[60]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"South Korea's Hanwha Asset Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanwha_Group"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"text":"Grab's investors include venture and hedge funds, automobile companies and other ride-hailing firms. Investors include Japan's Softbank Group and MUFG, Booking Holdings, Toyota and Microsoft.[61] The company has completed Series A through Series H funding, totaling billions of dollars.[62]In January 2021, Grab Financial Group, the company's financial services unit, raised more than $300 million from South Korea's Hanwha Asset Management.[63][64]","title":"Funding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"#MeToo movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MeToo_movement"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Chiang Mai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Mai"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"Hanoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoi"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Pasay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasay"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"}],"text":"Cases of Grab drivers harassing their customers and the #MeToo movement in the United States and other countries have also recently emboldened women in Indonesia to speak out against harassment by Grab drivers, such as when a driver asks for personal information or sends them unsolicited messages after a trip.[65]On 23 September 2016, a female passenger in Singapore was sexually assaulted by an elderly GrabCar driver after she fell asleep during the ride.[66] The driver was jailed for 16 months the following year.[67] On 25 March 2017, a female passenger in Singapore was assaulted by a Grab driver.[68] The driver was subsequently suspended by his taxi company from call bookings, although he was still allowed to pick up passengers on the streets.[69] In May, a GrabCar driver in Chiang Mai, Thailand was arrested for sexual assault.[70] In response, Grab issued a statement and said it \"would not tolerate physical violence or verbal abuse\".[71]Disputes have occurred between Grab drivers and local taxi operators as taxi drivers complained about a decline in their passenger numbers and income since Grab (and its competitor Uber) began to gain foothold in their areas.[72] Until December 2016, around 65 assault cases towards GrabBike drivers by local taxibike drivers have been reported in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.[73] Much violence has erupted between Grab drivers and motorbike taxis in two major cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam with another 47 assaults cases recorded in 2017.[74][75] Grab drivers and passengers in Kuala Lumpur have also been the subject of harassment from local taxi drivers.[76]On 4 March 2017, a drunk foreign man reportedly attacked a GrabCar driver in Singapore. The man was then arrested and jailed two weeks for his offence.[77] On 26 October, a Grab driver was killed in Pasay, Philippines by a suspect disguised as a legitimate passenger, who subsequently fled with the victim's vehicle and personal belongings.[78][79] The suspect finally surrendered to police two weeks later and confessed that he accidentally killed the latter after the victim refused to give his money.[80][81] Claims out of Chiang Mai in November 2018 accuse Grab of pushing tuk-tuk renters and drivers out of business, which also resulted in violent encounter with enraged tuk-tuk driver in earlier October.[citation needed]In order to reduce the number of incidents between passengers and drivers, Grab has implemented a number of safety features. Grab installed an emergency button in the app in 2018.[82] Later the same year, Grab rolled out a telematics program to encourage safe driving behaviour for its drivers.[83] In 2019, Grab began asking passengers to take a selfie before riding for identify verification.[84]","title":"Driver issues"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_Transportation_Franchising_and_Regulatory_Board_(Philippines)"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Malaysian government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Malaysia"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Parliament of Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Malaysia"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Transport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Transport_(Vietnam)"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"}],"text":"In the Philippines, GrabCar was fully legalised after being accredited as a Transportation Network Company (TNC) by the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) in 2015.[85] In 2016, Grab motorbike taxi services of Grab and Uber were suspended on claims the services are breaking local rules and clashing with registered transport companies.[86] Further crackdown on the services was continued in early 2017 when a Thai transport official asked the government to ban them although little efforts being done as both services have gain popularity among Thais and foreign visitors in the country.[87] In 2019, it was reported that the Thai government is taking steps to legalise Grab taxi services.[citation needed]In Singapore, laws that legalised the service were passed in February 2017.[88] A few months later, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) in Singapore introduced a new regulation requiring private hire cars to have Private Hire Car Driver's Vocational Licence (PDVL) which took effect in July 2017.[89]On 4 April 2017, the Malaysian government tabled amendments to existing transport laws that would regulate transport application services and protect drivers from harassment. Through the amendment, Grab and Uber vehicles were classified as public service vehicles as part of the move to legalise both services in its efforts to transform the country's public transport services.[90] The amendments were passed by the Parliament of Malaysia on 28 July 2017, which directly legalised both services to operate in the country.[91]In 2017, the Vietnamese Ministry of Transport set to review the legal status of both Grab and Uber to ensure a fair business environment for firms.[92] A draft of a new circular was submitted in early 2018 that includes regulations for passenger transport (by car) through software such as Grab.[93] In early 2020, a decree was passed to legalise Grab and other ride-hailing platforms in Vietnam.[94]In Cambodia and Singapore, Grab supported local governments in traffic management and infrastructure development through its data and technology.[95] In Malaysia, Grab has also received the support of the Malaysian Public Land Transport Commission (SPAD) when the government department introduced the use of technology using the GrabTaxi application to enhance the efficiency of taxi drivers in Malaysia. The company is working with the government department to improve the image of taxi drivers in the country by making it safer and more convenient to hail a taxi.[96][97][98]","title":"Regulation"}]
[{"image_text":"Parked motorcycles of GrabFood deliverers at Montien Hotel [th] in Bangkok","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Motien_Hotel%2C_Si_Lom%2C_Bangkok_%282022%29_-_Grab.jpg/220px-Motien_Hotel%2C_Si_Lom%2C_Bangkok_%282022%29_-_Grab.jpg"}]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VxWorks
VxWorks
["1 History","2 Platform overview","3 Features","4 Hardware support","5 Development environment","6 Notable uses","6.1 Aerospace and defense","6.2 Automotive","6.3 Consumer electronics","6.4 Industrial","6.5 Medical","6.6 Networking and communication infrastructure","7 TCP vulnerability and CVE patches","8 References","9 External links"]
Real-time operating system This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "VxWorks" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article is in list format but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this article, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (July 2014) Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed. (August 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Operating system VxWorksVxWorks 7 boot-up screenDeveloperWind River (a wholly owned subsidiary of Aptiv)OS familyReal-time operating systemsWorking stateCurrentInitial release1987; 37 years ago (1987)Latest releaseVxWorks 7 24.03 / February 27, 2024; 3 months ago (2024-02-27)Marketing targetEmbedded systemsPlatformsx86, x86-64, MIPS, PowerPC, SH-4, ARM, RISC-VKernel typeMonolithicLicenseProprietaryOfficial websiteWindriver.com/products/vxworks VxWorks is a real-time operating system (or RTOS) developed as proprietary software by Wind River Systems, a subsidiary of Aptiv. First released in 1987, VxWorks is designed for use in embedded systems requiring real-time, deterministic performance and in many cases, safety and security certification for industries such as aerospace, defense, medical devices, industrial equipment, robotics, energy, transportation, network infrastructure, automotive, and consumer electronics. VxWorks supports AMD/Intel architecture, POWER architecture, ARM architectures and RISC-V. The RTOS can be used in multicore asymmetric multiprocessing (AMP), symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), and mixed modes and multi-OS (via Type 1 hypervisor) designs on 32- and 64-bit processors. VxWorks comes with the kernel, middleware, board support packages, Wind River Workbench development suite, complementary third-party software and hardware. In its latest release, VxWorks 7, the RTOS has been re-engineered for modularity and upgradeability so the OS kernel is separate from middleware, applications and other packages. Scalability, security, safety, connectivity, and graphics have been improved to address Internet of Things (IOT) needs. History VxWorks started in the late 1980s as a set of enhancements to a simple RTOS called VRTX sold by Ready Systems (becoming a Mentor Graphics product in 1995). Wind River acquired rights to distribute VRTX and significantly enhanced it by adding, among other things, a file system and an integrated development environment. In 1987, anticipating the termination of its reseller contract by Ready Systems, Wind River proceeded to develop its own kernel to replace VRTX within VxWorks. Published in 2003 with a Wind River copyright, "Real-Time Concepts for Embedded Systems" describes the development environment, runtime setting, and system call families of the RTOS. Written by Wind River employees with a foreword by Jerry Fiddler, chairman, and co-founder of Wind River, the textbook is an excellent tutorial on the RTOS. (It does not, however, replace Wind River documentation as might be needed by practicing engineers.) Some key milestones for VxWorks include: 1980s: VxWorks adds support for 32-bit processors. 1990s: VxWorks 5 becomes the first RTOS with a networking stack. 2000s: VxWorks 6 supports SMP and adds derivative industry-specific platforms. 2010s: VxWorks adds support for 64-bit processing and introduces VxWorks 7 for IoT in 2016. 2020s: VxWorks continues to update and add support, including the ability to power the Mars 2020 lander. Platform overview VxWorks supports Intel architecture, Power architecture, and ARM architectures. The RTOS can be used in multi-core asymmetric multiprocessing (AMP), symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), mixed modes and multi-OS (via Type 1 hypervisor) designs on 32- and 64- bit processors. The VxWorks consists of a set of runtime components and development tools. The run time components are an operating system (UP and SMP; 32- and 64-bit), software for applications support (file system, core network stack, USB stack, and inter-process communications), and hardware support (architecture adapter, processor support library, device driver library, and board support packages). VxWorks core development tools are compilers such as Diab, GNU, and Intel C++ Compiler (ICC) and its build and configuration tools. The system also includes productivity tools such as its Workbench development suite and Intel tools and development support tools for asset tracking and host support. The platform is a modular, vendor-neutral, open system that supports a range of third-party software and hardware. The OS kernel is separate from middleware, applications, and other packages, which enables easier bug fixes and testing of new features. An implementation of a layered source build system allows multiple versions of any stack to be installed at the same time so developers can select which version of any feature set should go into the VxWorks kernel libraries. Optional advanced add-ons for VxWorks provide additional capabilities, including the following: Advanced security features to safeguard devices and data residing in and traveling across the Internet of Things (IoT) Advanced safety partitioning to enable reliable application consolidation Real-time advanced visual edge analytics allow autonomous responses on VxWorks-based devices in real-time without latency Optimized embedded Java runtime engine enabling the deployment of Java applications Virtualization capability with a real-time embedded, Type 1 hypervisor Features Core features of the OS include: Multitasking kernel with preemptive and round-robin scheduling and fast interrupt response Native 64-bit operating system (only one 64-bit architecture supported: x86-64). Data model: LP64 User-mode applications ("Real-Time Processes", or RTP) isolated from other user-mode applications as well as the kernel via memory protection mechanisms SMP, AMP and mixed mode multiprocessing support Error handling framework Bluetooth, USB, CAN protocols, Firewire IEEE 1394, BLE, L2CAP, Continua stack, health device profile Binary, counting, and mutual exclusion semaphores with priority inheritance Local and distributed message queues POSIX PSE52 certified conformity in user-mode execution environment File systems: High Reliability File System (HRFS), FAT-based file system (DOSFS), Network File System (NFS), and TFFS Dual-mode IPv6 networking stack with IPv6 Ready Logo certification Memory protection including real-time processes (RTPs), error detection and reporting, and IPC Multi-OS messaging using TIPC and Wind River multi-OS IPC Symbolic debugging In March 2014 Wind River introduced VxWorks 7, emphasizing scalability, security, safety, connectivity, graphics, and virtualization. The following lists some of the release 7 updates. More information can be found on the Wind Rivers VxWorks website. Modular, componentized architecture using a layered build system with the ability to update each layer of code independently VxWorks microkernel (a full RTOS that can be as small as 20 KB) Security features such as digitally-signed modules (X.509), encryption, password management, ability to add/delete users at runtime SHA-256 hashing algorithm as the default password hashing algorithm Human machine interface with Vector Graphics, and Tilcon user interface (UI) Graphical user interface (GUI): OpenVG stack, Open GL, Tilcon UI, Frame Buffer Driver, EV Dev Interface Updated configuration interfaces for VxWorks Source Build VSB projects and VxWorks Image Projects Single authentication control used for Telnet, SSH, FTP, and rlogin daemons Connectivity with Bluetooth and SocketCAN protocol stacks Inclusion of MIPC File System (MFS) and MIPC Network Device (MND) Networking features with 64-bit support including Wind River MACsec, Wind River's implementation of IEEE 802.1A, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) over L2TP, PPP over virtual local area network (VLAN) and Diameter secure key storage New Wind River Workbench 4 for VxWorks 7 integrated development environment with new system analysis tools Wind River Diab Compiler 5.9.4; Wind River GNU Compiler 4.8; Intel C++ Compiler 14 and Intel Integrated Performance Primitives (IPP) 8 Hardware support VxWorks has been ported to a number of platforms. This includes the Intel x86 family (including the Intel Quark SoC), MIPS, PowerPC (and BAE RAD), Freescale ColdFire, Intel i960, SPARC, Fujitsu FR-V, SH-4 and the closely related family of ARM, StrongARM and xScale CPUs. VxWorks provides a standard board support package (BSP) interface between all its supported hardware and the OS. Wind River's BSP developer kit provides a common application programming interface (API) and a stable environment for real-time operating system development. VxWorks is supported by popular SSL/TLS libraries such as wolfSSL. Development environment As is common in embedded system development, cross-compiling is used with VxWorks. Development is done on a "host" system where an integrated development environment (IDE), including the editor, compiler toolchain, debugger, and emulator can be used. Software is then compiled to run on the "target" system. This allows the developer to work with powerful development tools while targeting more limited hardware. VxWorks uses the following host environments and target hardware architectures: Supported target architectures and processor families VxWorks supports a range of target architectures including ARM, Intel, Power architecture, RISC-V architecture and more. For the latest target architecture processors and board support packages, refer to the VxWorks Marketplace or via citation. The Eclipse-based Workbench IDE that comes with VxWorks is used to configure, analyze, optimize, and debug a VxWorks-based system under development. The Tornado IDE was used for VxWorks 5.x and was replaced by the Eclipse-based Workbench IDE for VxWorks 6.x. and later. Workbench is also the IDE for the Wind River Linux, On-Chip Debugging, and Wind River Diab Compiler product lines. VxWorks 7 uses Wind River Workbench 4 which updates to the Eclipse 4 base provides full third party plug-in support and usability improvements. Wind River Simics is a standalone simulation tool compatible with VxWorks. It simulates the full target system (hardware and software) to create a shared platform for software development. Multiple developers can share a complete virtual system and its entire state, including execution history. Simics enables early and continuous system integration and faster prototyping by utilizing virtual prototypes instead of physical prototypes. Notable uses The Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover uses VxWorks. The ASIMO Robot uses VxWorks. AgustaWestland Project Zero uses VxWorks. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter uses VxWorks. The Clementine spacecraft used VxWorks. VxWorks is used by products across a wide range of market areas: aerospace and defense, automotive, industrial such as robots, consumer electronics, medical area and networking. Several notable products also use VxWorks as the onboard operating system. Aerospace and defense Spacecraft The Mars 2020 rover The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter The Mars Science Laboratory, also known as the Curiosity rover NASA Mars rovers (Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity) The Deep Space Program Science Experiment (DSPSE) also known as Clementine (spacecraft) Clementine launched in 1994 running VxWorks 5.1 on a MIPS-based CPU responsible for the Star Tracker and image processing algorithms. The use of a commercial RTOS on board a spacecraft was considered experimental at the time Phoenix Mars lander The Deep Impact space probe The Mars Pathfinder mission NASA's Juno space probe sent to Jupiter Aircraft AgustaWestland Project Zero Northrop Grumman X-47B Unmanned Combat Air System Airbus A400M Airlifter BAE Systems Tornado Advanced Radar Display Information System (TARDIS) used in the Tornado GR4 aircraft for the U.K. Royal Air Force Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel UAV Boeing 787 Space telescopes Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope(FGST) James Webb Space Telescope Others European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS) TacNet Tracker, Sandia National Laboratory’s rugged handheld communication device BAE Systems SCC500TM series of infrared camera cores Barco CDMS-3000 next generation control display and management system Automotive Toshiba TMPV75 Series image recognition SoCs for advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) Bosch Motor Sports race car telemetry system Hyundai Mobis IVI system Magneti Marelli's telemetry logger and GENIVI-compliant infotainment system BMW iDrive 2.0 (2003-2008) Siemens VDO automotive navigation systems Most of Renault Trucks T, K and C trucks' electronic control units. European Volkswagen RNS 510 navigation systems Consumer electronics Apple Airport Extreme AMX NetLinx Controllers (NI-xx00/x00) Brother printers Drobo data storage robot Honda robot ASIMO Linksys WRT54G wireless routers (versions 5.0 and later) MacroSystem Casablanca-2 digital video editor (Avio, Kron, Prestige, Claro, Renommee, Solitaire) Motorola's DCT2500 interactive digital set-top box Mobile Technika MobbyTalk and MobbyTalk253 phones ReplayTV home digital video recorder Industrial Industrial robots ABB industrial robots The C5G robotic project by Comau KUKA industrial robots Stäubli industrial robots Yaskawa Electric Corporation's industrial robots Comau Robotics SMART5 industrial robot Test and Measurement Teledyne LeCroy WaveRunner LT, WaveRunner2LT and WavePro 900 oscilloscope series Some Tektronix TDS, DPO, and MSO series oscilloscopes Hexagon Metrology GLOBAL Silver coordinate measuring machine (CMM) Transportation FITSCO Automatic Train Protection (ATP)system Bombardier HMI410 Train Information System Controllers Bachmann M1 Controller System Invensys Foxboro PAC System National Instruments CompactRIO 901x, 902x 907x controllers Emerson distributed control system controllers AMX controls system devices The Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System (EPICS) Bosch Rexroth Industrial Tightening Control Systems MCE iBox elevator controller Rockwell Automation PLCs - ControlLogix, CompactLogix, Assorted Communication Cards, and Servo Drives Schneider Electric Industrial Controller B&R Automation Runtime Storage systems External RAID controllers designed by the LSI Corporation/Engenio prior to 2011, now designed by NetApp. And used in RDAC class arrays as NetApp E/EF Series and OEM arrays Fujitsu ETERNUS DX Sx family of unified data storage arrays Imaging Toshiba eBridge based range of photocopiers Others GrandMA Full-Size and Light Console by MA Lighting Medical Varian Medical Systems Truebeam - a radiotherapy device for treating cancer Olympus Corporation's surgical generator BD Biosciences FACSCount HIV/AIDS Monitoring System Fedegari Autoclavi S.p.A. Thema4 process controller Sirona Dental Systems: CEREC extraoral X-ray CAD/CAM systems General Electric Healthcare: CT and MRI scanners Carl Zeiss Meditec: Humphrey Field Analyzer HFA-II Series Philips C-Arm Radiology Equipment Networking and communication infrastructure Arkoon Network Security appliances Ubee Interactive's AirWalk EdgePoint Kontron's ACTA processor boards QQTechnologies's QQSG A significant portion of Huawei's telecoms equipment uses VxWorks BroadLight’s GPON/PON products Shiron Satellite Communications’ InterSKY Sky Pilot's SkyGateway, SkyExtender and SkyControl EtherRaptor-1010 by Raptor Network Technology CPG-3000 and CPX-5000 routers from Siemens Nokia Solutions and Networks FlexiPacket series microwave engineering product Acme Packet Net-Net series of Session Border Controllers Alcatel-Lucent IP Touch 40x8 IP Deskphones Avaya ERS 8600 Avaya IP400 Office Cisco CSS platform Cisco ONS platform Ciena Common Photonic Layer Dell PowerConnect switches that are 'powered by' Broadcom, except latest PCT8100 which runs on Linux platform Ericsson SmartEdge routers (SEOS 11 run NetBSD 3.0 and VxWorks for Broadcom BCM1480 version 5.5.1 kernel version 2.6) Hewlett Packard HP 9000 Superdome Guardian Service Processor Hirschmann EAGLE20 Industrial Firewall HughesNet/Direcway satellite internet modems Mitel Networks' MiVoice Business (formerly Mitel Communications Director (MCD)), 3300 ICP Media Gateways and SX-200 and SX-200 ICP Motorola Solutions MCD5000 IP Deskset System Motorola SB5100 cable modem Motorola Cable Headend Equipment including SEM, NC, OM and other lines Nortel CS1000 PBX (formerly Nortel Meridian 1 (Option 11C, Option 61C, Option 81C) Nortel Passport Radware OnDemand Switches Samsung DCS and OfficeServ series PBX SonicWALL firewalls Thuraya SO-2510 satellite phone and ThurayaModule Radvision 3G communications equipment 3com NBX phone systems Zhone Technologies access systems Oracle EAGLE STP system TCP vulnerability and CVE patches As of July 2019, a paper published by Armis exposed 11 critical vulnerabilities, including remote code execution, denial of service, information leaks, and logical flaws impacting more than two billion devices using the VxWorks RTOS. The vulnerability allows attackers to tunnel into an internal network using the vulnerability and hack into printers, laptops, and any other connected devices. The vulnerability can bypass firewalls as well. The system is in use by quite a few mission-critical products, many of which could not be easily patched. References ^ a b "VxWorks Goes 64-bit", Electronic Design, March 25, 2011 ^ a b "Wind River Announces RISC-V Support for VxWorks RTOS". www.businesswire.com. December 10, 2019. Retrieved December 11, 2019. ^ a b RTOS Handles AMP and SMP, electronic design, March 2009 ^ a b John Rath (February 2014). "Intel Adds Virtualization Platform for Industrial Systems". ^ a b c d e f Embedded Star Archived April 23, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Article, February 2011 ^ a b c Wind River Archived December 4, 2022, at the Wayback Machine reinvents real-time system for the Internet of Things, iTERS news, March 2014 ^ "VxWorks 7 Announced". harmonicss.co.uk. 2014. Archived from the original on July 4, 2014. Retrieved June 20, 2014. ^ a b Wind River Reinvents the RTOS for the IoT, Business Wire, February 2014 ^ a b c Jackson, Joab (2014). "Wind River outfits VxWorks for 'Internet of things' | ITworld". itworld.com. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved June 20, 2014. ^ "Embedded Systems Glossary: V". www.netrino.com. Netrino, LLC. November 30, 2007. Retrieved September 20, 2010. ^ "SEC filing". Secinfo.com. January 19, 1996. Retrieved November 18, 2011. ^ Lord of the Toasters, Wired (magazine) interview with Jerry Fiddler, September 1998 ^ Li, Qing; Yao, Caroline (2003). Real-Time Concepts for Embedded Systems. CMP Books. ISBN 1-57820-124-1. ^ Company Histories, Funding Universe ^ a b c Wind River Outfits VxWorks for the Internet of Things, Computer World ^ "Embedded Software Market latest Trends and New Technologies Research Forecast to 2025". February 24, 2021. ^ "Wind River Releases 64-Bit VxWorks RTOS". Windriver.com. Archived from the original on October 28, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2011. ^ POSIX Certification Register ^ Filesystems Archived June 20, 2014, at the Wayback Machine in VxWorks, CDF online, Fermi Labs ^ Wind River Reinvents the Real-Time Operating System for the Internet of Things Windriver.com, ^ Intel Tackles SoC With Quark"' EE Times, October 7, 2013 ^ "how to configure woflssl for vxworks 6.6 build (Page 1) — wolfSSL (formerly CyaSSL) — wolfSSL - Embedded SSL Library". www.wolfssl.com. Retrieved February 19, 2019. ^ a b Workbench Product Note ^ "Wind River Products". ^ "BSP QUERY TOOL". bsp.windriver.com. Retrieved October 23, 2023. ^ Wind River reinvents the RTOS for the IoT, Business Wire ^ "Wind River VxWorks 5.x Page". Windriver.com. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved November 18, 2011. ^ "Wind River Linux Main Page". Windriver.com. March 29, 2007. Retrieved November 18, 2011. ^ "Wind River OCD Main Page". Windriver.com. Retrieved November 18, 2011. ^ "VxWorks Gets Re-vamped" Information Technology ^ Simics, Wikipedia ^ Wind River Simics ^ Accelerate Software Development with Wind River Simics, Intel webpage ^ VxWorks customer list ^ "Unknown" (PDF). Retrieved November 30, 2023. ^ a b c d e ExtremeTech news ^ Clementine Project Information Page ^ The Software Behind the Mars Phoenix Lander ^ ExtremeTech article ^ "Wind River Powers Mars Exploration Rovers--Continues Legacy as Technology Provider for NASA's Space Exploration". Wind River Systems. June 6, 2003. Archived from the original on January 6, 2010. Retrieved August 28, 2009. ^ Bullseye: Autonomous Satellite Enters Jupiter’s Orbit ^ AgustaWestland Project Zero ^ the US Navy’s unmanned combat air system X-47B, YouTube video ^ Verocel Archived November 24, 2016, at the Wayback Machine webpage ^ The Free Library, Farlex Archived May 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine ^ Airforce-Technology.com ^ "Arm IDA and Cross Check: Reversing the 787's Core Network" (PDF). Retrieved November 30, 2023. ^ PTR Group celebrates third successful launch of the year, PTR GRoup webpage ^ James Webb Space Telescope, SPIEL Digital Library ^ Case Study: European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System ^ TacNet Tracker Software, ESTSC ^ Flexible camera applications of an advanced uncooled microbolometer thermal imaging core, SPIE Digital Library ^ Barco Selects Wind River for Military Display and Management, Bloomberg ^ Wind River: Toshiba is using Simics to develop automotive application software, Embedded Control Europe ^ Wind River Helps Bosch Motorsport Race For The Win, Globe and Mail ^ Hyundia Archived November 21, 2018, at the Wayback Machine works with Wind River, Telematics News ^ Magneti Marell "i Motorsport Chooses Wind River VxWorks for Formula One Race Cars" ^ The Network on Wheels -- Java Developers, Start Your Programming Engines!, Oracle ^ "AMX Meets Productivity, Cost-Savings Goals with Wind River" (PDF). August 2007. ^ "AMX AV/IT Administrators Guide". ^ Drobo In depth review, Automated Home ^ Honda Robots Asimo, Robotics Technology Simplified ^ Motorola's DCT2500 Core Interactive Digital Set-Tops Deployed With Wind River Software, BrightRoll news webpage ^ As a Case Study of WindRiver: introduce MobbyTalk/MobbyTalk253, Mobile Technika ^ MythTv on ReplayTv hardware?, Don Ritter ^ "ABB Robotics and vxworks". ABB. Retrieved November 18, 2011. ^ Comau Robotics Picks Wind River VxWorks for RTOS, TMCnet.com ^ KUKA Video, YouTube ^ COPALP webpage ^ Yaskawa, Motoman Strategic Partners ^ Comau Robotics Picks Wind River VxWorks for RTOS, TMCnet ^ Kotlarsky, Julia (2007). "Re-engineering at LeCroy Corporation: the move to component-based systems" (PDF). Journal of Information Technology. 22 (4): 265–278. doi:10.1057/palgrave.jit.2000099. S2CID 15581496. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 29, 2018. ^ "What operating system is that oscilloscope running? - Page 1". www.eevblog.com. Retrieved November 1, 2023. ^ Hexagon Metrology Standardizes on Wind River’s VxWorks for Next-Generation Metrology Equipment, Bloomberg.com ^ Leading Chinese Transportation Company Relies on Wind River to Meet Stringent Safety Certification Goal, On-line Wall Street Journal ^ Bombardier Transportation Selects Wind River Platforms for Safety Critical Certified Display on London Underground, Online UK Reuters ^ Wind Power Automation Leader Bachmann Relies On Wind River VxWorks For Next-Generation Controller System, Globe and mail ^ Invensys acquisition: “Now, it is up to how well we execute.”, The Instrument Readout SignPost ^ National Instruments Support Page ^ EPICS base Release 3.14 Installation Instructions ^ Bosch Rexroth YouTube video ^ iBox user guide Page 8-41 ^ Toshiba Photocopiers ^ GrandMA Full-Size Data Sheet ^ "Wind River Introduces Software Platform for Medical Devices Complete with Compliance Documentation". Archived from the original on November 8, 2012. Retrieved August 11, 2012. ^ Olympus ESG-400 high-frequency surgical generator ^ BD FACSCount Archived March 18, 2015, at the Wayback Machine article ^ Thema Archived September 2, 2016, at the Wayback Machine process control article ^ CEREC Archived October 29, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Chairside Solutions ^ Arkoon selects Wind River for nextgen equipment ^ Ubee-Airwalk uses Wind River's VxWorks in femotcell, Telecompaper ^ Kontron AG e-newswire ^ QQTechnologies goes Global with VxWorks, Datsheets 360 ^ Stubbs, Jack (August 5, 2018). "Huawei in British spotlight over use of U.S. firm's software". Reuters U.K. ^ Broadlight Client page ^ Sky Pilot Command Line Interface Reference document ^ Wind River delivers Raptor with VxWorks Platform, ETT Asia news ^ Siemens deploys 2.5G Wireless Data Platform, 3G Newsletter ^ FlexiPacket Release Note ^ Oracle acme support page ^ Avaya ERS 8600 Wikipedia ^ Dell PowerConnect, Wikipedia page ^ Routing Protocol Operations Guide for SmartEdge ^ Enhanced Security for Industrial Networks, Belden webpage ^ VoIP Security webpage ^ Multiservice Switch, Wikipedia ^ Knowledge Base, Radware webpage ^ "Samsung OfficeServ brochure" (PDF). ^ Tim's IT-Blob: A deeper look on SonicWALL kernel ^ Thuraya SO-2510 Satellite ^ SANYO Multimedia Tottori Chooses RADVISION SIP Developer Toolkit to Build New IP Phone, Business Wire ^ 3Com NBX Phone Systems, AdCom Technologies Inc. ^ "Urgent/11 Critical Vulnerability" (PDF). Armis. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 3, 2019. Retrieved July 31, 2019. ^ "Critical Vulnerabilities Dubbed URGENT/11 Place Devices Running VxWorks at Risk of RCE Attacks". Tenable®. July 29, 2019. Retrieved July 31, 2019. ^ Gmuender, John (July 29, 2019). "Wind River VxWorks and URGENT/11: Patch Now". SonicWall. Retrieved July 31, 2019. ^ Newman, Lily Han. "An Operating System Bug Exposes 200 Million Critical Devices". Wired. External links Official website vteIntel softwareItems in italics are no longer maintained or have planned end-of-life dates.Development Parallel Studio C++ Compiler Fortran Compiler Advisor Inspector INTERP/80 VTune Components Data Analytics Library (DAL) Integrated Performance Primitives (IPP) Math Kernel Library (MKL) Threading Building Blocks (TBB) Open source Data Analytics Library (DAL) Threading Building Blocks (TBB) Tizen OpenVINO Software programs Telekinesys Research1 Havok1 Vision1 Organizations Developer Zone Research 1Sold to Microsoft vteReal-time operating systems (RTOS)OperatingsystemsPOSIX supportUnix-like DNIX Junos OS LynxOS Multi-Environment Real-Time^ (MERT – Unix-RT) OS2000 QNX^ Real-Time Linux° RTLinux° UNOS LiteOS LiteOS° Partial ChorusOS^ Integrity^ Nucleus RTOS^ NuttX^° Operating System Embedded^ (OSE) PX5 RTOS^ RIOT^° TRON support ITRON project T-Kernel Micro T-Kernel T-Engine Forum (organization) T-License Partial eCos° RTEMS° Capability-based EROS^° seL4^° Java virtual machine Chorus/Jazz^ (JavaOS + ChorusOS^) DOS Multiuser DOS Concurrent DOS FlexOS REAL/32 L4 kernel L4Linux^° PikeOS^ REX OS^ Wombat^° Psion EKA2^° kernel → Symbian OS^° Microsoft ThreadX^ Windows Embedded Compact IBM 4680 OS 4690 OS Transaction Processing Facility (TPF) Texas Instruments DSOS TI-RTOS Kernel^° DEC PDP-11 VAX RSX-11 RT-11 VAXELN Low resource ChibiOS/RT^° Contiki° ERIKA Enterprise° FunkOS° Mynewt° Nano-RK° OpenComRTOS^ PX5 RTOS^ RT-Thread° Nano RIOT° ThreadX^ Zephyr^° BeRTOS^° DioneOS embOS FreeRTOS^° µC/OS^° µ-velOSity^ MQX^ OS-9 (Microware) Phantom OS^° pSOS RMX RT-Thread° Standard ScreenOS Sintran III THEOS Thoth^ → Harmony^ VRTX^ VxWorks UniProtonFrameworks, kits Robot Operating System° 2 RTAI° TI-RTOS^° Xenomai° Developers Gordon Bell David Cheriton Dave Cutler Dan Dodge Adam Dunkels Ken Sakamura Italics = discontinued ^ = Microkernel ° = Open-source software Comparison Category
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"real-time operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system"},{"link_name":"proprietary software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"link_name":"Wind River Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_River_Systems"},{"link_name":"embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"deterministic performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deterministic_system"},{"link_name":"aerospace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace_engineering"},{"link_name":"defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arms_industry"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64bitWBvert-1"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"Intel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"asymmetric multiprocessing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"symmetric multiprocessing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-amp-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-virt-4"},{"link_name":"32-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit"},{"link_name":"64-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64-bit_computing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-star-5"},{"link_name":"middleware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middleware"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iTERS-6"},{"link_name":"Internet of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_Things"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSSC-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msscwb-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joab1-9"}],"text":"Operating systemVxWorks is a real-time operating system (or RTOS) developed as proprietary software by Wind River Systems, a subsidiary of Aptiv. First released in 1987, VxWorks is designed for use in embedded systems requiring real-time, deterministic performance and in many cases, safety and security certification for industries such as aerospace, defense, medical devices, industrial equipment, robotics, energy, transportation, network infrastructure, automotive, and consumer electronics.[1]VxWorks supports AMD/Intel architecture, POWER architecture, ARM architectures and RISC-V.[2] The RTOS can be used in multicore asymmetric multiprocessing (AMP), symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), and mixed modes[3] and multi-OS (via Type 1 hypervisor)[4] designs on 32- and 64-bit processors.[5]VxWorks comes with the kernel, middleware, board support packages, Wind River Workbench development suite, complementary third-party software and hardware. In its latest release, VxWorks 7, the RTOS has been re-engineered for modularity and upgradeability so the OS kernel is separate from middleware, applications and other packages.[6] Scalability, security, safety, connectivity, and graphics have been improved to address Internet of Things (IOT) needs.[7][8][9]","title":"VxWorks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RTOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RTOS"},{"link_name":"VRTX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versatile_Real-Time_Executive"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-netrino-glossary-v-10"},{"link_name":"Mentor Graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentor_Graphics"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"integrated development environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_development_environment"},{"link_name":"Ready Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ready_Systems"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-book-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-14"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"SMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-star-5"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joab2-15"},{"link_name":"Mars 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_2020"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"VxWorks started in the late 1980s as a set of enhancements to a simple RTOS called VRTX[10] sold by Ready Systems (becoming a Mentor Graphics product in 1995).[11] Wind River acquired rights to distribute VRTX and significantly enhanced it by adding, among other things, a file system and an integrated development environment. In 1987, anticipating the termination of its reseller contract by Ready Systems, Wind River proceeded to develop its own kernel to replace VRTX within VxWorks.[12]Published in 2003 with a Wind River copyright, \"Real-Time Concepts for Embedded Systems\"[13]\ndescribes the development environment, runtime setting, and system call families of the RTOS.\nWritten by Wind River employees with a foreword by Jerry Fiddler, chairman, and co-founder of Wind River, the textbook is an excellent tutorial on the RTOS. (It does not, however, replace Wind River documentation as might be needed by practicing engineers.)Some key milestones for VxWorks include:[14][failed verification]1980s: VxWorks adds support for 32-bit processors.\n1990s: VxWorks 5 becomes the first[citation needed] RTOS with a networking stack.\n2000s: VxWorks 6 supports SMP and adds derivative industry-specific platforms.\n2010s: VxWorks adds support for 64-bit processing[5] and introduces VxWorks 7 for IoT in 2016.[15]\n2020s: VxWorks continues to update and add support, including the ability to power the Mars 2020 lander.[16]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"asymmetric multiprocessing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"symmetric multiprocessing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-star-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-virt-4"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-star-5"},{"link_name":"GNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU"},{"link_name":"Intel C++ Compiler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_C%2B%2B_Compiler"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-star-5"},{"link_name":"open system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_system_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msscwb-8"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joab2-15"}],"text":"VxWorks supports Intel architecture, Power architecture, and ARM architectures. The RTOS can be used in multi-core asymmetric multiprocessing (AMP), symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), mixed modes[5] and multi-OS (via Type 1 hypervisor)[4] designs on 32- and 64- bit processors.The VxWorks consists of a set of runtime components and development tools. The run time components are an operating system (UP and SMP; 32- and 64-bit), software for applications support (file system, core network stack, USB stack, and inter-process communications), and hardware support (architecture adapter, processor support library, device driver library, and board support packages).[5] VxWorks core development tools are compilers such as Diab, GNU, and Intel C++ Compiler (ICC) and its build and configuration tools. The system also includes productivity tools such as its Workbench development suite and Intel tools and development support tools for asset tracking and host support.[5]The platform is a modular, vendor-neutral, open system that supports a range of third-party software and hardware. The OS kernel is separate from middleware, applications, and other packages,[8] which enables easier bug fixes and testing of new features.[15] An implementation of a layered source build system allows multiple versions of any stack to be installed at the same time so developers can select which version of any feature set should go into the VxWorks kernel libraries.Optional advanced add-ons for VxWorks provide additional capabilities, including the following:Advanced security features to safeguard devices and data residing in and traveling across the Internet of Things (IoT)\nAdvanced safety partitioning to enable reliable application consolidation\nReal-time advanced visual edge analytics allow autonomous responses on VxWorks-based devices in real-time without latency\nOptimized embedded Java runtime engine enabling the deployment of Java applications\nVirtualization capability with a real-time embedded, Type 1 hypervisor","title":"Platform overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-amp-3"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Multitasking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking"},{"link_name":"kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"preemptive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preemption_(computing)#Preemptive_multitasking"},{"link_name":"round-robin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_scheduling"},{"link_name":"scheduling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduling_(computing)"},{"link_name":"interrupt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt"},{"link_name":"x86-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"LP64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64-bit#64-bit_data_models"},{"link_name":"memory protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_protection"},{"link_name":"SMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"AMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_multiprocessing"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"mutual exclusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_exclusion"},{"link_name":"semaphores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semaphore_(programming)"},{"link_name":"priority inheritance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_inheritance"},{"link_name":"message queues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_queue"},{"link_name":"POSIX PSE52","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"File systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_system"},{"link_name":"FAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Allocation_Table"},{"link_name":"Network File System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_File_System_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"IPv6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joab1-9"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joab2-15"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mod-20"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64bitWBvert-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-star-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iTERS-6"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joab1-9"},{"link_name":"Wind Rivers VxWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.windriver.com/products/vxworks/index.html"},{"link_name":"X.509","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.509"},{"link_name":"hashing algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashing_algorithm"},{"link_name":"OpenVG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenVG"},{"link_name":"Open GL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_GL"},{"link_name":"Telnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet"},{"link_name":"SSH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSH"},{"link_name":"FTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTP"},{"link_name":"rlogin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rlogin"},{"link_name":"daemons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"SocketCAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SocketCAN"},{"link_name":"Point-to-Point Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-Point_Protocol"},{"link_name":"virtual local area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_local_area_network"}],"text":"Core features of the OS include:[3][17][18][19]Multitasking kernel with preemptive and round-robin scheduling and fast interrupt response\nNative 64-bit operating system (only one 64-bit architecture supported: x86-64). Data model: LP64\nUser-mode applications (\"Real-Time Processes\", or RTP) isolated from other user-mode applications as well as the kernel via memory protection mechanisms\nSMP, AMP and mixed mode multiprocessing support\nError handling framework\nBluetooth, USB, CAN protocols, Firewire IEEE 1394, BLE, L2CAP, Continua stack, health device profile\nBinary, counting, and mutual exclusion semaphores with priority inheritance\nLocal and distributed message queues\nPOSIX PSE52 certified conformity in user-mode execution environment [citation needed]\nFile systems: High Reliability File System (HRFS), FAT-based file system (DOSFS), Network File System (NFS), and TFFS\nDual-mode IPv6 networking stack with IPv6 Ready Logo certification\nMemory protection including real-time processes (RTPs), error detection and reporting, and IPC\nMulti-OS messaging using TIPC and Wind River multi-OS IPC\nSymbolic debuggingIn March 2014 Wind River introduced VxWorks 7, emphasizing scalability, security, safety, connectivity, graphics, and virtualization.[9][15][20] The following lists some of the release 7 updates.[1][5][6][9] More information can be found on the Wind Rivers VxWorks website.Modular, componentized architecture using a layered build system with the ability to update each layer of code independently\nVxWorks microkernel (a full RTOS that can be as small as 20 KB)\nSecurity features such as digitally-signed modules (X.509), encryption, password management, ability to add/delete users at runtime\nSHA-256 hashing algorithm as the default password hashing algorithm\nHuman machine interface with Vector Graphics, and Tilcon user interface (UI)\nGraphical user interface (GUI): OpenVG stack, Open GL, Tilcon UI, Frame Buffer Driver, EV Dev Interface\nUpdated configuration interfaces for VxWorks Source Build VSB projects and VxWorks Image Projects\nSingle authentication control used for Telnet, SSH, FTP, and rlogin daemons\nConnectivity with Bluetooth and SocketCAN protocol stacks\nInclusion of MIPC File System (MFS) and MIPC Network Device (MND)\nNetworking features with 64-bit support including Wind River MACsec, Wind River's implementation of IEEE 802.1A, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) over L2TP, PPP over virtual local area network (VLAN) and Diameter secure key storage\nNew Wind River Workbench 4 for VxWorks 7 integrated development environment with new system analysis tools\nWind River Diab Compiler 5.9.4; Wind River GNU Compiler 4.8; Intel C++ Compiler 14 and Intel Integrated Performance Primitives (IPP) 8","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel x86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_x86"},{"link_name":"Intel Quark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Quark"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-quark-21"},{"link_name":"MIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture"},{"link_name":"PowerPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC"},{"link_name":"BAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems_Electronics,_Intelligence_%26_Support"},{"link_name":"Freescale ColdFire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freescale_ColdFire"},{"link_name":"Intel i960","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_i960"},{"link_name":"SPARC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARC"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu FR-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FR-V"},{"link_name":"SH-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperH"},{"link_name":"ARM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture"},{"link_name":"StrongARM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StrongARM"},{"link_name":"xScale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XScale"},{"link_name":"board support package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_support_package"},{"link_name":"application programming interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"SSL/TLS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security"},{"link_name":"wolfSSL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WolfSSL"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"VxWorks has been ported to a number of platforms. This includes the Intel x86 family (including the Intel Quark SoC),[21] MIPS, PowerPC (and BAE RAD), Freescale ColdFire, Intel i960, SPARC, Fujitsu FR-V, SH-4 and the closely related family of ARM, StrongARM and xScale CPUs. VxWorks provides a standard board support package (BSP) interface between all its supported hardware and the OS. Wind River's BSP developer kit provides a common application programming interface (API) and a stable environment for real-time operating system development. VxWorks is supported by popular SSL/TLS libraries such as wolfSSL.[22]","title":"Hardware support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"embedded system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"cross-compiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_compiler"},{"link_name":"integrated development environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_development_environment"},{"link_name":"toolchain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toolchain"},{"link_name":"emulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ide-23"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-2"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Eclipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse_(software)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ide-23"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"As is common in embedded system development, cross-compiling is used with VxWorks. Development is done on a \"host\" system where an integrated development environment (IDE), including the editor, compiler toolchain, debugger, and emulator can be used. Software is then compiled to run on the \"target\" system. This allows the developer to work with powerful development tools while targeting more limited hardware. VxWorks uses the following host environments and target hardware architectures:[23]Supported target architectures and processor familiesVxWorks supports a range of target architectures including ARM, Intel, Power architecture, RISC-V architecture and more.[2] For the latest target architecture processors and board support packages, refer to the VxWorks Marketplace[24] or via citation.[25]The Eclipse-based Workbench IDE that comes with VxWorks is used to configure, analyze, optimize, and debug a VxWorks-based system under development.[26] The Tornado IDE was used for VxWorks 5.x[27] and was replaced by the Eclipse-based Workbench IDE for VxWorks 6.x. and later.[23] Workbench is also the IDE for the Wind River Linux,[28] On-Chip Debugging,[29] and Wind River Diab Compiler product lines. VxWorks 7 uses Wind River Workbench 4[30] which updates to the Eclipse 4 base provides full third party plug-in support and usability improvements.Wind River Simics[31][32] is a standalone simulation tool compatible with VxWorks. It simulates the full target system (hardware and software) to create a shared platform for software development. Multiple developers can share a complete virtual system and its entire state, including execution history. Simics enables early and continuous system integration and faster prototyping by utilizing virtual prototypes instead of physical prototypes.[33]","title":"Development environment"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_%27Curiosity%27_Rover,_Spacecraft_Assembly_Facility,_Pasadena,_California_(2011).jpg"},{"link_name":"Mars Science Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Curiosity rover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curiosity_rover"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ASIMO_4.28.11.jpg"},{"link_name":"ASIMO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIMO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AW_Project_Zero_2013.png"},{"link_name":"AgustaWestland Project Zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgustaWestland_Project_Zero"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Clementine_lunar.jpg"},{"link_name":"Clementine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clementine_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iTERS-6"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"The Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover uses VxWorks.The ASIMO Robot uses VxWorks.AgustaWestland Project Zero uses VxWorks.The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter uses VxWorks.The Clementine spacecraft used VxWorks.VxWorks is used by products across a wide range of market areas: aerospace and defense, automotive, industrial such as robots, consumer electronics, medical area and networking.[6] Several notable products also use VxWorks as the onboard operating system.[34]","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mars 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_2020"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mars-36"},{"link_name":"Mars Science Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mars-36"},{"link_name":"Clementine (spacecraft)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clementine_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Phoenix Mars lander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Deep Impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Impact_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Mars Pathfinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Pathfinder"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wind_River-40"},{"link_name":"Juno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"AgustaWestland Project Zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgustaWestland_Project_Zero"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Northrop Grumman X-47B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman_X-47B"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Tornado GR4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado_GR4"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"RQ-170 Sentinel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RQ-170_Sentinel"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"unreliable source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"Boeing 787","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_787"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"James Webb Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Geostationary_Navigation_Overlay_System"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Sandia National Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"BAE Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Barco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barco_(manufacturer)"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Aerospace and defense","text":"SpacecraftThe Mars 2020 rover[35]\nThe Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter[36]\nThe Mars Science Laboratory, also known as the Curiosity rover\nNASA Mars rovers (Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity)[36]\nThe Deep Space Program Science Experiment (DSPSE) also known as Clementine (spacecraft)[37] Clementine launched in 1994 running VxWorks 5.1 on a MIPS-based CPU responsible for the Star Tracker and image processing algorithms. The use of a commercial RTOS on board a spacecraft was considered experimental at the time[citation needed]\nPhoenix Mars lander[38]\nThe Deep Impact space probe[39]\nThe Mars Pathfinder mission[40]\nNASA's Juno space probe sent to Jupiter[41]AircraftAgustaWestland Project Zero[42]\nNorthrop Grumman X-47B Unmanned Combat Air System[43]\nAirbus A400M Airlifter[44]\nBAE Systems Tornado Advanced Radar Display Information System (TARDIS) used in the Tornado GR4 aircraft for the U.K. Royal Air Force[45]\nLockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel UAV[46][unreliable source?]\nBoeing 787[47]Space telescopesFermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope(FGST)[48]\nJames Webb Space Telescope[49]OthersEuropean Geostationary Navigation Overlay System (EGNOS)[50]\nTacNet Tracker, Sandia National Laboratory’s rugged handheld communication device[51]\nBAE Systems SCC500TM series of infrared camera cores[52]\nBarco CDMS-3000 next generation control display and management system[53]","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Hyundai Mobis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyundai_Mobis"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"BMW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW"},{"link_name":"iDrive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDrive"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mars-36"},{"link_name":"Siemens VDO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_VDO"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Renault Trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Trucks"},{"link_name":"T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Trucks_T"},{"link_name":"K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Trucks_K"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renault_Trucks_C"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen"},{"link_name":"RNS 510","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi_Navigation_Plus"}],"sub_title":"Automotive","text":"Toshiba TMPV75 Series image recognition SoCs for advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS)[54]\nBosch Motor Sports race car telemetry system[55]\nHyundai Mobis IVI system[56]\nMagneti Marelli's telemetry logger and GENIVI-compliant infotainment system[57]\nBMW iDrive 2.0 (2003-2008)[36]\nSiemens VDO automotive navigation systems[58]\nMost of Renault Trucks T, K and C trucks' electronic control units.\nEuropean Volkswagen RNS 510 navigation systems","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apple Airport Extreme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Airport_Extreme"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mars-36"},{"link_name":"NetLinx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetLinx"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Brother printers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brother_Industries"},{"link_name":"Drobo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drobo"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"ASIMO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIMO"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Linksys WRT54G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linksys_WRT54G"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mars-36"},{"link_name":"Casablanca-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.videomaker.com/article/9791-test-bench-macrosystem-us-casablanca-avio-dvd-video-editing-appliance"},{"link_name":"DCT2500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.thefreelibrary.com/Motorola's+DCT2500+Core+Interactive+Digital+Set-Tops+Deployed+With...-a0110785940"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"ReplayTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ReplayTV"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"sub_title":"Consumer electronics","text":"Apple Airport Extreme[36]\nAMX NetLinx Controllers (NI-xx00/x00)[59][60]\nBrother printers\nDrobo data storage robot[61]\nHonda robot ASIMO[62]\nLinksys WRT54G wireless routers (versions 5.0 and later)[36]\nMacroSystem Casablanca-2 digital video editor (Avio, Kron, Prestige, Claro, Renommee, Solitaire)\nMotorola's DCT2500 interactive digital set-top box[63]\nMobile Technika MobbyTalk and MobbyTalk253 phones[64]\nReplayTV home digital video recorder[65]","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ABB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABB"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Comau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comau"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"KUKA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KUKA"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Stäubli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%A4ubli"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Yaskawa Electric Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaskawa_Electric_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Comau Robotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comau#Robotics_and_automation_products"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Teledyne LeCroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeCroy_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"oscilloscopes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscilloscope"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"coordinate measuring machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_measuring_machine"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Automatic Train Protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Train_Protection"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Bombardier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombardier_Transportation"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Invensys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invensys"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"National Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Instruments"},{"link_name":"CompactRIO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompactRIO"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"AMX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMX_LLC"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Bosch Rexroth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosch_Rexroth"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"B&R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%26R"},{"link_name":"RAID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAID"},{"link_name":"LSI Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LSI_Corporation"},{"link_name":"NetApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetApp"},{"link_name":"NetApp E/EF Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetApp#E-Series"},{"link_name":"Fujitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"}],"sub_title":"Industrial","text":"Industrial robotsABB industrial robots[66]\nThe C5G robotic project by Comau[67]\nKUKA industrial robots[68]\nStäubli industrial robots[69]\nYaskawa Electric Corporation's industrial robots[70]\nComau Robotics SMART5 industrial robot[71]Test and MeasurementTeledyne LeCroy WaveRunner LT, WaveRunner2LT and WavePro 900 oscilloscope series[72]\nSome Tektronix TDS, DPO, and MSO series oscilloscopes[73]\nHexagon Metrology GLOBAL Silver coordinate measuring machine (CMM)[74]TransportationFITSCO Automatic Train Protection (ATP)system[75]\nBombardier HMI410 Train Information System[76]ControllersBachmann M1 Controller System[77]\nInvensys Foxboro PAC System[78]\nNational Instruments CompactRIO 901x, 902x 907x controllers[79]\nEmerson distributed control system controllers\nAMX controls system devices\nThe Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System (EPICS)[80]\nBosch Rexroth Industrial Tightening Control Systems[81]\nMCE iBox elevator controller[82]\nRockwell Automation PLCs - ControlLogix, CompactLogix, Assorted Communication Cards, and Servo Drives\nSchneider Electric Industrial Controller\nB&R Automation RuntimeStorage systemsExternal RAID controllers designed by the LSI Corporation/Engenio prior to 2011, now designed by NetApp. And used in RDAC class arrays as NetApp E/EF Series and OEM arrays\nFujitsu ETERNUS DX Sx family of unified data storage arraysImagingToshiba eBridge based range of photocopiers[83]OthersGrandMA Full-Size and Light Console by MA Lighting[84]","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Varian Medical Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varian_Medical_Systems"},{"link_name":"Truebeam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truebeam"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Olympus Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Sirona Dental Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirona_Dental_Systems"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"General Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"Carl Zeiss Meditec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Zeiss_Meditec"},{"link_name":"Humphrey Field Analyzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey_visual_field_analyser"}],"sub_title":"Medical","text":"Varian Medical Systems Truebeam - a radiotherapy device for treating cancer[85]\nOlympus Corporation's surgical generator[86]\nBD Biosciences FACSCount HIV/AIDS Monitoring System[87]\nFedegari Autoclavi S.p.A. Thema4 process controller[88]\nSirona Dental Systems: CEREC extraoral X-ray CAD/CAM systems[89]\nGeneral Electric Healthcare: CT and MRI scanners\nCarl Zeiss Meditec: Humphrey Field Analyzer HFA-II Series\nPhilips C-Arm Radiology Equipment","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Ubee Interactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubee_Interactive"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Huawei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huawei"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"BroadLight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BroadLight"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Siemens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Nokia Solutions and Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nokia_Solutions_and_Networks"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Acme Packet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acme_Packet"},{"link_name":"Session Border Controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Border_Controllers"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"Alcatel-Lucent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcatel-Lucent_Enterprise"},{"link_name":"Avaya ERS 8600","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaya_ERS_8600"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Avaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaya"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco"},{"link_name":"Ciena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciena"},{"link_name":"Dell PowerConnect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell_PowerConnect"},{"link_name":"Broadcom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcom"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Ericsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ericsson"},{"link_name":"NetBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSD"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Hewlett Packard HP 9000 Superdome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP_Superdome"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"HughesNet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HughesNet"},{"link_name":"Mitel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitel"},{"link_name":"Mitel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitel"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"Motorola Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_Solutions"},{"link_name":"Motorola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola"},{"link_name":"Motorola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola"},{"link_name":"Nortel CS1000 PBX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nortel_Meridian"},{"link_name":"Nortel Passport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passport_Carrier_Release"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"Radware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radware"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"SonicWALL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SonicWALL"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"Thuraya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuraya"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Radvision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radvision"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"Zhone Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhone_Technologies"},{"link_name":"Oracle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Corporation"}],"sub_title":"Networking and communication infrastructure","text":"Arkoon Network Security appliances[90]\nUbee Interactive's AirWalk EdgePoint[91]\nKontron's ACTA processor boards[92]\nQQTechnologies's QQSG[93]\nA significant portion of Huawei's telecoms equipment uses VxWorks[94]\nBroadLight’s GPON/PON products[95]\nShiron Satellite Communications’ InterSKY\nSky Pilot's SkyGateway, SkyExtender and SkyControl[96]\nEtherRaptor-1010 by Raptor Network Technology[97]\nCPG-3000 and CPX-5000 routers from Siemens[98]\nNokia Solutions and Networks FlexiPacket series microwave engineering product[99]\nAcme Packet Net-Net series of Session Border Controllers[100]\nAlcatel-Lucent IP Touch 40x8 IP Deskphones\nAvaya ERS 8600[101]\nAvaya IP400 Office\nCisco CSS platform\nCisco ONS platform\nCiena Common Photonic Layer\nDell PowerConnect switches that are 'powered by' Broadcom, except latest PCT8100 which runs on Linux platform[102]\nEricsson SmartEdge routers (SEOS 11 run NetBSD 3.0 and VxWorks for Broadcom BCM1480 version 5.5.1 kernel version 2.6)[103]\nHewlett Packard HP 9000 Superdome Guardian Service Processor\nHirschmann EAGLE20 Industrial Firewall[104]\nHughesNet/Direcway satellite internet modems\nMitel Networks' MiVoice Business (formerly Mitel Communications Director (MCD)), 3300 ICP Media Gateways and SX-200 and SX-200 ICP[105]\nMotorola Solutions MCD5000 IP Deskset System\nMotorola SB5100 cable modem\nMotorola Cable Headend Equipment including SEM, NC, OM and other lines\nNortel CS1000 PBX (formerly Nortel Meridian 1 (Option 11C, Option 61C, Option 81C)\nNortel Passport[106]\nRadware OnDemand Switches[107]\nSamsung DCS and OfficeServ series PBX[108]\nSonicWALL firewalls[109]\nThuraya SO-2510 satellite phone and ThurayaModule[110]\nRadvision 3G communications equipment[111]\n3com NBX phone systems[112]\nZhone Technologies access systems\nOracle EAGLE STP system","title":"Notable uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"remote code execution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrary_code_execution"},{"link_name":"denial of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunneling_protocol"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"mission-critical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission-critical"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"}],"text":"As of July 2019, a paper published by Armis[113] exposed 11 critical vulnerabilities, including remote code execution, denial of service, information leaks, and logical flaws impacting more than two billion devices using the VxWorks RTOS.[114] The vulnerability allows attackers to tunnel into an internal network using the vulnerability and hack into printers, laptops, and any other connected devices. The vulnerability can bypass firewalls as well.[115]The system is in use by quite a few mission-critical products, many of which could not be easily patched.[116]","title":"TCP vulnerability and CVE patches"}]
[{"image_text":"The Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover uses VxWorks.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Mars_%27Curiosity%27_Rover%2C_Spacecraft_Assembly_Facility%2C_Pasadena%2C_California_%282011%29.jpg/220px-Mars_%27Curiosity%27_Rover%2C_Spacecraft_Assembly_Facility%2C_Pasadena%2C_California_%282011%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The ASIMO Robot uses VxWorks.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/ASIMO_4.28.11.jpg/220px-ASIMO_4.28.11.jpg"},{"image_text":"AgustaWestland Project Zero uses VxWorks.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/AW_Project_Zero_2013.png/220px-AW_Project_Zero_2013.png"},{"image_text":"The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter uses VxWorks.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter.jpg/220px-Mars_Reconnaissance_Orbiter.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Clementine spacecraft used VxWorks.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Clementine_lunar.jpg/220px-Clementine_lunar.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"Wind River Announces RISC-V Support for VxWorks RTOS\". www.businesswire.com. December 10, 2019. Retrieved December 11, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20191210005381/en/Wind-River-Announces-RISC-V-Support-VxWorks-RTOS","url_text":"\"Wind River Announces RISC-V Support for VxWorks RTOS\""}]},{"reference":"John Rath (February 2014). \"Intel Adds Virtualization Platform for Industrial Systems\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.datacenterknowledge.com/archives/2014/02/27/intel-adds-virtualization-platforms-industrial-systems/","url_text":"\"Intel Adds Virtualization Platform for Industrial Systems\""}]},{"reference":"\"VxWorks 7 Announced\". harmonicss.co.uk. 2014. Archived from the original on July 4, 2014. Retrieved June 20, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140704044303/http://harmonicss.co.uk/index.php/component/content/article/43-news-vxworks/88-vxworks-7-announced","url_text":"\"VxWorks 7 Announced\""},{"url":"http://www.harmonicss.co.uk/index.php/component/content/article/43-news-vxworks/88-vxworks-7-announced","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jackson, Joab (2014). \"Wind River outfits VxWorks for 'Internet of things' | ITworld\". itworld.com. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved June 20, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140311030503/http://www.itworld.com/open-source/407290/wind-river-outfits-vxworks-internet-things","url_text":"\"Wind River outfits VxWorks for 'Internet of things' | ITworld\""},{"url":"http://www.itworld.com/open-source/407290/wind-river-outfits-vxworks-internet-things","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Embedded Systems Glossary: V\". www.netrino.com. Netrino, LLC. November 30, 2007. Retrieved September 20, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.netrino.com/Embedded-Systems/Glossary-V","url_text":"\"Embedded Systems Glossary: V\""}]},{"reference":"\"SEC filing\". Secinfo.com. January 19, 1996. Retrieved November 18, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.secinfo.com/dr6nd.9u.htm#5hg","url_text":"\"SEC filing\""}]},{"reference":"Li, Qing; Yao, Caroline (2003). Real-Time Concepts for Embedded Systems. CMP Books. ISBN 1-57820-124-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57820-124-1","url_text":"1-57820-124-1"}]},{"reference":"\"Embedded Software Market latest Trends and New Technologies Research Forecast to 2025\". February 24, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://justpositivity.com/embedded-software-market-1043","url_text":"\"Embedded Software Market latest Trends and New Technologies Research Forecast to 2025\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wind River Releases 64-Bit VxWorks RTOS\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%B6hler_synthesis
Wöhler synthesis
["1 Modified versions of the Wöhler synthesis","2 Debate","3 References"]
Synthetic production of urea from ammonium cyanate The Wöhler synthesis is the conversion of ammonium cyanate into urea. This chemical reaction was described in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler. It is often cited as the starting point of modern organic chemistry. Although the Wöhler reaction concerns the conversion of ammonium cyanate, this salt appears only as an (unstable) intermediate. Wöhler demonstrated the reaction in his original publication with different sets of reactants: a combination of cyanic acid and ammonia, a combination of silver cyanate and ammonium chloride, a combination of lead cyanate and ammonia and finally from a combination of mercury cyanate and cyanatic ammonia (which is again cyanic acid with ammonia). Modified versions of the Wöhler synthesis The reaction can be demonstrated by starting with solutions of potassium cyanate and ammonium chloride which are mixed, heated and cooled again. An additional proof of the chemical transformation is obtained by adding a solution of oxalic acid which forms urea oxalate as a white precipitate. Alternatively the reaction can be carried out with lead cyanate and ammonia. The actual reaction taking place is a double displacement reaction to form ammonium cyanate: Pb(OCN)2 + 2 NH3 + 2 H2O → Pb(OH)2 + 2NH4(OCN) Ammonium cyanate decomposes to ammonia and cyanic acid which in turn react to produce urea: NH4(OCN) → NH3 + HOCN ⇌ (NH2)2CO Complexation with oxalic acid drives this chemical equilibrium to completion. Debate Further information: Vitalism § 19th century It is disputed that Wöhler's synthesis sparked the downfall of the theory of vitalism, which states that organic matter possessed a certain vital force common to all living things. Prior to the Wöhler synthesis, the work of John Dalton and Jöns Jacob Berzelius had already convinced chemists that organic and inorganic matter obey the same chemical laws. It took until 1845 when Kolbe reported another inorganic – organic conversion (of carbon disulfide to acetic acid) before vitalism started to lose support. Wöhler also did not, as some textbooks have claimed, act as a "crusader" against vitalism. A 2000 survey by historian Peter Ramberg found that 90% of chemical textbooks repeat some version of the Wöhler myth. References ^ Friedrich Wöhler (1828). "Ueber künstliche Bildung des Harnstoffs". Annalen der Physik und Chemie. 88 (2): 253–256 ^ Cohen, Paul S.; Cohen, Stephen M. (1996). "Wöhler's Synthesis of Urea: How do the Textbooks Report It?". Journal of Chemical Education. 73 (9): 883. doi:10.1021/ed073p883. ^ Tóth, Zoltán (1996). "A demonstration of Wöhler's experiment: Preparation of urea from ammonium chloride and potassium cyanate". Journal of Chemical Education. 73 (6): 539. Bibcode:1996JChEd..73..539T. doi:10.1021/ed073p539.2. ^ Batchelor, James D.; Carpenter, Everett E.; Holder, Grant N.; Eagle, Cassandra T.; Fielder, Jon; Cummings, Jared (1998). "Recreation of Wöhler's Synthesis of Urea: An Undergraduate Organic Laboratory Exercise". The Chemical Educator. 3 (6): 1–7. doi:10.1007/s00897980271a. S2CID 95650676. ^ "Introduction", Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science, Harvard University Press, pp. 59–66, 31 December 2015, retrieved 29 July 2022, Myth 7. That Friedrich Wöhler's Synthesis of Urea in 1828 Destroyed Vitalism and Gave Rise to Organic Chemistry ^ Newton’s Apple and Other Myths about Science. Harvard University Press. 4 November 2015. doi:10.4159/9780674089167. ISBN 978-0-674-08916-7. ^ Ramberg, Peter J. (2000). "The Death of Vitalism and the Birth of Organic Chemistry: Wohler's Urea Synthesis and the Disciplinary Identity of Organic Chemistry". Ambix. 47 (3): 170–195. doi:10.1179/amb.2000.47.3.170. PMID 11640223. S2CID 44613876.
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This chemical reaction was described in 1828 by Friedrich Wöhler.[1] It is often cited as the starting point of modern organic chemistry. Although the Wöhler reaction concerns the conversion of ammonium cyanate, this salt appears only as an (unstable) intermediate. Wöhler demonstrated the reaction in his original publication with different sets of reactants: a combination of cyanic acid and ammonia, a combination of silver cyanate and ammonium chloride, a combination of lead cyanate and ammonia and finally from a combination of mercury cyanate and cyanatic ammonia (which is again cyanic acid with ammonia).[2]","title":"Wöhler synthesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"potassium cyanate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_cyanate"},{"link_name":"ammonium chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_chloride"},{"link_name":"oxalic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxalic_acid"},{"link_name":"urea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea"},{"link_name":"oxalate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxalate"},{"link_name":"precipitate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitate"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"double displacement reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_displacement_reaction"},{"link_name":"decomposes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_decomposition"},{"link_name":"ammonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia"},{"link_name":"cyanic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanic_acid"},{"link_name":"oxalic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxalic_acid"},{"link_name":"chemical equilibrium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium"}],"text":"The reaction can be demonstrated by starting with solutions of potassium cyanate and ammonium chloride which are mixed, heated and cooled again. An additional proof of the chemical transformation is obtained by adding a solution of oxalic acid which forms urea oxalate as a white precipitate.[3]Alternatively the reaction can be carried out with lead cyanate and ammonia.[4] The actual reaction taking place is a double displacement reaction to form ammonium cyanate:Pb(OCN)2 + 2 NH3 + 2 H2O → Pb(OH)2 + 2NH4(OCN)Ammonium cyanate decomposes to ammonia and cyanic acid which in turn react to produce urea:NH4(OCN) → NH3 + HOCN ⇌ (NH2)2COComplexation with oxalic acid drives this chemical equilibrium to completion.","title":"Modified versions of the Wöhler synthesis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vitalism § 19th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism#19th_century"},{"link_name":"vitalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitalism"},{"link_name":"John Dalton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dalton"},{"link_name":"Jöns Jacob Berzelius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius"},{"link_name":"Kolbe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolph_Wilhelm_Hermann_Kolbe"},{"link_name":"carbon disulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_disulfide"},{"link_name":"acetic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetic_acid"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Further information: Vitalism § 19th centuryIt is disputed that Wöhler's synthesis sparked the downfall of the theory of vitalism, which states that organic matter possessed a certain vital force common to all living things. Prior to the Wöhler synthesis, the work of John Dalton and Jöns Jacob Berzelius had already convinced chemists that organic and inorganic matter obey the same chemical laws. It took until 1845 when Kolbe reported another inorganic – organic conversion (of carbon disulfide to acetic acid) before vitalism started to lose support.[5][6] Wöhler also did not, as some textbooks have claimed, act as a \"crusader\" against vitalism. A 2000 survey by historian Peter Ramberg found that 90% of chemical textbooks repeat some version of the Wöhler myth.[7]","title":"Debate"}]
[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Medical_Center
Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center
["1 History","2 Facilities","2.1 Area covered for the paramedics","2.2 Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA","2.3 UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital","3 Death of Michael Jackson","4 Notable people","4.1 Physicians","4.2 Births","4.3 Notable patients","5 Controversy","5.1 Mo cell line controversy","5.2 CRE outbreak","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
Coordinates: 34°3′59″N 118°26′46″W / 34.06639°N 118.44611°W / 34.06639; -118.44611Hospital in Los Angeles, California Not to be confused with Harbor–UCLA Medical Center; Olive View–UCLA Medical Center; or UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica. Hospital in California, USRonald Reagan UCLA Medical CenterUCLA HealthGeographyLocation757 Westwood Plaza, Westwood, Los Angeles, California, USCoordinates34°3′59″N 118°26′46″W / 34.06639°N 118.44611°W / 34.06639; -118.44611OrganisationCare systemPrivate, Medicaid, MedicareTypeTeachingAffiliated universityUniversity of California, Los AngelesServicesEmergency departmentLevel I Trauma CenterBeds520HelipadFAA LID: 75CLHistoryOpened1955LinksWebsiteuclahealth.org/hospitals/reagan Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center (also commonly referred to as UCLA Medical Center, RRMC or Ronald Reagan) is a hospital located on the campus of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, United States. It is currently ranked by U.S. News & World Report, as the best in California and the West Coast (tied with Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, also in Los Angeles). The hospital provides tertiary care to Los Angeles and the surrounding communities. UCLA Medical Center has research centers covering nearly all major specialties of medicine and nursing as well as dentistry and is the primary teaching hospital for the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and the UCLA School of Nursing. The hospital's emergency department is a certified Level I trauma center for both adult and pediatric patients. Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center is a constituent part of UCLA Health, a comprehensive consortium of research hospitals and medical institutes affiliated with UCLA, including Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center; UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica; Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA; UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital; and UCLA Medical Group. Collectively, the hospitals and specialty-care facilities of the UCLA Health system make it among the most comprehensive and advanced healthcare systems in the United States. The hospital has been ranked in the top twenty in 15 of the 16 medical specialties ranked by the U.S. News ranking. Ten of those specialties were ranked in the top ten. In 2005, the American Nurses Credentialing Center granted the medical center "Magnet" status. History On June 29, 2008, the new Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center opened and became fully operational, replacing the older facilities across the street. The older hospital complex had suffered moderate interior structural damage in the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Because numerous hospitals in the area were severely damaged during the Northridge earthquake and injured people had to be transported long distances for emergency care, the state of California passed SB1953, an amendment to an older law requiring all hospitals to move their acute care and intensive care units into earthquake-resistant buildings by 2008. Originally budgeted at $598 million in 1998, construction began in 1999 and was completed in 2004. Cost overruns and construction delays attributed to rising construction costs and design changes due to medical advances resulted in the price of the building increasing to $829 million. Equipment purchased for the new building increased the total cost to over $1 billion. The Federal Emergency Management Agency contributed $432 million in earthquake relief funds to the project, and the state of California contributed $44 million. Private donations raised over $300 million for the project, including $150 million in President Reagan's name. The new building was constructed to withstand an 8.0 magnitude earthquake, one of the first buildings in California built to the most recent seismic standards. The new 1.05-million-square-foot (98,000 m2) hospital is named after the President of the United States and Governor of California Ronald Reagan (1911–2004). It was designed by C.C. "Didi" Pei of Pei Partnership Architects in collaboration with his father, Pritzker Prize-winning architect I.M. Pei. The hospital will contain fewer patient beds (525) than the one it replaces. Patient beds in the intensive-care units will be accessible to nurses and physicians from 360 degrees, and surgical floor plans will be modular, allowing them to be expanded and reconfigured as medical technology evolves. The hospital is sheathed with mechanically honed, cream-colored, horizontally grained travertine marble panels sold at below-market-rate cost by Carlo Marrioti, the owner of an Italian quarry whose cancer was cured at UCLA. The travertine elements were fastened to a sophisticated interlocking panelized aluminum cladding system developed by Benson Industries of Portland, Oregon. The building envelope is designed to resist and survive severe seismic events and maintain excellent resistance to air and water infiltration. The older center itself is a sprawling 11-story brick building designed by Welton Becket. It is considered a landmark of early modern architecture. The center was built in several phases, the first of which was completed in 1953. The hospital has a "tic-tac-toe" layout of intersecting wings, creating a series of courtyards throughout the complex. The first floor is unusual in that most of its walls are completely clad in a thick layer of naturally-weathered, unfilled, travertine, creating an unusual "organic" appearance. The exterior architecture is very simple (as with many Becket designs), consisting of a red brick wall with horizontal bands of stainless-steel louvers over the windows to keep direct sunlight from heating the building. Some of the old complex will be torn down, and some of it will be renovated and turned into office space when it is no longer an operational hospital. The law does not require that all parts of a hospital be made earthquake-safe, only the most important parts. Much of the extensive travertine wall cladding from the building's interior will most likely be salvaged and re-used. Facilities Area covered for the paramedics Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center has covered paramedic areas for the Fire Department. Beverly Hills F.D. – RA 1, 2 and 3 Los Angeles Fire Department – RA 5, 19, 34, 37, 43, 58, 59, 63, 92, 94 and 95. Los Angeles County Fire Department – Squads 71, 88, 89 and 172. Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA The Stewart & Lynda Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA is a 74-bed acute care psychiatric hospital located within the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. Following a donation, the hospital was named for Lynda Resnick and her husband. The hospital has a pediatrics unit, adolescent unit, an adult unit, and a geriatrics unit UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital Main article: UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center is a pediatric acute care hospital located in Los Angeles, California. The hospital has 156 beds. It is affiliated with the University of California, Los Angeles David Geffen School of Medicine, and is a member of UCLA Health. The hospital provides comprehensive pediatric specialties and subspecialties to pediatric patients aged 0–21 throughout California. UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital features a pediatric level 1 trauma center. The UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital is located on the third and fifth floors of the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. Death of Michael Jackson Main article: Death of Michael Jackson On June 25, 2009, American singer Michael Jackson died from acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication at his home. Conrad Murray, his personal physician, had given Jackson various medications to help him sleep at his rented mansion in Holmby Hills, Los Angeles. Paramedics received a 911 call at 12:22 p.m. Pacific time (19:22 UTC), and arrived three minutes later. Jackson was not breathing and CPR was performed. Resuscitation efforts continued en route to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after arriving there, but were unsuccessful, and Jackson was pronounced dead at 2:26 pm Pacific time (21:26 UTC). Notable people Physicians David Ho Louis Ignarro – UCLA faculty member and pharmacologist Louis Ignarro's discovery of one of the most important signaling molecules in the human body, nitric oxide, led to his winning the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1998. This discovery revolutionized the fields of cardiopulmonary medicine and immunology. Patrick Soon-Shiong Births Beyoncé and Jay Z’s twins Rumi and Sir Carter (June 13, 2017) Maud Elizabeth Daphne Marina (First American Born British Royal) Notable patients Freddie Prinze died on January 29, 1977 Jack Soo died on January 11, 1979 Jack Haley died on June 6, 1979 John Wayne died on June 11, 1979 Pat Buttram died on January 8, 1994 Friz Freleng died on May 26, 1995 Mary Wickes died on October 22, 1995 Marlon Brando died on July 1, 2004 Rodney Dangerfield died on October 5, 2004 Charles Nelson Reilly died on May 25, 2007 Harvey Korman died on May 29, 2008 Nina Foch died on December 5, 2008 Wayne Allwine died on May 18, 2009 Ed McMahon died on June 23, 2009 Michael Jackson died on June 25, 2009 Andrew Breitbart died on March 1, 2012 Richard Dawson died on June 2, 2012 Zsa Zsa Gabor died on December 18, 2016 Carrie Fisher died on December 27, 2016 Adam West died on June 9, 2017 Martin Landau died on July 15, 2017 Charlie Robinson died on July 11, 2021 Eve Babitz died on December 17, 2021 James Caan died on July 6, 2022 Controversy Mo cell line controversy Main article: Moore v. Regents of the University of California UCLA Medical Center is well known as the defendant in a famous Supreme Court of California case, Moore v. Regents of the University of California, 51 Cal. 3d 120 (1990). The court decided that patient John Moore had no property rights in the immensely profitable "Mo" cell line which UCLA researchers had discovered when they removed his cancerous spleen. CRE outbreak As of 2015, seven people had been infected by and two have died from carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae, a drug-resistant superbug. A total of 179 people were exposed to the bacteria via two duodenoscopes which were not disinfected sufficiently. The outbreak is not serious, however, as the superbug is not a serious threat to healthy patients, and cannot be transmitted easily through its own means. The risk of infection via duodenoscope is very low as well, with procedures being performed on over 500,000 individuals between 2013 and 2014, and only 135 cases of CRE being reported as a result. Some doctors believe several more outbreaks of this nature are imminent. Since the outbreak, demands have been made to the FDA to improve their regulation and sanitation of medical devices. See also Los Angeles portal Harbor-UCLA Medical Center Olive View-UCLA Medical Center UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica UCLA Health, overarching administrative structure, comprising the UCLA hospitals. UCLA Health Care, the billing and administrative organ of the UCLA Health System. UCLA Medical Group, a health care group of physicians affiliated with UCLA. References ^ "About Us". Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. Archived from the original on February 24, 2010. Retrieved April 30, 2010. ^ "2022–23 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Medical Specialties Rankings". U.S. News & World Report. July 26, 2022. ^ "Emergency Department". www.uclahealth.org. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center – Magnet status". American Nurses Credentialing Center. Archived from the original on July 8, 2010. Retrieved April 30, 2010. ^ a b c d Groves, Martha (June 25, 2008), "UCLA health center readies move", Los Angeles Times, pp. B1, B6 ^ "BILL NUMBER: SB 1953 – CHAPTERED 09/22/94". California.gov. Archived from the original on November 8, 2019. ^ Groves, Martha (July 31, 2004). "Hospital's Stone Is Monument to Saving a Life". Los Angeles Times. ^ "About Us". Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA. Archived from the original on July 31, 2010. Retrieved April 30, 2010. ^ "UCLA Mattel Childrens Hospital". www.childrenshospitals.org. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "UCLA Adolescent Transitional Cardiac Care Program, Los Angeles, CA". www.uclahealth.org. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Pediatrics – UCLA Department of Nursing – Los Angeles, CA". www.uclahealth.org. Archived from the original on April 7, 2020. Retrieved April 7, 2020. ^ "Child Life Program provides fun and friends to kids in hospital". Daily Bruin. April 5, 2011. Archived from the original on April 7, 2020. Retrieved April 7, 2020. ^ "American Hospital Directory – Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center (050262) – Free Profile". www.ahd.com. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "About UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital | UCLA Health". www.uclahealth.org. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Michael Jackson dead at 50 after cardiac arrest" (Press release). CNN. June 25, 2009. Retrieved August 31, 2009. ^ "Los Angeles Fire Department recording of the emergency phone call made from Michael Jackson's home". June 26, 2009. Retrieved June 27, 2009. ^ "Partial transcript of Calif. 911 call". Yahoo! News. Associated Press. March 4, 2013. ^ "Michael Jackson's life cut shockingly short". Associated Press. June 26, 2009. ^ Whitcraft, Teri; Pisarcik, Kristin; Brown, Kimberly (June 23, 2010). "Timeline: Michael Jackson's Final Days". ABC News. Retrieved March 19, 2017. ^ Harvey, Michael (June 26, 2009). "Fans mourn artist for whom it didn't matter if you were black or white". The Times. Archived from the original on September 20, 2011. ^ Moore, Matthew (June 26, 2009). "Michael Jackson, King of Pop, dies of cardiac arrest in Los Angeles". The Daily Telegraph. ^ Whitcomb, Dan; Isensee, Laura (June 26, 2009). "Michael Jackson death still unsolved after autopsy". Reuters (Press release). Retrieved May 31, 2015. ^ "How Nitric Oxide Maintains Health". USC News. February 17, 2009. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Prince and Princess Michael of Kent's first grandchild is named 'Maud'". www.telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved August 4, 2023. ^ Martin, Judith; Kotkin, Joel (January 29, 1977). "Freddie Prinze, TV Series Star, Shoots Himself". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Jack Soo, 63, Actor in 'Barney Miller' – He Was Sgt. Yemana in Television Series – Appeared in Movies". The New York Times. United Press International. January 13, 1979. p. 19. Retrieved July 10, 2018. ^ Smith, J. Y. (June 7, 1979). "Jack Haley Dies, Was Tin Man in 'The Wizard of Oz'". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on April 1, 2019. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ Shepard, Richard F. (June 12, 1979). "John Wayne Dead of Cancer on Coast at 72". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Pat Buttram, 78, Actor In 'Green Acres' Series (Published 1994)". The New York Times. Associated Press. January 10, 1994. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 15, 2021. ^ "Isadore (Friz) Freleng Dies; Creator of Cartoons Was 89". The New York Times. Associated Press. May 28, 1995. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 30, 2022. ^ Oliver, Myrna (October 25, 1995). "Mary Wickes; Veteran Comedic Actress". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 19, 2021. ^ "Marlon Brando's Real Last Tango: The Never-Told Story of His Secret A-List Acting School". The Hollywood Reporter. June 11, 2015. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Marlon Brando dies at 80". CNN.com. July 2, 2004. Archived from the original on October 16, 2007. ^ "Charles Nelson Reilly, 76; Tony-winning actor, TV game show regular". Los Angeles Times. May 29, 2007. Archived from the original on June 22, 2020. Retrieved April 5, 2020. ^ "Comic actor Harvey Korman dies at 81". CNN.com. May 29, 2008. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Nina Foch - December 5, 2008 - Obituary - Tributes.com". www.tributes.com. Archived from the original on June 23, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "The voice of Mickey Mouse dies at 62". Orange County Register. May 20, 2009. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "TV's Ed McMahon dead at 86". Alton Telegraph. June 23, 2009. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Michael Jackson dead at 50 after cardiac arrest". CNN.com. June 25, 2009. Archived from the original on August 27, 2009. Retrieved August 31, 2009. ^ Farhi, Paul (March 1, 2012). "Andrew Breitbart built Internet empire by combining new media, partisan slant". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "'Family Feud' TV host Richard Dawson dies at 79". mlive. Associated Press. June 3, 2012. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Zsa Zsa Gabor Dies at 99". ABC News. Archived from the original on June 23, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ "Carrie Fisher, Beloved 'Star Wars' Actress, Dies". Beverly Hills, CA Patch. December 27, 2016. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. Retrieved February 16, 2020. ^ Gates, Anita (June 10, 2017). "Sad Day for Gotham: Adam West, Who Played Batman, Dies at 88". The New York Times. p. A27. ^ Lowry, Brian (June 10, 2017). "Adam West, TV's 'Batman,' Dies at 88". Variety. Los Angeles. Retrieved June 10, 2017. ^ "TV Batman actor Adam West dies at 88". BBC News. London. June 10, 2017. Retrieved June 10, 2017. ^ "Adam West, Straight-Faced Star of TV's 'Batman,' Dies at 88". The Hollywood Reporter. June 10, 2017. ^ Barnes, Mike (July 16, 2017). "Martin Landau, Oscar Winner for 'Ed Wood,' Dies at 89". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on July 17, 2017. Retrieved July 16, 2017. ^ "Charlie Robinson, Known for His Role on NBC's Night Court, Dead at 75". People. Archived from the original on July 13, 2021. Retrieved July 14, 2021. ^ "Hollywood bard, muse and reveler Eve Babitz dies at 78". Associated Press. December 18, 2021. Retrieved December 23, 2021. ^ Rice, Nicholas (July 23, 2022). "James Caan's Cause of Death Revealed as a Combination of Heart Problems". People. Retrieved July 23, 2022. ^ Moore v. Regents of University of California (1990) 51 C3d 120, Continuing Education of the Bar — California, archived from the original on May 6, 2008, retrieved April 30, 2010 ^ "Superbug linked to 2 deaths at UCLA hospital; 179 potentially exposed", Los Angeles Times, February 18, 2015, archived from the original on February 19, 2015, retrieved February 19, 2015 ^ Hamilton, Jon (February 19, 2015), "Why California's Superbug Outbreak Isn't As Scary As It Seems", NPR, archived from the original on March 2, 2015, retrieved March 3, 2015 ^ As superbug spreads, device manufacturer sued for negligence, fraud, Al Jazeera America, archived from the original on March 1, 2015, retrieved March 3, 2015 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harbor–UCLA Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbor%E2%80%93UCLA_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"Olive View–UCLA Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_View%E2%80%93UCLA_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Medical_Center,_Santa_Monica"},{"link_name":"hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital"},{"link_name":"University of California, Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"Westwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westwood,_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"U.S. News & World Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"West Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Cedars-Sinai Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedars-Sinai_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"tertiary care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_care"},{"link_name":"medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"},{"link_name":"nursing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nursing"},{"link_name":"dentistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistry"},{"link_name":"teaching hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_hospital"},{"link_name":"David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Geffen_School_of_Medicine_at_UCLA"},{"link_name":"UCLA School of Nursing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_School_of_Nursing"},{"link_name":"Level I trauma center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_I_trauma_center"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"UCLA Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Health"},{"link_name":"UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Medical_Center,_Santa_Monica"},{"link_name":"UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Mattel_Children%27s_Hospital"},{"link_name":"American Nurses Credentialing Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Nurses_Credentialing_Center"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Hospital in Los Angeles, CaliforniaNot to be confused with Harbor–UCLA Medical Center; Olive View–UCLA Medical Center; or UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica.Hospital in California, USRonald Reagan UCLA Medical Center (also commonly referred to as UCLA Medical Center, RRMC or Ronald Reagan) is a hospital located on the campus of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), in Westwood, Los Angeles, California, United States. It is currently ranked by U.S. News & World Report, as the best in California and the West Coast (tied with Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, also in Los Angeles).[2] The hospital provides tertiary care to Los Angeles and the surrounding communities.UCLA Medical Center has research centers covering nearly all major specialties of medicine and nursing as well as dentistry and is the primary teaching hospital for the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and the UCLA School of Nursing. The hospital's emergency department is a certified Level I trauma center for both adult and pediatric patients.[3] Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center is a constituent part of UCLA Health, a comprehensive consortium of research hospitals and medical institutes affiliated with UCLA, including Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center; UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica; Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA; UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital; and UCLA Medical Group.Collectively, the hospitals and specialty-care facilities of the UCLA Health system make it among the most comprehensive and advanced healthcare systems in the United States. The hospital has been ranked in the top twenty in 15 of the 16 medical specialties ranked by the U.S. News ranking. Ten of those specialties were ranked in the top ten. In 2005, the American Nurses Credentialing Center granted the medical center \"Magnet\" status.[4]","title":"Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1994 Northridge earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Northridge_earthquake"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimesJune2008-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimesJune2008-5"},{"link_name":"Federal Emergency Management Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency"},{"link_name":"President Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake"},{"link_name":"seismic standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake_engineering"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimesJune2008-5"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"Pei Partnership Architects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pei_Partnership_Architects"},{"link_name":"Pritzker Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pritzker_Prize"},{"link_name":"I.M. Pei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.M._Pei"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-latimesJune2008-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Groves-7"},{"link_name":"brick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick"},{"link_name":"Welton Becket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welton_Becket"},{"link_name":"tic-tac-toe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tic-tac-toe"},{"link_name":"travertine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travertine"}],"text":"On June 29, 2008, the new Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center opened and became fully operational, replacing the older facilities across the street. The older hospital complex had suffered moderate interior structural damage in the 1994 Northridge earthquake.[5] Because numerous hospitals in the area were severely damaged during the Northridge earthquake and injured people had to be transported long distances for emergency care, the state of California passed SB1953,[6] an amendment to an older law requiring all hospitals to move their acute care and intensive care units into earthquake-resistant buildings by 2008.Originally budgeted at $598 million in 1998, construction began in 1999 and was completed in 2004. Cost overruns and construction delays attributed to rising construction costs and design changes due to medical advances resulted in the price of the building increasing to $829 million. Equipment purchased for the new building increased the total cost to over $1 billion.[5] The Federal Emergency Management Agency contributed $432 million in earthquake relief funds to the project, and the state of California contributed $44 million. Private donations raised over $300 million for the project, including $150 million in President Reagan's name. The new building was constructed to withstand an 8.0 magnitude earthquake, one of the first buildings in California built to the most recent seismic standards.[5]The new 1.05-million-square-foot (98,000 m2) hospital is named after the President of the United States and Governor of California Ronald Reagan (1911–2004). It was designed by C.C. \"Didi\" Pei of Pei Partnership Architects in collaboration with his father, Pritzker Prize-winning architect I.M. Pei.[5] The hospital will contain fewer patient beds (525) than the one it replaces. Patient beds in the intensive-care units will be accessible to nurses and physicians from 360 degrees, and surgical floor plans will be modular, allowing them to be expanded and reconfigured as medical technology evolves. The hospital is sheathed with mechanically honed, cream-colored, horizontally grained travertine marble panels sold at below-market-rate cost by Carlo Marrioti, the owner of an Italian quarry whose cancer was cured at UCLA.[7] The travertine elements were fastened to a sophisticated interlocking panelized aluminum cladding system developed by Benson Industries of Portland, Oregon. The building envelope is designed to resist and survive severe seismic events and maintain excellent resistance to air and water infiltration.The older center itself is a sprawling 11-story brick building designed by Welton Becket. It is considered a landmark of early modern architecture. The center was built in several phases, the first of which was completed in 1953. The hospital has a \"tic-tac-toe\" layout of intersecting wings, creating a series of courtyards throughout the complex. The first floor is unusual in that most of its walls are completely clad in a thick layer of naturally-weathered, unfilled, travertine, creating an unusual \"organic\" appearance. The exterior architecture is very simple (as with many Becket designs), consisting of a red brick wall with horizontal bands of stainless-steel louvers over the windows to keep direct sunlight from heating the building.Some of the old complex will be torn down, and some of it will be renovated and turned into office space when it is no longer an operational hospital. The law does not require that all parts of a hospital be made earthquake-safe, only the most important parts. Much of the extensive travertine wall cladding from the building's interior will most likely be salvaged and re-used.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Los Angeles Fire Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Fire_Department"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles County Fire Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_County_Fire_Department"}],"sub_title":"Area covered for the paramedics","text":"Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center has covered paramedic areas for the Fire Department.Beverly Hills F.D. – RA 1, 2 and 3\nLos Angeles Fire Department – RA 5, 19, 34, 37, 43, 58, 59, 63, 92, 94 and 95.\nLos Angeles County Fire Department – Squads 71, 88, 89 and 172.","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Lynda Resnick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynda_Resnick"}],"sub_title":"Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA","text":"The Stewart & Lynda Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA is a 74-bed acute care psychiatric hospital located within the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center.[8] Following a donation, the hospital was named for Lynda Resnick and her husband. The hospital has a pediatrics unit, adolescent unit, an adult unit, and a geriatrics unit","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Mattel_Children%27s_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"University of California, Los Angeles David Geffen School of Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Geffen_School_of_Medicine_at_UCLA"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-14"}],"sub_title":"UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital","text":"UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital at Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center is a pediatric acute care hospital located in Los Angeles, California. The hospital has 156 beds.[9] It is affiliated with the University of California, Los Angeles David Geffen School of Medicine, and is a member of UCLA Health. The hospital provides comprehensive pediatric specialties and subspecialties to pediatric patients aged 0–21[10][11][12] throughout California. UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital features a pediatric level 1 trauma center.[13] The UCLA Mattel Children's Hospital is located on the third and fifth floors of the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center.[14]","title":"Facilities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson"},{"link_name":"propofol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propofol"},{"link_name":"benzodiazepine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benzodiazepine"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Conrad Murray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Murray"},{"link_name":"Holmby Hills, Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmby_Hills,_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9-1-1"},{"link_name":"Pacific time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Time_Zone"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"CPR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiopulmonary_resuscitation"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Telegraph-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"On June 25, 2009, American singer Michael Jackson died from acute propofol and benzodiazepine intoxication at his home.[15] Conrad Murray, his personal physician, had given Jackson various medications to help him sleep at his rented mansion in Holmby Hills, Los Angeles. Paramedics received a 911 call at 12:22 p.m. Pacific time (19:22 UTC), and arrived three minutes later.[16][17] Jackson was not breathing and CPR was performed.[18] Resuscitation efforts continued en route to Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center, and for more than an hour after arriving there, but were unsuccessful,[19][20] and Jackson was pronounced dead at 2:26 pm Pacific time (21:26 UTC).[21][22]","title":"Death of Michael Jackson"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Ho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Ho"},{"link_name":"Louis Ignarro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Ignarro"},{"link_name":"pharmacologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacologist"},{"link_name":"nitric oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitric_oxide"},{"link_name":"Nobel Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Patrick Soon-Shiong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Soon-Shiong"}],"sub_title":"Physicians","text":"David Ho\nLouis Ignarro – UCLA faculty member and pharmacologist Louis Ignarro's discovery of one of the most important signaling molecules in the human body, nitric oxide, led to his winning the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1998. This discovery revolutionized the fields of cardiopulmonary medicine and immunology.[23]\nPatrick Soon-Shiong","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Beyoncé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Jay Z","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Z"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Births","text":"Beyoncé and Jay Z’s twins Rumi and Sir Carter (June 13, 2017)\nMaud Elizabeth Daphne Marina (First American Born British Royal)[24]","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Freddie Prinze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie_Prinze"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Jack Soo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Soo"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Jack Haley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Haley"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"John Wayne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wayne"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Pat Buttram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Buttram"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Friz Freleng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friz_Freleng"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Mary Wickes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Wickes"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Marlon Brando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlon_Brando"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Rodney Dangerfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodney_Dangerfield"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Charles Nelson Reilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Nelson_Reilly"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Harvey Korman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Korman"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Nina Foch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Foch"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Wayne Allwine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Allwine"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Ed McMahon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_McMahon"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Michael Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Jackson"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Michael_Jackson_dead_at_50_after_cardiac_arrest-39"},{"link_name":"Andrew Breitbart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Breitbart"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Richard Dawson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawson"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Zsa Zsa Gabor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zsa_Zsa_Gabor"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Carrie Fisher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrie_Fisher"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Adam West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_West"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lowry-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Martin Landau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Landau"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LATimesobit-48"},{"link_name":"Charlie Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Robinson_(actor)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Eve Babitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Babitz"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"James Caan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Caan"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Notable patients","text":"Freddie Prinze died on January 29, 1977[25]\nJack Soo died on January 11, 1979[26]\nJack Haley died on June 6, 1979[27]\nJohn Wayne died on June 11, 1979[28]\nPat Buttram died on January 8, 1994[29]\nFriz Freleng died on May 26, 1995[30]\nMary Wickes died on October 22, 1995[31]\nMarlon Brando died on July 1, 2004[32]\nRodney Dangerfield died on October 5, 2004[33]\nCharles Nelson Reilly died on May 25, 2007[34]\nHarvey Korman died on May 29, 2008[35]\nNina Foch died on December 5, 2008[36]\nWayne Allwine died on May 18, 2009[37]\nEd McMahon died on June 23, 2009[38]\nMichael Jackson died on June 25, 2009[39]\nAndrew Breitbart died on March 1, 2012[40]\nRichard Dawson died on June 2, 2012[41]\nZsa Zsa Gabor died on December 18, 2016[42]\nCarrie Fisher died on December 27, 2016[43]\nAdam West died on June 9, 2017[44][45][46][47]\nMartin Landau died on July 15, 2017[48]\nCharlie Robinson died on July 11, 2021[49]\nEve Babitz died on December 17, 2021[50]\nJames Caan died on July 6, 2022[51]","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Supreme Court of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California"},{"link_name":"Moore v. Regents of the University of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"property","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property"},{"link_name":"cell line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_line"},{"link_name":"spleen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spleen"}],"sub_title":"Mo cell line controversy","text":"UCLA Medical Center is well known as the defendant in a famous Supreme Court of California case, Moore v. Regents of the University of California, 51 Cal. 3d 120 (1990).[52] The court decided that patient John Moore had no property rights in the immensely profitable \"Mo\" cell line which UCLA researchers had discovered when they removed his cancerous spleen.","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbapenem-resistant_enterobacteriaceae"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"FDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDA"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"CRE outbreak","text":"As of 2015, seven people had been infected by and two have died from carbapenem-resistant enterobacteriaceae, a drug-resistant superbug. A total of 179 people were exposed to the bacteria via two duodenoscopes which were not disinfected sufficiently.[53] The outbreak is not serious, however, as the superbug is not a serious threat to healthy patients, and cannot be transmitted easily through its own means. The risk of infection via duodenoscope is very low as well, with procedures being performed on over 500,000 individuals between 2013 and 2014, and only 135 cases of CRE being reported as a result.[54] Some doctors believe several more outbreaks of this nature are imminent. Since the outbreak, demands have been made to the FDA to improve their regulation and sanitation of medical devices.[55]","title":"Controversy"}]
[]
[{"title":"Los Angeles portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Los_Angeles"},{"title":"Harbor-UCLA Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbor-UCLA_Medical_Center"},{"title":"Olive View-UCLA Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive_View-UCLA_Medical_Center"},{"title":"UCLA Medical Center, Santa Monica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Medical_Center,_Santa_Monica"},{"title":"UCLA Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA_Health"}]
[{"reference":"\"About Us\". Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center. Archived from the original on February 24, 2010. Retrieved April 30, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100224111144/http://www.uclahealth.org/body_med.cfm?id=346","url_text":"\"About Us\""},{"url":"http://www.uclahealth.org/body_med.cfm?id=346","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"2022–23 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Medical Specialties Rankings\". U.S. News & World Report. July 26, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://health.usnews.com/health-care/best-hospitals/articles/best-hospitals-honor-roll-and-overview","url_text":"\"2022–23 Best Hospitals Honor Roll and Medical Specialties Rankings\""}]},{"reference":"\"Emergency Department\". www.uclahealth.org. Archived from the original on February 16, 2020. 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Retrieved April 30, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nursecredentialing.org/MagnetOrg/getdetail.cfm?magnetid=1046","url_text":"\"Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center – Magnet status\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100708083752/http://www.nursecredentialing.org/MagnetOrg/getdetail.cfm?magnetid=1046","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Groves, Martha (June 25, 2008), \"UCLA health center readies move\", Los Angeles Times, pp. B1, B6","urls":[{"url":"http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-ucla25-2008nov11,0,6746611.story","url_text":"\"UCLA health center readies move\""}]},{"reference":"\"BILL NUMBER: SB 1953 – CHAPTERED 09/22/94\". California.gov. Archived from the original on November 8, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/93-94/bill/sen/sb_1951-2000/sb_1953_bill_940922_chaptered","url_text":"\"BILL NUMBER: SB 1953 – CHAPTERED 09/22/94\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191108194131/http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/93-94/bill/sen/sb_1951-2000/sb_1953_bill_940922_chaptered","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Groves, Martha (July 31, 2004). \"Hospital's Stone Is Monument to Saving a Life\". Los Angeles Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-jul-31-me-carlo31-story.html","url_text":"\"Hospital's Stone Is Monument to Saving a Life\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Us\". Resnick Neuropsychiatric Hospital at UCLA. Archived from the original on July 31, 2010. 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June 26, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.today.com/id/31552029","url_text":"\"Michael Jackson's life cut shockingly short\""}]},{"reference":"Whitcraft, Teri; Pisarcik, Kristin; Brown, Kimberly (June 23, 2010). \"Timeline: Michael Jackson's Final Days\". ABC News. Retrieved March 19, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://abcnews.go.com/2020/MichaelJackson/michael-jackson-final-days-timeline-year-death-king/story?id=10974394","url_text":"\"Timeline: Michael Jackson's Final Days\""}]},{"reference":"Harvey, Michael (June 26, 2009). \"Fans mourn artist for whom it didn't matter if you were black or white\". The Times. 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Retrieved July 10, 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1979/01/13/archives/jack-soo-63-actor-in-barney-miller-he-was-sgt-yemana-in-television.html","url_text":"\"Jack Soo, 63, Actor in 'Barney Miller' – He Was Sgt. Yemana in Television Series – Appeared in Movies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Press_International","url_text":"United Press International"}]},{"reference":"Smith, J. Y. (June 7, 1979). \"Jack Haley Dies, Was Tin Man in 'The Wizard of Oz'\". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on April 1, 2019. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Scott_Stornetta
W. Scott Stornetta
["1 Career","2 Contributions","3 Personal life","4 References"]
American physicist W. Scott StornettaOccupation(s)Physicist, Scientific researcherKnown forCo-inventing the blockchainNotable work"How to Time-Stamp a Digital Document” (1991) Wakefield Scott Stornetta (born June 1959) is an American physicist and scientific researcher. His 1991 paper "How to Time-Stamp a Digital Document”, co-authored with Stuart Haber, won the 1992 Discover Award for Computer Software and is considered to be one of the most important papers in the development of cryptocurrencies. Stornetta is currently a fellow at the Creative Destruction Lab, a science and technology-based startup accelerator at the Rotman School of Management at the University of Toronto. He is also a founding partner and chief scientist of Yugen Partners, a blockchain-focused venture capital firm that counsels investors on blockchain startup opportunities and governments on blockchain policy, as well as the director of the board of advisors for the American Blockchain PAC. Career In 1989, Stornetta began working as a scientific researcher at Bell Communications Research (Bellcore), where he met Stuart Haber, his future scientific partner and collaborator. In 1994, Stornetta and Haber co-founded Surety Technologies, a spinoff of Bellcore. In 1995, Surety’s offering constituted the first commercial deployment of a blockchain and is currently the oldest running blockchain. In 2019, Stornetta and Haber delivered the keynote address at the Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics at the University of Chicago Cryptocurrencies and Blockchains Conference. He also spoke in both the Distinguished Lecture Series at Virginia Tech University and the Decentralized Learning Series at the University of Nicosia. A resident of Morristown, New Jersey, Stornetta has spent time in the education field, working at both at Columbia High School and Morristown High School teaching computer science and math courses. Currently, Stornetta is Partner and Chief Scientist at Yugen Partners, a blockchain private equity firm. Contributions Stornetta and Stuart Haber are the most cited authors in Satoshi Nakamoto’s original Bitcoin white paper; of the eight citations, three reference their work. Their 1991 paper "How to Time-Stamp a Digital Document” is where they first describe a digital hierarchy system called "Blockchain". In this study, Stornetta and Haber sought to create mechanisms to create digital time stamps, offering a solution for maintaining the integrity of digital records and ensuring that they could not be modified or manipulated. In 1992, Stornetta, Haber, and Dave Bayer incorporated Merkle trees into their design, improving its efficiency by allowing many document certificates to be collected into one block. Stornetta is a co-author of "Central Bank Digital Currencies and a Euro for the Future", a report published in June 2021 by the EU Blockchain Observatory and Forum. The report addresses the latest trends and developments of digital currencies and discusses the future of blockchain in Europe and the rest of the world. Personal life Stornetta is a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. He describes himself as a libertarian. References ^ Haber, Stuart; Stornetta, W. Scott (1991-01-01). "How to time-stamp a digital document". Journal of Cryptology. 3 (2): 99–111. doi:10.1007/BF00196791. ISSN 1432-1378. S2CID 14363020. ^ "1992 Discover Awards: Computer Software". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 2022-02-23. ^ Bambysheva, Nina. "Satoshi & Company: The 10 Most Important Scientific White Papers In Development Of Cryptocurrencies". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-02-28. ^ "Scott Stornetta". Creative Destruction Lab. Retrieved 2022-02-23. ^ "Team". Yugen Partners. Retrieved 2022-02-23. ^ "Who We Are – American Blockchain PAC". 2021-11-10. Retrieved 2022-03-14. ^ "The World's Oldest Blockchain Has Been Hiding in the New York Times Since 1995". www.vice.com. 27 August 2018. Retrieved 2022-02-23. ^ "Cryptocurrencies and Blockchains Conference". BFI. Retrieved 2022-02-23. ^ "Bellcore scientists cited for their work", Daily Record, September 2, 1992. Accessed December 13, 2023, via Newspapers.com. "W. Scott Stornetta of Morristown and Stuart Haber of New York received the 1992 Discover Awards for Technological Innovation, taking the top prize in the computer software category for their Digital Time-Stamp." ^ "Team". Yugen Partners. Retrieved 2023-12-13. ^ Nakamoto, Satoshi. "Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2022. ^ Haber, Stuart; Stornetta, W. Scott (1991-01-01). "How to time-stamp a digital document". Journal of Cryptology. 3 (2): 99–111. doi:10.1007/BF00196791. ISSN 1432-1378. S2CID 14363020. ^ Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward W.; Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven; Clark, Jeremy (2016). Bitcoin and cryptocurrency technologies : a comprehensive introduction. Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 978-0-691-17169-2. OCLC 948878724.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Bayer, Dave; Haber, Stuart; Stornetta, W. Scott (1993), Capocelli, Renato; De Santis, Alfredo; Vaccaro, Ugo (eds.), "Improving the Efficiency and Reliability of Digital Time-Stamping", Sequences II, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 329–334, doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9323-8_24, ISBN 978-1-4613-9325-2, retrieved 2022-03-08 ^ Narayanan, Arvind; Clark, Jeremy (2017-11-27). "Bitcoin's academic pedigree". Communications of the ACM. 60 (12): 36–45. doi:10.1145/3132259. ISSN 0001-0782. S2CID 6425116. ^ "Central Bank Digital Currencies and a Euro for the Future" (PDF). EU Blockchain Observatory and Forum. 5 June 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2022. ^ a b "Interview with Scott Stornetta". Interviews with Max Raskin. Retrieved 2023-01-03. Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany
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His 1991 paper \"How to Time-Stamp a Digital Document”,[1] co-authored with Stuart Haber, won the 1992 Discover Award for Computer Software and is considered to be one of the most important papers in the development of cryptocurrencies.[2][3]Stornetta is currently a fellow at the Creative Destruction Lab,[4] a science and technology-based startup accelerator at the Rotman School of Management at the University of Toronto. He is also a founding partner and chief scientist of Yugen Partners,[5] a blockchain-focused venture capital firm that counsels investors on blockchain startup opportunities and governments on blockchain policy, as well as the director of the board of advisors for the American Blockchain PAC.[6]","title":"W. Scott Stornetta"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bell Communications Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Communications_Research"},{"link_name":"Stuart Haber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Haber"},{"link_name":"blockchain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becker_Friedman_Institute_for_Research_in_Economics"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Virginia Tech University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Tech"},{"link_name":"University of Nicosia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Nicosia"},{"link_name":"Morristown, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morristown,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Columbia High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_High_School_(New_Jersey)"},{"link_name":"Morristown High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morristown_High_School"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"In 1989, Stornetta began working as a scientific researcher at Bell Communications Research (Bellcore), where he met Stuart Haber, his future scientific partner and collaborator.In 1994, Stornetta and Haber co-founded Surety Technologies, a spinoff of Bellcore. In 1995, Surety’s offering constituted the first commercial deployment of a blockchain and is currently the oldest running blockchain.[7]In 2019, Stornetta and Haber delivered the keynote address at the Becker Friedman Institute for Research in Economics at the University of Chicago Cryptocurrencies and Blockchains Conference.[8] He also spoke in both the Distinguished Lecture Series at Virginia Tech University and the Decentralized Learning Series at the University of Nicosia.A resident of Morristown, New Jersey,[9] Stornetta has spent time in the education field, working at both at Columbia High School and Morristown High School teaching computer science and math courses.[citation needed]Currently, Stornetta is Partner and Chief Scientist at Yugen Partners, a blockchain private equity firm.[10]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Satoshi Nakamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satoshi_Nakamoto"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Blockchain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockchain"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Stornetta and Stuart Haber are the most cited authors in Satoshi Nakamoto’s original Bitcoin white paper; of the eight citations, three reference their work.[11]Their 1991 paper \"How to Time-Stamp a Digital Document” is where they first describe a digital hierarchy system called \"Blockchain\".[12] In this study, Stornetta and Haber sought to create mechanisms to create digital time stamps, offering a solution for maintaining the integrity of digital records and ensuring that they could not be modified or manipulated.In 1992, Stornetta, Haber, and Dave Bayer incorporated Merkle trees into their design, improving its efficiency by allowing many document certificates to be collected into one block.[13][14][15]Stornetta is a co-author of \"Central Bank Digital Currencies and a Euro for the Future\", a report published in June 2021 by the EU Blockchain Observatory and Forum.[16] The report addresses the latest trends and developments of digital currencies and discusses the future of blockchain in Europe and the rest of the world.","title":"Contributions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"libertarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarianism"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"}],"text":"Stornetta is a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.[17]He describes himself as a libertarian.[17]","title":"Personal life"}]
[]
null
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Retrieved 2022-02-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.discovermagazine.com/technology/1992-discover-awards-computer-software","url_text":"\"1992 Discover Awards: Computer Software\""}]},{"reference":"Bambysheva, Nina. \"Satoshi & Company: The 10 Most Important Scientific White Papers In Development Of Cryptocurrencies\". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/ninabambysheva/2021/02/13/satoshi--company-the-10-most-important-scientific-white-papers-in-development-of-cryptocurrencies/","url_text":"\"Satoshi & Company: The 10 Most Important Scientific White Papers In Development Of Cryptocurrencies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Scott Stornetta\". Creative Destruction Lab. Retrieved 2022-02-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://creativedestructionlab.com/mentors/scott-stornetta/","url_text":"\"Scott Stornetta\""}]},{"reference":"\"Team\". Yugen Partners. 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Retrieved 2023-12-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.yugenpartners.com/team","url_text":"\"Team\""}]},{"reference":"Nakamoto, Satoshi. \"Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140320135003/https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf","url_text":"\"Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System\""},{"url":"https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Haber, Stuart; Stornetta, W. Scott (1991-01-01). \"How to time-stamp a digital document\". Journal of Cryptology. 3 (2): 99–111. doi:10.1007/BF00196791. ISSN 1432-1378. S2CID 14363020.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00196791","url_text":"\"How to time-stamp a digital document\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00196791","url_text":"10.1007/BF00196791"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1432-1378","url_text":"1432-1378"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14363020","url_text":"14363020"}]},{"reference":"Narayanan, Arvind; Bonneau, Joseph; Felten, Edward W.; Miller, Andrew; Goldfeder, Steven; Clark, Jeremy (2016). Bitcoin and cryptocurrency technologies : a comprehensive introduction. Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 978-0-691-17169-2. OCLC 948878724.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/948878724","url_text":"Bitcoin and cryptocurrency technologies : a comprehensive introduction"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17169-2","url_text":"978-0-691-17169-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/948878724","url_text":"948878724"}]},{"reference":"Bayer, Dave; Haber, Stuart; Stornetta, W. Scott (1993), Capocelli, Renato; De Santis, Alfredo; Vaccaro, Ugo (eds.), \"Improving the Efficiency and Reliability of Digital Time-Stamping\", Sequences II, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 329–334, doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9323-8_24, ISBN 978-1-4613-9325-2, retrieved 2022-03-08","urls":[{"url":"http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4613-9323-8_24","url_text":"\"Improving the Efficiency and Reliability of Digital Time-Stamping\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4613-9323-8_24","url_text":"10.1007/978-1-4613-9323-8_24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-9325-2","url_text":"978-1-4613-9325-2"}]},{"reference":"Narayanan, Arvind; Clark, Jeremy (2017-11-27). \"Bitcoin's academic pedigree\". Communications of the ACM. 60 (12): 36–45. doi:10.1145/3132259. ISSN 0001-0782. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_II_listed_building
Listed building
["1 Background","1.1 Heritage protection","2 Eligibility","2.1 Listing and delisting procedure","3 England and Wales","3.1 Legislation","3.2 English heritage protection reform","3.3 Categories of listed buildings","3.4 Statutory criteria","3.5 Emergency measure","3.6 Certificates of immunity","3.7 Alteration","3.8 Examples of Grade I listed buildings","3.9 Examples of Grade II* listed buildings","3.10 Examples of Grade II listed buildings","3.11 Mixed designations","3.12 Locally listed buildings","4 Northern Ireland","4.1 Examples of Grade A listed buildings","4.2 Examples of Grade B+ listed buildings","4.3 Examples of Grade B1 listed buildings","5 Scotland","5.1 Examples of Category A listed buildings","5.2 Examples of Category B listed buildings","5.3 Examples of Category C listed buildings","6 Records","6.1 England","6.2 Scotland","6.3 Wales","6.4 Northern Ireland","6.5 Other","7 Equivalent statuses outside the United Kingdom","8 See also","9 References","10 Notes","11 External links"]
Protected historic structure in the United Kingdom This article is about the law in the United Kingdom. For the system in the Republic of Ireland, which has used the same term, see Protected structure. For other jurisdictions, see List of heritage registers. The Forth Bridge, designed by Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Fowler, which opened in 1890, and is now owned by Network Rail, is designated as a Category A listed building by Historic Environment Scotland. In the United Kingdom, a listed building is a structure of particular architectural and/or historic interest deserving of special protection. Such buildings are placed on one of the four statutory lists maintained by Historic England in England, Historic Environment Scotland in Scotland, Cadw in Wales, and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency in Northern Ireland. The classification schemes differ between England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland (see sections below). The term has also been used in the Republic of Ireland, where buildings are protected under the Planning and Development Act 2000, although the statutory term in Ireland is "protected structure." A listed building may not be demolished, extended, or altered without special permission from the local planning authority, which typically consults the relevant central government agency. In England and Wales, a national amenity society must be notified of any work to be done on a listed building which involves any element of demolition. Exemption from secular listed building control is provided for some buildings in current use for worship, but only in cases where the relevant religious organisation operates its own equivalent permissions procedure. Owners of listed buildings are, in some circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them and can face criminal prosecution if they fail to do so or if they perform unauthorised alterations. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, the owners are often required to use specific materials or techniques. Although most sites appearing on the lists are buildings, other structures such as bridges, monuments, sculptures, war memorials, milestones and mileposts, and the Abbey Road zebra crossing made famous by the Beatles, are also listed. Ancient, military, and uninhabited structures, such as Stonehenge, are sometimes instead classified as scheduled monuments and are protected by separate legislation. Cultural landscapes such as parks and gardens are currently "listed" on a non-statutory basis. Background WWII bomb damage advanced the move to preserve architecturally significant buildings such as St Paul's Cathedral which was listed Grade I in 1950.Although a limited number of 'ancient monuments' were given protection under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882, there was reluctance to restrict the owners of occupied buildings in their actions related to their property. The extensive damage to buildings caused by German bombing during World War II prompted efforts to list and protect buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit. Three hundred members of the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings were dispatched to prepare the list under the supervision of the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments, with funding from the Treasury. The listings were used as a means to determine whether a particular building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing, with varying degrees of success. In Scotland, the process slightly predated the war with the Marquess of Bute (in his connections to the National Trust for Scotland) commissioning the architect Ian Lindsay in September 1936 to survey 103 towns and villages based on an Amsterdam model using three categories (A, B and C). The basis of the current more comprehensive listing process was developed from the wartime system. It was enacted by a provision in the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 covering England and Wales, and the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947 covering Scotland. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972. The listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK. Heritage protection The process of protecting the built historic environment (i.e. getting a heritage asset legally protected) is called 'designation'. Several different terms are used because the processes use separate legislation: buildings are 'listed'; ancient monuments are 'scheduled', wrecks are 'protected', and battlefields, gardens and parks are 'registered'. A heritage asset is a part of the historic environment that is valued because of its historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic interest. Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have extra legal protection through designation. Buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest can still be regarded as a material consideration in the planning process. The Grade II listed Mappin & Webb building (left) was controversially demolished in 1994 to make way for No 1 Poultry (right) which was itself listed in 2016. As a very rough guide, listed buildings are structures considered of special architectural and historical importance. Ancient monuments are of 'national importance' containing evidential values, and can on many occasions also relate to below ground or unoccupied sites and buildings. Eligibility Almost anything can be listed. Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and structures. These include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category. However, in 2020, the Supreme Court ruled in Dill v Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government and another that buildings in the scheme must meet certain criteria – "a three-fold test which involved considering size, permanence and degree of physical attachment" – referred to as the Skerritts test in reference to a previous legal case in England. Both Historic Environment Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners. Listing and delisting procedure In England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state; this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed. Full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural and historic interest. The Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether to list or delist the building. England and Wales For lists of buildings, see Listed buildings in England and Listed buildings in Wales. Legislation In England and Wales, the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990. Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England 'Heritage at Risk' Register. In 1980 there was public outcry at the sudden destruction of the art deco Firestone Tyre Factory (Wallis, Gilbert and Partners, 1928–29). It was demolished over the August bank holiday weekend by its owners Trafalgar House, who had been told that it was likely to be 'spot-listed' a few days later. In response, the government undertook to review arrangements for listing buildings in order to protect worthy ones from such demolition. After the Firestone demolition, the Secretary of State for the Environment, Michael Heseltine, also initiated a complete re-survey of buildings to ensure that everything that merited preservation was on the lists. In England, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) works with Historic England (an agency of the DCMS), and other government departments, e.g. Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (DLUHC) and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) to deliver the government policy on the protection to historic buildings and other heritage assets. The decision about whether or not to list a building is made by the Secretary of State, although the process is administered in England by Historic England. In Wales (where it is a devolved issue), it is administered by Cadw on behalf of the Welsh Parliament. In Scotland it is administered by Historic Environment Scotland on behalf of the Scottish Ministers. English heritage protection reform There have been several attempts to simplify the heritage planning process for listed buildings in England. As of 2021, few changes had been implemented. 100 King Street, Manchester, built in 1935 and formerly the Midland Bank, was listed Grade II* in 1974. The review process was started in 2000 by Alan Howarth, then minister at the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS). The outcome was the paper "The Power of Place" in 2000, followed by the subsequent policy document "The Historic Environment: A Force for Our Future", published by the DCMS and the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DTLR) in December 2001. The launch of the Government's Heritage Protection Reform (HPR) report in July 2003 by the DCMS, entitled "Protecting our historic environment: Making the system work better", asked questions about how the current designation systems could be improved. The HPR decision report "Review of Heritage Protection: The Way Forward", a green paper published in June 2004 by the DCMS, committed the UK government and English Heritage to a process of reform, including a review of the criteria used for listing buildings. A Review of Heritage Policy in 2006 was criticised, and the Government began a process of consultation on changes to Planning Policy Guidance 15, relating to the principles of selection for listing buildings in England. The government's White Paper "Heritage Protection for the 21st Century", published on 8 March 2007, offered a commitment to sharing the understanding of the historic environment and more openness in the process of designation. In 2008, a draft Heritage Protection Bill was subject to pre-legislative scrutiny before its passage through UK Parliament. The legislation was abandoned despite strong cross-party support, to make room in the parliamentary legislative programme for measures to deal with the credit crunch, though it may be revived in future. The proposal was that the existing registers of buildings, parks and gardens, archaeology and battlefields, maritime wrecks, and World Heritage Sites be merged into a single online register that will "explain what is special and why". English Heritage would become directly responsible for identifying historic assets in England and there would be wider consultation with the public and asset owners, and new rights of appeal. There would have been streamlined systems for granting consent for work on historic assets. After several years of consultation with heritage groups, charities, local planning authorities, and English Heritage, in March 2010 the DCLG published Planning Policy Statement 5, "Planning for the Historic Environment". This replaced PPG15 and set out the government's national policies on the conservation of the historic environment in England. PPS5 was supported by a Practice Guide, endorsed by the DCLG, the DCMS, and English Heritage, which explained how to apply the policies stated in PPS5. In December 2010, the Department for Communities and Local Government announced that in England all PPSs and Planning Policy Guidance Notes would be replaced by a single document, the National Planning Policy Framework. A consultation draft of this was published on 25 July 2011 and the final version on 27 March 2012. This became a material consideration in planning matters on publication. It has since been revised in 2018, 2019 and 2021. Categories of listed buildings The redundant Holy Trinity Church in Wensley, North Yorkshire, is listed Grade I. Much of the current structure was built in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission lists buildings in England and Wales under three grades, with Grade I being the highest grade, as follows: Grade I: buildings that are of exceptional interest Grade II*: particularly important buildings of more than special interest Grade II: buildings that are of special interest There was formerly a non-statutory Grade III, which was abolished in 1970. Additionally, Grades A, B and C were used mainly for Anglican churches in active use, loosely corresponding to Grades I, II* and II. These grades were used mainly before 1977, although a few buildings are still listed using these grades. In 2010, listed buildings accounted for about 2% of English building stock. In March 2010, there were about 374,000 list entries, of which 92% were Grade II, 5.5% were Grade II* and 2.5% were Grade I. Places of worship are an important part of the UK's architectural heritage; England alone has 14,500 listed places of worship (4,000 Grade I, 4,500 Grade II* and 6,000 Grade II) and 45% of all Grade I listed buildings are places of worship. Some of the listed churches are no longer in use; between 1969 and 2010, some 1,795 churches were closed by the Church of England, equalling roughly 11% of the stock, with about a third listed as Grade I or Grade II. Statutory criteria Built in 1841, St Peter's in Stretton-on-Fosse in the Cotswolds is listed Grade II. The criteria for listing include architectural interest, historic interest and close historical associations with significant people or events. Buildings not individually noteworthy may still be listed if they form part of a group that is—for example, all the buildings in a square. This is called 'group value'. Sometimes large areas comprising many buildings may not justify listing but receive the looser protection of designation as a conservation area. The specific criteria include: Age and rarity: The older a building is, the more likely it is to be listed. All buildings erected before 1700 that "contain a significant proportion of their original fabric" will be listed. Most buildings built between 1700 and 1840 are listed. After 1840 more selection is exercised and "particularly careful selection" is applied after 1945. Buildings less than 30 years old are rarely listed unless they are of outstanding quality and under threat. Aesthetic merits: i.e. the appearance of a building. However, buildings that have little visual appeal may be listed on grounds of representing particular aspects of social or economic history. Selectivity: where a large number of buildings of a similar type survive, the policy is only to list the most representative or significant examples. National interest: significant or distinctive regional buildings; e.g. those that represent a nationally important but localised industry. The state of repair of a building is not generally deemed to be a relevant consideration for listing. Additionally: Any buildings or structures constructed before 1 July 1948 that fall within the curtilage of a listed building are treated as part of the listed building. The effect of a proposed development on the setting of a listed building is a material consideration in determining a planning application. Setting is defined as "the surroundings in which a heritage is experienced". Although the decision to list a building may be made on the basis of the architectural or historic interest of one small part of the building, the listing protection nevertheless applies to the whole building. Listing applies not just to the exterior fabric of the building itself, but also to the interior, fixtures, fittings, and objects within the curtilage of the building even if they are not fixed. De-listing is possible but is rare. One example is Anmer Hall in Norfolk, which was listed in 1984 and de-listed in 1988. Emergency measure In an emergency, the local planning authority can serve a temporary "Building Preservation Notice" (BPN), if a building is in danger of demolition or alteration in such a way that might affect its historic character. This remains in force for six months until the Secretary of State decides whether or not to formally list the building. Certificates of immunity Until the passing of the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013 an application for a Certificate of Immunity from Listing (CoI) could only be made if planning permission was being sought or had been obtained in England. However, the changes brought about by the Act means that now anyone can ask the Secretary of State to issue a Certificate of Immunity in respect of a particular building at any time. Alteration In England and Wales, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government (i.e., not DCMS, which originally listed the building). There is a general principle that listed buildings are put to 'appropriate and viable use' and recognition that this may involve the re-use and modification of the building. However, listed buildings cannot be modified without first obtaining Listed Building Consent through the relevant local planning authority. In Wales, applications are made using a form obtained from the relevant local authority. There is no provision for consent to be granted in outline. When a local authority is disposed to grant listed building consent, it must first notify the Welsh Parliament (i.e. Cadw) of the application. If the planning authority decides to refuse consent, it may do so without any reference to Cadw. In Scotland, applications are made on a form obtained from Historic Environment Scotland. After consulting the local planning authority, the owner, where possible, and an independent third party, Historic Environment Scotland makes a recommendation on behalf of the Scottish Ministers. Carrying out unauthorised works to a listed building is a criminal offence and owners can be prosecuted. A planning authority can also insist that all work undertaken without consent be reversed at the owner's expense. Examples of Grade I listed buildings Buckingham Palace, the official London residence of the British monarch, is listed Grade I. Royal Festival Hall, London, was the first postwar building to gain Grade I listed status. The Grade I listed King's College London Chapel on the Strand Campus was redesigned in 1864 by Sir George Gilbert Scott. See also Category:Grade I listed buildings for more examples of such buildings across England and Wales. Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool Birmingham Town Hall, Birmingham Blackpool Tower, Blackpool Cenotaph, London Chequers, Buckinghamshire Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol Hampton Court Palace, London Humber Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire / North Lincolnshire Isokon Flats, Hampstead, London King's College London Chapel, London Liverpool Cathedral, Liverpool Lloyd's building, London Manchester Liverpool Road railway station, Manchester Montacute House, Somerset Norwich Castle, Norwich Palace of Westminster, London Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, North Wales Portchester Castle, Hampshire Quarr Abbey, Isle of Wight Tower Bridge, London Tower of London, London Warwick Castle, Warwick Windsor Castle, Windsor York Minster, York Examples of Grade II* listed buildings The Bank Hall mansion house in Lancashire is a Grade II* listed building because of its 17th-century clock tower, which features an original oak cantilevered staircase. The Johnny Haynes stand at Craven Cottage is listed Grade II*. See also Category:Grade II* listed buildings for examples of such buildings across England and Wales. Battersea Power Station, London Capel Manor House, Horsmonden Cleveland Bridge, Bath Coliseum Theatre, London Downe House, Richmond Hill, London Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral, Liverpool Manchester Town Hall Extension, Manchester Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge, Middlesbrough Middlesex Guildhall, London Rise Hall, Rise Shibden Hall, Calderdale St John's Jerusalem, Sutton-at-Hone, Kent Trellick Tower, London Examples of Grade II listed buildings See also Category:Grade II listed buildings for examples of such buildings across England and Wales. BT Tower is a Grade II listed communications tower. Abbey Road Studios, London Adelphi Hotel, Liverpool Broomhill Pool, Ipswich BT Tower, London Birmingham Back to Backs, Birmingham India House, London Kursaal, Southend-on-Sea Crucible Theatre, Sheffield Surbiton railway station, London Whitechapel Bell Foundry, London Footbridge just south of Wokingham railway station, Wokingham, Berkshire Mixed designations It is not unusual for historic sites, particularly large sites, to contain buildings with multiple, sometimes varying, designations. For example, Derwent Valley Mills, a World Heritage Site contains 838 listed buildings, made up of 16 listed at Grade I, 42 at Grade II* and 780 at Grade II. A further nine structures are Scheduled monuments. Locally listed buildings Many councils, for example, Birmingham City Council and Crawley Borough Council, maintain a list of locally listed buildings as separate to the statutory list (and in addition to it). There is no statutory protection of a building or object on the local list but many receive a degree of protection from loss through being in a Conservation Area or through planning policy. Councils hope that owners will recognise the merits of their properties and keep them unaltered if at all possible. Northern Ireland For lists of buildings, see Listed buildings in Northern Ireland. The Grade-A-listed Mussenden Temple, County Londonderry Listing began later in Northern Ireland than in the rest of the UK: the first provision for listing was contained in the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972; and the current legislative basis for listing is the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1991. Under Article 42 of the Order, the relevant Department of the Northern Ireland Executive is required to compile lists of buildings of "special architectural or historic interest". Since 2016, the responsibility for the listing process rests with the Historic Environment Division of the Department for Communities, which took over the built heritage functions of the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (formerly the Environment and Heritage Service) following the break up of the Department of the Environment. Following the introduction of listing, an initial survey of Northern Ireland's building stock was begun in 1974. By the time of the completion of this First Survey in 1994, the listing process had developed considerably, and it was therefore decided to embark upon a Second Survey, which is still ongoing, to update and cross-check the original information. Information gathered during this survey, relating to both listed and unlisted buildings, is entered into the publicly accessible Northern Ireland Buildings Database. A range of listing criteria, which aim to define architectural and historic interest, are used to determine whether or not to list a building. Listed building consent must be obtained from local authorities before any alteration to a listed structure. There are about 8,500 listed buildings in Northern Ireland, divided into four grades, defined as follows: Grade A: "buildings of greatest importance to Northern Ireland including both outstanding architectural set-pieces and the least altered examples of each representative style, period and type." Grade B+: "high quality buildings that because of exceptional features, interiors or environmental qualities are clearly above the general standard set by grade B1 buildings. Also buildings which might have merited Grade A status but for detracting features such as an incomplete design, lower quality additions or alterations." Grade B1: "good examples of a particular period or style. A degree of alteration or imperfection of design may be acceptable. Generally B1 is chosen for buildings that qualify for listing by virtue of a relatively wide selection of attributes. Usually these will include interior features or where one or more features are of exceptional quality and/or interest." Grade B2: "special buildings which meet the test of the legislation. A degree of alteration or imperfection of design may be acceptable. B2 is chosen for buildings that qualify for listing by virtue of only a few attributes. An example would be a building sited within a conservation area where the quality of its architectural appearance or interior raises it appreciably above the general standard of buildings within the conservation area." Examples of Grade A listed buildings See also: Category:Grade A listed buildings Gosford Castle, County Armagh Grand Opera House, Belfast Belfast Castle Examples of Grade B+ listed buildings See also: Category:Grade B+ listed buildings Necarne, County Fermanagh Scrabo Tower, Belfast Examples of Grade B1 listed buildings See also: Category:Grade B1 listed buildings Campbell College, Belfast Old Bushmills Distillery, County Antrim Bank Buildings, Belfast Scotland For lists of buildings, see Listed buildings in Scotland. The National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, designed by William Henry Playfair, is a Category A listed building. In Scotland, listing was begun by a provision in the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947, and the current legislative basis for listing is the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997. As with other matters regarding planning, conservation is a power devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Government. The authority for listing rests with Historic Environment Scotland (formerly Historic Scotland), an executive agency of the Scottish Government, which inherited this role from the Scottish Development Department in 1991. Listed building consent must be obtained from local authorities before any alteration to a listed structure. The scheme for classifying buildings is: Category A: "Buildings of special architectural or historic interest which are outstanding examples of a particular period, style or building type." Category B: "Buildings of special architectural or historic interest which are major examples of a particular period, style or building type." Category C: "Buildings of special architectural or historic interest which are representative examples of a period, style or building type." There are about 47,400 listed buildings in Scotland. Of these, around 8 percent (some 3,800) are Category A, 50 percent are Category B, and 42 percent are listed at Category C. Examples of Category A listed buildings See also: Category:Category A listed buildings in Scotland Dunrobin Castle is Category A listed. St Peter's Seminary, Cardross Palace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh Ravelston Garden, Edinburgh 1 Prince's Terrace, Glasgow Glasgow Cathedral, Glasgow Glasgow City Chambers, Glasgow Craigellachie Bridge, Moray The Kirna, Walkerburn Examples of Category B listed buildings See also: Category:Category B listed buildings in Scotland The 18th century Garrison House in Millport, Cumbrae is Category B listed. Balmoral Hotel, Edinburgh Harbourmaster's House, Dysart, Fife Perth Theatre, Perth Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, Isle of Skye Torloisk House, Isle of Mull Examples of Category C listed buildings See also: Category:Category C listed buildings in Scotland The Belmont Picturehouse, Aberdeen St John's Cathedral, Oban, Argyll Craigend Castle, East Dunbartonshire The George Cinema, Portobello, Edinburgh Records England Although the 2008 draft legislation was abandoned, Historic England (then part of English Heritage) published a single list of all designated heritage assets within England in 2011. The National Heritage List for England is an online searchable database which includes 400,000 English Listings, this includes individual listed buildings, groups of multiple listed buildings which share the same listing, scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, protected historic wrecks and registered battlefields and World Heritage Sites in one place. The 400,000 in the listing should not be confused with the actual number of listed buildings, which will be much larger than the listing, because a listing can include more than one building that share the same listing number. The legislative frameworks for each type of historic asset remains unchanged. A photographic library of English listed buildings was started in 1999 as a snapshot of buildings listed at the turn of the millennium. This is not an up-to-date record of all listed buildings in England – the listing status and descriptions are only correct as at February 2001. The photographs were taken between 1999 and 2008. It is maintained by the Historic England archive at the Images of England project website. The National Heritage List for England contains the up-to-date list of listed buildings. Listed buildings in danger of being lost through damage or decay in England started to be recorded by survey in 1991. This was extended in 1998 with the publication of Historic England's Buildings at Risk Register which surveyed Grade I and Grade II* buildings. In 2008 this survey was renamed Heritage at Risk and extended to include all listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, registered battlefields, protected wreck sites and conservation areas. The register is compiled by survey using information from local authorities, official and voluntary heritage groups and the general public. It is possible to search this list online. Scotland In Scotland, the national dataset of listed buildings and other heritage assets can be searched online via Historic Environment Scotland, or through the map database Pastmap. A Buildings at Risk Register for Scotland was started in 1990 by Historic Scotland in response to similar concerns at the number of listed buildings that were vacant and in disrepair. RCAHMS maintained the register on behalf of Historic Scotland, and provided information on properties of architectural or historic merit throughout the country that are considered to be at risk. Since the merger of these two bodies into one, that work is now carried out by Historic Environment Scotland. Wales Cadw publishes and maintains a searchable map database for listed buildings in Wales. In Wales, at risk registers of listed buildings are compiled by local planning authorities, and Cadw produced a report in 2009. The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales' (RCAHMW) Emergency Buildings Recording team is responsible for surveying historic buildings threatened with destruction, substantial alteration, or serious decay. Northern Ireland The Northern Ireland Buildings Database contains details of all listed buildings in Northern Ireland. Other British Listed Buildings Online (website) has sections on England, Wales and Scotland. It can be searched either by browsing for listed buildings by country, county and parish/locality, or by keyword search or via the online map. Not all buildings have photographs, as it is run on a volunteer basis. Equivalent statuses outside the United Kingdom For other countries' equivalents see List of heritage registers. See also Conservation area (United Kingdom) Grade I listed buildings in England by county Grade II* listed buildings in England by county Grade II listed buildings in England by county Historic England Archive Images of England Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England Scheduled monument Site of Special Scientific Interest The Georgian Group Tree preservation order References ^ a b c d "Principles of Selection for Listing Buildings" (.pdf). Department of Media, Culture and Sport. November 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2023. ^ "Protected Structures". citizensinformation.ie. Citizens Information Board. Retrieved 14 July 2021. ^ "Arrangements for handling heritage applications Direction 2015". gov.uk. Department for Communities and Local Government. 2015. ^ "A to Z Listed Buildings". Listed Building Surveyors. 1st Associated Ltd. 21 November 2014. ^ "The unusual buildings granted listed status". The Daily Telegraph. London. 8 June 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 9 June 2011. ^ Historic England. "Windsor Castle (Grade I) (1117776)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 10 January 2022. ^ Historic England. "Windsor Castle (Grade SM) (1006996)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 10 January 2022. ^ Cadw. "Raglan Castle (Grade I) (2101)". National Historic Assets of Wales. Retrieved 10 January 2022. ^ Cadw. "Raglan Castle (Grade SM) (MM005)". National Historic Assets of Wales. Retrieved 10 January 2022. ^ Historic England. "St. Paul's Cathedral (Grade I) (1079157)". 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Wiltshire Council. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ Dill (Appellant) v Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government and another (Respondents), judgement of the Supreme Court, handed down on 20 May 2020 following a hearing on 10 March 2020 and accessed upon 23 May 2020 ^ a b "Listing process". www.historicenvironment.scot. ^ "Buildings & Conservation Areas". cadw.gov.wales. Archived from the original on 21 July 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2018. ^ John Witherow, "No listing of Hoover factory", The Times, 1 September 1980, p. 4. ^ John Young, "A notable dozen are added to the nation's listed buildings", The Times, 15 October 1980, p. 4. ^ Charles Knevitt, "Protecting palaces and pillarboxes", The Times, 3 June 1985, p. 8. ^ a b "Listing Buildings". Department of Culture, Media and Sport. Retrieved 6 June 2011. ^ "Listed Buildings in Wales". Cadw. Archived from the original on 3 December 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2011. ^ a b John Sharland (2006). "Listed Buildings and the Historic Environment – A Critique of the Government's Review of Heritage Policy'". Retrieved 23 May 2011. ^ "The Power of Place" (PDF). 2000. Retrieved 23 May 2011. ^ "The Historic Environment: A Force for our Future". 2001. Archived from the original on 12 May 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2011. ^ "Protecting our Historic Environment: Making the System Work Better". 2003. Archived from the original on 12 May 2010. Retrieved 7 June 2011. ^ "Draft Heritage Protection Bill" (PDF). Department of Culture, Media and Sport. April 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2016. ^ Roger Mascall (18 December 2009). "The Heritage Protection Bill Fundamental reform for England and Wales?". Retrieved 7 June 2011. ^ "Heritage Protection Reform – Draft Heritage Protection Bill". English Heritage. 2 April 2008. Archived from the original on 9 April 2008. Retrieved 6 May 2014. ^ "Living in a Grade I, Grade II* or Grade II Listed Building". Historic England. 20 November 2012. ^ "About Listed Buildings". Heritage.co.uk. Archived from the original on 26 October 2005. ^ Arnold, Will (22 November 2022). "Could a Grade III listing for buildings halt the UK's tide of demolition?". Architects' Journal. Retrieved 10 January 2023. ^ "Heritage at Risk Report" (.pdf). English Heritage. July 2010. Retrieved 6 June 2011. ^ "Listed Buildings". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 7 June 2011. ^ "Caring for Places of Worship". British Religion in Numbers. Retrieved 24 May 2011. ^ "Churches and Closure in the Church of England : A Summary Report" (PDF). Theheritagealliance.org.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2019. ^ Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990, Part 1, Chapter 1, Section 5(a). ^ a b Noted as 'Changes to legislation: There are outstanding changes not yet made by the legislation.gov.uk editorial team to Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990.' "Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990: Listing of buildings of special architectural or historic interest: Chapter 1, section 6". UK Government. Archived from the original on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ "Rare South London Art Deco house saved from demolition – The Twentieth Century Society". The Twentieth Century Society. Retrieved 26 February 2022. ^ "Living in a Listed Building". English Heritage. Retrieved 3 September 2013. ^ "Listed Building Consent". Cadw. Archived from the original on 3 December 2010. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ "The Listing Process". Historic Scotland. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ The Kursaal, Southend-on-sea, British Listed Buildings, accessed 18 January 2013 ^ "FOOTBRIDGE IMMEDIATELY SOUTH OF WOKINGHAM STATION, Wokingham – 1268457 | Historic England". ^ "Railway Footbridge · Wokingham's Virtual Museum". ^ Crawley Borough Council (November 2010). Crawley Local Building List (Report). Crawley Borough Council. Archived from the original on 29 August 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2013. ^ "Mussenden Temple: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ a b c d e f "Planning Policy Statement 6 Planning, Archaeology and the Built Heritage Revised Annex C: Criteria for Listing" (PDF). DOENI. 2011. Archived from the original (.pdf) on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "Structure and Contents in the Historic Environment Division" (PDF). Department for Communities. December 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 January 2017. ^ "Changes to government departments". nidirect.gov. 13 November 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ a b "Second Survey". Department for Communities. 20 August 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "Planning Policy Statement 6: Planning, Archaeology, and the Built Heritage" (PDF). Planning Service. March 1999. p. 22. Archived from the original (.pdf) on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 6 July 2010. ^ "Listed Buildings". Department for Communities. 27 August 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "Gosford Castle: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "Grand Opera House: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2017. ^ "Belfast Castle: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ "Necarne Castle: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ "Scrabo Tower: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Retrieved 7 February 2020. ^ "Campbell College: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ "The Old Bushmills Distillery: Historic Building Details". Northern Ireland Buildings Database. Department for Communities. Retrieved 11 November 2019. ^ "Bank Buildings | nidirect". apps.communities-ni.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 August 2020. ^ "National Gallery of Scotland: Listed Building Report". Historic Scotland. Retrieved 6 July 2010. ^ a b Scottish Historic Environment Policy (.pdf). Historic Scotland. October 2008. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1-84917-002-4. Retrieved 6 July 2010. ^ a b c "What is Listing? Categories of listing". Historic Environment Scotland. Retrieved 6 July 2020. ^ 3 Categories of listed building. Historic Environment Scotland. Retrieved 6 March 2017. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Cardross Kilmahew Estate, St Peter's College (LB6464)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Holyroodhouse, Palace of Holyroodhouse including gates, gatepiers, boundary walls And railings (LB28022)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "1–48 (inclusive nos) Ravelston Garden (LB30264)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "1 Prince's Terrace, Prince Albert Road, with Gatepiers and Railings to Prince's Terrace Lane (LB32576)". Retrieved 10 January 2022. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Glasgow Cathedral, excluding scheduled monument SM90150, 70 Cathedral Square, Glasgow (LB32654)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "80 George Square Glasgow City Chambers and lampbrackets to George Square (LB32691)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Craigellachie, Old Bridge over River Spey (Telford Bridge) (LB2357)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Walkerburn, The Kirna (LB8323)". Retrieved 10 January 2022. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "1 Princes Street and 2-18 (even nos) North Bridge, The Balmoral Hotel (former North British Hotel) (LB30315)". Retrieved 10 January 2022. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Dysart, Hot Pot Wynd, Harbour House (LB45507)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ "177-187 (Odd Numbers) High Street, Perth Theatre (LB39468)". Historic Environment Scotland. Retrieved 30 September 2023. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Ostaig Farm Square known as Sabhal Mor Ostaig (Cola – Isde Gaidhlig – Gaelic College and Cottage (LB13985)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ "Torloisk House. LB43023". Historic Environment Scotland. Retrieved 14 March 2017. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "49 and 51 Belmont Street, The Belmont Picturehouse (former Trades Council Hall) (LB20132)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "George Street, Cathedral of St John the Divine (Episcopal) with railings (LB38849)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "Mugdock Country Park, Craigend Castle (LB50821)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ Historic Environment Scotland. "14 Bath Street, The George, formerly The County (LB26818)". Retrieved 7 July 2020. ^ "The National Heritage List for England has gone live". The Historical Association. 7 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 23 May 2011. ^ "About The List". Historic England. Retrieved 13 December 2021. ^ "Frequently asked questions". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 1 November 2007. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ "The National Heritage List for England". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 1 May 2012. Retrieved 23 May 2011. ^ "Buildings at Risk". English Heritage. Retrieved 24 May 2011. ^ "What is Heritage at Risk?". Helm. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ "Heritage at Risk". Archived from the original on 12 June 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011. ^ "Historic and Listed Buildings". Historic Scotland. Retrieved 7 June 2011. ^ "pastmap.org.uk". ^ "Buildings at Risk". Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ "Seach Cadw records". Cadw. Retrieved 10 January 2023. ^ "Tackling Wales' buildings at risk". Cadw. 1 November 2009. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 8 June 2011. ^ "Northern Ireland Buildings Database". Northern Ireland Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 12 May 2011. Retrieved 7 June 2011. ^ "Listed Buildings Online". British Listed Buildings. Retrieved 15 August 2012. Notes ^ Welsh: adeilad rhestredig, Irish: foirgneamh liostaithe, Scottish Gaelic: togalach clàraichte. ^ Buildings designated as both listed structures and as scheduled monuments are not uncommon. Windsor Castle in England, and Raglan Castle in Wales are two such examples. ^ In 2022 proposals were floated for the reintroduction of a Grade III. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Listed buildings in the United Kingdom. Historic England on designation process National Heritage List for England: map-based database of listed buildings, scheduled monuments etc in England PASTMAP Map-based database of listed buildings, scheduled monuments etc in Scotland Images of England:photographs of listed buildings Cadw, Wales The Institute of Historic Building Conservation Links to related articles vteGrade I listed buildings in EnglandCounties Bedfordshire Berkshire Bristol Buckinghamshire Cambridgeshire Cheshire Cornwall Cumbria Derbyshire Devon Dorset Durham East Sussex East Riding of Yorkshire Essex Gloucestershire Greater London Greater Manchester Hampshire Herefordshire Hertfordshire Isle of Wight Kent Lancashire Leicestershire Lincolnshire Merseyside Norfolk North Yorkshire Northamptonshire Northumberland Nottinghamshire Oxfordshire Rutland Shropshire Somerset South Yorkshire Staffordshire Suffolk Surrey Tyne and Wear Warwickshire West Midlands West Sussex West Yorkshire Wiltshire Worcestershire Districts Babergh Bath and North East Somerset Bradford Brighton and Hove Broadland Cheltenham Cheshire East Cheshire West and Chester Cotswold Craven Dartford Dover Forest Heath Forest of Dean Ipswich Maidstone Mendip Mid Suffolk North Somerset Sedgemoor South Gloucestershire South Somerset St Edmundsbury Stroud Suffolk Coastal Taunton Deane Tewkesbury Waveney West Somerset Towns and cities Cambridge Coventry Exeter Gloucester Liverpool York By type Churches War memorials 20th century vteGrade II* listed buildings in EnglandCounties Bedfordshire Berkshire Bristol Buckinghamshire Cambridgeshire Cheshire Cornwall Cumbria Derbyshire Devon Dorset Durham East Sussex East Riding of Yorkshire Essex Gloucestershire Greater London Greater Manchester Hampshire Herefordshire Hertfordshire Isle of Wight Kent Lancashire Leicestershire Lincolnshire Merseyside Norfolk North Yorkshire Northamptonshire Northumberland Nottinghamshire Oxfordshire Rutland Shropshire Somerset South Yorkshire Staffordshire Suffolk Surrey Tyne and Wear Warwickshire West Midlands West Sussex West Yorkshire Wiltshire Worcestershire Districts Allerdale Amber Valley Ashford Babergh Barrow-in-Furness Basildon Basingstoke and Deane Bath and North East Somerset Bolsover Boston Bournemouth Bradford Braintree Breckland Brentwood Brighton and Hove Bristol Broadland Calderdale Cambridge Camden Canterbury Carlisle Castle Point Chelmsford Cheltenham Cherwell Cheshire East Cheshire West and Chester Chesterfield Chiltern Christchurch Colchester Copeland Corby Cotswold Dartford Daventry Dover East Cambridgeshire Exeter Mendip North Somerset North Yorkshire (district) Poole Sedgemoor South Somerset Stoke-on-Trent Taunton Deane West Somerset York By type Signal boxes War memorials vteCategory A listed buildings in ScotlandCouncil areas City of Aberdeen Aberdeenshire Angus Argyll and Bute Clackmannanshire Dumfries and Galloway City of Dundee East Ayrshire East Dunbartonshire East Lothian East Renfrewshire City of Edinburgh Old Town New Town Falkirk Fife City of Glasgow Highland Inverclyde Midlothian Moray North Ayrshire North Lanarkshire Orkney Perth and Kinross Renfrewshire Scottish Borders Shetland South Ayrshire South Lanarkshire Stirling West Dunbartonshire West Lothian Western Isles (na h-Eileanan Siar) vteGrade I listed buildings in Wales Anglesey Bridgend Caerphilly Cardiff Carmarthenshire Ceredigion Conwy Denbighshire Flintshire Gwynedd Merthyr Tydfil Monmouthshire Neath Port Talbot Newport Pembrokeshire Powys Rhondda Cynon Taf Swansea Torfaen Vale of Glamorgan Wrexham Architecture Wales vteGrade II* listed buildings in Wales Anglesey Blaenau Gwent Bridgend Caerphilly Cardiff Carmarthenshire Ceredigion Conwy Denbighshire Flintshire Gwynedd Merthyr Tydfil Monmouthshire Neath Port Talbot Newport Pembrokeshire Powys Rhondda Cynon Taf Swansea Torfaen Vale of Glamorgan Wrexham Architecture Wales vteGrade A listed buildings in Northern Ireland County Antrim County Armagh County Down County Fermanagh County Londonderry County Tyrone
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Protected structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protected_structure"},{"link_name":"List of heritage registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Forthbridge_feb_2013.jpg"},{"link_name":"Forth Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forth_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Sir Benjamin Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Baker"},{"link_name":"Sir John Fowler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Fowler,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Network Rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Rail"},{"link_name":"Historic Environment Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Environment_Scotland"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-listingprinciples-2"},{"link_name":"Historic England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"Historic Environment Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Environment_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Cadw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadw"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland Environment Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Environment_Agency"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Republic of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"protected structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record_of_Protected_Structures"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"England and Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"amenity society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenity_society"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"milestones and mileposts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milestone"},{"link_name":"Abbey Road zebra crossing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Road,_London"},{"link_name":"the Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beatles"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge"},{"link_name":"scheduled monuments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_monument"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"This article is about the law in the United Kingdom. For the system in the Republic of Ireland, which has used the same term, see Protected structure. For other jurisdictions, see List of heritage registers.The Forth Bridge, designed by Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Fowler, which opened in 1890, and is now owned by Network Rail, is designated as a Category A listed building by Historic Environment Scotland.In the United Kingdom, a listed building[a] is a structure of particular architectural and/or historic interest deserving of special protection.[1] Such buildings are placed on one of the four statutory lists maintained by Historic England in England, Historic Environment Scotland in Scotland, Cadw in Wales, and the Northern Ireland Environment Agency in Northern Ireland. The classification schemes differ between England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland (see sections below). The term has also been used in the Republic of Ireland, where buildings are protected under the Planning and Development Act 2000, although the statutory term in Ireland is \"protected structure.\"[2]A listed building may not be demolished, extended, or altered without special permission from the local planning authority, which typically consults the relevant central government agency. In England and Wales, a national amenity society must be notified of any work to be done on a listed building which involves any element of demolition.[3]Exemption from secular listed building control is provided for some buildings in current use for worship, but only in cases where the relevant religious organisation operates its own equivalent permissions procedure. Owners of listed buildings are, in some circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them and can face criminal prosecution if they fail to do so or if they perform unauthorised alterations. When alterations are permitted, or when listed buildings are repaired or maintained, the owners are often required to use specific materials or techniques.[4]Although most sites appearing on the lists are buildings, other structures such as bridges, monuments, sculptures, war memorials, milestones and mileposts, and the Abbey Road zebra crossing made famous by the Beatles,[5] are also listed. Ancient, military, and uninhabited structures, such as Stonehenge, are sometimes instead classified as scheduled monuments and are protected by separate legislation.[b] Cultural landscapes such as parks and gardens are currently \"listed\" on a non-statutory basis.","title":"Listed building"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:St_Paul_destroyed.jpg"},{"link_name":"WWII bomb damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitz"},{"link_name":"St Paul's Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Monuments_Protection_Act_1882"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"German bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Blitz"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-victorian-14"},{"link_name":"Royal Institute of British Architects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_British_Architects"},{"link_name":"Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_Protection_of_Ancient_Buildings"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independent-15"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-victorian-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-independent-15"},{"link_name":"the Marquess of Bute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Crichton-Stuart,_4th_Marquess_of_Bute"},{"link_name":"National Trust for Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Trust_for_Scotland"},{"link_name":"the architect Ian Lindsay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Gordon_Lindsay"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Town and Country Planning Act 1947","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_Act_1947"}],"text":"WWII bomb damage advanced the move to preserve architecturally significant buildings such as St Paul's Cathedral which was listed Grade I in 1950.[10]Although a limited number of 'ancient monuments' were given protection under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882,[11] there was reluctance to restrict the owners of occupied buildings in their actions related to their property. The extensive damage to buildings caused by German bombing during World War II prompted efforts to list and protect buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit.[12] Three hundred members of the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings were dispatched to prepare the list under the supervision of the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments, with funding from the Treasury.[13] The listings were used as a means to determine whether a particular building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing,[12] with varying degrees of success.[13] In Scotland, the process slightly predated the war with the Marquess of Bute (in his connections to the National Trust for Scotland) commissioning the architect Ian Lindsay in September 1936 to survey 103 towns and villages based on an Amsterdam model using three categories (A, B and C).[14]The basis of the current more comprehensive listing process was developed from the wartime system. It was enacted by a provision in the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 covering England and Wales, and the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947 covering Scotland. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972. The listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"heritage asset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_asset"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"material consideration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_consideration"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PPS5-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Mappin_and_Webb_building,_London_(as_was)_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1229496.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:No_1_Poultry_(1398376326)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Mappin & Webb building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mappin_%26_Webb#Bank_branch"},{"link_name":"No 1 Poultry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_1_Poultry"},{"link_name":"Ancient monuments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_monument"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LBCA1990-19"}],"sub_title":"Heritage protection","text":"The process of protecting the built historic environment (i.e. getting a heritage asset legally protected) is called 'designation'. Several different terms are used because the processes use separate legislation: buildings are 'listed'; ancient monuments are 'scheduled', wrecks are 'protected', and battlefields, gardens and parks are 'registered'. A heritage asset is a part of the historic environment that is valued because of its historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic interest.[15]Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have extra legal protection through designation. Buildings that are not formally listed but still judged as being of heritage interest can still be regarded as a material consideration in the planning process.[16]The Grade II listed Mappin & Webb building (left) was controversially demolished in 1994 to make way for No 1 Poultry (right) which was itself listed in 2016.As a very rough guide, listed buildings are structures considered of special architectural and historical importance. Ancient monuments are of 'national importance' containing evidential values, and can on many occasions also relate to below ground or unoccupied sites and buildings.[17]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-selection-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wilts-21"},{"link_name":"Supreme Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dill-22"},{"link_name":"Cadw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadw"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scotbuildings-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Almost anything can be listed. Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. Historic England has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and structures. These include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category.[18][19] However, in 2020, the Supreme Court ruled in Dill v Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government and another that buildings in the scheme must meet certain criteria – \"a three-fold test which involved considering size, permanence and degree of physical attachment\" – referred to as the Skerritts test in reference to a previous legal case in England.[20] Both Historic Environment Scotland and Cadw produce guidance for owners.[21][22]","title":"Eligibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Historic England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wilts-21"}],"sub_title":"Listing and delisting procedure","text":"In England, to have a building considered for listing or delisting, the process is to apply to the secretary of state; this can be done by submitting an application form online to Historic England. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building to apply for it to be listed.[19] Full information including application form guidance notes are on the Historic England website. Historic England assesses buildings put forward for listing or delisting and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural and historic interest. The Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether to list or delist the building.","title":"Eligibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Listed buildings in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_buildings_in_England"},{"link_name":"Listed buildings in Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_buildings_in_Wales"}],"text":"For lists of buildings, see Listed buildings in England and Listed buildings in Wales.","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning_(Listed_Buildings_and_Conservation_Areas)_Act_1990"},{"link_name":"'Heritage at Risk' Register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_at_Risk_Register"},{"link_name":"art deco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_deco"},{"link_name":"Firestone Tyre Factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firestone_Tyre_Factory"},{"link_name":"Wallis, Gilbert and Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallis,_Gilbert_and_Partners"},{"link_name":"Trafalgar House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trafalgar_House_(company)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Firestone_destruction-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1980_revisions-26"},{"link_name":"Secretary of State for the Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Environment"},{"link_name":"Michael Heseltine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Heseltine"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Re-survey-27"},{"link_name":"Department for Culture, Media and Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Culture,_Media_and_Sport"},{"link_name":"Historic England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England"},{"link_name":"Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Levelling_Up,_Housing_and_Communities"},{"link_name":"Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Environment,_Food_and_Rural_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Historic England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dcmsWhatDo-28"},{"link_name":"Cadw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadw"},{"link_name":"Welsh Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senedd_Cymru_%E2%80%93_Welsh_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Historic Environment Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Environment_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scotbuildings-23"}],"sub_title":"Legislation","text":"In England and Wales, the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990. Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the Historic England 'Heritage at Risk' Register.In 1980 there was public outcry at the sudden destruction of the art deco Firestone Tyre Factory (Wallis, Gilbert and Partners, 1928–29). It was demolished over the August bank holiday weekend by its owners Trafalgar House, who had been told that it was likely to be 'spot-listed' a few days later.[23] In response, the government undertook to review arrangements for listing buildings in order to protect worthy ones from such demolition.[24] After the Firestone demolition, the Secretary of State for the Environment, Michael Heseltine, also initiated a complete re-survey of buildings to ensure that everything that merited preservation was on the lists.[25]In England, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) works with Historic England (an agency of the DCMS), and other government departments, e.g. Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities (DLUHC) and the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) to deliver the government policy on the protection to historic buildings and other heritage assets. The decision about whether or not to list a building is made by the Secretary of State, although the process is administered in England by Historic England.[26] In Wales (where it is a devolved issue), it is administered by Cadw on behalf of the Welsh Parliament.[27] In Scotland it is administered by Historic Environment Scotland on behalf of the Scottish Ministers.[21]","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JS-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2004-10-09_Midland_Bank.jpg"},{"link_name":"100 King Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100_King_Street"},{"link_name":"Midland Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Bank"},{"link_name":"Alan Howarth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Howarth,_Baron_Howarth_of_Newport"},{"link_name":"Department for Culture, Media and Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Digital,_Culture,_Media_and_Sport"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_the_Environment,_Transport_and_the_Regions"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"English Heritage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Heritage"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JS-30"},{"link_name":"Planning Policy Guidance 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PPG_15"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-selection-20"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Planning Policy Statement 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning_Policy_Statements"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PPS5-18"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PPS5-18"},{"link_name":"Department for Communities and Local Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Communities_and_Local_Government"},{"link_name":"Planning Policy Guidance Notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planning_Policy_Guidance_Notes"},{"link_name":"National Planning Policy Framework","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Planning_Policy_Framework"}],"sub_title":"English heritage protection reform","text":"There have been several attempts to simplify the heritage planning process for listed buildings in England.[28] As of 2021, few changes had been implemented.100 King Street, Manchester, built in 1935 and formerly the Midland Bank, was listed Grade II* in 1974.The review process was started in 2000 by Alan Howarth, then minister at the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS). The outcome was the paper \"The Power of Place\" in 2000,[29] followed by the subsequent policy document \"The Historic Environment: A Force for Our Future\", published by the DCMS and the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DTLR) in December 2001.[30] The launch of the Government's Heritage Protection Reform (HPR) report in July 2003 by the DCMS, entitled \"Protecting our historic environment: Making the system work better\",[31] asked questions about how the current designation systems could be improved. The HPR decision report \"Review of Heritage Protection: The Way Forward\", a green paper published in June 2004 by the DCMS, committed the UK government and English Heritage to a process of reform, including a review of the criteria used for listing buildings.A Review of Heritage Policy in 2006 was criticised,[28] and the Government began a process of consultation on changes to Planning Policy Guidance 15, relating to the principles of selection for listing buildings in England.The government's White Paper \"Heritage Protection for the 21st Century\", published on 8 March 2007, offered a commitment to sharing the understanding of the historic environment and more openness in the process of designation.[18]In 2008, a draft Heritage Protection Bill[32] was subject to pre-legislative scrutiny before its passage through UK Parliament. The legislation was abandoned despite strong cross-party support, to make room in the parliamentary legislative programme for measures to deal with the credit crunch,[33] though it may be revived in future. The proposal was that the existing registers of buildings, parks and gardens, archaeology and battlefields, maritime wrecks, and World Heritage Sites be merged into a single online register that will \"explain what is special and why\". English Heritage would become directly responsible for identifying historic assets in England and there would be wider consultation with the public and asset owners, and new rights of appeal. There would have been streamlined systems for granting consent for work on historic assets.[34]After several years of consultation with heritage groups, charities, local planning authorities, and English Heritage, in March 2010 the DCLG published Planning Policy Statement 5, \"Planning for the Historic Environment\". This replaced PPG15 and set out the government's national policies on the conservation of the historic environment in England.[16] PPS5 was supported by a Practice Guide, endorsed by the DCLG, the DCMS, and English Heritage,[16] which explained how to apply the policies stated in PPS5.In December 2010, the Department for Communities and Local Government announced that in England all PPSs and Planning Policy Guidance Notes would be replaced by a single document, the National Planning Policy Framework. A consultation draft of this was published on 25 July 2011 and the final version on 27 March 2012. This became a material consideration in planning matters on publication. It has since been revised in 2018, 2019 and 2021.","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HolyTrinity_back_8812.jpg"},{"link_name":"redundant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundant_church"},{"link_name":"Holy Trinity Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Trinity_Church,_Wensley"},{"link_name":"Wensley, North Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wensley,_North_Yorkshire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-listingprinciples-2"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HAR2010report-41"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dcmsWhatDo-28"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"closed by the Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundant_church"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Categories of listed buildings","text":"The redundant Holy Trinity Church in Wensley, North Yorkshire, is listed Grade I. Much of the current structure was built in the 14th and 15th centuries.The Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission lists buildings in England and Wales under three grades, with Grade I being the highest grade, as follows:[1]Grade I: buildings that are of exceptional interest\n Grade II*: particularly important buildings of more than special interest\n Grade II: buildings that are of special interest[35]There was formerly a non-statutory Grade III, which was abolished in 1970.[36][c] Additionally, Grades A, B and C were used mainly for Anglican churches in active use, loosely corresponding to Grades I, II* and II. These grades were used mainly before 1977, although a few buildings are still listed using these grades.In 2010, listed buildings accounted for about 2% of English building stock.[38] In March 2010, there were about 374,000 list entries,[26] of which 92% were Grade II, 5.5% were Grade II* and 2.5% were Grade I.[39] Places of worship are an important part of the UK's architectural heritage; England alone has 14,500 listed places of worship (4,000 Grade I, 4,500 Grade II* and 6,000 Grade II) and 45% of all Grade I listed buildings are places of worship.[40] Some of the listed churches are no longer in use; between 1969 and 2010, some 1,795 churches were closed by the Church of England, equalling roughly 11% of the stock, with about a third listed as Grade I or Grade II.[41]","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ST_PETERS_STRETTON_8218.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stretton-on-Fosse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretton-on-Fosse"},{"link_name":"Cotswolds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotswolds"},{"link_name":"conservation area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_area_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-listingprinciples-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-listingprinciples-2"},{"link_name":"curtilage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtilage"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PPS5-18"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1990Act-46"},{"link_name":"Anmer Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anmer_Hall"}],"sub_title":"Statutory criteria","text":"Built in 1841, St Peter's in Stretton-on-Fosse in the Cotswolds is listed Grade II.The criteria for listing include architectural interest, historic interest and close historical associations with significant people or events. Buildings not individually noteworthy may still be listed if they form part of a group that is—for example, all the buildings in a square. This is called 'group value'. Sometimes large areas comprising many buildings may not justify listing but receive the looser protection of designation as a conservation area.[1]The specific criteria include:Age and rarity: The older a building is, the more likely it is to be listed. All buildings erected before 1700 that \"contain a significant proportion of their original fabric\" will be listed. Most buildings built between 1700 and 1840 are listed. After 1840 more selection is exercised and \"particularly careful selection\" is applied after 1945. Buildings less than 30 years old are rarely listed unless they are of outstanding quality and under threat.\nAesthetic merits: i.e. the appearance of a building. However, buildings that have little visual appeal may be listed on grounds of representing particular aspects of social or economic history.\nSelectivity: where a large number of buildings of a similar type survive, the policy is only to list the most representative or significant examples.\nNational interest: significant or distinctive regional buildings; e.g. those that represent a nationally important but localised industry.The state of repair of a building is not generally deemed to be a relevant consideration for listing.[1]Additionally:Any buildings or structures constructed before 1 July 1948 that fall within the curtilage of a listed building are treated as part of the listed building.[42]\nThe effect of a proposed development on the setting of a listed building is a material consideration in determining a planning application. Setting is defined as \"the surroundings in which a heritage is experienced\".[16]Although the decision to list a building may be made on the basis of the architectural or historic interest of one small part of the building, the listing protection nevertheless applies to the whole building. Listing applies not just to the exterior fabric of the building itself, but also to the interior, fixtures, fittings, and objects within the curtilage of the building even if they are not fixed.[43] De-listing is possible but is rare. One example is Anmer Hall in Norfolk, which was listed in 1984 and de-listed in 1988.","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1990Act-46"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"sub_title":"Emergency measure","text":"In an emergency, the local planning authority can serve a temporary \"Building Preservation Notice\" (BPN), if a building is in danger of demolition or alteration in such a way that might affect its historic character.[43] This remains in force for six months until the Secretary of State decides whether or not to formally list the building.[44]","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_and_Regulatory_Reform_Act_2013"},{"link_name":"Certificate of Immunity from Listing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certificate_of_Immunity_from_Listing"}],"sub_title":"Certificates of immunity","text":"Until the passing of the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013 an application for a Certificate of Immunity from Listing (CoI) could only be made if planning permission was being sought or had been obtained in England. However, the changes brought about by the Act means that now anyone can ask the Secretary of State to issue a Certificate of Immunity in respect of a particular building at any time.","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PPS5-18"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Cadw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadw"},{"link_name":"Historic Environment Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Environment_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Alteration","text":"In England and Wales, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government (i.e., not DCMS, which originally listed the building). There is a general principle that listed buildings are put to 'appropriate and viable use' and recognition that this may involve the re-use and modification of the building.[16] However, listed buildings cannot be modified without first obtaining Listed Building Consent through the relevant local planning authority.[45]In Wales, applications are made using a form obtained from the relevant local authority.[46] There is no provision for consent to be granted in outline. When a local authority is disposed to grant listed building consent, it must first notify the Welsh Parliament (i.e. Cadw) of the application. If the planning authority decides to refuse consent, it may do so without any reference to Cadw.In Scotland, applications are made on a form obtained from Historic Environment Scotland. After consulting the local planning authority, the owner, where possible, and an independent third party, Historic Environment Scotland makes a recommendation on behalf of the Scottish Ministers.[47]Carrying out unauthorised works to a listed building is a criminal offence and owners can be prosecuted. A planning authority can also insist that all work undertaken without consent be reversed at the owner's expense.","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palacio_de_Buckingham,_Londres,_Inglaterra,_2014-08-11,_DD_190.JPG"},{"link_name":"Buckingham Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckingham_Palace"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Festival_Hall_as_seen_from_outside_the_Hayward_Gallery.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Festival Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Festival_Hall"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:King%27s_College_London_Chapel_2,_London_-_Diliff.jpg"},{"link_name":"King's College London Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College_London_Chapel"},{"link_name":"Strand Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strand_Campus"},{"link_name":"Sir George Gilbert Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_George_Gilbert_Scott"},{"link_name":"Category:Grade I listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_I_listed_buildings"},{"link_name":"Royal Albert Dock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Albert_Dock,_Liverpool"},{"link_name":"Birmingham Town Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Town_Hall"},{"link_name":"Blackpool Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackpool_Tower"},{"link_name":"Cenotaph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cenotaph"},{"link_name":"Chequers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chequers"},{"link_name":"Clifton Suspension Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifton_Suspension_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Hampton Court Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampton_Court_Palace"},{"link_name":"Humber Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humber_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Isokon Flats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isokon_Flats"},{"link_name":"King's College London Chapel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_College_London_Chapel"},{"link_name":"Liverpool Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Lloyd's building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd%27s_building"},{"link_name":"Manchester Liverpool Road railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Liverpool_Road_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Montacute House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montacute_House"},{"link_name":"Norwich Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich_Castle"},{"link_name":"Palace of Westminster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Westminster"},{"link_name":"Pontcysyllte Aqueduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontcysyllte_Aqueduct"},{"link_name":"Portchester Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portchester_Castle"},{"link_name":"Quarr Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarr_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Tower Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Tower of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_London"},{"link_name":"Warwick Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warwick_Castle"},{"link_name":"Windsor Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Castle"},{"link_name":"York Minster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York_Minster"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Grade I listed buildings","text":"Buckingham Palace, the official London residence of the British monarch, is listed Grade I.Royal Festival Hall, London, was the first postwar building to gain Grade I listed status.The Grade I listed King's College London Chapel on the Strand Campus was redesigned in 1864 by Sir George Gilbert Scott.See also Category:Grade I listed buildings for more examples of such buildings across England and Wales.Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool\nBirmingham Town Hall, Birmingham\nBlackpool Tower, Blackpool\nCenotaph, London\nChequers, Buckinghamshire\nClifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol\nHampton Court Palace, London\nHumber Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire / North Lincolnshire\nIsokon Flats, Hampstead, London\nKing's College London Chapel, London\nLiverpool Cathedral, Liverpool\nLloyd's building, London\nManchester Liverpool Road railway station, Manchester\nMontacute House, Somerset\nNorwich Castle, Norwich\nPalace of Westminster, London\nPontcysyllte Aqueduct, North Wales\nPortchester Castle, Hampshire\nQuarr Abbey, Isle of Wight\nTower Bridge, London\nTower of London, London\nWarwick Castle, Warwick\nWindsor Castle, Windsor\nYork Minster, York","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bank_Hall_-_Buttercups_on_Tower_Lawn.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Bank Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_Hall"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Craven_Cottage_grandstand.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johnny Haynes stand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craven_Cottage#Johnny_Haynes_Stand"},{"link_name":"Craven Cottage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craven_Cottage"},{"link_name":"Category:Grade II* listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_II*_listed_buildings"},{"link_name":"Battersea Power Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battersea_Power_Station"},{"link_name":"Capel Manor House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capel_Manor_House"},{"link_name":"Cleveland Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Coliseum Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coliseum_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Downe House, Richmond Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downe_House,_Richmond_Hill"},{"link_name":"Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool_Metropolitan_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Manchester Town Hall Extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Town_Hall_Extension"},{"link_name":"Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesbrough_Transporter_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Middlesex Guildhall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesex_Guildhall"},{"link_name":"Rise Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rise_Hall"},{"link_name":"Shibden Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibden_Hall"},{"link_name":"St John's Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_Jerusalem"},{"link_name":"Trellick Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trellick_Tower"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Grade II* listed buildings","text":"The Bank Hall mansion house in Lancashire is a Grade II* listed building because of its 17th-century clock tower, which features an original oak cantilevered staircase.The Johnny Haynes stand at Craven Cottage is listed Grade II*.See also Category:Grade II* listed buildings for examples of such buildings across England and Wales.Battersea Power Station, London\nCapel Manor House, Horsmonden\nCleveland Bridge, Bath\nColiseum Theatre, London\nDowne House, Richmond Hill, London\nLiverpool Metropolitan Cathedral, Liverpool\nManchester Town Hall Extension, Manchester\nMiddlesbrough Transporter Bridge, Middlesbrough\nMiddlesex Guildhall, London\nRise Hall, Rise\nShibden Hall, Calderdale\nSt John's Jerusalem, Sutton-at-Hone, Kent\nTrellick Tower, London","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Grade II listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_II_listed_buildings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BT_Tower-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"BT Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BT_Tower"},{"link_name":"communications tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_tower"},{"link_name":"Abbey Road Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Road_Studios"},{"link_name":"Adelphi Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia_Adelphi_Hotel"},{"link_name":"Broomhill Pool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broomhill_Pool,_Ipswich"},{"link_name":"BT Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BT_Tower"},{"link_name":"Birmingham Back to Backs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Back_to_Backs"},{"link_name":"India House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_House,_London"},{"link_name":"Kursaal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kursaal_(amusement_park)"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Crucible Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Surbiton railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surbiton_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Whitechapel Bell Foundry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitechapel_Bell_Foundry"},{"link_name":"Footbridge just south of Wokingham railway station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wokingham_railway_station"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Grade II listed buildings","text":"See also Category:Grade II listed buildings for examples of such buildings across England and Wales.BT Tower is a Grade II listed communications tower.Abbey Road Studios, London\nAdelphi Hotel, Liverpool\nBroomhill Pool, Ipswich\nBT Tower, London\nBirmingham Back to Backs, Birmingham\nIndia House, London\nKursaal, Southend-on-Sea[48]\nCrucible Theatre, Sheffield\nSurbiton railway station, London\nWhitechapel Bell Foundry, London\nFootbridge just south of Wokingham railway station, Wokingham, Berkshire[49][50]","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Derwent Valley Mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derwent_Valley_Mills"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"Scheduled monuments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_monuments"}],"sub_title":"Mixed designations","text":"It is not unusual for historic sites, particularly large sites, to contain buildings with multiple, sometimes varying, designations. For example, Derwent Valley Mills, a World Heritage Site contains 838 listed buildings, made up of 16 listed at Grade I, 42 at Grade II* and 780 at Grade II. A further nine structures are Scheduled monuments.","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Birmingham City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_City_Council"},{"link_name":"Crawley Borough Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crawley_Borough_Council"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Crawley-54"}],"sub_title":"Locally listed buildings","text":"Many councils, for example, Birmingham City Council and Crawley Borough Council,[51] maintain a list of locally listed buildings as separate to the statutory list (and in addition to it). There is no statutory protection of a building or object on the local list but many receive a degree of protection from loss through being in a Conservation Area or through planning policy. Councils hope that owners will recognise the merits of their properties and keep them unaltered if at all possible.","title":"England and Wales"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Listed buildings in Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_buildings_in_Northern_Ireland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mussenden_Temple,_Northern_Ireland._Built_between_1783_and_1785_cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"Mussenden Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussenden_Temple"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-criteria-56"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland Executive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Executive"},{"link_name":"Department for Communities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_for_Communities"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland Environment Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Environment_Agency"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-59"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-second-59"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-criteria-56"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DfC-61"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-criteria-56"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-criteria-56"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-criteria-56"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-criteria-56"}],"text":"For lists of buildings, see Listed buildings in Northern Ireland.The Grade-A-listed Mussenden Temple, County Londonderry[52]Listing began later in Northern Ireland than in the rest of the UK: the first provision for listing was contained in the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972; and the current legislative basis for listing is the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1991.[53] Under Article 42 of the Order, the relevant Department of the Northern Ireland Executive is required to compile lists of buildings of \"special architectural or historic interest\". Since 2016, the responsibility for the listing process rests with the Historic Environment Division of the Department for Communities,[54] which took over the built heritage functions of the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (formerly the Environment and Heritage Service) following the break up of the Department of the Environment.[55]Following the introduction of listing, an initial survey of Northern Ireland's building stock was begun in 1974.[56] By the time of the completion of this First Survey in 1994, the listing process had developed considerably, and it was therefore decided to embark upon a Second Survey, which is still ongoing, to update and cross-check the original information. Information gathered during this survey, relating to both listed and unlisted buildings, is entered into the publicly accessible Northern Ireland Buildings Database.[56]A range of listing criteria, which aim to define architectural and historic interest, are used to determine whether or not to list a building.[53] Listed building consent must be obtained from local authorities before any alteration to a listed structure.[57] There are about 8,500 listed buildings in Northern Ireland,[58] divided into four grades, defined as follows:Grade A: \"buildings of greatest importance to Northern Ireland including both outstanding architectural set-pieces and the least altered examples of each representative style, period and type.\"[53]\n Grade B+: \"high quality buildings that because of exceptional features, interiors or environmental qualities are clearly above the general standard set by grade B1 buildings. Also buildings which might have merited Grade A status but for detracting features such as an incomplete design, lower quality additions or alterations.\"[53]\n Grade B1: \"good examples of a particular period or style. A degree of alteration or imperfection of design may be acceptable. Generally B1 is chosen for buildings that qualify for listing by virtue of a relatively wide selection of attributes. Usually these will include interior features or where one or more features are of exceptional quality and/or interest.\"[53]\n Grade B2: \"special buildings which meet the test of the legislation. A degree of alteration or imperfection of design may be acceptable. B2 is chosen for buildings that qualify for listing by virtue of only a few attributes. An example would be a building sited within a conservation area where the quality of its architectural appearance or interior raises it appreciably above the general standard of buildings within the conservation area.\"[53]","title":"Northern Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Grade A listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_A_listed_buildings"},{"link_name":"Gosford Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gosford_Castle"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Grand Opera House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Opera_House_(Belfast)"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"Belfast Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Castle"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Grade A listed buildings","text":"See also: Category:Grade A listed buildingsGosford Castle, County Armagh[59]\nGrand Opera House, Belfast[60]\nBelfast Castle[61]","title":"Northern Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Grade B+ listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_B%2B_listed_buildings"},{"link_name":"Necarne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necarne"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Scrabo Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrabo_Tower"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Grade B+ listed buildings","text":"See also: Category:Grade B+ listed buildingsNecarne, County Fermanagh[62]\nScrabo Tower, Belfast[63]","title":"Northern Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Grade B1 listed buildings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_B1_listed_buildings"},{"link_name":"Campbell College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_College"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Old Bushmills Distillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Bushmills_Distillery"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Bank Buildings, Belfast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_Buildings,_Belfast"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Grade B1 listed buildings","text":"See also: Category:Grade B1 listed buildingsCampbell College, Belfast[64]\nOld Bushmills Distillery, County Antrim[65]\nBank Buildings, Belfast[66]","title":"Northern Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Listed buildings in Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Listed_buildings_in_Scotland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:National_Gallery_of_Scotland_restitch1_2005-08-07.jpg"},{"link_name":"National Gallery of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"William Henry Playfair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Playfair"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_and_Country_Planning_(Scotland)_Act_1997"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shep-71"},{"link_name":"Scottish Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Parliament"},{"link_name":"Scottish Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Government"},{"link_name":"Historic Environment Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Environment_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Historic Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Scotland"},{"link_name":"executive agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_agency"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shep-71"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HESlisting-72"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HESlisting-72"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HESlisting-72"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"}],"text":"For lists of buildings, see Listed buildings in Scotland.The National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, designed by William Henry Playfair, is a Category A listed building.[67]In Scotland, listing was begun by a provision in the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947, and the current legislative basis for listing is the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1997.[68] As with other matters regarding planning, conservation is a power devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Government. The authority for listing rests with Historic Environment Scotland (formerly Historic Scotland), an executive agency of the Scottish Government, which inherited this role from the Scottish Development Department in 1991. Listed building consent must be obtained from local authorities before any alteration to a listed structure.[68]The scheme for classifying buildings is:Category A: \"Buildings of special architectural or historic interest which are outstanding examples of a particular period, style or building type.\"[69]\nCategory B: \"Buildings of special architectural or historic interest which are major examples of a particular period, style or building type.\"[69]\nCategory C: \"Buildings of special architectural or historic interest which are representative examples of a period, style or building type.\"[69]There are about 47,400 listed buildings in Scotland. Of these, around 8 percent (some 3,800) are Category A, 50 percent are Category B, and 42 percent are listed at Category C.[70]","title":"Scotland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Category A listed buildings in Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Category_A_listed_buildings_in_Scotland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dunrobin_Castle_-Sutherland_-Scotland-26May2008_(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"Dunrobin Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunrobin_Castle"},{"link_name":"St Peter's Seminary, Cardross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Peter%27s_Seminary,_Cardross"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Palace of Holyroodhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palace_of_Holyroodhouse"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Ravelston Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ravelston_Garden"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"1 Prince's Terrace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_Prince%27s_Terrace"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Glasgow Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Glasgow City Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_City_Chambers"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Craigellachie Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craigellachie_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"The Kirna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Kirna"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Category A listed buildings","text":"See also: Category:Category A listed buildings in ScotlandDunrobin Castle is Category A listed.St Peter's Seminary, Cardross[71]\nPalace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh[72]\nRavelston Garden, Edinburgh[73]\n1 Prince's Terrace, Glasgow[74]\nGlasgow Cathedral, Glasgow[75]\nGlasgow City Chambers, Glasgow[76]\nCraigellachie Bridge, Moray[77]\nThe Kirna, Walkerburn[78]","title":"Scotland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Category B listed buildings in Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Category_B_listed_buildings_in_Scotland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Garrison_House,_Millport,_Cumbrae,_Scotland_04.jpg"},{"link_name":"Millport, Cumbrae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millport,_Cumbrae"},{"link_name":"Balmoral Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balmoral_Hotel"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"Harbourmaster's House, Dysart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harbourmaster%27s_House,_Dysart"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Perth Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Sabhal Mòr Ostaig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabhal_M%C3%B2r_Ostaig"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Torloisk House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torloisk_House"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Category B listed buildings","text":"See also: Category:Category B listed buildings in ScotlandThe 18th century Garrison House in Millport, Cumbrae is Category B listed.Balmoral Hotel, Edinburgh[79]\nHarbourmaster's House, Dysart, Fife[80]\nPerth Theatre, Perth[81]\nSabhal Mòr Ostaig, Isle of Skye[82]\nTorloisk House, Isle of Mull[83]","title":"Scotland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Category C listed buildings in Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Category_C_listed_buildings_in_Scotland"},{"link_name":"The Belmont Picturehouse, Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Belmont_Picturehouse,_Aberdeen"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"St John's Cathedral, Oban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_John%27s_Cathedral,_Oban"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Craigend Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craigend_Castle"},{"link_name":"Dunbartonshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunbartonshire"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"George Cinema, Portobello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cinema,_Portobello"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"}],"sub_title":"Examples of Category C listed buildings","text":"See also: Category:Category C listed buildings in ScotlandThe Belmont Picturehouse, Aberdeen[84]\nSt John's Cathedral, Oban, Argyll[85]\nCraigend Castle, East Dunbartonshire[86]\nThe George Cinema, Portobello, Edinburgh[87]","title":"Scotland"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"heritage assets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_asset"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"National Heritage List for England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Heritage_List_for_England"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Images of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Images_of_England"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NHL-94"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Heritage at Risk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heritage_at_risk"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"}],"sub_title":"England","text":"Although the 2008 draft legislation was abandoned, Historic England (then part of English Heritage) published a single list of all designated heritage assets within England in 2011.[88] The National Heritage List for England is an online searchable database which includes 400,000 English Listings, this includes individual listed buildings, groups of multiple listed buildings which share the same listing, scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, protected historic wrecks and registered battlefields and World Heritage Sites in one place. The 400,000 in the listing should not be confused with the actual number of listed buildings, which will be much larger than the listing, because a listing can include more than one building that share the same listing number. The legislative frameworks for each type of historic asset remains unchanged.[89] A photographic library of English listed buildings was started in 1999 as a snapshot of buildings listed at the turn of the millennium. This is not an up-to-date record of all listed buildings in England – the listing status and descriptions are only correct as at February 2001.[90] The photographs were taken between 1999 and 2008. It is maintained by the Historic England archive at the Images of England project website. The National Heritage List for England contains the up-to-date list of listed buildings.[91]Listed buildings in danger of being lost through damage or decay in England started to be recorded by survey in 1991.[92] This was extended in 1998 with the publication of Historic England's Buildings at Risk Register which surveyed Grade I and Grade II* buildings. In 2008 this survey was renamed Heritage at Risk and extended to include all listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, registered battlefields, protected wreck sites and conservation areas.[93] The register is compiled by survey using information from local authorities, official and voluntary heritage groups and the general public. It is possible to search this list online.[94]","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"Buildings at Risk Register for Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buildings_at_Risk_Register_for_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Historic Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Scotland"},{"link_name":"RCAHMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCAHMS"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"}],"sub_title":"Scotland","text":"In Scotland, the national dataset of listed buildings and other heritage assets can be searched online via Historic Environment Scotland,[95] or through the map database Pastmap.[96] A Buildings at Risk Register for Scotland was started in 1990 by Historic Scotland in response to similar concerns at the number of listed buildings that were vacant and in disrepair. RCAHMS maintained the register on behalf of Historic Scotland,[97] and provided information on properties of architectural or historic merit throughout the country that are considered to be at risk. Since the merger of these two bodies into one, that work is now carried out by Historic Environment Scotland.","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cadw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadw"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Commission_on_the_Ancient_and_Historical_Monuments_of_Wales"}],"sub_title":"Wales","text":"Cadw publishes and maintains a searchable map database for listed buildings in Wales.[98] In Wales, at risk registers of listed buildings are compiled by local planning authorities, and Cadw produced a report in 2009.[99] The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales' (RCAHMW) Emergency Buildings Recording team is responsible for surveying historic buildings threatened with destruction, substantial alteration, or serious decay.","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"sub_title":"Northern Ireland","text":"The Northern Ireland Buildings Database contains details of all listed buildings in Northern Ireland.[100]","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"British Listed Buildings Online (website)[101] has sections on England, Wales and Scotland. It can be searched either by browsing for listed buildings by country, county and parish/locality, or by keyword search or via the online map. Not all buildings have photographs, as it is run on a volunteer basis.","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of heritage registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heritage_registers"}],"text":"For other countries' equivalents see List of heritage registers.","title":"Equivalent statuses outside the United Kingdom"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Welsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_language"},{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language"},{"link_name":"Scottish Gaelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_language"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"scheduled monuments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_monument"},{"link_name":"Windsor Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Castle"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Raglan Castle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raglan_Castle"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"^ Welsh: adeilad rhestredig, Irish: foirgneamh liostaithe, Scottish Gaelic: togalach clàraichte.\n\n^ Buildings designated as both listed structures and as scheduled monuments are not uncommon. Windsor Castle in England,[6][7] and Raglan Castle in Wales are two such examples.[8][9]\n\n^ In 2022 proposals were floated for the reintroduction of a Grade III.[37]","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"The Forth Bridge, designed by Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Fowler, which opened in 1890, and is now owned by Network Rail, is designated as a Category A listed building by Historic Environment Scotland.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Forthbridge_feb_2013.jpg/310px-Forthbridge_feb_2013.jpg"},{"image_text":"WWII bomb damage advanced the move to preserve architecturally significant buildings such as St Paul's Cathedral which was listed Grade I in 1950.[10]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/St_Paul_destroyed.jpg/240px-St_Paul_destroyed.jpg"},{"image_text":"100 King Street, Manchester, built in 1935 and formerly the Midland Bank, was listed Grade II* in 1974.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/2004-10-09_Midland_Bank.jpg/190px-2004-10-09_Midland_Bank.jpg"},{"image_text":"The redundant Holy Trinity Church in Wensley, North Yorkshire, is listed Grade I. Much of the current structure was built in the 14th and 15th centuries.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/HolyTrinity_back_8812.jpg/240px-HolyTrinity_back_8812.jpg"},{"image_text":"Built in 1841, St Peter's in Stretton-on-Fosse in the Cotswolds is listed Grade II.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/ST_PETERS_STRETTON_8218.jpg/170px-ST_PETERS_STRETTON_8218.jpg"},{"image_text":"Buckingham Palace, the official London residence of the British monarch, is listed Grade I.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Palacio_de_Buckingham%2C_Londres%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-11%2C_DD_190.JPG/220px-Palacio_de_Buckingham%2C_Londres%2C_Inglaterra%2C_2014-08-11%2C_DD_190.JPG"},{"image_text":"Royal Festival Hall, London, was the first postwar building to gain Grade I listed status.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Royal_Festival_Hall_as_seen_from_outside_the_Hayward_Gallery.jpg/220px-Royal_Festival_Hall_as_seen_from_outside_the_Hayward_Gallery.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Grade I listed King's College London Chapel on the Strand Campus was redesigned in 1864 by Sir George Gilbert Scott.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/King%27s_College_London_Chapel_2%2C_London_-_Diliff.jpg/220px-King%27s_College_London_Chapel_2%2C_London_-_Diliff.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Bank Hall mansion house in Lancashire is a Grade II* listed building because of its 17th-century clock tower, which features an original oak cantilevered staircase.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Bank_Hall_-_Buttercups_on_Tower_Lawn.jpeg/220px-Bank_Hall_-_Buttercups_on_Tower_Lawn.jpeg"},{"image_text":"The Johnny Haynes stand at Craven Cottage is listed Grade II*.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Craven_Cottage_grandstand.jpg/220px-Craven_Cottage_grandstand.jpg"},{"image_text":"BT Tower is a Grade II listed communications tower.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/BT_Tower-1.jpg/180px-BT_Tower-1.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Grade-A-listed Mussenden Temple, County Londonderry[52]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Mussenden_Temple%2C_Northern_Ireland._Built_between_1783_and_1785_cropped.jpg/220px-Mussenden_Temple%2C_Northern_Ireland._Built_between_1783_and_1785_cropped.jpg"},{"image_text":"The National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, designed by William Henry Playfair, is a Category A listed building.[67]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/National_Gallery_of_Scotland_restitch1_2005-08-07.jpg/240px-National_Gallery_of_Scotland_restitch1_2005-08-07.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dunrobin Castle is Category A listed.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Dunrobin_Castle_-Sutherland_-Scotland-26May2008_%282%29.jpg/240px-Dunrobin_Castle_-Sutherland_-Scotland-26May2008_%282%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The 18th century Garrison House in Millport, Cumbrae is Category B listed.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Garrison_House%2C_Millport%2C_Cumbrae%2C_Scotland_04.jpg/240px-Garrison_House%2C_Millport%2C_Cumbrae%2C_Scotland_04.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Conservation area (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_area_(United_Kingdom)"},{"title":"Grade I listed buildings in England by county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Lists_of_Grade_I_listed_buildings_in_England_by_county"},{"title":"Grade II* listed buildings in England by county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_II*_listed_buildings"},{"title":"Grade II listed buildings in England by county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Grade_II_listed_buildings_in_England_by_county"},{"title":"Historic England Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_England_Archive"},{"title":"Images of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Images_of_England"},{"title":"Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_of_Historic_Parks_and_Gardens_of_special_historic_interest_in_England"},{"title":"Scheduled monument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheduled_monument"},{"title":"Site of Special Scientific Interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site_of_Special_Scientific_Interest"},{"title":"The Georgian Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Georgian_Group"},{"title":"Tree preservation order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_preservation_order"}]
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[{"Link":"https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5beef3c9e5274a2b0b4267e0/Revised_Principles_of_Selection_2018.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Principles of Selection for Listing Buildings\""},{"Link":"https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/housing/building_or_altering_a_home/protected_structures.html","external_links_name":"\"Protected Structures\""},{"Link":"https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/arrangements-for-handling-heritage-applications-direction-2015","external_links_name":"\"Arrangements for handling heritage applications Direction 2015\""},{"Link":"http://britishlistedbuildingsurveyor.com/a-to-z-listed-buildings/","external_links_name":"\"A to Z Listed Buildings\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/8562655/The-unusual-buildings-granted-listed-status.html","external_links_name":"\"The unusual buildings granted listed 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Bergstra
Jan Bergstra
["1 Biography","2 Work","2.1 On formal methods","2.2 In academia","3 Publications","4 References","5 External links"]
Dutch computer scientist This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "Jan Bergstra" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Johannes Aldert "Jan" Bergstra (born 1951) is a Dutch computer scientist. His work has focussed on logic and the theoretical foundations of software engineering, especially on formal methods for system design. He is best known as an expert on algebraic methods for the specification of data and computational processes in general. Biography Jan Bergstra was born in 1951 in Rotterdam, the son of Tjeerd Bergstra and Johanna Bisschop. He was educated at the Montessori Lyceum Rotterdam (gymnasium beta) and then studied mathematics at Utrecht University, starting in 1969. After an MSc he wrote a PhD thesis, defended in 1976, on recursion theory in higher types, under the supervision of Dirk van Dalen. Bergstra held posts at the Institute of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science of the University of Leiden (1976–82), and the Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in Amsterdam. In 1985 he was appointed Professor of Programming and Software Engineering at the Informatics Institute of the University of Amsterdam and, at the same time, Professor of Applied Logic at Utrecht University; such split positions are not uncommon in the Netherlands. These two chairs he continues to hold. He has been an Advisor of the CWI (1985–2004). In 1989 he worked for a year at Philips Research in Eindhoven as a project leader and, subsequently, continued as a consultant there until 2002. While at Philips he was involved in industrial projects on consumer electronics and medical equipment. He founded CONCUR, the international conference series in Concurrency Theory, by organising the first two conferences in Amsterdam in 1990 and 1991. He is a member of several editorial boards, and is the managing editor of Science of Computer Programming and the Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming. In 2004 Jan Bergstra contacted Mark Burgess of the Oslo University College, looking for scientific backing for a proposed one year masters course at the University in system administration. In spite of very different backgrounds, they shared a likeness of mind in their attitudes to science and research. This resulted in them becoming friends and going on to discuss and hone several parts of Promise theory together on mutual visits between Norway and the Netherlands. He is honorary Professor of Computer Science at Swansea University and a member of Academia Europaea since 2006. Work On formal methods Bergstra's research on computation has focussed on fundamental concepts, mathematical theories and practical tools. His main theoretical research programmes are: a systematic study of specification methods for abstract data types starting in 1979, with John V. Tucker; the invention, development and application of process algebras, especially ACP starting in 1984, with Jan Willem Klop, Jos Baeten and others; Module Algebra starting in 1986, together with Paul Klint and Jan Heering; Program Algebra starting in 1998, with Marijke Loots. Based in this theoretical research, he has designed various formal methods and tools. In cooperation with Paul Klint and Jan Heering he designed the specification language ASF (in 1984) and the related ToolBus coordination language and system (in 1995). Some of his work has been undertaken in the setting of the ESPRIT programme. For example, the software projects FAST and METEOR funded the beginnings of the development of the process algebra ACP, and the telecommunications project SPECS led to the development of the specification language muCRL. All systems are still in daily use for research purposes, while ASF has been extensively used in the Dutch banking industry. In academia Through his research and organisational activities, Bergstra has had considerable influence on computer science in the Netherlands. For example, he has supervised the work of over 40 PhD students, many of whom have become academic computer scientists, 12 at professorial level. He set up the new computer science curriculum at Leiden in 1976, and for cognitive artificial intelligence at Utrecht University in 1989. In 2000 he became the Director of the Teaching Institute of Information Sciences at the University of Amsterdam. In this role he has been responsible for the redesign of all courses when the bachelor-master system of degrees was introduced into the Netherlands. Bergstra became a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2011. Publications Publications, a selection: J. A. Bergstra, A. Ponse and S. A. Smolka (editors), The Handbook of Process Algebra, Elsevier, 2001. J. A. Bergstra and M. E. Loots, "Program Algebra for Component Code", Formal Aspects of Computing, 12(1):1–17, 2000. J. A. Bergstra and J. V. Tucker, "Equational specifications, complete term rewriting systems, and computable and semicomputable algebras", Journal of the ACM, 42(6):1194–1230, 1995. J. A. Bergstra, J. Heering and P. Klint, "Module Algebra", Journal of the ACM, 37(2):335–372, 1990. J. A. Bergstra, J. Heering and P. Klint (editors), Algebraic Specification, Addison Wesley, 1989. Burgess, Mark; Bergstra, Jan (February 5, 2014). Promise Theory: Principles and Applications. Createspace. ISBN 978-1495437779. References ^ a b c Jan A. Bergstra (2009) "Curriculum Vitae Jan Aldert Bergstra" at uva.nl. October 20, 2009. Accessed August 30, 2013 ^ "Mark Burgess Website". ^ "Jan Aldert Bergstra". Academia Europaea. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019. ^ "Jan Bergstra". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2016. ^ Jan A. Bergstra at DBLP Bibliography Server External links Home page at the University of Amsterdam Jan Bergstra, Alban Ponse "A Bypass of Cohen's Impossibility Result", Advances in Grid Computing - EGC 2005, LNCS 3470, pages 1097-1106. Springer-Verlag, 2005 Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel Belgium United States Czech Republic Netherlands Academics Association for Computing Machinery DBLP Google Scholar MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project ORCID Scopus zbMATH Other SNAC IdRef
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He is best known as an expert on algebraic methods for the specification of data and computational processes in general.[citation needed]","title":"Jan Bergstra"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rotterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JAB_2009-1"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Utrecht University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_University"},{"link_name":"Dirk van Dalen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirk_van_Dalen"},{"link_name":"University of Leiden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_University"},{"link_name":"Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrum_Wiskunde_%26_Informatica"},{"link_name":"University of Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_University"},{"link_name":"Utrecht University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utrecht_University"},{"link_name":"Philips Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philips"},{"link_name":"Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Logic_and_Algebraic_Programming"},{"link_name":"Mark Burgess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Burgess_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Oslo University College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oslo_University_College"},{"link_name":"Promise theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promise_theory"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Swansea University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swansea_University"},{"link_name":"Academia Europaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academia_Europaea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JAB_2009-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Jan Bergstra was born in 1951 in Rotterdam, the son of Tjeerd Bergstra and Johanna Bisschop.[1] He was educated at the Montessori Lyceum Rotterdam (gymnasium beta) and then studied mathematics at Utrecht University, starting in 1969. After an MSc he wrote a PhD thesis, defended in 1976, on recursion theory in higher types, under the supervision of Dirk van Dalen.Bergstra held posts at the Institute of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science of the University of Leiden (1976–82), and the Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in Amsterdam. In 1985 he was appointed Professor of Programming and Software Engineering at the Informatics Institute of the University of Amsterdam and, at the same time, Professor of Applied Logic at Utrecht University; such split positions are not uncommon in the Netherlands. These two chairs he continues to hold.He has been an Advisor of the CWI (1985–2004). In 1989 he worked for a year at Philips Research in Eindhoven as a project leader and, subsequently, continued as a consultant there until 2002. While at Philips he was involved in industrial projects on consumer electronics and medical equipment.He founded CONCUR, the international conference series in Concurrency Theory, by organising the first two conferences in Amsterdam in 1990 and 1991. He is a member of several editorial boards, and is the managing editor of Science of Computer Programming and the Journal of Logic and Algebraic Programming.In 2004 Jan Bergstra contacted Mark Burgess of the Oslo University College, looking for scientific backing for a proposed one year masters course at the University in system administration. In spite of very different backgrounds, they shared a likeness of mind in their attitudes to science and research. This resulted in them becoming friends and going on to discuss and hone several parts of Promise theory together on mutual visits between Norway and the Netherlands.[2]He is honorary Professor of Computer Science at Swansea University and a member of Academia Europaea since 2006.[1][3]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"abstract data types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_data_type"},{"link_name":"John V. Tucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_V._Tucker"},{"link_name":"process algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_algebra"},{"link_name":"ACP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra_of_Communicating_Processes"},{"link_name":"Jan Willem Klop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Willem_Klop"},{"link_name":"Jos Baeten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos_Baeten"},{"link_name":"ESPRIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Strategic_Program_on_Research_in_Information_Technology"}],"sub_title":"On formal methods","text":"Bergstra's research on computation has focussed on fundamental concepts, mathematical theories and practical tools. His main theoretical research programmes are:a systematic study of specification methods for abstract data types starting in 1979, with John V. Tucker;\nthe invention, development and application of process algebras, especially ACP starting in 1984, with Jan Willem Klop, Jos Baeten and others;\nModule Algebra starting in 1986, together with Paul Klint and Jan Heering;\nProgram Algebra starting in 1998, with Marijke Loots.Based in this theoretical research, he has designed various formal methods and tools. In cooperation with Paul Klint and Jan Heering he designed the specification language ASF (in 1984) and the related ToolBus coordination language and system (in 1995). Some of his work has been undertaken in the setting of the ESPRIT programme. For example, the software projects FAST and METEOR funded the beginnings of the development of the process algebra ACP, and the telecommunications project SPECS led to the development of the specification language muCRL. All systems are still in daily use for research purposes, while ASF has been extensively used in the Dutch banking industry.","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JAB_2009-1"},{"link_name":"Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"In academia","text":"Through his research and organisational activities, Bergstra has had considerable influence on computer science in the Netherlands. For example, he has supervised the work of over 40 PhD students, many of whom have become academic computer scientists, 12 at professorial level.[citation needed] He set up the new computer science curriculum at Leiden in 1976, and for cognitive artificial intelligence at Utrecht University in 1989.[1]In 2000 he became the Director of the Teaching Institute of Information Sciences at the University of Amsterdam. In this role he has been responsible for the redesign of all courses when the bachelor-master system of degrees was introduced into the Netherlands.Bergstra became a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2011.[4]","title":"Work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dblp-5"},{"link_name":"Elsevier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsevier"},{"link_name":"Formal Aspects of Computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_Aspects_of_Computing"},{"link_name":"J. V. Tucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_V._Tucker"},{"link_name":"Journal of the ACM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_ACM"},{"link_name":"Addison Wesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addison_Wesley"},{"link_name":"Burgess, Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Burgess_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1495437779","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1495437779"}],"text":"Publications, a selection:[5]J. A. Bergstra, A. Ponse and S. A. Smolka (editors), The Handbook of Process Algebra, Elsevier, 2001.\nJ. A. Bergstra and M. E. Loots, \"Program Algebra for Component Code\", Formal Aspects of Computing, 12(1):1–17, 2000.\nJ. A. Bergstra and J. V. Tucker, \"Equational specifications, complete term rewriting systems, and computable and semicomputable algebras\", Journal of the ACM, 42(6):1194–1230, 1995.\nJ. A. Bergstra, J. Heering and P. Klint, \"Module Algebra\", Journal of the ACM, 37(2):335–372, 1990.\nJ. A. Bergstra, J. Heering and P. Klint (editors), Algebraic Specification, Addison Wesley, 1989.\nBurgess, Mark; Bergstra, Jan (February 5, 2014). Promise Theory: Principles and Applications. Createspace. ISBN 978-1495437779.","title":"Publications"}]
[]
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[{"reference":"Burgess, Mark; Bergstra, Jan (February 5, 2014). Promise Theory: Principles and Applications. Createspace. ISBN 978-1495437779.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Burgess_(computer_scientist)","url_text":"Burgess, Mark"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1495437779","url_text":"978-1495437779"}]},{"reference":"\"Mark Burgess Website\".","urls":[{"url":"http://markburgess.org/bio.html","url_text":"\"Mark Burgess Website\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jan Aldert Bergstra\". Academia Europaea. Archived from the original on 28 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190328104831/https://www.ae-info.org/ae/Member/Bergstra_Jan","url_text":"\"Jan Aldert Bergstra\""},{"url":"https://www.ae-info.org/ae/Member/Bergstra_Jan","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Jan Bergstra\". Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160207155010/https://www.knaw.nl/en/members/members/11661","url_text":"\"Jan Bergstra\""},{"url":"https://www.knaw.nl/en/members/members/11661","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_VIA_chipsets
List of VIA chipsets
["1 Background","2 Chipsets by CPU socket","2.1 Socket 3","2.2 Socket 5 and Socket 7","2.3 Socket 8, Slot 1 and Socket 370","2.4 Slot A and Socket A","2.5 Socket 423, 478 and LGA 775","2.6 Socket 754, 939, 940, AM2","2.7 Chipsets supporting both VIA and Intel processors","2.8 Chipsets supporting VIA processors","3 Southbridge chips","4 Hardware bugs","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
This is a list of computer motherboard chipsets made by VIA Technologies. Northbridge chips are listed first, primarily by CPU-socket or CPU-family; southbridge chips are listed in a later table. Background VIA chipsets support CPUs from Intel, AMD (e.g. the Athlon 64) and VIA themselves (e.g. the VIA C3 or C7). They support CPUs as old as the i386 in the early 1990s. In the early 2000s, their chipsets began to offer on-chip graphics support from VIA's joint venture with S3 Graphics beginning in 2001; this support continued into the early 2010s, with the release of the VX11H in August 2012. VIA chipsets declined in popularity as other chipsets began to offer better performance, VIA entered other markets and Intel began to offer more powerful integrated graphics on their CPU dies. Chipsets by CPU socket The term V-Link indicates VIA's northbridge/southbridge interconnect bus. Socket 3 Chipset Part numbers South bridge Release date Processors FSB Memory types Memory bus Max. memory Max. cache Max. cacheable RAM Parity/ECC PCI VT82C470 VT82C470 386 25/33/40 MHz FPM 25/33/40 MHz ? ? ? No No VT82C475 VT82C475 386 25/33/40 MHz FPM 25/33/40 MHz ? ? ? No No VT82C486A VT82C486A + VT82C482 + VT82C483, VT82C505 (for PCI) VT82C482, VT82C505 1993 386, Socket 3 25/33/40 MHz FPM 25/33/40 MHz ? ? ? No 2.0 (w/ VT82C505) VT82C495 VT82C495, VT82C491, VT82C480/1 VT82C491, VT82C480/1 1993 Socket 3 25/33/40 MHz FPM 25/33/40 MHz ? 1 MB ? No No VT82C496G (Pluto) VT82C496G, VT82C505 (for PCI) VT82C505 1994 Socket 3 25/33/40 MHz FPM 25/33/40 MHz 128 MB 1 MB ? No 2.0 (w/ VT82C505) Socket 5 and Socket 7 All chipsets listed support a maximum cache memory size of 2 MB and are PCI 2.1 compliant Chipset OEM names Northbridge Southbridge Release date Processors FSB Memory types Memory bus Max. memory Max. cacheable RAM Parity/ECC AGP IGP Apollo Master (VT82C570M) VT82C575M + VT82C577M (x2) VT82C576M + VT82C416 1995 Socket 5 50/60/66 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO 66 MHz 1024 MB 1024 MB w/ 1 MB L2 No No No Apollo Master Plus (VT82C570MV) VT82C575MV + VT82C577MV (x2) VT82C576MV + VT82C416MV 1995 Socket 5 50/60/66 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO 66 MHz 1024 MB 1024 MB w/ 1 MB L2 No No No Apollo VP (VT82C580VP) VX Pro, VX Two VT82C585VP + VT82C587VP (x2) VT82C586 Oct. 1995 (Announced) Q1 1996 (Available) Socket 7 50/60/66 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM 66 MHz 512 MB 512 MB w/ 2 MB L2 No No No Apollo VP2 (VT82C590) AMD-640 VT82C595 VT82C586A or VT82C586B (VP2/97) May 1996 (Announced) Q3 1996 (Available) Socket 7 50/60/66/75 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM 66 MHz 512 MB 512 MB w/ 2 MB L2 Yes No No Apollo VPX (VT82C580VPX) ETEQ 6618, TX Pro III, VX Pro+, VX Two VT82C585VPX + VT82C587VP (x2) VT82C586A or VT82C586B (VPX/97) Dec. 1996 (Announced) Q1 1997 (Available) Socket 7 50/60/66/75 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM 66 MHz 512 MB 512 MB w/ 2 MB L2 No No No Apollo VP3 ETEQ 6628 VT82C597 VT82C586B May 1997 (Announced) Q3 1997 (Available) Socket 7 66 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM 66 MHz 1024 MB 1024 MB w/ 2 MB L2 Yes 2× No Apollo MVP3 ETEQ 6638, AGP Pro PC-100 VT82C598AT or VT82C598MVP VT82C586B or VT82C596 Sept. 1997 (Announced) Q1 1998 (Available) Super Socket 7 66–100 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM 66 - 100 MHz 768 MB 512 MB w/ 2 MB L2 Yes 2× No Apollo MVP4 VIA GRA VT82C501 VT82C686A/B or VT82C596B Aug. 1998 (Announced) Q4 1998 (Available) Super Socket 7 66–100 MHz FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM 66 - 100 MHz 768 MB 512 MB w/ 2 MB L2 Yes No Trident Blade3D The only difference between the Apollo Master and the Apollo Master Plus is that the Plus does not support pipelined burst cache memory. The Apollo VP and Apollo VP2 chipsets were initially referenced by VIA as Apollo VP-1 and Apollo VP-2 respectively, later renamed to Apollo VP and Apollo VP2 when the "/97" upgrades became available. The Apollo VPX chipset is a low-cost solution that replaced the Apollo VP but with features similar to the VP2. AMD licensed the VIA Apollo VP2/97 core logic architecture for its AMD 640 chipset. Socket 8, Slot 1 and Socket 370 Chipset OEM names Northbridge Southbridge Release date Processors FSB SMP Memory types Memory bus Max. memory Parity/ECC PCI V-Link AGP IGP Apollo P6 (VT82C680) VT82C685 + VT82C687 VT82C586A or VT82C586B Jan. 1996 (Announced) Q4 1996 (Available) Pentium Pro 66 MHz Yes FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM 66 MHz 1.0 GB Yes 2.1 No No No Apollo Pro BXpert VT82C691 VT82C586B or VT82C596 May 11, 1998 Pentium Pro, Pentium II 66/100 MHz No FPM, EDO, BEDO, SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100 MHz 1.0 GB Yes 2.1 No 2× No Apollo Pro Plus BX Too VT82C693 VT82C596A or VT82C686A December 24, 1998 Pentium II, Celeron 66/100 MHz No FPM, EDO, SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100 MHz 1.0 GB Yes 2.1 No 2× No Apollo Pro133 VT82C693A VT82C596B or VT82C686A July 19, 1999 Pentium II, Pentium III, Celeron 66/100/133 MHz No FPM, EDO, SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 1.5 GB Yes 2.2 No 2× No Apollo Pro133A VT82C694X or VT82C694MP VT82C596B or VT82C686A October 11, 1999 Pentium III, Pentium II 66/100/133 MHz Yes (VT82C694MP only) PC100/PC133 SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 2.0 GB Yes 2.2 No 4× No Apollo Pro133T VT82C694T VT82C686B May 30, 2001 Pentium III, Celeron, Pentium III Tualatin 66/100/133 MHz No PC100/PC133 SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 2.0 GB Yes 2.2 No 4× No Apollo Pro266 VT8633 VT8233 September 20, 2000 Pentium III, Celeron, C3 66/100/133 MHz Yes SDRAM, VCSDRAM, DDR SDRAM 200/266 MHz DDR SDRAM, 100/133 MHz SDRAM 4.0 GB Yes 2.2 Yes, 266 MB/s 4× No Apollo Pro266T VT8653 VT8233C May 30, 2001 Pentium III, Celeron, Pentium III Tualatin, C3 66/100/133 MHz Yes SDRAM, VCSDRAM, DDR SDRAM 200/266 MHz DDR SDRAM, 100/133 MHz SDRAM 4.0 GB Yes 2.2 Yes, 266 MB/s 4× No Apollo PM601 (ProMedia) VT8601 VT82C686A Pentium III, Celeron, C3 66/100/133 MHz No FPM, EDO, SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 2.2 No No Yes (Trident Blade3D) Apollo PLE133 VT8601A VT82C686B Pentium III, Celeron, C3 66/100/133 MHz No SDRAM 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 2.2 No No Yes (Trident Blade3D) Apollo PLE133T VT8601T VT82C686B May 30, 2001 Pentium III, Pentium III Tualatin, Celeron, C3 66/100/133 MHz No SDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 2.2 No No Yes (Trident Blade3D) ProSavage PL133T VT8604 VT82C686A/B May 30, 2001 Pentium III, Pentium II 66/100/133 MHz No PC100/PC133 SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 2.0 GB 2.1 No No Yes (ProSavage™) ProSavage PL133 VT8604 VT82C686A/B Pentium III, Pentium II 66/100/133 MHz No PC100/PC133 SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 2.0 GB 2.1 No No Yes (ProSavage™) ProSavage PM133 VT8605 VT82C686A/B Pentium III, Pentium II 66/100/133 MHz No PC100/PC133 SDRAM, VCSDRAM 66/100/133 MHz 2.0 GB 2.1 No 4x Yes (ProSavage™) CLE266 (Castle Rock) VT8622/3 VT8233A, VT8235M, VT8235 Pentium III, Celeron, Pentium III Tualatin, C3 66/100/133 MHz No SDRAM DDR 200/266 100/133 MHz 2.0 GB No 2.1 266 MB/s No Yes ProSavage PM133 - graphics core from S3, derived from a combination of the 3D component of Savage4 and 2D from Savage 2000. PLE133 and PLE133T - graphics core from Trident, derived from Blade3D. CLE266 (Castle Rock) - graphics core from S3, derived from S3 Savage series under the brand name UniChrome. Asus advertised some boards as Apollo Pro 133Z. 133Z appears to be a late revision of or step up from 133A, but it is not listed on the VIA site. Slot A and Socket A Chipset Part numbers South bridge Release date Processors FSB Memory types Memory bus Max. memory V-Link AGP IGP KX133 VT8371 VT82C686A May 2000 Athlon (Slot A) 200 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 2.0 GB No 4× KT133 VT8363 VT82C686A/B Athlon, Duron (Socket A) 200 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 4× KT133E VT8363E VT82C686B Athlon, Duron (Socket A) 200 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 4× KL133 VT8364 VT82C686A/B Athlon, Duron (Socket A) 200 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No No Yes (ProSavage™) KM133 VT8365 VT82C686A/B Athlon, Duron (Socket A) 200 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 4× Yes (ProSavage™) KLE133 VT8361 VT82C686B 2001 Athlon, Duron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.0 GB No No Yes (Trident Blade3D) KT133A VT8363A VT82C686B Dec 2000 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 4× KL133A VT8364A VT82C686B 2001 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No No Yes (ProSavage™) KM133A VT8365A VT82C686B 2001 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz SDR SDRAM, VCSDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz 1.5 GB No 4× Yes (ProSavage™) KT266 VT8366 VT8231, VT8233 Jan 2001 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× KM266 VT8375 VT8231, VT8233, VT8235 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× Yes (ProSavage8™ DDR) KT266A VT8366A VT8231, VT8233, VT8233A, VT8235 Sept 2001 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× KM266 Pro VT8235, VT8237, VT8237R(+) Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× Yes (ProSavage8™ DDR) KT333 VT8367 VT8233A, VT8235 Feb 2002 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× KT333CE VT8367 VT8233A, VT8235 Apr 2002 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× KT333CF VT8367 VT8235 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 4× KT400 VT8368 VT8235, VT8237, VT8237R(+) Aug 2002 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× KM400 VT8378 VT8235, VT8237, VT8237R(+) Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) KT400A VT8377A VT8235, VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Mar 2003 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× KM400A VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333/400 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) KT600 VT8377 VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 May 2003 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333/400 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× KT880 VT8379 VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Feb 2004 Athlon, Athlon XP, Duron, Sempron (Socket A) 200/266/333/400 MHz DDR SDRAM Dual Channel DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× KT266 contains a hardware bug which causes system instability when using the AGP slot at the specified max capacity of 4×. ProSavage KM133, KM133A, KM266, KM400, KM400A - Similar to the above, but with integrated graphics. After KM133, DDR is supported. The KM133 uses an IGP consisting of the S3 Savage4 3D core and Savage 2000 2D functionality. KM266's ProSavage8 IGP is similar but has an additional 3D pipeline. The KM400 chipset and its "A" variant use the VIA UniChrome IGP. KM400A supports FSB 400 unlike the KT400A Later revisions of the KT333 (sometimes called KT333CF) are rebadged KT400 chips with AGP 8x disabled. On motherboards with this chipset AGP 2x cards which require 3.3V are not supported. KT133E (= VT8363E + VT82C686B) appears on Gigabyte 7IXEH but is not listed on the VIA site. Based on the specifications of that motherboard, KT133E appears to be equivalent to (or a cost-reduced rehash of) KT133, supporting 133 MHz for memory but only 100 MHz for the CPU. Some revisions of KT333 support 166 MHz FSB. Socket 423, 478 and LGA 775 Chipset Part numbers South bridge Release date Socket Processors FSB Memory types Memory bus Max. memory V-Link AGP PCI-E IGP P4X266 VT8753 VT8233/8233C Aug 2001 Socket 423 Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron 400 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× No No P4M266 VT8751 VT8233/8233A/8233C Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron 400 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× No Yes (ProSavage8™ DDR) P4X266E VT8753 VT8233/8233C Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MBs 4× No No P4X266A VT8753 VT8233/8233A/8233C Dec 2001 Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron 400/533 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× No No P4M266A VT8233, VT8235 Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron 400/533 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266 MHz 4.0 GB 266 MB/s 4× No Yes (ProSavage8™ DDR) P4X333 VT8754 VIA VT8235 May 2002 Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533 MHz SDR SDRAM, DDR SDRAM SDR 100/133 MHz DDR 200/266/333 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× No No P4X400 VT8754 VIA VT8235 Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× No No P4X533 VT8237, VT8237R(+) Socket 478 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s 8× No No PT800 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Jul 2003 Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533/800 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 3.0 GB 533 MB/s 8x No No PM800 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Nov 2003 Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533/800 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 3.0 GB 1066 MB/s 8x No Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) PT880 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Nov 2003 Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533/800 MHz Dual Channel DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s 8x No No PM880 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Nov 2003 Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533/800 MHz Dual Channel DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s 8x No Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) P4M800 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D 400/533/800 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz 3.0 GB 533 MB/s 8x No Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) P4M800 Pro VT3344 VT8237, VT8237R(+) Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D, Core 2 400/533/800/1066 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR2 SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533 MHz 2.0 GB 533 MB/s 8x No Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) PT880 Pro VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Jan 2005 Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D, Core 2 400/533/800 MHz Dual Channel DDR SDRAM Dual Channel DDR2 SDRAM DDR 200/266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s 8x x4 No PT880 Ultra VT VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8237A, VT8237S Jan 2005 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D, Core 2 533/800/1066 MHz Dual Channel DDR SDRAM Dual Channel DDR2 SDRAM DDR 266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533/667 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s 8x x4 No PT894 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Jan 2005 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D 533/800/1066 MHz Dual Channel DDR SDRAM Dual Channel DDR2 SDRAM DDR 266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533/667 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s No x16 No PT894 Pro VT VT8237, VT8237R(+) Jan 2005 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D 533/800/1066 MHz Dual Channel DDR SDRAM Dual Channel DDR2 SDRAM DDR 266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533/667 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s No x16 No P4M890 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8237A Feb 2006 Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D, Core 2 400/533/800 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR2 SDRAM DDR 266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533/667 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s No x16 Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) PT890 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8237A Apr 2006 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D, Core 2 533/800 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR2 SDRAM DDR 266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533/667 MHz 4.0 GB 533 MB/s No x16 No P4M900 VT VT8251 May 2006 Socket 478 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D, Core 2 400/533/800/1066 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR2 SDRAM DDR 266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533/667 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s No x16 Yes (VIA Chrome9 HC IGP) PT900 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8237A May 2006 LGA 775 Pentium 4, Pentium D, Celeron, Celeron D, Core 2 533/800/1066 MHz DDR SDRAM DDR2 SDRAM DDR 266/333/400 MHz DDR2 400/533/667 MHz 4.0 GB 1066 MB/s No x16 No Being a reduced version of PM880, PM800 is not as closely related to PT800 as P4M890 to PT890. Because of its high cost, It is soon obsoleted in favor of P4M800 and then P4M800 Pro, both of which have a lower rated V-Link and feature no special memory technology such as FastStream64 or StepUp that is common in the other listed 8xx chipsets. VIA PT890, P4M890, PT900, P4M900 – VIA's PCIe-only chipsets. The P4M chipsets have onboard graphics VIA UniChrome Pro. VIA Chipsets P4 Series for Intel CPU Comparison Chart Socket 754, 939, 940, AM2 Chipset IGP Part number South bridge Release date Processors Max. FSB SMP V-Link AGP PCI-Express IGP K8T800 VT VT8235, VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Apr 2003 Socket 754/939/940 800 MHz Yes 533 MB/s 8x No No K8M800 VT3108 VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Dec 2003 Socket 754/939/AM2 800 MHz No 533 MB/s 8x No Yes (VIA UniChrome IGP) K8T800 Pro VT VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 May 2004 Socket 754/939/940 1 GHz Yes 1066 MB/s 8x No No K8T890 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Sept 2004 Socket 939/AM2 1 GHz No 1066 MB/s No x16 No K8M890 VT3230 VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Oct 2005 Socket 754/939/AM2 1 GHz No 1066 MB/s No x16 Yes (VIA Chrome9 IGP) K8T900 VT VT8237, VT8237R(+), VT8251 Nov 2005 Socket 939/AM2 1 GHz No 1066 MB/s No x16, Dual x8 No VIA K8M890, K8T890, K8T900 – VIA's PCIe-only chipsets. The K8M800 chipsets has the onboard graphics VIA UniChrome Pro; the K8M890 has the Chrome9. The Athlon 64 chipsets do not have memory controllers, because memory controller is integrated into the CPU. Supported memory types depend on the CPU and socket used. VIA Chipsets K8 Series for AMD CPU Comparison Chart The K8M890 was also used on boards with Socket 754, like the ASUS K8V-VM Ultra Chipsets supporting both VIA and Intel processors Chipset (Northbridge) V = Mobile C = Desktop Internal Unichrome IGP Part number IGP South bridge Release date Processors FSB Memory types Memory bus Max. memory V-Link PCI AGP PCI-e Audio CN400 VT3118 VIA UniChrome Pro VT8237R Mar 2004 VIA C3/C3-M/Eden/Eden-N 100/133/200 MHz DDR SDRAM up to 400 MHz 4GB Ultra V-Link (1GB/s) SB 4×/8× No SB (VIA Vinyl Audio) VX700 VT3157 VIA UniChrome Pro II (single-chip solution) Jul 2006 VIA C7-M/C7-M ULV 533/400 MHz DDR2/DDR SDRAM up to 533/400 MHz 2GB NA - (single-chip solution) 4 8× No VIA Vinyl HD Audio CN700 VT3344 VIA UniChrome Pro VT8237A/VT8251 2006 VIA C7 533/400 MHz DDR2/DDR SDRAM up to 533/400 MHz 2GB 533 MB/s SB 8× No SB (VIA Vinyl Audio) VN800 VT3344 VIA UniChrome Pro VT8237A Aug 2005 VIA C7-M / Intel Pentium M Socket-479 / Yonah - Socket-M 533/400 MHz DDR2 SDRAM 400 or 533 MHz 4GB 1 GB * 533 MB/s 8× No SB (VIA Vinyl Audio) CN800 VT3225 VIA UniChrome Pro VT8237R Plus Nov 2006 VIA C7/C7-D 533/400 MHz DDR2/DDR SDRAM up to 533/400 MHz 4GB 533 MB/s SB No ×16-1×1-1 SB (VIA Vinyl Audio) CN896 VT3371 VIA Chrome9 HC VT8237S/VT8251 Feb 2007 VIA C7/C7-D/Eden (V4) 800/400 MHz DDR2/DDR SDRAM up to 667/400 MHz 4GB Ultra V-Link (1GB/s) SB No ×16-1×1-1 SB (VIA Vinyl HD Audio) VX800 VT VIA Chrome9 HC3 (single-chip solution) Apr 2008 VIA Nano/C7/Eden 800/400 MHz DDR2 SDRAM up to 667 MHz 4GB NA - (single-chip solution) 4 No ×4-1×1-2 VIA Vinyl HD Audio VX855 VT VIA Chrome9 HCM (single-chip solution) Mar 2009 VIA Nano/C7/Eden 800/400 MHz DDR2 SDRAM up to 800 MHz 4GB NA - (single-chip solution) No No No VIA Vinyl HD Audio VN1000 VT VIA Chrome 520 VT8261 Dec 2010 VIA Nano/C7/C7-D/Eden (V4) 800/400 MHz DDR2/DDR3 SDRAM up to 800/1066 MHz 16GB Ultra V-Link (1GB/s) SB No ×8-1×1-4 SB (VIA Vinyl HD Audio) VIA VX700 - Supports VIA C7-M or C7-ULV 533/400 MHz FSB DDR2 533/400/333 or DDR400/333 Utilizes the VIA UniChrome Pro Integrated Graphics Processor (IGP) VIA VN800 – Supports VIA C7-M / Intel Pentium M / Celeron M, and Yonah (Core Solo and Core Duo) Processors VIA UniChrome Pro Integrated Graphics Processor (200 MHz core clock) DirectX 7 Support product: (VIA EPIA -VB6002G Mini-ITX Board) * - Cited in marketing literature as supporting up to 4 GB DDR2 SDRAM; only supported up to 1 GB DDR2 max actual per memory-slot. Motherboards with 1-slot support 1 GB-max; motherboards with 2-slots support 2 GB-max, etc. VIA VN896 (Mobile) and VIA CN896 (Desktop). VIA VN896(Mobile) can support Intel Pentium M / Celeron M, Core Solo / Core Duo, and Core2 Duo Processors Support product: (BenQ Joybook R42) VIA VX800 First VIA mobile chipset to support DirectX 9.0 (Pixel Shader 2.0) VIA Chrome9 HC3 Integrated Graphics Processor (250 MHz engine clock, up to 256 MB frame buffer) Built-in VIA Vinyl HD Audio controller supporting up to eight high-definition channels with a 192 kHz sampling rate and 32-bit sample depth Supports 400/800 MHz FSB Supports up to 4 GB of RAM with two 64-bit DDR2-667 DIMMs Single-chip solution (no southbridge or V-Link required) Designed towards being used with the VIA Isaiah 64-bit processor. Maximum power consumption (TDP max) of 5 watts. VIA VX800U Similar to the VIA VX800 VIA Chrome9 HC3 integrated graphics (166 MHz engine clock, up to 256 MB frame buffer) Supports a 400 MT/s FSB Supports up to 4GBs of RAM with two 64-bit DDR2-400 DIMMs Does not support PCIe or SATA due to their power requirements Maximum power consumption of 3.5 watts Intended for very low-power devices VIA VX855 Full hardware acceleration of H.264, MPEG-2 and WMV9 Single-chip solution (no southbridge or V-Link required) Maximum power consumption of 2.3 watts VIA VN1000 DirectX 10.1 32 stream processors and 4 sampling units, supports Shader Model 4, OpenGL 3.0 and OpenCL 1.0 for GPGPU applications. Acceleration of Blu-ray, MPEG-2, WMV-HD, VC-1 and H.264 Chipsets supporting VIA processors Chipset Part numbers South bridge Release date Processors FSB Memory types Memory bus Max. memory V-Link PCI AGP PCI-e USB IGP Audio TDP 2.0 3.0 VX900 VT (single-chip solution) Mar 2010 VIA Nano/X2/QuadCore/C7/Eden 400-1066 MT/s DDR2/DDR3 SDRAM up to 800 MHz/ 1066 MHz 8 GB (4GB per Module) NA - (single-chip solution) Yes No ×8-1×1-3 8 +1 Device port N/A VIA Chrome9 HD VIA Vinyl HD Audio 4.5W VX11H VT (single-chip solution) Aug 2012 VIA Nano/X2/QuadCore/C7/C7-D/Eden (V4) 533-1066 MT/s DDR3 SDRAM up to 1333 MHz 16 GB NA - (single-chip solution) Yes No ×4-1 x1-2 or×2-1 x1-4 6 3 (1 shared as Device port) VIA Chrome 645/640 VIA Vinyl HD Audio 5.8W VIA VX900 Similar to VX855, but more expansion options VIA VX11/H First VIA chipset built on the 40 nm CMOS process Maximum power consumption of 5.8 watts DDR3-1333 memory with maximum memory capacity of 16 GB Integrated ChromotionTM 5.0 DX11 2D/3D graphics & video processor DirectX 11, OpenGL 3.2. Acceleration of Blu-ray, MPEG-2, WMV-HD, VC-1 and H.264 A card reader interface with support for MMC, MS Pro HG, and SDHC/SDXC Southbridge chips Part number PATA SATA RAID North Bridge interconnect PCI PCI-e USB Audio Modem Ethernet Integrated super I/O VT82C586 4 ATA33 No No PCI 1.1 No No VT82C586A 4 ATA33 No No PCI 1.1 No No VT82C586B 4 ATA33 No No PCI 1.1 No No VT82C596A 4 ATA33 No No PCI 1.1 No No VT82C596B 4 ATA66 No No PCI 1.1 No No VT82C686A 4 ATA66 No No PCI 4 1.1 AC'97 Yes No Yes VT82C686B 4 ATA100 No No PCI 4 1.1 AC'97 Yes No Yes VT8231 4 ATA100 No No 4× V-Link 266 MB/s 4 1.1 AC'97 Yes VIA 10/100 Yes VT8233 4 ATA100 No No 4× V-Link 266 MB/s 6 1.1 AC'97 Yes VIA 10/100 (not on all/earlier) No VT8233A 4 ATA133 No No 4× V-Link 266 MB/s 4 1.1 AC'97 Yes No No VT8233C 4 ATA100 No No 4× V-Link 266 MB/s 6 1.1 AC'97 Yes (NOT ON ALL) 3Com 10/100 (NOT ON ALL) No VT8235 4 ATA133 No No 8× V-Link 533 MB/s 6 2.0 AC'97 Yes VIA 10/100 No VT8237(R+) 4 ATA133 2 SATA-150, SATALite* (SATA) RAID 0, 1, 0+1* & JBOD 8× V-Link 533 MB/s 8 2.0 AC'97 Yes VIA 10/100 No VT8237A 4 ATA133 2 SATA-150, SATALite* (SATA) RAID 0, 1, 0+1* & JBOD 8× V-Link 533 MB/s 8 2.0 HD Audio Yes VIA 10/100 No VT8237S* 4 ATA133 2 SATA-II, SATALite* (SATA) RAID 0, 1, 0+1* & JBOD 8× V-Link 533 MB/s 8 2.0 HD Audio Yes VIA 10/100 No VT8251 4 ATA133 4 SATA-II (SATA) RAID 0, 1, 0+1* & JBOD Ultra V-Link (1GB/s) 7 ×1-2 8 2.0 HD Audio Yes VIA 10/100 No VT8261 2 ATA133 4 SATA-II No Ultra V-Link (1GB/s) 5 12 2.0 HD Audio Yes VIA 10/100/1000 No The SATALite interface allows for two additional SATA devices (4 total). It is required for RAID 0+1 on VT8237R Plus. The VT8237 and VT8237R do not support SATA speed autonegotiation and will not work with SATA-II or III drives unless the drive has a compatibility mode jumper set. The VT8237R Plus supports SATA II drives but only at the 150 MB/S speed. The SATA-II feature of VT8237S is limited to 300 MB/S Data Transfer Rate bearing no NCQ functionality. Motherboards frequently had VIA companion chips for added functionality such as better audio (8 channel), more/faster USB (i.e. USB 2.0 for VT8233), or Gigabit Ethernet. The software modem is supported through a MC'97 or HD Audio codec chip and requires external components to implement the electrical connection to the telephone line. This circuitry may be included on the motherboard directly or added through a communications riser slot. The chipset Ethernet MAC requires an additional PHY chip. Some vendors opted to add a MAC and PHY from a different manufacturer instead of using the chipset's built in capability. Hardware bugs The KT133 chipset corrupted disk subsystems; specifically, the 686B Southbridge had issues with Creative's SBLive! sound cards. A BIOS update was released by VIA to fix this issue; however, it is not known if all motherboards with 686Bs had their BIOSes updated. The KT266 contains a hardware bug which can cause system instability when using the AGP slot at the 4× speed. See also S3 Chrome S3 Savage Comparison of AMD chipsets Comparison of ATI chipsets List of Intel chipsets Comparison of Nvidia chipsets References ^ "VT82C570M Apollo Master". VIA Technologies. Archived from the original on October 26, 1997. ^ VIA Apollo MVP3 Archived 2007-09-11 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 22, 2007. ^ VIA Apollo MVP4 Archived 2007-09-11 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 22, 2007. ^ http://www.hardcoreware.net/reviews/review-99-1.htm, http://www.overclockersonline.net/?p=500011 Archived 2013-03-11 at the Wayback Machine, accessed October 7, 2012. ^ a b VIA KX133, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA KT133, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA KLE133, VIA Technologies, accessed October 7, 2012. ^ "Biostar USA". www.biostar-usa.com. Retrieved October 7, 2012. ^ a b VIA KT133A, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ Shimpi, Anand Lal. "VIA's KT133A Socket-A Chipset: AMD 760 Performance without DDR SDRAM". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2022-02-08. ^ a b VIA KT266, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA KT266A, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ a b c d VIA KT333, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA KT400, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ a b VIA KT400A, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ "KM400A -". VIA Technologies, Inc. Retrieved 2020-07-08. ^ VIA KT600, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA KT880, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ "WaveTown - For : VIA-based motherboard owners and 4× AGP-based graphic cards ..." Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. 070808 wavetown.net ^ "GA-7IXEH (Rev. 1.0) Overview | Motherboard - GIGABYTE Global". www.gigabyte.com. Retrieved October 7, 2012. ^ VIA P4X266, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ a b c "Comparison: Chipsets For Pentium 4 - DDR400 Kills Rambus: Shooting Star SiS 648 for P4". Tom's Hardware. 2002-07-20. Retrieved 2018-07-19. ^ VIA P4M266, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4X266E, Archived 2008-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4X266A, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4X333, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4X400, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4X533, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT800, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PM800, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT880, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PM880, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4M800, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4M800 Pro Archived 2008-03-12 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT880 Pro Archived 2008-04-08 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT880 Ultra Archived 2008-03-18 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT894 Archived 2008-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT894 Pro Archived 2009-04-03 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4M890, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT890, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA P4M900, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA PT900, VIA Technologies, accessed August 21, 2007. ^ VIA K8T800, VIA Technologies, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ VIA K8M800, VIA Technologies, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ VIA K8T800 Pro Archived 2010-03-29 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ VIA K8T890, VIA Technologies, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ VIA K8M890, VIA Technologies, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ VIA K8T900, VIA Technologies, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ VIA CN400, VIA Technologies, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ Via releases CN400 media chipset, TheINQUIRER, accessed June 4, 2018. ^ VIA VX700, VIA Technologies, accessed June 9, 2009. ^ VIA CN700, VIA Technologies, accessed June 9, 2009. ^ "VIA Launches VN800 Mobile IGP Chipset". VIA Technologies, Inc. 2005-08-17. Retrieved 2019-04-13. ^ "VN800 Chipset -". VIA Technologies, Inc. Retrieved 2019-04-13. ^ VIA CN800, VIA Technologies, accessed June 9, 2009. ^ VIA CN896, VIA Technologies, accessed June 9, 2009. ^ VIA VX800, VIA Technologies, accessed June 9, 2009. ^ VIA VX855, VIA Technologies, accessed June 9, 2009. ^ VIA VN1000, VIA Technologies, accessed December 10, 2009. ^ "VIA VX900 - VIA Technologies - PDF Catalogs | Technical Documentation | Brochure". pdf.directindustry.com. Retrieved 2023-08-10. ^ "VX900 Series - Quad-core processor by VIA Technologies | DirectIndustry". www.directindustry.com. Retrieved 2023-08-10. ^ VIA VX900 Archived 2015-03-16 at the Wayback Machine, VIA Technologies, accessed July 20, 2010. ^ "VX11H - VIA Technologies - PDF Catalogs | Technical Documentation | Brochure". pdf.directindustry.com. Retrieved 2023-08-10. ^ VIA VX11H, VIA Technologies, accessed December 10, 2009. ^ "VT8237A South Bridge -". ^ "VT8251 South Bridge -". ^ "VT8261 South Bridge -". ^ "VIA warns of hard drive chipset incompatibility - The Inquirer". Archived from the original on 2009-09-02. ^ "Driver updates - VIA 686B data-corruption bug fix | Tweakers.net Meuktracker". 080204 tweakers.net ^ "The well known "George Breese" explains Data Corruption on Large Disks and a fix! - PC Perspective Forums". 080204 forums.pcper.com ^ "VIA 686b/Data Corruption bug - FrostyTech.com". 080204 frostytech.com ^ "686B/Data Corruption Bug FAQ". 27 June 2001. 080204 ntcompatible.com External links VIA's chipsets list vteVIA TechnologiesLists Microprocessors Chipsets Nano Eden C7 C3 Products VIA Nano VIA Eden VIA CoreFusion VIA C7 VIA C3 Cyrix III See also VIA PadLock Centaur Technology WonderMedia Zhaoxin JV
[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of VIA chipsets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Athlon 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon_64"},{"link_name":"VIA C3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIA_C3"},{"link_name":"C7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIA_C7"},{"link_name":"i386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386"},{"link_name":"S3 Graphics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Graphics"}],"text":"VIA chipsets support CPUs from Intel, AMD (e.g. the Athlon 64) and VIA themselves (e.g. the VIA C3 or C7). They support CPUs as old as the i386 in the early 1990s. In the early 2000s, their chipsets began to offer on-chip graphics support from VIA's joint venture with S3 Graphics beginning in 2001; this support continued into the early 2010s, with the release of the VX11H in August 2012.VIA chipsets declined in popularity as other chipsets began to offer better performance, VIA entered other markets and Intel began to offer more powerful integrated graphics on their CPU dies.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"northbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northbridge_(computing)"},{"link_name":"southbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southbridge_(computing)"}],"text":"The term V-Link indicates VIA's northbridge/southbridge interconnect bus.","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Socket 3","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Micro_Devices"}],"sub_title":"Socket 5 and Socket 7","text":"All chipsets listed support a maximum cache memory size of 2 MB and are PCI 2.1 compliantThe only difference between the Apollo Master and the Apollo Master Plus is that the Plus does not support pipelined burst cache memory.\nThe Apollo VP and Apollo VP2 chipsets were initially referenced by VIA as Apollo VP-1 and Apollo VP-2 respectively, later renamed to Apollo VP and Apollo VP2 when the \"/97\" upgrades became available.\nThe Apollo VPX chipset is a low-cost solution that replaced the Apollo VP but with features similar to the VP2.\nAMD licensed the VIA Apollo VP2/97 core logic architecture for its AMD 640 chipset.","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"S3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Graphics"},{"link_name":"Savage4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savage_3D"},{"link_name":"Savage 2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Savage"},{"link_name":"Trident","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trident_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"Blade3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trident_Microsystems#Desktop"},{"link_name":"S3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Graphics"},{"link_name":"S3 Savage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Savage#Motherboard_integrated_chipsets"},{"link_name":"UniChrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Chrome#UniChrome"},{"link_name":"Asus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asus"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Socket 8, Slot 1 and Socket 370","text":"ProSavage PM133 - graphics core from S3, derived from a combination of the 3D component of Savage4 and 2D from Savage 2000.\nPLE133 and PLE133T - graphics core from Trident, derived from Blade3D.\nCLE266 (Castle Rock) - graphics core from S3, derived from S3 Savage series under the brand name UniChrome.\nAsus advertised some boards as Apollo Pro 133Z.[4] 133Z appears to be a late revision of or step up from 133A, but it is not listed on the VIA site.","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"UniChrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UniChrome"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Slot A and Socket A","text":"KT266 contains a hardware bug which causes system instability when using the AGP slot at the specified max capacity of 4×.[19]\nProSavage KM133, KM133A, KM266, KM400, KM400A - Similar to the above, but with integrated graphics. After KM133, DDR is supported. The KM133 uses an IGP consisting of the S3 Savage4 3D core and Savage 2000 2D functionality. KM266's ProSavage8 IGP is similar but has an additional 3D pipeline. The KM400 chipset and its \"A\" variant use the VIA UniChrome IGP. KM400A supports FSB 400 unlike the KT400A\nLater revisions of the KT333 (sometimes called KT333CF) are rebadged KT400 chips with AGP 8x disabled. On motherboards with this chipset AGP 2x cards which require 3.3V are not supported.\nKT133E (= VT8363E + VT82C686B) appears on Gigabyte 7IXEH [20] but is not listed on the VIA site. Based on the specifications of that motherboard, KT133E appears to be equivalent to (or a cost-reduced rehash of) KT133, supporting 133 MHz for memory but only 100 MHz for the CPU.\nSome revisions of KT333 support 166 MHz FSB.","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PCIe-only","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"link_name":"VIA Chipsets P4 Series for Intel CPU Comparison Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080306170454/http://www.via.com.tw/en/products/chipsets/p4-series/comparison_p4-series.jsp"}],"sub_title":"Socket 423, 478 and LGA 775","text":"Being a reduced version of PM880, PM800 is not as closely related to PT800 as P4M890 to PT890. Because of its high cost, It is soon obsoleted in favor of P4M800 and then P4M800 Pro, both of which have a lower rated V-Link and feature no special memory technology such as FastStream64 or StepUp that is common in the other listed 8xx chipsets.\nVIA PT890, P4M890, PT900, P4M900 – VIA's PCIe-only chipsets. The P4M chipsets have onboard graphics VIA UniChrome Pro.\nVIA Chipsets P4 Series for Intel CPU Comparison Chart","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PCIe-only","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express"},{"link_name":"VIA Chipsets K8 Series for AMD CPU Comparison Chart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080318215556/http://www.via.com.tw/en/products/chipsets/k8-series/comparison_k8-series.jsp"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dlcdnets.asus.com/pub/ASUS/mb/sock754/k8v_vm_ultra/e2467_k8v-vm_ultra.pdf"}],"sub_title":"Socket 754, 939, 940, AM2","text":"VIA K8M890, K8T890, K8T900 – VIA's PCIe-only chipsets.\nThe K8M800 chipsets has the onboard graphics VIA UniChrome Pro; the K8M890 has the Chrome9.\nThe Athlon 64 chipsets do not have memory controllers, because memory controller is integrated into the CPU. Supported memory types depend on the CPU and socket used.\nVIA Chipsets K8 Series for AMD CPU Comparison Chart\nThe K8M890 was also used on boards with Socket 754, like the ASUS K8V-VM Ultra [1]","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VIA C7-M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIA_C7"},{"link_name":"Pentium M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium_M"},{"link_name":"Yonah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yonah_(microprocessor)"},{"link_name":"EPIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPIA"},{"link_name":"VB6002G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.viatech.com/en/support/eol/vb6002-eol/"},{"link_name":"VIA Isaiah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIA_Isaiah"},{"link_name":"H.264","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.264"},{"link_name":"MPEG-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG-2"},{"link_name":"WMV9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMV9"},{"link_name":"DirectX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX"},{"link_name":"stream processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_Processing"},{"link_name":"Shader Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shader_Model"},{"link_name":"OpenGL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGL"},{"link_name":"OpenCL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCL"},{"link_name":"GPGPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPGPU"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc"},{"link_name":"WMV-HD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMV-HD"},{"link_name":"VC-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VC-1"}],"sub_title":"Chipsets supporting both VIA and Intel processors","text":"VIA VX700 - Supports VIA C7-M or C7-ULV 533/400 MHz FSB\nDDR2 533/400/333 or DDR400/333\nUtilizes the VIA UniChrome Pro Integrated Graphics Processor (IGP)\nVIA VN800 – Supports VIA C7-M / Intel Pentium M / Celeron M, and Yonah (Core Solo and Core Duo) Processors\nVIA UniChrome Pro Integrated Graphics Processor (200 MHz core clock)\nDirectX 7\nSupport product: (VIA EPIA -VB6002G Mini-ITX Board)\n* - Cited in marketing literature as supporting up to 4 GB DDR2 SDRAM; only supported up to 1 GB DDR2 max actual per memory-slot. Motherboards with 1-slot support 1 GB-max; motherboards with 2-slots support 2 GB-max, etc.\nVIA VN896 (Mobile) and VIA CN896 (Desktop).\nVIA VN896(Mobile) can support Intel Pentium M / Celeron M, Core Solo / Core Duo, and Core2 Duo Processors\nSupport product: (BenQ Joybook R42)\nVIA VX800\nFirst VIA mobile chipset to support DirectX 9.0 (Pixel Shader 2.0)\nVIA Chrome9 HC3 Integrated Graphics Processor (250 MHz engine clock, up to 256 MB frame buffer)\nBuilt-in VIA Vinyl HD Audio controller supporting up to eight high-definition channels with a 192 kHz sampling rate and 32-bit sample depth\nSupports 400/800 MHz FSB\nSupports up to 4 GB of RAM with two 64-bit DDR2-667 DIMMs\nSingle-chip solution (no southbridge or V-Link required)\nDesigned towards being used with the VIA Isaiah 64-bit processor.\nMaximum power consumption (TDP max) of 5 watts.\nVIA VX800U\nSimilar to the VIA VX800\nVIA Chrome9 HC3 integrated graphics (166 MHz engine clock, up to 256 MB frame buffer)\nSupports a 400 MT/s FSB\nSupports up to 4GBs of RAM with two 64-bit DDR2-400 DIMMs\nDoes not support PCIe or SATA due to their power requirements\nMaximum power consumption of 3.5 watts\nIntended for very low-power devices\nVIA VX855\nFull hardware acceleration of H.264, MPEG-2 and WMV9\nSingle-chip solution (no southbridge or V-Link required)\nMaximum power consumption of 2.3 watts\nVIA VN1000\nDirectX 10.1\n32 stream processors and 4 sampling units, supports Shader Model 4, OpenGL 3.0 and OpenCL 1.0 for GPGPU applications.\nAcceleration of Blu-ray, MPEG-2, WMV-HD, VC-1 and H.264","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DirectX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX"},{"link_name":"OpenGL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGL"},{"link_name":"Blu-ray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blu-ray_Disc"},{"link_name":"WMV-HD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMV-HD"},{"link_name":"VC-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VC-1"}],"sub_title":"Chipsets supporting VIA processors","text":"VIA VX900\nSimilar to VX855, but more expansion options\nVIA VX11/H\nFirst VIA chipset built on the 40 nm CMOS process\nMaximum power consumption of 5.8 watts\nDDR3-1333 memory with maximum memory capacity of 16 GB\nIntegrated ChromotionTM 5.0 DX11 2D/3D graphics & video processor\nDirectX 11, OpenGL 3.2.\nAcceleration of Blu-ray, MPEG-2, WMV-HD, VC-1 and H.264\nA card reader interface with support for MMC, MS Pro HG, and SDHC/SDXC","title":"Chipsets by CPU socket"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Gigabit Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"software modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softmodem"},{"link_name":"communications riser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_and_networking_riser"}],"text":"The SATALite interface allows for two additional SATA devices (4 total). It is required for RAID 0+1 on VT8237R Plus.\nThe VT8237 and VT8237R do not support SATA speed autonegotiation and will not work with SATA-II or III drives unless the drive has a compatibility mode jumper set. [68] The VT8237R Plus supports SATA II drives but only at the 150 MB/S speed.\nThe SATA-II feature of VT8237S is limited to 300 MB/S Data Transfer Rate bearing no NCQ functionality.\nMotherboards frequently had VIA companion chips for added functionality such as better audio (8 channel), more/faster USB (i.e. USB 2.0 for VT8233), or Gigabit Ethernet.\nThe software modem is supported through a MC'97 or HD Audio codec chip and requires external components to implement the electrical connection to the telephone line. This circuitry may be included on the motherboard directly or added through a communications riser slot.\nThe chipset Ethernet MAC requires an additional PHY chip. Some vendors opted to add a MAC and PHY from a different manufacturer instead of using the chipset's built in capability.","title":"Southbridge chips"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"}],"text":"The KT133 chipset corrupted disk subsystems; specifically, the 686B Southbridge had issues with Creative's SBLive! sound cards. A BIOS update was released by VIA to fix this issue; however, it is not known if all motherboards with 686Bs had their BIOSes updated.[69][70][71][72] The KT266 contains a hardware bug which can cause system instability when using the AGP slot at the 4× speed.","title":"Hardware bugs"}]
[]
[{"title":"S3 Chrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Chrome"},{"title":"S3 Savage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S3_Savage"},{"title":"Comparison of AMD chipsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_AMD_chipsets"},{"title":"Comparison of ATI chipsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_ATI_chipsets"},{"title":"List of Intel chipsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Intel_chipsets"},{"title":"Comparison of Nvidia chipsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Nvidia_chipsets"}]
[{"reference":"\"VT82C570M Apollo Master\". VIA Technologies. Archived from the original on October 26, 1997.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/19971026110151/http://www.via.com.tw/Master.htm","url_text":"\"VT82C570M Apollo Master\""},{"url":"http://www.via.com.tw/Master.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Biostar USA\". www.biostar-usa.com. Retrieved October 7, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.biostar-usa.com/mbdetails.asp?model=m7vkq","url_text":"\"Biostar USA\""}]},{"reference":"Shimpi, Anand Lal. \"VIA's KT133A Socket-A Chipset: AMD 760 Performance without DDR SDRAM\". www.anandtech.com. Retrieved 2022-02-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/687","url_text":"\"VIA's KT133A Socket-A Chipset: AMD 760 Performance without DDR SDRAM\""}]},{"reference":"\"KM400A -\". VIA Technologies, Inc. Retrieved 2020-07-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.viatech.com/en/silicon/legacy/chipsets/km400a/","url_text":"\"KM400A -\""}]},{"reference":"\"WaveTown - For : VIA-based motherboard owners and 4× AGP-based graphic cards ...\" Archived from the original on 2007-09-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070929194345/http://wavetown.net/forums/archive/index.php/t-76493.html","url_text":"\"WaveTown - For : VIA-based motherboard owners and 4× AGP-based graphic cards ...\""},{"url":"http://wavetown.net/forums/archive/index.php/t-76493.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"GA-7IXEH (Rev. 1.0) Overview | Motherboard - GIGABYTE Global\". www.gigabyte.com. Retrieved October 7, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gigabyte.com/products/product-page.aspx?pid=1304#sp","url_text":"\"GA-7IXEH (Rev. 1.0) Overview | Motherboard - GIGABYTE Global\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comparison: Chipsets For Pentium 4 - DDR400 Kills Rambus: Shooting Star SiS 648 for P4\". Tom's Hardware. 2002-07-20. Retrieved 2018-07-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/ddr400-kills-rambus,493-7.html","url_text":"\"Comparison: Chipsets For Pentium 4 - DDR400 Kills Rambus: Shooting Star SiS 648 for P4\""}]},{"reference":"\"VIA Launches VN800 Mobile IGP Chipset\". VIA Technologies, Inc. 2005-08-17. Retrieved 2019-04-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.viatech.com/en/2005/08/via-launches-vn800-mobile-igp-chipset/","url_text":"\"VIA Launches VN800 Mobile IGP Chipset\""}]},{"reference":"\"VN800 Chipset -\". VIA Technologies, Inc. Retrieved 2019-04-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.viatech.com/en/silicon/legacy/chipsets/vn800/","url_text":"\"VN800 Chipset -\""}]},{"reference":"\"VIA VX900 - VIA Technologies - PDF Catalogs | Technical Documentation | Brochure\". pdf.directindustry.com. 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Retrieved 2023-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://pdf.directindustry.com/pdf/via-technologies/vx11h/102767-586733.html","url_text":"\"VX11H - VIA Technologies - PDF Catalogs | Technical Documentation | Brochure\""}]},{"reference":"\"VT8237A South Bridge -\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.via.com.tw/en/products/chipsets/southbridge/vt8237a/index.jsp","url_text":"\"VT8237A South Bridge -\""}]},{"reference":"\"VT8251 South Bridge -\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.via.com.tw/en/products/chipsets/southbridge/vt8251/index.jsp","url_text":"\"VT8251 South Bridge -\""}]},{"reference":"\"VT8261 South Bridge -\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.via.com.tw/en/products/chipsets/southbridge/vt8261/index.jsp","url_text":"\"VT8261 South Bridge -\""}]},{"reference":"\"VIA warns of hard drive chipset incompatibility - The Inquirer\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bills_in_the_114th_United_States_Congress
List of bills in the 114th United States Congress
["1 Overview","2 Introduced in the House of Representatives","2.1 Bills","2.2 House resolutions","2.3 Concurrent resolutions","2.4 House joint resolutions","3 Introduced in the Senate","3.1 Bills","3.2 Concurrent resolutions","3.3 Senate joint resolutions","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2015) The bills of the 114th United States Congress list includes proposed federal laws that were introduced in the 114th United States Congress. This Congress lasted from January 3, 2015 to January 3, 2017. Overview The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two houses: the lower house known as the House of Representatives and the upper house known as the Senate. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers. The bills listed below are arranged on the basis of which chamber they were first introduced in, and then chronologically by date. Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for signature or veto. Bills from the 114th Congress that have successfully completed this process become public laws, listed as Acts of the 114th United States Congress. Introduced in the House of Representatives Bills H.R. number Date of introduction Short title Description H.R. 3 January 6, 2015 Keystone XL Pipeline Act To approve the Keystone XL Pipeline H.R. 21 January 6, 2015 To provide for a comprehensive assessment of the scientific and technical research on the implications of the use of mid-level ethanol blends, and for other purposes. To approve a study on the use of mid-level ethanol blends. H.R. 22 January 6, 2015 Hire More Heroes Act of 2015 A bill to exempt employees of the Department of Defense from classification as eligible employees of an applicable large employer for purposes of the employer mandate under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. H.R. 26 January 6, 2015 Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2015 Amends the Terrorism Risk Insurance Act of 2002 to extend the Terrorism Insurance Program through December 31, 2020. H.R. 234 January 8, 2015 Cyber Intelligence Sharing and Protection Act (CISPA) Directs the federal government to provide for the real-time sharing of actionable, situational cyber threat information between all designated federal cyber operations centers to enable integrated actions to protect, prevent, mitigate, respond to, and recover from cyber incidents. H.R. 870 February 11, 2015 Puerto Rico Chapter 9 Uniformity Act of 2015 To amend title 11 of the United States Code to treat Puerto Rico as a State for purposes of chapter 9 of such title relating to the adjustment of debts of municipalities. H.R. 1572 March 24, 2015, Boycott Our Enemies, not Israel Act To require certifications by prospective contractors with the United States Government that they are not boycotting persons, and for other purposes. H.R. 1735 April 13, 2015 National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016 The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016 is a comprehensive defense spending bill. At almost 1,000 pages long it will direct funding for procurement, research, and operation of defense technology, establish military policy, and address other matters pertaining to national defense. It has been passed by the House with 19 amendments, and is currently being reviewed by the Senate with 333 amendments proposed. H.R. 2450 May 19, 2015 Therapeutic Fraud Prevention Act Prohibits sexual orientation or gender identity conversion therapy from being provided in exchange for monetary compensation. Bars advertisements for such therapy that claim to: (1) change an individual's sexual orientation or gender identity, (2) eliminate or reduce sexual or romantic attractions or feelings toward individuals of the same gender, or (3) be harmless or without risk. Makes this Act inapplicable to practices that do not seek to change sexual orientation or gender identity if the therapy provides: (1) assistance to an individual undergoing a gender transition; or (2) acceptance, support, and understanding of clients or facilitation of clients' coping, social support, and identity exploration and development, including sexual orientation-neutral interventions to prevent or address unlawful conduct or unsafe sexual practices. Provides authority to Federal Trade Commission to enforce this Act and treats violations as unfair or deceptive acts or practices under the Federal Trade Commission Act. H.R. 3185 July 23, 2015 Equality Act Amends the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to include sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity among the prohibited categories of discrimination or segregation in places of public accommodation. House resolutions H.R. number Date of introduction Short title Description Concurrent resolutions Number Date of introduction Short title Description House joint resolutions Number Date of introduction Short title Description Introduced in the Senate Bills Senate number Date of introduction Short title Description S. 1 January 6, 2015 Keystone XL Pipeline Approval Act To approve the Keystone XL Pipeline. S. 483 February 12, 2015 Ensuring Patient Access and Effective Drug Enforcement Act To improve enforcement efforts related to prescription drug diversion and abuse, and for other purposes. S. 1858 July 23, 2015 Equality Act Amends the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to include sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity among the prohibited categories of discrimination or segregation in places of public accommodation. Concurrent resolutions Senate number Date of introduction Short title Description Senate joint resolutions Senate number Date of introduction Short title Description See also List of United States federal legislation Acts of the 114th United States Congress Procedures of the U.S. Congress References ^ "Text - S.483 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Ensuring Patient Access and Effective Drug Enforcement Act of 2016". 19 April 2016. External links Congress's Legislation Website Govtrack.us – tracks Congressional activities Library of Congress's legislation site Archived 2011-12-14 at the Wayback Machine Washingtonwatch.com – tracks legislation, focuses on spending OpenCongress – tracks legislation
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[{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/3","external_links_name":"H.R. 3"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/21","external_links_name":"H.R. 21"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/22","external_links_name":"H.R. 22"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/26","external_links_name":"H.R. 26"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/234","external_links_name":"H.R. 234"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/870","external_links_name":"H.R. 870"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/1572","external_links_name":"H.R. 1572"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/1735","external_links_name":"H.R. 1735"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/2450","external_links_name":"H.R. 2450"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-bill/3185","external_links_name":"H.R. 3185"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/1","external_links_name":"S. 1"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/483","external_links_name":"S. 483"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/1858","external_links_name":"S. 1858"},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/senate-bill/483/text/is","external_links_name":"\"Text - S.483 - 114th Congress (2015-2016): Ensuring Patient Access and Effective Drug Enforcement Act of 2016\""},{"Link":"https://www.congress.gov/","external_links_name":"Congress's Legislation Website"},{"Link":"https://www.govtrack.us/","external_links_name":"Govtrack.us"},{"Link":"http://thomas.loc.gov/home/thomas.php","external_links_name":"Library of Congress's legislation site"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111214085739/http://thomas.loc.gov/home/thomas.php","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.washingtonwatch.com/","external_links_name":"Washingtonwatch.com"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080929123240/http://www.opencongress.org/","external_links_name":"OpenCongress"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Firmware_Environment
Common Firmware Environment
["1 Platforms","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Common Firmware Environment" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Common Firmware Environment (CFE), sometimes pronounced as 'cafe', is a firmware interface and bootloader developed by Broadcom for 32-bit and 64-bit system-on-a-chip systems. It is intended to be a flexible toolkit of CPU initialization and bootstrap code for use on embedded processors (typically running on MIPS32/64 instruction set CPUs found in Broadcom SoCs). It is roughly analogous to the BIOS on the IBM PC platform. Its source-code is available on Open source license from Broadcom. Common embedded system alternatives include Das U-Boot. Its main responsibility is to initialize CPUs, caches, memory controllers, and peripherals required early on in the power on stage. It typically incorporates several built-in device drivers for SoC peripherals, it has several console choices, including serial ports, ROM emulators, JTAG, etc. Just like in other boot loaders environment, variables are commonly configured in persistent storage to create auto boot options. It also has support for network bootstrap. Platforms CFE is used in at least some of the following wireless router platforms: Apple Airport Asus routers Buffalo AirStation Linksys WRT54G series Netgear CFE is used in the following home entertainment platforms: LG Smart TV LG Smart Blu-ray Players Samsung Smart TV Samsung Blu-ray Players CFE is also used in the Amiga NG platform AmigaOne X1000 See also Comparison of boot loaders Das U-Boot References ^ Lichtenberg, Mitch. "Broadcom Common Firmware Environment (CFE) Readme". Broadcom. Retrieved 6 January 2022. External links https://docs.broadcom.com/docs/1211168562172 http://www.broadcom.com/support/license.php?file=cfe-1.4.2-src.tar.bz2 http://wiki.openwrt.org/doc/techref/bootloader/cfe This software article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
[{"title":"Comparison of boot loaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_boot_loaders"},{"title":"Das U-Boot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_U-Boot"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Flash_Memory_Interface
Common Flash Memory Interface
["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2020) Not to be confused with control-flow integrity, the series of techniques applied in the computer application security. The Common Flash Memory Interface (CFI) is an open standard jointly developed by AMD, Intel, Sharp and Fujitsu. It is implementable by all flash memory vendors, and has been approved by the non-volatile-memory subcommittee of JEDEC. The goal of the specification is the interchangeability of flash memory devices offered by different vendors. The developer is able to use one driver for different flash products by reading identifying information from the flash chip. Each flash memory device contains the following information: memory size, byte and word configuration, block configuration, and voltage and timing data. The specification provides several benefits. No or very little information about flash devices has to be stored in tables within system software. It is possible to use lower cost flash memory devices as they become available without rewriting system software. Adapting current software systems shall be done more easily and quickly than previously. Support for CFI is implemented in FreeBSD. See also Open NAND Flash Interface Specification (ONFi) References ^ "JEDEC Standard: Common Flash Interface" (PDF). JEDEC. September 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2009. ^ "m30l0r7000t0 datasheet - Internet Archive". Internet Archive. ^ "cfi(4)". FreeBSD Manual Pages. External links JEDEC - free documents require registration JEDEC - Common Flash Interface (CFI) Specification, JESD68.01, September 2003. JEDEC - CFI ID Codes, JEP137B, May 2004 JEDEC - Standard Manufacturers ID Code, JEP106AC, August 2010 Infineon/Cypress (formerly Spansion) Common Flash Interface Publication 100 (CFI Vendor & Device ID Code Assignments), 2001. (Original link) Spansion - App Note - CFI Spec, 2008. (Original link) Spansion - App Note - Using CFI to Read and Debug Systems, 2007. (Original link) Infineon/Cypress (formerly Spansion) - Quick Guide to Common Flash Interface, 2008, updated 2017. AMD Common Flash Memory Interface Specification and Publication 100
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[]
[{"title":"Open NAND Flash Interface Specification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_NAND_Flash_Interface_Specification"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_product_space
Inner product space
["1 Definition","1.1 Basic properties","1.2 Convention variant","1.3 Notation","2 Some examples","2.1 Real and complex numbers","2.2 Euclidean vector space","2.3 Complex coordinate space","2.4 Hilbert space","2.5 Random variables","2.6 Complex matrices","2.7 Vector spaces with forms","3 Basic results, terminology, and definitions","3.1 Norm properties","3.2 Orthogonality","3.3 Real and complex parts of inner products","4 Orthonormal sequences","5 Operators on inner product spaces","6 Generalizations","6.1 Degenerate inner products","6.2 Nondegenerate conjugate symmetric forms","7 Related products","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 Bibliography"]
Generalization of the dot product; used to define Hilbert spaces "Inner product" redirects here. For the inner product of coordinate vectors, see Dot product. Geometric interpretation of the angle between two vectors defined using an inner product Scalar product spaces, over any field, have "scalar products" that are symmetrical and linear in the first argument. Hermitian product spaces are restricted to the field of complex numbers and have "Hermitian products" that are conjugate-symmetrical and linear in the first argument. Inner product spaces may be defined over any field, having "inner products" that are linear in the first argument, conjugate-symmetrical, and positive-definite. Unlike inner products, scalar products and Hermitian products need not be positive-definite. In mathematics, an inner product space (or, rarely, a Hausdorff pre-Hilbert space) is a real vector space or a complex vector space with an operation called an inner product. The inner product of two vectors in the space is a scalar, often denoted with angle brackets such as in ⟨ a , b ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle a,b\rangle } . Inner products allow formal definitions of intuitive geometric notions, such as lengths, angles, and orthogonality (zero inner product) of vectors. Inner product spaces generalize Euclidean vector spaces, in which the inner product is the dot product or scalar product of Cartesian coordinates. Inner product spaces of infinite dimension are widely used in functional analysis. Inner product spaces over the field of complex numbers are sometimes referred to as unitary spaces. The first usage of the concept of a vector space with an inner product is due to Giuseppe Peano, in 1898. An inner product naturally induces an associated norm, (denoted | x | {\displaystyle |x|} and | y | {\displaystyle |y|} in the picture); so, every inner product space is a normed vector space. If this normed space is also complete (that is, a Banach space) then the inner product space is a Hilbert space. If an inner product space H is not a Hilbert space, it can be extended by completion to a Hilbert space H ¯ . {\displaystyle {\overline {H}}.} This means that H {\displaystyle H} is a linear subspace of H ¯ , {\displaystyle {\overline {H}},} the inner product of H {\displaystyle H} is the restriction of that of H ¯ , {\displaystyle {\overline {H}},} and H {\displaystyle H} is dense in H ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {H}}} for the topology defined by the norm. Definition In this article, F denotes a field that is either the real numbers R , {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ,} or the complex numbers C . {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} .} A scalar is thus an element of F. A bar over an expression representing a scalar denotes the complex conjugate of this scalar. A zero vector is denoted 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {0} } for distinguishing it from the scalar 0. An inner product space is a vector space V over the field F together with an inner product, that is, a map ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ : V × V → F {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle :V\times V\to F} that satisfies the following three properties for all vectors x , y , z ∈ V {\displaystyle x,y,z\in V} and all scalars a , b ∈ F {\displaystyle a,b\in F} . Conjugate symmetry: ⟨ x , y ⟩ = ⟨ y , x ⟩ ¯ . {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle ={\overline {\langle y,x\rangle }}.} As a = a ¯ {\textstyle a={\overline {a}}} if and only if a {\displaystyle a} is real, conjugate symmetry implies that ⟨ x , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle } is always a real number. If F is R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } , conjugate symmetry is just symmetry. Linearity in the first argument: ⟨ a x + b y , z ⟩ = a ⟨ x , z ⟩ + b ⟨ y , z ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle ax+by,z\rangle =a\langle x,z\rangle +b\langle y,z\rangle .} Positive-definiteness: if x {\displaystyle x} is not zero, then ⟨ x , x ⟩ > 0 {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle >0} (conjugate symmetry implies that ⟨ x , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle } is real). If the positive-definiteness condition is replaced by merely requiring that ⟨ x , x ⟩ ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle \geq 0} for all x {\displaystyle x} , then one obtains the definition of positive semi-definite Hermitian form. A positive semi-definite Hermitian form ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle } is an inner product if and only if for all x {\displaystyle x} , if ⟨ x , x ⟩ = 0 {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle =0} then x = 0 {\displaystyle x=\mathbf {0} } . Basic properties In the following properties, which result almost immediately from the definition of an inner product, x, y and z are arbitrary vectors, and a and b are arbitrary scalars. ⟨ 0 , x ⟩ = ⟨ x , 0 ⟩ = 0. {\displaystyle \langle \mathbf {0} ,x\rangle =\langle x,\mathbf {0} \rangle =0.} ⟨ x , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle } is real and nonnegative. ⟨ x , x ⟩ = 0 {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle =0} if and only if x = 0 . {\displaystyle x=\mathbf {0} .} ⟨ x , a y + b z ⟩ = a ¯ ⟨ x , y ⟩ + b ¯ ⟨ x , z ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle x,ay+bz\rangle ={\overline {a}}\langle x,y\rangle +{\overline {b}}\langle x,z\rangle .} This implies that an inner product is a sesquilinear form. ⟨ x + y , x + y ⟩ = ⟨ x , x ⟩ + 2 Re ⁡ ( ⟨ x , y ⟩ ) + ⟨ y , y ⟩ , {\displaystyle \langle x+y,x+y\rangle =\langle x,x\rangle +2\operatorname {Re} (\langle x,y\rangle )+\langle y,y\rangle ,} where Re {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} } denotes the real part of its argument. Over R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } , conjugate-symmetry reduces to symmetry, and sesquilinearity reduces to bilinearity. Hence an inner product on a real vector space is a positive-definite symmetric bilinear form. The binomial expansion of a square becomes ⟨ x + y , x + y ⟩ = ⟨ x , x ⟩ + 2 ⟨ x , y ⟩ + ⟨ y , y ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle x+y,x+y\rangle =\langle x,x\rangle +2\langle x,y\rangle +\langle y,y\rangle .} Convention variant Some authors, especially in physics and matrix algebra, prefer to define inner products and sesquilinear forms with linearity in the second argument rather than the first. Then the first argument becomes conjugate linear, rather than the second. Bra-ket notation in quantum mechanics also uses slightly different notation, i.e. ⟨ ⋅ | ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \cdot |\cdot \rangle } , where ⟨ x | y ⟩ := ( y , x ) {\displaystyle \langle x|y\rangle :=\left(y,x\right)} . Notation Several notations are used for inner products, including ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle } , ( ⋅ , ⋅ ) {\displaystyle \left(\cdot ,\cdot \right)} , ⟨ ⋅ | ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \cdot |\cdot \rangle } and ( ⋅ | ⋅ ) {\displaystyle \left(\cdot |\cdot \right)} , as well as the usual dot product. Some examples Real and complex numbers Among the simplest examples of inner product spaces are R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } and C . {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} .} The real numbers R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } are a vector space over R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } that becomes an inner product space with arithmetic multiplication as its inner product: ⟨ x , y ⟩ := x y  for  x , y ∈ R . {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle :=xy\quad {\text{ for }}x,y\in \mathbb {R} .} The complex numbers C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } are a vector space over C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } that becomes an inner product space with the inner product ⟨ x , y ⟩ := x y ¯  for  x , y ∈ C . {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle :=x{\overline {y}}\quad {\text{ for }}x,y\in \mathbb {C} .} Unlike with the real numbers, the assignment ( x , y ) ↦ x y {\displaystyle (x,y)\mapsto xy} does not define a complex inner product on C . {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} .} Euclidean vector space More generally, the real n {\displaystyle n} -space R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} with the dot product is an inner product space, an example of a Euclidean vector space. ⟨ [ x 1 ⋮ x n ] , [ y 1 ⋮ y n ] ⟩ = x T y = ∑ i = 1 n x i y i = x 1 y 1 + ⋯ + x n y n , {\displaystyle \left\langle {\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}\\\vdots \\x_{n}\end{bmatrix}},{\begin{bmatrix}y_{1}\\\vdots \\y_{n}\end{bmatrix}}\right\rangle =x^{\textsf {T}}y=\sum _{i=1}^{n}x_{i}y_{i}=x_{1}y_{1}+\cdots +x_{n}y_{n},} where x T {\displaystyle x^{\operatorname {T} }} is the transpose of x . {\displaystyle x.} A function ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ : R n × R n → R {\displaystyle \langle \,\cdot ,\cdot \,\rangle :\mathbb {R} ^{n}\times \mathbb {R} ^{n}\to \mathbb {R} } is an inner product on R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} if and only if there exists a symmetric positive-definite matrix M {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} } such that ⟨ x , y ⟩ = x T M y {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =x^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} y} for all x , y ∈ R n . {\displaystyle x,y\in \mathbb {R} ^{n}.} If M {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} } is the identity matrix then ⟨ x , y ⟩ = x T M y {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =x^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} y} is the dot product. For another example, if n = 2 {\displaystyle n=2} and M = [ a b b d ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {M} ={\begin{bmatrix}a&b\\b&d\end{bmatrix}}} is positive-definite (which happens if and only if det M = a d − b 2 > 0 {\displaystyle \det \mathbf {M} =ad-b^{2}>0} and one/both diagonal elements are positive) then for any x := [ x 1 , x 2 ] T , y := [ y 1 , y 2 ] T ∈ R 2 , {\displaystyle x:=\left^{\operatorname {T} },y:=\left^{\operatorname {T} }\in \mathbb {R} ^{2},} ⟨ x , y ⟩ := x T M y = [ x 1 , x 2 ] [ a b b d ] [ y 1 y 2 ] = a x 1 y 1 + b x 1 y 2 + b x 2 y 1 + d x 2 y 2 . {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle :=x^{\operatorname {T} }\mathbf {M} y=\left{\begin{bmatrix}a&b\\b&d\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}y_{1}\\y_{2}\end{bmatrix}}=ax_{1}y_{1}+bx_{1}y_{2}+bx_{2}y_{1}+dx_{2}y_{2}.} As mentioned earlier, every inner product on R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} is of this form (where b ∈ R , a > 0 {\displaystyle b\in \mathbb {R} ,a>0} and d > 0 {\displaystyle d>0} satisfy a d > b 2 {\displaystyle ad>b^{2}} ). Complex coordinate space The general form of an inner product on C n {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{n}} is known as the Hermitian form and is given by ⟨ x , y ⟩ = y † M x = x † M y ¯ , {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =y^{\dagger }\mathbf {M} x={\overline {x^{\dagger }\mathbf {M} y}},} where M {\displaystyle M} is any Hermitian positive-definite matrix and y † {\displaystyle y^{\dagger }} is the conjugate transpose of y . {\displaystyle y.} For the real case, this corresponds to the dot product of the results of directionally-different scaling of the two vectors, with positive scale factors and orthogonal directions of scaling. It is a weighted-sum version of the dot product with positive weights—up to an orthogonal transformation. Hilbert space The article on Hilbert spaces has several examples of inner product spaces, wherein the metric induced by the inner product yields a complete metric space. An example of an inner product space which induces an incomplete metric is the space C ( [ a , b ] ) {\displaystyle C()} of continuous complex valued functions f {\displaystyle f} and g {\displaystyle g} on the interval [ a , b ] . {\displaystyle .} The inner product is ⟨ f , g ⟩ = ∫ a b f ( t ) g ( t ) ¯ d t . {\displaystyle \langle f,g\rangle =\int _{a}^{b}f(t){\overline {g(t)}}\,\mathrm {d} t.} This space is not complete; consider for example, for the interval the sequence of continuous "step" functions, { f k } k , {\displaystyle \{f_{k}\}_{k},} defined by: f k ( t ) = { 0 t ∈ [ − 1 , 0 ] 1 t ∈ [ 1 k , 1 ] k t t ∈ ( 0 , 1 k ) {\displaystyle f_{k}(t)={\begin{cases}0&t\in \\1&t\in \left\\kt&t\in \left(0,{\tfrac {1}{k}}\right)\end{cases}}} This sequence is a Cauchy sequence for the norm induced by the preceding inner product, which does not converge to a continuous function. Random variables For real random variables X {\displaystyle X} and Y , {\displaystyle Y,} the expected value of their product ⟨ X , Y ⟩ = E [ X Y ] {\displaystyle \langle X,Y\rangle =\mathbb {E} } is an inner product. In this case, ⟨ X , X ⟩ = 0 {\displaystyle \langle X,X\rangle =0} if and only if P [ X = 0 ] = 1 {\displaystyle \mathbb {P} =1} (that is, X = 0 {\displaystyle X=0} almost surely), where P {\displaystyle \mathbb {P} } denotes the probability of the event. This definition of expectation as inner product can be extended to random vectors as well. Complex matrices The inner product for complex square matrices of the same size is the Frobenius inner product ⟨ A , B ⟩ := tr ⁡ ( A B † ) {\displaystyle \langle A,B\rangle :=\operatorname {tr} \left(AB^{\dagger }\right)} . Since trace and transposition are linear and the conjugation is on the second matrix, it is a sesquilinear operator. We further get Hermitian symmetry by, ⟨ A , B ⟩ = tr ⁡ ( A B † ) = tr ⁡ ( B A † ) ¯ = ⟨ B , A ⟩ ¯ {\displaystyle \langle A,B\rangle =\operatorname {tr} \left(AB^{\dagger }\right)={\overline {\operatorname {tr} \left(BA^{\dagger }\right)}}={\overline {\left\langle B,A\right\rangle }}} Finally, since for A {\displaystyle A} nonzero, ⟨ A , A ⟩ = ∑ i j | A i j | 2 > 0 {\displaystyle \langle A,A\rangle =\sum _{ij}\left|A_{ij}\right|^{2}>0} , we get that the Frobenius inner product is positive definite too, and so is an inner product. Vector spaces with forms On an inner product space, or more generally a vector space with a nondegenerate form (hence an isomorphism V → V ∗ {\displaystyle V\to V^{*}} ), vectors can be sent to covectors (in coordinates, via transpose), so that one can take the inner product and outer product of two vectors—not simply of a vector and a covector. Basic results, terminology, and definitions Norm properties Every inner product space induces a norm, called its canonical norm, that is defined by ‖ x ‖ = ⟨ x , x ⟩ . {\displaystyle \|x\|={\sqrt {\langle x,x\rangle }}.} With this norm, every inner product space becomes a normed vector space. So, every general property of normed vector spaces applies to inner product spaces. In particular, one has the following properties: Absolute homogeneity ‖ a x ‖ = | a | ‖ x ‖ {\displaystyle \|ax\|=|a|\,\|x\|} for every x ∈ V {\displaystyle x\in V} and a ∈ F {\displaystyle a\in F} (this results from ⟨ a x , a x ⟩ = a a ¯ ⟨ x , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle ax,ax\rangle =a{\overline {a}}\langle x,x\rangle } ). Triangle inequality ‖ x + y ‖ ≤ ‖ x ‖ + ‖ y ‖ {\displaystyle \|x+y\|\leq \|x\|+\|y\|} for x , y ∈ V . {\displaystyle x,y\in V.} These two properties show that one has indeed a norm. Cauchy–Schwarz inequality | ⟨ x , y ⟩ | ≤ ‖ x ‖ ‖ y ‖ {\displaystyle |\langle x,y\rangle |\leq \|x\|\,\|y\|} for every x , y ∈ V , {\displaystyle x,y\in V,} with equality if and only if x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} are linearly dependent. Parallelogram law ‖ x + y ‖ 2 + ‖ x − y ‖ 2 = 2 ‖ x ‖ 2 + 2 ‖ y ‖ 2 {\displaystyle \|x+y\|^{2}+\|x-y\|^{2}=2\|x\|^{2}+2\|y\|^{2}} for every x , y ∈ V . {\displaystyle x,y\in V.} The parallelogram law is a necessary and sufficient condition for a norm to be defined by an inner product. Polarization identity ‖ x + y ‖ 2 = ‖ x ‖ 2 + ‖ y ‖ 2 + 2 Re ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩ {\displaystyle \|x+y\|^{2}=\|x\|^{2}+\|y\|^{2}+2\operatorname {Re} \langle x,y\rangle } for every x , y ∈ V . {\displaystyle x,y\in V.} The inner product can be retrieved from the norm by the polarization identity, since its imaginary part is the real part of ⟨ x , i y ⟩ . {\displaystyle \langle x,iy\rangle .} Ptolemy's inequality ‖ x − y ‖ ‖ z ‖   +   ‖ y − z ‖ ‖ x ‖   ≥   ‖ x − z ‖ ‖ y ‖ {\displaystyle \|x-y\|\,\|z\|~+~\|y-z\|\,\|x\|~\geq ~\|x-z\|\,\|y\|} for every x , y , z ∈ V . {\displaystyle x,y,z\in V.} Ptolemy's inequality is a necessary and sufficient condition for a seminorm to be the norm defined by an inner product. Orthogonality Orthogonality Two vectors x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} are said to be orthogonal, often written x ⊥ y , {\displaystyle x\perp y,} if their inner product is zero, that is, if ⟨ x , y ⟩ = 0. {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =0.} This happens if and only if ‖ x ‖ ≤ ‖ x + s y ‖ {\displaystyle \|x\|\leq \|x+sy\|} for all scalars s , {\displaystyle s,} and if and only if the real-valued function f ( s ) := ‖ x + s y ‖ 2 − ‖ x ‖ 2 {\displaystyle f(s):=\|x+sy\|^{2}-\|x\|^{2}} is non-negative. (This is a consequence of the fact that, if y ≠ 0 {\displaystyle y\neq 0} then the scalar s 0 = − ⟨ x , y ⟩ ¯ ‖ y ‖ 2 {\displaystyle s_{0}=-{\tfrac {\overline {\langle x,y\rangle }}{\|y\|^{2}}}} minimizes f {\displaystyle f} with value f ( s 0 ) = − | ⟨ x , y ⟩ | 2 ‖ y ‖ 2 , {\displaystyle f\left(s_{0}\right)=-{\tfrac {|\langle x,y\rangle |^{2}}{\|y\|^{2}}},} which is always non positive). For a complex inner product space H , {\displaystyle H,} a linear operator T : V → V {\displaystyle T:V\to V} is identically 0 {\displaystyle 0} if and only if x ⊥ T x {\displaystyle x\perp Tx} for every x ∈ V . {\displaystyle x\in V.} This is not true in general for real inner product spaces, as it is a consequence of conjugate symmetry being distinct from symmetry for complex inner products. A counterexample in a real inner product space is T {\displaystyle T} a 90° rotation in R 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} , which maps every vector to an orthogonal vector but is not identically 0 {\displaystyle 0} . Orthogonal complementThe orthogonal complement of a subset C ⊆ V {\displaystyle C\subseteq V} is the set C ⊥ {\displaystyle C^{\bot }} of the vectors that are orthogonal to all elements of C; that is, C ⊥ := { y ∈ V : ⟨ y , c ⟩ = 0  for all  c ∈ C } . {\displaystyle C^{\bot }:=\{\,y\in V:\langle y,c\rangle =0{\text{ for all }}c\in C\,\}.} This set C ⊥ {\displaystyle C^{\bot }} is always a closed vector subspace of V {\displaystyle V} and if the closure cl V ⁡ C {\displaystyle \operatorname {cl} _{V}C} of C {\displaystyle C} in V {\displaystyle V} is a vector subspace then cl V ⁡ C = ( C ⊥ ) ⊥ . {\displaystyle \operatorname {cl} _{V}C=\left(C^{\bot }\right)^{\bot }.} Pythagorean theorem If x {\displaystyle x} and y {\displaystyle y} are orthogonal, then ‖ x ‖ 2 + ‖ y ‖ 2 = ‖ x + y ‖ 2 . {\displaystyle \|x\|^{2}+\|y\|^{2}=\|x+y\|^{2}.} This may be proved by expressing the squared norms in terms of the inner products, using additivity for expanding the right-hand side of the equation. The name Pythagorean theorem arises from the geometric interpretation in Euclidean geometry. Parseval's identity An induction on the Pythagorean theorem yields: if x 1 , … , x n {\displaystyle x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n}} are pairwise orthogonal, then ∑ i = 1 n ‖ x i ‖ 2 = ‖ ∑ i = 1 n x i ‖ 2 . {\displaystyle \sum _{i=1}^{n}\|x_{i}\|^{2}=\left\|\sum _{i=1}^{n}x_{i}\right\|^{2}.} Angle When ⟨ x , y ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle } is a real number then the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality implies that ⟨ x , y ⟩ ‖ x ‖ ‖ y ‖ ∈ [ − 1 , 1 ] , {\textstyle {\frac {\langle x,y\rangle }{\|x\|\,\|y\|}}\in ,} and thus that ∠ ( x , y ) = arccos ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩ ‖ x ‖ ‖ y ‖ , {\displaystyle \angle (x,y)=\arccos {\frac {\langle x,y\rangle }{\|x\|\,\|y\|}},} is a real number. This allows defining the (non oriented) angle of two vectors in modern definitions of Euclidean geometry in terms of linear algebra. This is also used in data analysis, under the name "cosine similarity", for comparing two vectors of data. Real and complex parts of inner products Suppose that ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle } is an inner product on V {\displaystyle V} (so it is antilinear in its second argument). The polarization identity shows that the real part of the inner product is Re ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩ = 1 4 ( ‖ x + y ‖ 2 − ‖ x − y ‖ 2 ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} \langle x,y\rangle ={\frac {1}{4}}\left(\|x+y\|^{2}-\|x-y\|^{2}\right).} If V {\displaystyle V} is a real vector space then ⟨ x , y ⟩ = Re ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩ = 1 4 ( ‖ x + y ‖ 2 − ‖ x − y ‖ 2 ) {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =\operatorname {Re} \langle x,y\rangle ={\frac {1}{4}}\left(\|x+y\|^{2}-\|x-y\|^{2}\right)} and the imaginary part (also called the complex part) of ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle } is always 0. {\displaystyle 0.} Assume for the rest of this section that V {\displaystyle V} is a complex vector space. The polarization identity for complex vector spaces shows that ⟨ x ,   y ⟩ = 1 4 ( ‖ x + y ‖ 2 − ‖ x − y ‖ 2 + i ‖ x + i y ‖ 2 − i ‖ x − i y ‖ 2 ) = Re ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩ + i Re ⁡ ⟨ x , i y ⟩ . {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{4}\langle x,\ y\rangle &={\frac {1}{4}}\left(\|x+y\|^{2}-\|x-y\|^{2}+i\|x+iy\|^{2}-i\|x-iy\|^{2}\right)\\&=\operatorname {Re} \langle x,y\rangle +i\operatorname {Re} \langle x,iy\rangle .\\\end{alignedat}}} The map defined by ⟨ x ∣ y ⟩ = ⟨ y , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x\mid y\rangle =\langle y,x\rangle } for all x , y ∈ V {\displaystyle x,y\in V} satisfies the axioms of the inner product except that it is antilinear in its first, rather than its second, argument. The real part of both ⟨ x ∣ y ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x\mid y\rangle } and ⟨ x , y ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle } are equal to Re ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩ {\displaystyle \operatorname {Re} \langle x,y\rangle } but the inner products differ in their complex part: ⟨ x ∣ y ⟩ = 1 4 ( ‖ x + y ‖ 2 − ‖ x − y ‖ 2 − i ‖ x + i y ‖ 2 + i ‖ x − i y ‖ 2 ) = Re ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩ − i Re ⁡ ⟨ x , i y ⟩ . {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{4}\langle x\mid y\rangle &={\frac {1}{4}}\left(\|x+y\|^{2}-\|x-y\|^{2}-i\|x+iy\|^{2}+i\|x-iy\|^{2}\right)\\&=\operatorname {Re} \langle x,y\rangle -i\operatorname {Re} \langle x,iy\rangle .\\\end{alignedat}}} The last equality is similar to the formula expressing a linear functional in terms of its real part. These formulas show that every complex inner product is completely determined by its real part. Moreover, this real part defines an inner product on V , {\displaystyle V,} considered as a real vector space. There is thus a one-to-one correspondence between complex inner products on a complex vector space V , {\displaystyle V,} and real inner products on V . {\displaystyle V.} For example, suppose that V = C n {\displaystyle V=\mathbb {C} ^{n}} for some integer n > 0. {\displaystyle n>0.} When V {\displaystyle V} is considered as a real vector space in the usual way (meaning that it is identified with the 2 n − {\displaystyle 2n-} dimensional real vector space R 2 n , {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2n},} with each ( a 1 + i b 1 , … , a n + i b n ) ∈ C n {\displaystyle \left(a_{1}+ib_{1},\ldots ,a_{n}+ib_{n}\right)\in \mathbb {C} ^{n}} identified with ( a 1 , b 1 , … , a n , b n ) ∈ R 2 n {\displaystyle \left(a_{1},b_{1},\ldots ,a_{n},b_{n}\right)\in \mathbb {R} ^{2n}} ), then the dot product x ⋅ y = ( x 1 , … , x 2 n ) ⋅ ( y 1 , … , y 2 n ) := x 1 y 1 + ⋯ + x 2 n y 2 n {\displaystyle x\,\cdot \,y=\left(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{2n}\right)\,\cdot \,\left(y_{1},\ldots ,y_{2n}\right):=x_{1}y_{1}+\cdots +x_{2n}y_{2n}} defines a real inner product on this space. The unique complex inner product ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \,\cdot ,\cdot \,\rangle } on V = C n {\displaystyle V=\mathbb {C} ^{n}} induced by the dot product is the map that sends c = ( c 1 , … , c n ) , d = ( d 1 , … , d n ) ∈ C n {\displaystyle c=\left(c_{1},\ldots ,c_{n}\right),d=\left(d_{1},\ldots ,d_{n}\right)\in \mathbb {C} ^{n}} to ⟨ c , d ⟩ := c 1 d 1 ¯ + ⋯ + c n d n ¯ {\displaystyle \langle c,d\rangle :=c_{1}{\overline {d_{1}}}+\cdots +c_{n}{\overline {d_{n}}}} (because the real part of this map ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \,\cdot ,\cdot \,\rangle } is equal to the dot product). Real vs. complex inner products Let V R {\displaystyle V_{\mathbb {R} }} denote V {\displaystyle V} considered as a vector space over the real numbers rather than complex numbers. The real part of the complex inner product ⟨ x , y ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle } is the map ⟨ x , y ⟩ R = Re ⁡ ⟨ x , y ⟩   :   V R × V R → R , {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle _{\mathbb {R} }=\operatorname {Re} \langle x,y\rangle ~:~V_{\mathbb {R} }\times V_{\mathbb {R} }\to \mathbb {R} ,} which necessarily forms a real inner product on the real vector space V R . {\displaystyle V_{\mathbb {R} }.} Every inner product on a real vector space is a bilinear and symmetric map. For example, if V = C {\displaystyle V=\mathbb {C} } with inner product ⟨ x , y ⟩ = x y ¯ , {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =x{\overline {y}},} where V {\displaystyle V} is a vector space over the field C , {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ,} then V R = R 2 {\displaystyle V_{\mathbb {R} }=\mathbb {R} ^{2}} is a vector space over R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } and ⟨ x , y ⟩ R {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle _{\mathbb {R} }} is the dot product x ⋅ y , {\displaystyle x\cdot y,} where x = a + i b ∈ V = C {\displaystyle x=a+ib\in V=\mathbb {C} } is identified with the point ( a , b ) ∈ V R = R 2 {\displaystyle (a,b)\in V_{\mathbb {R} }=\mathbb {R} ^{2}} (and similarly for y {\displaystyle y} ); thus the standard inner product ⟨ x , y ⟩ = x y ¯ , {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =x{\overline {y}},} on C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } is an "extension" the dot product . Also, had ⟨ x , y ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle } been instead defined to be the symmetric map ⟨ x , y ⟩ = x y {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =xy} (rather than the usual conjugate symmetric map ⟨ x , y ⟩ = x y ¯ {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =x{\overline {y}}} ) then its real part ⟨ x , y ⟩ R {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle _{\mathbb {R} }} would not be the dot product; furthermore, without the complex conjugate, if x ∈ C {\displaystyle x\in \mathbb {C} } but x ∉ R {\displaystyle x\not \in \mathbb {R} } then ⟨ x , x ⟩ = x x = x 2 ∉ [ 0 , ∞ ) {\displaystyle \langle x,x\rangle =xx=x^{2}\not \in [0,\infty )} so the assignment x ↦ ⟨ x , x ⟩ {\displaystyle x\mapsto {\sqrt {\langle x,x\rangle }}} would not define a norm. The next examples show that although real and complex inner products have many properties and results in common, they are not entirely interchangeable. For instance, if ⟨ x , y ⟩ = 0 {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle =0} then ⟨ x , y ⟩ R = 0 , {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle _{\mathbb {R} }=0,} but the next example shows that the converse is in general not true. Given any x ∈ V , {\displaystyle x\in V,} the vector i x {\displaystyle ix} (which is the vector x {\displaystyle x} rotated by 90°) belongs to V {\displaystyle V} and so also belongs to V R {\displaystyle V_{\mathbb {R} }} (although scalar multiplication of x {\displaystyle x} by i = − 1 {\displaystyle i={\sqrt {-1}}} is not defined in V R , {\displaystyle V_{\mathbb {R} },} the vector in V {\displaystyle V} denoted by i x {\displaystyle ix} is nevertheless still also an element of V R {\displaystyle V_{\mathbb {R} }} ). For the complex inner product, ⟨ x , i x ⟩ = − i ‖ x ‖ 2 , {\displaystyle \langle x,ix\rangle =-i\|x\|^{2},} whereas for the real inner product the value is always ⟨ x , i x ⟩ R = 0. {\displaystyle \langle x,ix\rangle _{\mathbb {R} }=0.} If ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \,\cdot ,\cdot \,\rangle } is a complex inner product and A : V → V {\displaystyle A:V\to V} is a continuous linear operator that satisfies ⟨ x , A x ⟩ = 0 {\displaystyle \langle x,Ax\rangle =0} for all x ∈ V , {\displaystyle x\in V,} then A = 0. {\displaystyle A=0.} This statement is no longer true if ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \,\cdot ,\cdot \,\rangle } is instead a real inner product, as this next example shows. Suppose that V = C {\displaystyle V=\mathbb {C} } has the inner product ⟨ x , y ⟩ := x y ¯ {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle :=x{\overline {y}}} mentioned above. Then the map A : V → V {\displaystyle A:V\to V} defined by A x = i x {\displaystyle Ax=ix} is a linear map (linear for both V {\displaystyle V} and V R {\displaystyle V_{\mathbb {R} }} ) that denotes rotation by 90 ∘ {\displaystyle 90^{\circ }} in the plane. Because x {\displaystyle x} and A x {\displaystyle Ax} are perpendicular vectors and ⟨ x , A x ⟩ R {\displaystyle \langle x,Ax\rangle _{\mathbb {R} }} is just the dot product, ⟨ x , A x ⟩ R = 0 {\displaystyle \langle x,Ax\rangle _{\mathbb {R} }=0} for all vectors x ; {\displaystyle x;} nevertheless, this rotation map A {\displaystyle A} is certainly not identically 0. {\displaystyle 0.} In contrast, using the complex inner product gives ⟨ x , A x ⟩ = − i ‖ x ‖ 2 , {\displaystyle \langle x,Ax\rangle =-i\|x\|^{2},} which (as expected) is not identically zero. Orthonormal sequences See also: Orthogonal basis and Orthonormal basis Let V {\displaystyle V} be a finite dimensional inner product space of dimension n . {\displaystyle n.} Recall that every basis of V {\displaystyle V} consists of exactly n {\displaystyle n} linearly independent vectors. Using the Gram–Schmidt process we may start with an arbitrary basis and transform it into an orthonormal basis. That is, into a basis in which all the elements are orthogonal and have unit norm. In symbols, a basis { e 1 , … , e n } {\displaystyle \{e_{1},\ldots ,e_{n}\}} is orthonormal if ⟨ e i , e j ⟩ = 0 {\displaystyle \langle e_{i},e_{j}\rangle =0} for every i ≠ j {\displaystyle i\neq j} and ⟨ e i , e i ⟩ = ‖ e a ‖ 2 = 1 {\displaystyle \langle e_{i},e_{i}\rangle =\|e_{a}\|^{2}=1} for each index i . {\displaystyle i.} This definition of orthonormal basis generalizes to the case of infinite-dimensional inner product spaces in the following way. Let V {\displaystyle V} be any inner product space. Then a collection E = { e a } a ∈ A {\displaystyle E=\left\{e_{a}\right\}_{a\in A}} is a basis for V {\displaystyle V} if the subspace of V {\displaystyle V} generated by finite linear combinations of elements of E {\displaystyle E} is dense in V {\displaystyle V} (in the norm induced by the inner product). Say that E {\displaystyle E} is an orthonormal basis for V {\displaystyle V} if it is a basis and ⟨ e a , e b ⟩ = 0 {\displaystyle \left\langle e_{a},e_{b}\right\rangle =0} if a ≠ b {\displaystyle a\neq b} and ⟨ e a , e a ⟩ = ‖ e a ‖ 2 = 1 {\displaystyle \langle e_{a},e_{a}\rangle =\|e_{a}\|^{2}=1} for all a , b ∈ A . {\displaystyle a,b\in A.} Using an infinite-dimensional analog of the Gram-Schmidt process one may show: Theorem. Any separable inner product space has an orthonormal basis. Using the Hausdorff maximal principle and the fact that in a complete inner product space orthogonal projection onto linear subspaces is well-defined, one may also show that Theorem. Any complete inner product space has an orthonormal basis. The two previous theorems raise the question of whether all inner product spaces have an orthonormal basis. The answer, it turns out is negative. This is a non-trivial result, and is proved below. The following proof is taken from Halmos's A Hilbert Space Problem Book (see the references). Proof Recall that the dimension of an inner product space is the cardinality of a maximal orthonormal system that it contains (by Zorn's lemma it contains at least one, and any two have the same cardinality). An orthonormal basis is certainly a maximal orthonormal system but the converse need not hold in general. If G {\displaystyle G} is a dense subspace of an inner product space V , {\displaystyle V,} then any orthonormal basis for G {\displaystyle G} is automatically an orthonormal basis for V . {\displaystyle V.} Thus, it suffices to construct an inner product space V {\displaystyle V} with a dense subspace G {\displaystyle G} whose dimension is strictly smaller than that of V . {\displaystyle V.} Let K {\displaystyle K} be a Hilbert space of dimension ℵ 0 . {\displaystyle \aleph _{0}.} (for instance, K = ℓ 2 ( N ) {\displaystyle K=\ell ^{2}(\mathbb {N} )} ). Let E {\displaystyle E} be an orthonormal basis of K , {\displaystyle K,} so | E | = ℵ 0 . {\displaystyle |E|=\aleph _{0}.} Extend E {\displaystyle E} to a Hamel basis E ∪ F {\displaystyle E\cup F} for K , {\displaystyle K,} where E ∩ F = ∅ . {\displaystyle E\cap F=\varnothing .} Since it is known that the Hamel dimension of K {\displaystyle K} is c , {\displaystyle c,} the cardinality of the continuum, it must be that | F | = c . {\displaystyle |F|=c.} Let L {\displaystyle L} be a Hilbert space of dimension c {\displaystyle c} (for instance, L = ℓ 2 ( R ) {\displaystyle L=\ell ^{2}(\mathbb {R} )} ). Let B {\displaystyle B} be an orthonormal basis for L {\displaystyle L} and let φ : F → B {\displaystyle \varphi :F\to B} be a bijection. Then there is a linear transformation T : K → L {\displaystyle T:K\to L} such that T f = φ ( f ) {\displaystyle Tf=\varphi (f)} for f ∈ F , {\displaystyle f\in F,} and T e = 0 {\displaystyle Te=0} for e ∈ E . {\displaystyle e\in E.} Let V = K ⊕ L {\displaystyle V=K\oplus L} and let G = { ( k , T k ) : k ∈ K } {\displaystyle G=\{(k,Tk):k\in K\}} be the graph of T . {\displaystyle T.} Let G ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {G}}} be the closure of G {\displaystyle G} in V {\displaystyle V} ; we will show G ¯ = V . {\displaystyle {\overline {G}}=V.} Since for any e ∈ E {\displaystyle e\in E} we have ( e , 0 ) ∈ G , {\displaystyle (e,0)\in G,} it follows that K ⊕ 0 ⊆ G ¯ . {\displaystyle K\oplus 0\subseteq {\overline {G}}.} Next, if b ∈ B , {\displaystyle b\in B,} then b = T f {\displaystyle b=Tf} for some f ∈ F ⊆ K , {\displaystyle f\in F\subseteq K,} so ( f , b ) ∈ G ⊆ G ¯ {\displaystyle (f,b)\in G\subseteq {\overline {G}}} ; since ( f , 0 ) ∈ G ¯ {\displaystyle (f,0)\in {\overline {G}}} as well, we also have ( 0 , b ) ∈ G ¯ . {\displaystyle (0,b)\in {\overline {G}}.} It follows that 0 ⊕ L ⊆ G ¯ , {\displaystyle 0\oplus L\subseteq {\overline {G}},} so G ¯ = V , {\displaystyle {\overline {G}}=V,} and G {\displaystyle G} is dense in V . {\displaystyle V.} Finally, { ( e , 0 ) : e ∈ E } {\displaystyle \{(e,0):e\in E\}} is a maximal orthonormal set in G {\displaystyle G} ; if 0 = ⟨ ( e , 0 ) , ( k , T k ) ⟩ = ⟨ e , k ⟩ + ⟨ 0 , T k ⟩ = ⟨ e , k ⟩ {\displaystyle 0=\langle (e,0),(k,Tk)\rangle =\langle e,k\rangle +\langle 0,Tk\rangle =\langle e,k\rangle } for all e ∈ E {\displaystyle e\in E} then k = 0 , {\displaystyle k=0,} so ( k , T k ) = ( 0 , 0 ) {\displaystyle (k,Tk)=(0,0)} is the zero vector in G . {\displaystyle G.} Hence the dimension of G {\displaystyle G} is | E | = ℵ 0 , {\displaystyle |E|=\aleph _{0},} whereas it is clear that the dimension of V {\displaystyle V} is c . {\displaystyle c.} This completes the proof. Parseval's identity leads immediately to the following theorem: Theorem. Let V {\displaystyle V} be a separable inner product space and { e k } k {\displaystyle \left\{e_{k}\right\}_{k}} an orthonormal basis of V . {\displaystyle V.} Then the map x ↦ { ⟨ e k , x ⟩ } k ∈ N {\displaystyle x\mapsto {\bigl \{}\langle e_{k},x\rangle {\bigr \}}_{k\in \mathbb {N} }} is an isometric linear map V → ℓ 2 {\displaystyle V\rightarrow \ell ^{2}} with a dense image. This theorem can be regarded as an abstract form of Fourier series, in which an arbitrary orthonormal basis plays the role of the sequence of trigonometric polynomials. Note that the underlying index set can be taken to be any countable set (and in fact any set whatsoever, provided ℓ 2 {\displaystyle \ell ^{2}} is defined appropriately, as is explained in the article Hilbert space). In particular, we obtain the following result in the theory of Fourier series: Theorem. Let V {\displaystyle V} be the inner product space C [ − π , π ] . {\displaystyle C.} Then the sequence (indexed on set of all integers) of continuous functions e k ( t ) = e i k t 2 π {\displaystyle e_{k}(t)={\frac {e^{ikt}}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}} is an orthonormal basis of the space C [ − π , π ] {\displaystyle C} with the L 2 {\displaystyle L^{2}} inner product. The mapping f ↦ 1 2 π { ∫ − π π f ( t ) e − i k t d t } k ∈ Z {\displaystyle f\mapsto {\frac {1}{\sqrt {2\pi }}}\left\{\int _{-\pi }^{\pi }f(t)e^{-ikt}\,\mathrm {d} t\right\}_{k\in \mathbb {Z} }} is an isometric linear map with dense image. Orthogonality of the sequence { e k } k {\displaystyle \{e_{k}\}_{k}} follows immediately from the fact that if k ≠ j , {\displaystyle k\neq j,} then ∫ − π π e − i ( j − k ) t d t = 0. {\displaystyle \int _{-\pi }^{\pi }e^{-i(j-k)t}\,\mathrm {d} t=0.} Normality of the sequence is by design, that is, the coefficients are so chosen so that the norm comes out to 1. Finally the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, in the inner product norm, follows from the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, this time in the space of continuous periodic functions on [ − π , π ] {\displaystyle } with the uniform norm. This is the content of the Weierstrass theorem on the uniform density of trigonometric polynomials. Operators on inner product spaces Main article: Operator theory Several types of linear maps A : V → W {\displaystyle A:V\to W} between inner product spaces V {\displaystyle V} and W {\displaystyle W} are of relevance: Continuous linear maps: A : V → W {\displaystyle A:V\to W} is linear and continuous with respect to the metric defined above, or equivalently, A {\displaystyle A} is linear and the set of non-negative reals { ‖ A x ‖ : ‖ x ‖ ≤ 1 } , {\displaystyle \{\|Ax\|:\|x\|\leq 1\},} where x {\displaystyle x} ranges over the closed unit ball of V , {\displaystyle V,} is bounded. Symmetric linear operators: A : V → W {\displaystyle A:V\to W} is linear and ⟨ A x , y ⟩ = ⟨ x , A y ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle Ax,y\rangle =\langle x,Ay\rangle } for all x , y ∈ V . {\displaystyle x,y\in V.} Isometries: A : V → W {\displaystyle A:V\to W} satisfies ‖ A x ‖ = ‖ x ‖ {\displaystyle \|Ax\|=\|x\|} for all x ∈ V . {\displaystyle x\in V.} A linear isometry (resp. an antilinear isometry) is an isometry that is also a linear map (resp. an antilinear map). For inner product spaces, the polarization identity can be used to show that A {\displaystyle A} is an isometry if and only if ⟨ A x , A y ⟩ = ⟨ x , y ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle Ax,Ay\rangle =\langle x,y\rangle } for all x , y ∈ V . {\displaystyle x,y\in V.} All isometries are injective. The Mazur–Ulam theorem establishes that every surjective isometry between two real normed spaces is an affine transformation. Consequently, an isometry A {\displaystyle A} between real inner product spaces is a linear map if and only if A ( 0 ) = 0. {\displaystyle A(0)=0.} Isometries are morphisms between inner product spaces, and morphisms of real inner product spaces are orthogonal transformations (compare with orthogonal matrix). Isometrical isomorphisms: A : V → W {\displaystyle A:V\to W} is an isometry which is surjective (and hence bijective). Isometrical isomorphisms are also known as unitary operators (compare with unitary matrix). From the point of view of inner product space theory, there is no need to distinguish between two spaces which are isometrically isomorphic. The spectral theorem provides a canonical form for symmetric, unitary and more generally normal operators on finite dimensional inner product spaces. A generalization of the spectral theorem holds for continuous normal operators in Hilbert spaces. Generalizations Any of the axioms of an inner product may be weakened, yielding generalized notions. The generalizations that are closest to inner products occur where bilinearity and conjugate symmetry are retained, but positive-definiteness is weakened. Degenerate inner products Main article: Krein space If V {\displaystyle V} is a vector space and ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \,\cdot \,,\,\cdot \,\rangle } a semi-definite sesquilinear form, then the function: ‖ x ‖ = ⟨ x , x ⟩ {\displaystyle \|x\|={\sqrt {\langle x,x\rangle }}} makes sense and satisfies all the properties of norm except that ‖ x ‖ = 0 {\displaystyle \|x\|=0} does not imply x = 0 {\displaystyle x=0} (such a functional is then called a semi-norm). We can produce an inner product space by considering the quotient W = V / { x : ‖ x ‖ = 0 } . {\displaystyle W=V/\{x:\|x\|=0\}.} The sesquilinear form ⟨ ⋅ , ⋅ ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle \,\cdot \,,\,\cdot \,\rangle } factors through W . {\displaystyle W.} This construction is used in numerous contexts. The Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction is a particularly important example of the use of this technique. Another example is the representation of semi-definite kernels on arbitrary sets. Nondegenerate conjugate symmetric forms Main article: Pseudo-Euclidean space Alternatively, one may require that the pairing be a nondegenerate form, meaning that for all non-zero x ≠ 0 {\displaystyle x\neq 0} there exists some y {\displaystyle y} such that ⟨ x , y ⟩ ≠ 0 , {\displaystyle \langle x,y\rangle \neq 0,} though y {\displaystyle y} need not equal x {\displaystyle x} ; in other words, the induced map to the dual space V → V ∗ {\displaystyle V\to V^{*}} is injective. This generalization is important in differential geometry: a manifold whose tangent spaces have an inner product is a Riemannian manifold, while if this is related to nondegenerate conjugate symmetric form the manifold is a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. By Sylvester's law of inertia, just as every inner product is similar to the dot product with positive weights on a set of vectors, every nondegenerate conjugate symmetric form is similar to the dot product with nonzero weights on a set of vectors, and the number of positive and negative weights are called respectively the positive index and negative index. Product of vectors in Minkowski space is an example of indefinite inner product, although, technically speaking, it is not an inner product according to the standard definition above. Minkowski space has four dimensions and indices 3 and 1 (assignment of "+" and "−" to them differs depending on conventions). Purely algebraic statements (ones that do not use positivity) usually only rely on the nondegeneracy (the injective homomorphism V → V ∗ {\displaystyle V\to V^{*}} ) and thus hold more generally. Related products The term "inner product" is opposed to outer product, which is a slightly more general opposite. Simply, in coordinates, the inner product is the product of a 1 × n {\displaystyle 1\times n} covector with an n × 1 {\displaystyle n\times 1} vector, yielding a 1 × 1 {\displaystyle 1\times 1} matrix (a scalar), while the outer product is the product of an m × 1 {\displaystyle m\times 1} vector with a 1 × n {\displaystyle 1\times n} covector, yielding an m × n {\displaystyle m\times n} matrix. The outer product is defined for different dimensions, while the inner product requires the same dimension. If the dimensions are the same, then the inner product is the trace of the outer product (trace only being properly defined for square matrices). In an informal summary: "inner is horizontal times vertical and shrinks down, outer is vertical times horizontal and expands out". More abstractly, the outer product is the bilinear map W × V ∗ → hom ⁡ ( V , W ) {\displaystyle W\times V^{*}\to \hom(V,W)} sending a vector and a covector to a rank 1 linear transformation (simple tensor of type (1, 1)), while the inner product is the bilinear evaluation map V ∗ × V → F {\displaystyle V^{*}\times V\to F} given by evaluating a covector on a vector; the order of the domain vector spaces here reflects the covector/vector distinction. The inner product and outer product should not be confused with the interior product and exterior product, which are instead operations on vector fields and differential forms, or more generally on the exterior algebra. As a further complication, in geometric algebra the inner product and the exterior (Grassmann) product are combined in the geometric product (the Clifford product in a Clifford algebra) – the inner product sends two vectors (1-vectors) to a scalar (a 0-vector), while the exterior product sends two vectors to a bivector (2-vector) – and in this context the exterior product is usually called the outer product (alternatively, wedge product). The inner product is more correctly called a scalar product in this context, as the nondegenerate quadratic form in question need not be positive definite (need not be an inner product). See also Bilinear form – Scalar-valued bilinear function Biorthogonal system Dual space – In mathematics, vector space of linear forms Energetic space – subspace of a given real Hilbert space equipped with a new "energetic" inner productPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback L-semi-inner product – Generalization of inner products that applies to all normed spaces Minkowski distance – Mathematical metric in normed vector space Orthogonal basis Orthogonal complement – Concept in linear algebra Orthonormal basis – Specific linear basis (mathematics) Riemannian manifold Notes ^ By combining the linear in the first argument property with the conjugate symmetry property you get conjugate-linear in the second argument: ⟨ x , b y ⟩ = ⟨ x , y ⟩ b ¯ {\textstyle \langle x,by\rangle =\langle x,y\rangle {\overline {b}}} . This is how the inner product was originally defined and is used in most mathematical contexts. A different convention has been adopted in theoretical physics and quantum mechanics, originating in the bra-ket notation of Paul Dirac, where the inner product is taken to be linear in the second argument and conjugate-linear in the first argument; this convention is used in many other domains such as engineering and computer science. References ^ a b c Trèves 2006, pp. 112–125. ^ Schaefer & Wolff 1999, pp. 40–45. ^ Moore, Gregory H. (1995). "The axiomatization of linear algebra: 1875-1940". Historia Mathematica. 22 (3): 262–303. doi:10.1006/hmat.1995.1025. ^ Schaefer & Wolff 1999, pp. 36–72. ^ Jain, P. K.; Ahmad, Khalil (1995). "5.1 Definitions and basic properties of inner product spaces and Hilbert spaces". Functional Analysis (2nd ed.). New Age International. p. 203. ISBN 81-224-0801-X. ^ Prugovečki, Eduard (1981). "Definition 2.1". Quantum Mechanics in Hilbert Space (2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 18ff. ISBN 0-12-566060-X. ^ Schaefer & Wolff 1999, p. 44. ^ Ouwehand, Peter (November 2010). "Spaces of Random Variables" (PDF). AIMS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-05. Retrieved 2017-09-05. ^ Siegrist, Kyle (1997). "Vector Spaces of Random Variables". Random: Probability, Mathematical Statistics, Stochastic Processes. Retrieved 2017-09-05. ^ Bigoni, Daniele (2015). "Appendix B: Probability theory and functional spaces" (PDF). Uncertainty Quantification with Applications to Engineering Problems (PhD). Technical University of Denmark. Retrieved 2017-09-05. ^ Apostol, Tom M. (1967). "Ptolemy's Inequality and the Chordal Metric". Mathematics Magazine. 40 (5): 233–235. doi:10.2307/2688275. JSTOR 2688275. ^ a b Rudin 1991, pp. 306–312. ^ Rudin 1991 Bibliography Axler, Sheldon (1997). Linear Algebra Done Right (2nd ed.). Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-98258-8. Dieudonné, Jean (1969). Treatise on Analysis, Vol. I (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-4067-2791-3. Emch, Gerard G. (1972). Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-23900-0. Halmos, Paul R. (8 November 1982). A Hilbert Space Problem Book. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Vol. 19 (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-90685-0. OCLC 8169781. Lax, Peter D. (2002). Functional Analysis (PDF). Pure and Applied Mathematics. New York: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-55604-6. OCLC 47767143. Retrieved July 22, 2020. Rudin, Walter (1991). Functional Analysis. International Series in Pure and Applied Mathematics. Vol. 8 (Second ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math. ISBN 978-0-07-054236-5. OCLC 21163277. Schaefer, Helmut H.; Wolff, Manfred P. (1999). Topological Vector Spaces. GTM. Vol. 8 (Second ed.). New York, NY: Springer New York Imprint Springer. ISBN 978-1-4612-7155-0. OCLC 840278135. Schechter, Eric (1996). Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-622760-4. OCLC 175294365. Swartz, Charles (1992). An introduction to Functional Analysis. New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 978-0-8247-8643-4. OCLC 24909067. Trèves, François (2006) . Topological Vector Spaces, Distributions and Kernels. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-45352-1. OCLC 853623322. Young, Nicholas (1988). An Introduction to Hilbert Space. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33717-5. Zamani, A.; Moslehian, M.S.; & Frank, M. (2015) "Angle Preserving Mappings", Journal of Analysis and Applications 34: 485 to 500 doi:10.4171/ZAA/1551 vteLinear algebra Outline Glossary Basic concepts Scalar Vector Vector space Scalar multiplication Vector projection Linear span Linear map Linear projection Linear independence Linear combination Basis Change of basis Row and column vectors Row and column spaces Kernel Eigenvalues and eigenvectors Transpose Linear equations Matrices Block Decomposition Invertible Minor Multiplication Rank Transformation Cramer's rule Gaussian elimination Bilinear Orthogonality Dot product Hadamard product Inner product space Outer product Kronecker product Gram–Schmidt process Multilinear algebra Determinant Cross product Triple product Seven-dimensional cross product Geometric algebra Exterior algebra Bivector Multivector Tensor Outermorphism Vector space constructions Dual Direct sum Function space Quotient Subspace Tensor product Numerical Floating-point Numerical stability Basic Linear Algebra Subprograms Sparse matrix Comparison of linear algebra libraries Category vteFunctional analysis (topics – glossary)Spaces Banach Besov Fréchet Hilbert Hölder Nuclear Orlicz Schwartz Sobolev Topological vector Properties Barrelled Complete Dual (Algebraic/Topological) Locally convex Reflexive Separable Theorems Hahn–Banach Riesz representation Closed graph Uniform boundedness principle Kakutani fixed-point Krein–Milman Min–max Gelfand–Naimark Banach–Alaoglu Operators Adjoint Bounded Compact Hilbert–Schmidt Normal Nuclear Trace class Transpose Unbounded Unitary Algebras Banach algebra C*-algebra Spectrum of a C*-algebra Operator algebra Group algebra of a locally compact group Von Neumann algebra Open problems Invariant subspace problem Mahler's conjecture Applications Hardy space Spectral theory of ordinary differential equations Heat kernel Index theorem Calculus of variations Functional calculus Integral operator Jones polynomial Topological quantum field theory Noncommutative geometry Riemann hypothesis Distribution (or Generalized functions) Advanced topics Approximation property Balanced set Choquet theory Weak topology Banach–Mazur distance Tomita–Takesaki theory Category vteHilbert spacesBasic concepts Adjoint Inner product and L-semi-inner product Hilbert space and Prehilbert space Orthogonal complement Orthonormal basis Main results Bessel's inequality Cauchy–Schwarz inequality Riesz representation Other results Hilbert projection theorem Parseval's identity Polarization identity (Parallelogram law) Maps Compact operator on Hilbert space Densely defined Hermitian form Hilbert–Schmidt Normal Self-adjoint Sesquilinear form Trace class Unitary Examples Cn(K) with K compact & n<∞ Segal–Bargmann F
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For the inner product of coordinate vectors, see Dot product.Geometric interpretation of the angle between two vectors defined using an inner productScalar product spaces, over any field, have \"scalar products\" that are symmetrical and linear in the first argument. Hermitian product spaces are restricted to the field of complex numbers and have \"Hermitian products\" that are conjugate-symmetrical and linear in the first argument. Inner product spaces may be defined over any field, having \"inner products\" that are linear in the first argument, conjugate-symmetrical, and positive-definite. Unlike inner products, scalar products and Hermitian products need not be positive-definite.In mathematics, an inner product space (or, rarely, a Hausdorff pre-Hilbert space[1][2]) is a real vector space or a complex vector space with an operation called an inner product. The inner product of two vectors in the space is a scalar, often denoted with angle brackets such as in \n \n \n \n ⟨\n a\n ,\n b\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle a,b\\rangle }\n \n. Inner products allow formal definitions of intuitive geometric notions, such as lengths, angles, and orthogonality (zero inner product) of vectors. Inner product spaces generalize Euclidean vector spaces, in which the inner product is the dot product or scalar product of Cartesian coordinates. Inner product spaces of infinite dimension are widely used in functional analysis. Inner product spaces over the field of complex numbers are sometimes referred to as unitary spaces. The first usage of the concept of a vector space with an inner product is due to Giuseppe Peano, in 1898.[3]An inner product naturally induces an associated norm, (denoted \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n x\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |x|}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n y\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle |y|}\n \n in the picture); so, every inner product space is a normed vector space. If this normed space is also complete (that is, a Banach space) then the inner product space is a Hilbert space.[1] If an inner product space H is not a Hilbert space, it can be extended by completion to a Hilbert space \n \n \n \n \n \n H\n ¯\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {H}}.}\n \n This means that \n \n \n \n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H}\n \n is a linear subspace of \n \n \n \n \n \n H\n ¯\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {H}},}\n \n the inner product of \n \n \n \n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H}\n \n is the restriction of that of \n \n \n \n \n \n H\n ¯\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {H}},}\n \n and \n \n \n \n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H}\n \n is dense in \n \n \n \n \n \n H\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {H}}}\n \n for the topology defined by the norm.[1][4]","title":"Inner product space"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"scalar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"complex conjugate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_conjugate"},{"link_name":"vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_space"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jain-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Prugovec%CC%86ki-6"},{"link_name":"Linearity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_map"},{"link_name":"[Note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Positive-definiteness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definite_bilinear_form"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaeferWolff199944-8"}],"text":"In this article, F denotes a field that is either the real numbers \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ,}\n \n or the complex numbers \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} .}\n \n A scalar is thus an element of F. A bar over an expression representing a scalar denotes the complex conjugate of this scalar. A zero vector is denoted \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {0} }\n \n for distinguishing it from the scalar 0.An inner product space is a vector space V over the field F together with an inner product, that is, a map⟨\n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n ⟩\n :\n V\n ×\n V\n →\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\cdot ,\\cdot \\rangle :V\\times V\\to F}that satisfies the following three properties for all vectors \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ,\n z\n ∈\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y,z\\in V}\n \n and all scalars \n \n \n \n a\n ,\n b\n ∈\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a,b\\in F}\n \n.[5][6]Conjugate symmetry: \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n \n \n \n ⟨\n y\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n ¯\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle ={\\overline {\\langle y,x\\rangle }}.}\n \n As \n \n \n \n a\n =\n \n \n a\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle a={\\overline {a}}}\n \n if and only if \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n is real, conjugate symmetry implies that \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle }\n \n is always a real number. If F is \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n \n, conjugate symmetry is just symmetry.\nLinearity in the first argument:[Note 1] \n \n \n \n ⟨\n a\n x\n +\n b\n y\n ,\n z\n ⟩\n =\n a\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n z\n ⟩\n +\n b\n ⟨\n y\n ,\n z\n ⟩\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle ax+by,z\\rangle =a\\langle x,z\\rangle +b\\langle y,z\\rangle .}\n \n\nPositive-definiteness: if \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n is not zero, then \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle >0}\n \n (conjugate symmetry implies that \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle }\n \n is real).If the positive-definiteness condition is replaced by merely requiring that \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle \\geq 0}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, then one obtains the definition of positive semi-definite Hermitian form. A positive semi-definite Hermitian form \n \n \n \n ⟨\n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\cdot ,\\cdot \\rangle }\n \n is an inner product if and only if for all \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n, if \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle =0}\n \n then \n \n \n \n x\n =\n \n 0\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=\\mathbf {0} }\n \n.[7]","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sesquilinear form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesquilinear_form"},{"link_name":"real part","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_part"},{"link_name":"bilinear form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_form"},{"link_name":"binomial expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_expansion"}],"sub_title":"Basic properties","text":"In the following properties, which result almost immediately from the definition of an inner product, x, y and z are arbitrary vectors, and a and b are arbitrary scalars.⟨\n \n 0\n \n ,\n x\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n \n 0\n \n ⟩\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\mathbf {0} ,x\\rangle =\\langle x,\\mathbf {0} \\rangle =0.}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle }\n \n is real and nonnegative.\n\n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle =0}\n \n if and only if \n \n \n \n x\n =\n \n 0\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=\\mathbf {0} .}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n a\n y\n +\n b\n z\n ⟩\n =\n \n \n a\n ¯\n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n +\n \n \n b\n ¯\n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n z\n ⟩\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,ay+bz\\rangle ={\\overline {a}}\\langle x,y\\rangle +{\\overline {b}}\\langle x,z\\rangle .}\n \nThis implies that an inner product is a sesquilinear form.\n\n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n +\n y\n ,\n x\n +\n y\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n +\n 2\n Re\n ⁡\n (\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n )\n +\n ⟨\n y\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x+y,x+y\\rangle =\\langle x,x\\rangle +2\\operatorname {Re} (\\langle x,y\\rangle )+\\langle y,y\\rangle ,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n Re\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Re} }\n \ndenotes the real part of its argument.Over \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n \n, conjugate-symmetry reduces to symmetry, and sesquilinearity reduces to bilinearity. Hence an inner product on a real vector space is a positive-definite symmetric bilinear form. The binomial expansion of a square becomes⟨\n x\n +\n y\n ,\n x\n +\n y\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n +\n 2\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n +\n ⟨\n y\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x+y,x+y\\rangle =\\langle x,x\\rangle +2\\langle x,y\\rangle +\\langle y,y\\rangle .}","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"matrix algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_algebra"},{"link_name":"Bra-ket notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bra%E2%80%93ket_notation"},{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"}],"sub_title":"Convention variant","text":"Some authors, especially in physics and matrix algebra, prefer to define inner products and sesquilinear forms with linearity in the second argument rather than the first. Then the first argument becomes conjugate linear, rather than the second. Bra-ket notation in quantum mechanics also uses slightly different notation, i.e. \n \n \n \n ⟨\n ⋅\n \n |\n \n ⋅\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\cdot |\\cdot \\rangle }\n \n, where \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n \n |\n \n y\n ⟩\n :=\n \n (\n \n y\n ,\n x\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x|y\\rangle :=\\left(y,x\\right)}\n \n.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Notation","text":"Several notations are used for inner products, including \n\n \n \n \n ⟨\n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\cdot ,\\cdot \\rangle }\n \n, \n\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(\\cdot ,\\cdot \\right)}\n \n,\n\n \n \n \n ⟨\n ⋅\n \n |\n \n ⋅\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\cdot |\\cdot \\rangle }\n \n and\n\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n ⋅\n \n |\n \n ⋅\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(\\cdot |\\cdot \\right)}\n \n, as well as the usual dot product.","title":"Definition"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"real numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number"},{"link_name":"complex numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"}],"sub_title":"Real and complex numbers","text":"Among the simplest examples of inner product spaces are \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} .}\n \n \nThe real numbers \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n \n are a vector space over \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n \n that becomes an inner product space with arithmetic multiplication as its inner product:⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n :=\n x\n y\n \n \n  for \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n \n R\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle :=xy\\quad {\\text{ for }}x,y\\in \\mathbb {R} .}The complex numbers \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} }\n \n are a vector space over \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} }\n \n that becomes an inner product space with the inner product⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n :=\n x\n \n \n y\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n  for \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n \n C\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle :=x{\\overline {y}}\\quad {\\text{ for }}x,y\\in \\mathbb {C} .}(\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n ↦\n x\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (x,y)\\mapsto xy}notC\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} .}","title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"real \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n-space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_coordinate_space"},{"link_name":"dot product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"Euclidean vector space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_vector_space"},{"link_name":"symmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_matrix"},{"link_name":"positive-definite matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive-definite_matrix"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"}],"sub_title":"Euclidean vector space","text":"More generally, the real \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n-space \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n \n with the dot product is an inner product space, an example of a Euclidean vector space.⟨\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n ,\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⋮\n \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n ⟩\n \n =\n \n x\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n y\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n y\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n y\n \n n\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\langle {\\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}\\\\\\vdots \\\\x_{n}\\end{bmatrix}},{\\begin{bmatrix}y_{1}\\\\\\vdots \\\\y_{n}\\end{bmatrix}}\\right\\rangle =x^{\\textsf {T}}y=\\sum _{i=1}^{n}x_{i}y_{i}=x_{1}y_{1}+\\cdots +x_{n}y_{n},}x\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{\\operatorname {T} }}transposex\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x.}A function \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n \n ⟩\n :\n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n ×\n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n →\n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\,\\cdot ,\\cdot \\,\\rangle :\\mathbb {R} ^{n}\\times \\mathbb {R} ^{n}\\to \\mathbb {R} }\n \n is an inner product on \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{n}}\n \n if and only if there exists a symmetric positive-definite matrix \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n such that \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n \n x\n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =x^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} y}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n \n \n R\n \n \n n\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in \\mathbb {R} ^{n}.}\n \n If \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} }\n \n is the identity matrix then \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n \n x\n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =x^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} y}\n \n is the dot product. For another example, if \n \n \n \n n\n =\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=2}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n M\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n a\n \n \n b\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {M} ={\\begin{bmatrix}a&b\\\\b&d\\end{bmatrix}}}\n \n is positive-definite (which happens if and only if \n \n \n \n det\n \n M\n \n =\n a\n d\n −\n \n b\n \n 2\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\det \\mathbf {M} =ad-b^{2}>0}\n \n and one/both diagonal elements are positive) then for any \n \n \n \n x\n :=\n \n \n [\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n T\n \n \n ,\n y\n :=\n \n \n [\n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n T\n \n \n ∈\n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x:=\\left[x_{1},x_{2}\\right]^{\\operatorname {T} },y:=\\left[y_{1},y_{2}\\right]^{\\operatorname {T} }\\in \\mathbb {R} ^{2},}⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n :=\n \n x\n \n T\n \n \n \n M\n \n y\n =\n \n [\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n a\n \n \n b\n \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n a\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n b\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n b\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n d\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle :=x^{\\operatorname {T} }\\mathbf {M} y=\\left[x_{1},x_{2}\\right]{\\begin{bmatrix}a&b\\\\b&d\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}y_{1}\\\\y_{2}\\end{bmatrix}}=ax_{1}y_{1}+bx_{1}y_{2}+bx_{2}y_{1}+dx_{2}y_{2}.}R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{2}}b\n ∈\n \n R\n \n ,\n a\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b\\in \\mathbb {R} ,a>0}d\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d>0}a\n d\n >\n \n b\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle ad>b^{2}}","title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hermitian form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitian_form"}],"sub_title":"Complex coordinate space","text":"The general form of an inner product on \n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ^{n}}\n \n is known as the Hermitian form and is given by⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n \n y\n \n †\n \n \n \n M\n \n x\n =\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n †\n \n \n \n M\n \n y\n \n ¯\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =y^{\\dagger }\\mathbf {M} x={\\overline {x^{\\dagger }\\mathbf {M} y}},}M\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M}Hermitianpositive-definite matrixy\n \n †\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y^{\\dagger }}conjugate transposey\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y.}scalingscale factorsweighted-sum","title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hilbert spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_spaces"},{"link_name":"complete metric space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_metric_space"},{"link_name":"Cauchy sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy_sequence"}],"sub_title":"Hilbert space","text":"The article on Hilbert spaces has several examples of inner product spaces, wherein the metric induced by the inner product yields a complete metric space. An example of an inner product space which induces an incomplete metric is the space \n \n \n \n C\n (\n [\n a\n ,\n b\n ]\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C([a,b])}\n \n of continuous complex valued functions \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n and \n \n \n \n g\n \n \n {\\displaystyle g}\n \n on the interval \n \n \n \n [\n a\n ,\n b\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [a,b].}\n \n The inner product is⟨\n f\n ,\n g\n ⟩\n =\n \n ∫\n \n a\n \n \n b\n \n \n f\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n g\n (\n t\n )\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n t\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle f,g\\rangle =\\int _{a}^{b}f(t){\\overline {g(t)}}\\,\\mathrm {d} t.}[−1, 1]{\n \n f\n \n k\n \n \n \n }\n \n k\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{f_{k}\\}_{k},}f\n \n k\n \n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n t\n ∈\n [\n −\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ]\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n t\n ∈\n \n [\n \n \n \n \n 1\n k\n \n \n \n ,\n 1\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n k\n t\n \n \n t\n ∈\n \n (\n \n 0\n ,\n \n \n \n 1\n k\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{k}(t)={\\begin{cases}0&t\\in [-1,0]\\\\1&t\\in \\left[{\\tfrac {1}{k}},1\\right]\\\\kt&t\\in \\left(0,{\\tfrac {1}{k}}\\right)\\end{cases}}}This sequence is a Cauchy sequence for the norm induced by the preceding inner product, which does not converge to a continuous function.","title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"random variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_variable"},{"link_name":"expected value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expected_value"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Random variables","text":"For real random variables \n \n \n \n X\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X}\n \n and \n \n \n \n Y\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y,}\n \n the expected value of their product⟨\n X\n ,\n Y\n ⟩\n =\n \n E\n \n [\n X\n Y\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle X,Y\\rangle =\\mathbb {E} [XY]}[8][9][10]⟨\n X\n ,\n X\n ⟩\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle X,X\\rangle =0}P\n \n [\n X\n =\n 0\n ]\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {P} [X=0]=1}X\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle X=0}almost surelyP\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {P} }probabilityrandom vectors","title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Frobenius inner product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frobenius_inner_product"}],"sub_title":"Complex matrices","text":"The inner product for complex square matrices of the same size is the Frobenius inner product \n \n \n \n ⟨\n A\n ,\n B\n ⟩\n :=\n tr\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n A\n \n B\n \n †\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle A,B\\rangle :=\\operatorname {tr} \\left(AB^{\\dagger }\\right)}\n \n. Since trace and transposition are linear and the conjugation is on the second matrix, it is a sesquilinear operator. We further get Hermitian symmetry by,⟨\n A\n ,\n B\n ⟩\n =\n tr\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n A\n \n B\n \n †\n \n \n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n \n tr\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n B\n \n A\n \n †\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ¯\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n B\n ,\n A\n \n ⟩\n \n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle A,B\\rangle =\\operatorname {tr} \\left(AB^{\\dagger }\\right)={\\overline {\\operatorname {tr} \\left(BA^{\\dagger }\\right)}}={\\overline {\\left\\langle B,A\\right\\rangle }}}A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}⟨\n A\n ,\n A\n ⟩\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n j\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n A\n \n i\n j\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle A,A\\rangle =\\sum _{ij}\\left|A_{ij}\\right|^{2}>0}","title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nondegenerate form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondegenerate_form"}],"sub_title":"Vector spaces with forms","text":"On an inner product space, or more generally a vector space with a nondegenerate form (hence an isomorphism \n \n \n \n V\n →\n \n V\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V\\to V^{*}}\n \n), vectors can be sent to covectors (in coordinates, via transpose), so that one can take the inner product and outer product of two vectors—not simply of a vector and a covector.","title":"Some examples"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Basic results, terminology, and definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"norm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Absolute homogeneity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_homogeneity"},{"link_name":"Triangle inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle_inequality"},{"link_name":"Cauchy–Schwarz inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauchy%E2%80%93Schwarz_inequality"},{"link_name":"linearly dependent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linearly_independent"},{"link_name":"Parallelogram law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallelogram_law"},{"link_name":"Polarization identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization_identity"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy's inequality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_inequality"},{"link_name":"seminorm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminorm"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Norm properties","text":"Every inner product space induces a norm, called its canonical norm, that is defined by‖\n x\n ‖\n =\n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x\\|={\\sqrt {\\langle x,x\\rangle }}.}normed vector spaceSo, every general property of normed vector spaces applies to inner product spaces. \nIn particular, one has the following properties:Absolute homogeneity\n\n \n \n \n ‖\n a\n x\n ‖\n =\n \n |\n \n a\n \n |\n \n \n ‖\n x\n ‖\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|ax\\|=|a|\\,\\|x\\|}\n \n\nfor every \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in V}\n \n and \n \n \n \n a\n ∈\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a\\in F}\n \n\n(this results from \n \n \n \n ⟨\n a\n x\n ,\n a\n x\n ⟩\n =\n a\n \n \n a\n ¯\n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle ax,ax\\rangle =a{\\overline {a}}\\langle x,x\\rangle }\n \n).\n\nTriangle inequality\n\n \n \n \n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n ‖\n ≤\n ‖\n x\n ‖\n +\n ‖\n y\n ‖\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x+y\\|\\leq \\|x\\|+\\|y\\|}\n \n\nfor \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in V.}\n \n\nThese two properties show that one has indeed a norm.\n\nCauchy–Schwarz inequality\n\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n |\n \n ≤\n ‖\n x\n ‖\n \n ‖\n y\n ‖\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\langle x,y\\rangle |\\leq \\|x\\|\\,\\|y\\|}\n \n\nfor every \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in V,}\n \n\nwith equality if and only if \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n are linearly dependent.\n\nParallelogram law\n\n \n \n \n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n ‖\n x\n −\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 2\n ‖\n x\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n ‖\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x+y\\|^{2}+\\|x-y\\|^{2}=2\\|x\\|^{2}+2\\|y\\|^{2}}\n \n\nfor every \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in V.}\n \n\n\nThe parallelogram law is a necessary and sufficient condition for a norm to be defined by an inner product.\n\nPolarization identity\n\n \n \n \n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n ‖\n x\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n ‖\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x+y\\|^{2}=\\|x\\|^{2}+\\|y\\|^{2}+2\\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,y\\rangle }\n \n\nfor every \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in V.}\n \n\nThe inner product can be retrieved from the norm by the polarization identity, since its imaginary part is the real part of \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n i\n y\n ⟩\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,iy\\rangle .}\n \n\n\nPtolemy's inequality\n\n \n \n \n ‖\n x\n −\n y\n ‖\n \n ‖\n z\n ‖\n  \n +\n  \n ‖\n y\n −\n z\n ‖\n \n ‖\n x\n ‖\n  \n ≥\n  \n ‖\n x\n −\n z\n ‖\n \n ‖\n y\n ‖\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x-y\\|\\,\\|z\\|~+~\\|y-z\\|\\,\\|x\\|~\\geq ~\\|x-z\\|\\,\\|y\\|}\n \n\nfor every \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ,\n z\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y,z\\in V.}\n \n\nPtolemy's inequality is a necessary and sufficient condition for a seminorm to be the norm defined by an inner product.[11]","title":"Basic results, terminology, and definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Orthogonality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudin1991306%E2%80%93312-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERudin1991306%E2%80%93312-13"},{"link_name":"Orthogonal complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_complement"},{"link_name":"closure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closure_(topology)"},{"link_name":"Pythagorean theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"Parseval's identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parseval%27s_identity"},{"link_name":"induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_induction"},{"link_name":"Angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"linear algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra"},{"link_name":"data analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis"},{"link_name":"cosine similarity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosine_similarity"}],"sub_title":"Orthogonality","text":"Orthogonality\nTwo vectors \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n are said to be orthogonal, often written \n \n \n \n x\n ⊥\n y\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\perp y,}\n \n if their inner product is zero, that is, if \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =0.}\n \n \n\nThis happens if and only if \n \n \n \n ‖\n x\n ‖\n ≤\n ‖\n x\n +\n s\n y\n ‖\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x\\|\\leq \\|x+sy\\|}\n \n for all scalars \n \n \n \n s\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle s,}\n \n[12] and if and only if the real-valued function \n \n \n \n f\n (\n s\n )\n :=\n ‖\n x\n +\n s\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n ‖\n x\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f(s):=\\|x+sy\\|^{2}-\\|x\\|^{2}}\n \n is non-negative. (This is a consequence of the fact that, if \n \n \n \n y\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y\\neq 0}\n \n then the scalar \n \n \n \n \n s\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n ¯\n \n \n ‖\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle s_{0}=-{\\tfrac {\\overline {\\langle x,y\\rangle }}{\\|y\\|^{2}}}}\n \n minimizes \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n with value \n \n \n \n f\n \n (\n \n s\n \n 0\n \n \n )\n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ‖\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\left(s_{0}\\right)=-{\\tfrac {|\\langle x,y\\rangle |^{2}}{\\|y\\|^{2}}},}\n \n which is always non positive).\n\nFor a complex inner product space \n \n \n \n H\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle H,}\n \n a linear operator \n \n \n \n T\n :\n V\n →\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T:V\\to V}\n \n is identically \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n if and only if \n \n \n \n x\n ⊥\n T\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\perp Tx}\n \n for every \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in V.}\n \n[12] This is not true in general for real inner product spaces, as it is a consequence of conjugate symmetry being distinct from symmetry for complex inner products. A counterexample in a real inner product space is \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n a 90° rotation in \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{2}}\n \n, which maps every vector to an orthogonal vector but is not identically \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0}\n \n.\n\nOrthogonal complementThe orthogonal complement of a subset \n \n \n \n C\n ⊆\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C\\subseteq V}\n \n is the set \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n ⊥\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C^{\\bot }}\n \n of the vectors that are orthogonal to all elements of C; that is, \n\n \n \n \n \n C\n \n ⊥\n \n \n :=\n {\n \n y\n ∈\n V\n :\n ⟨\n y\n ,\n c\n ⟩\n =\n 0\n \n  for all \n \n c\n ∈\n C\n \n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C^{\\bot }:=\\{\\,y\\in V:\\langle y,c\\rangle =0{\\text{ for all }}c\\in C\\,\\}.}\n \n \nThis set \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n ⊥\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle C^{\\bot }}\n \n is always a closed vector subspace of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n and if the closure \n \n \n \n \n cl\n \n V\n \n \n ⁡\n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {cl} _{V}C}\n \n of \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C}\n \n in \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a vector subspace then \n \n \n \n \n cl\n \n V\n \n \n ⁡\n C\n =\n \n \n (\n \n C\n \n ⊥\n \n \n )\n \n \n ⊥\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {cl} _{V}C=\\left(C^{\\bot }\\right)^{\\bot }.}\n \n \n\nPythagorean theorem\nIf \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n are orthogonal, then\n\n \n \n \n ‖\n x\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n ‖\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x\\|^{2}+\\|y\\|^{2}=\\|x+y\\|^{2}.}\n \n\n\nThis may be proved by expressing the squared norms in terms of the inner products, using additivity for expanding the right-hand side of the equation.\n\nThe name Pythagorean theorem arises from the geometric interpretation in Euclidean geometry.\n\nParseval's identity\nAn induction on the Pythagorean theorem yields: if \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{n}}\n \n are pairwise orthogonal, then\n\n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n ‖\n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n ‖\n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n ‖\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum _{i=1}^{n}\\|x_{i}\\|^{2}=\\left\\|\\sum _{i=1}^{n}x_{i}\\right\\|^{2}.}\n \n\n\nAngle\nWhen \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle }\n \n is a real number then the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality implies that \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n ‖\n x\n ‖\n \n ‖\n y\n ‖\n \n \n \n ∈\n [\n −\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ]\n ,\n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\frac {\\langle x,y\\rangle }{\\|x\\|\\,\\|y\\|}}\\in [-1,1],}\n \n and thus that \n\n \n \n \n ∠\n (\n x\n ,\n y\n )\n =\n arccos\n ⁡\n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n ‖\n x\n ‖\n \n ‖\n y\n ‖\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\angle (x,y)=\\arccos {\\frac {\\langle x,y\\rangle }{\\|x\\|\\,\\|y\\|}},}\n \n\nis a real number. This allows defining the (non oriented) angle of two vectors in modern definitions of Euclidean geometry in terms of linear algebra. This is also used in data analysis, under the name \"cosine similarity\", for comparing two vectors of data.","title":"Basic results, terminology, and definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polarization identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization_identity"},{"link_name":"real part","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_part"},{"link_name":"polarization identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization_identity"},{"link_name":"expressing a linear functional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_and_imaginary_parts_of_a_linear_functional"},{"link_name":"dot product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"real part","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_part"},{"link_name":"bilinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_map"},{"link_name":"symmetric map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_map"},{"link_name":"dot product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot_product"},{"link_name":"symmetric map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#math_Symmetry"},{"link_name":"conjugate symmetric map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#math_Conjugate_symmetry"}],"sub_title":"Real and complex parts of inner products","text":"Suppose that \n \n \n \n ⟨\n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\cdot ,\\cdot \\rangle }\n \n is an inner product on \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n (so it is antilinear in its second argument). The polarization identity shows that the real part of the inner product isRe\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n \n \n 1\n 4\n \n \n \n (\n \n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n ‖\n x\n −\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,y\\rangle ={\\frac {1}{4}}\\left(\\|x+y\\|^{2}-\\|x-y\\|^{2}\\right).}If \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a real vector space then⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n \n \n 1\n 4\n \n \n \n (\n \n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n ‖\n x\n −\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =\\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,y\\rangle ={\\frac {1}{4}}\\left(\\|x+y\\|^{2}-\\|x-y\\|^{2}\\right)}imaginary partcomplex part⟨\n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\cdot ,\\cdot \\rangle }0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0.}Assume for the rest of this section that \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a complex vector space.\nThe polarization identity for complex vector spaces shows that⟨\n x\n ,\n  \n y\n ⟩\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 4\n \n \n \n (\n \n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n ‖\n x\n −\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n i\n ‖\n x\n +\n i\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n i\n ‖\n x\n −\n i\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n +\n i\n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n i\n y\n ⟩\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{4}\\langle x,\\ y\\rangle &={\\frac {1}{4}}\\left(\\|x+y\\|^{2}-\\|x-y\\|^{2}+i\\|x+iy\\|^{2}-i\\|x-iy\\|^{2}\\right)\\\\&=\\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,y\\rangle +i\\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,iy\\rangle .\\\\\\end{alignedat}}}The map defined by \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ∣\n y\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n y\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x\\mid y\\rangle =\\langle y,x\\rangle }\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in V}\n \n satisfies the axioms of the inner product except that it is antilinear in its first, rather than its second, argument. The real part of both \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ∣\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x\\mid y\\rangle }\n \n and \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle }\n \n are equal to \n \n \n \n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,y\\rangle }\n \n but the inner products differ in their complex part:⟨\n x\n ∣\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 4\n \n \n \n (\n \n ‖\n x\n +\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n ‖\n x\n −\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n −\n i\n ‖\n x\n +\n i\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n i\n ‖\n x\n −\n i\n y\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n −\n i\n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n i\n y\n ⟩\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{4}\\langle x\\mid y\\rangle &={\\frac {1}{4}}\\left(\\|x+y\\|^{2}-\\|x-y\\|^{2}-i\\|x+iy\\|^{2}+i\\|x-iy\\|^{2}\\right)\\\\&=\\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,y\\rangle -i\\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,iy\\rangle .\\\\\\end{alignedat}}}The last equality is similar to the formula expressing a linear functional in terms of its real part.These formulas show that every complex inner product is completely determined by its real part. Moreover, this real part defines an inner product on \n \n \n \n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V,}\n \n considered as a real vector space. There is thus a one-to-one correspondence between complex inner products on a complex vector space \n \n \n \n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V,}\n \n and real inner products on \n \n \n \n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V.}For example, suppose that \n \n \n \n V\n =\n \n \n C\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=\\mathbb {C} ^{n}}\n \n for some integer \n \n \n \n n\n >\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n>0.}\n \n When \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is considered as a real vector space in the usual way (meaning that it is identified with the \n \n \n \n 2\n n\n −\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2n-}\n \ndimensional real vector space \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n n\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} ^{2n},}\n \n with each \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n i\n \n b\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n a\n \n n\n \n \n +\n i\n \n b\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n ∈\n \n \n C\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(a_{1}+ib_{1},\\ldots ,a_{n}+ib_{n}\\right)\\in \\mathbb {C} ^{n}}\n \n identified with \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n a\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n \n b\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n a\n \n n\n \n \n ,\n \n b\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n ∈\n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left(a_{1},b_{1},\\ldots ,a_{n},b_{n}\\right)\\in \\mathbb {R} ^{2n}}\n \n), then the dot product \n \n \n \n x\n \n ⋅\n \n y\n =\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n x\n \n 2\n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n (\n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n y\n \n 2\n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n :=\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n y\n \n 1\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n \n x\n \n 2\n n\n \n \n \n y\n \n 2\n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\,\\cdot \\,y=\\left(x_{1},\\ldots ,x_{2n}\\right)\\,\\cdot \\,\\left(y_{1},\\ldots ,y_{2n}\\right):=x_{1}y_{1}+\\cdots +x_{2n}y_{2n}}\n \n defines a real inner product on this space. The unique complex inner product \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\,\\cdot ,\\cdot \\,\\rangle }\n \n on \n \n \n \n V\n =\n \n \n C\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=\\mathbb {C} ^{n}}\n \n induced by the dot product is the map that sends \n \n \n \n c\n =\n \n (\n \n \n c\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n c\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n ,\n d\n =\n \n (\n \n \n d\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n d\n \n n\n \n \n \n )\n \n ∈\n \n \n C\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c=\\left(c_{1},\\ldots ,c_{n}\\right),d=\\left(d_{1},\\ldots ,d_{n}\\right)\\in \\mathbb {C} ^{n}}\n \n to \n \n \n \n ⟨\n c\n ,\n d\n ⟩\n :=\n \n c\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n 1\n \n \n ¯\n \n \n +\n ⋯\n +\n \n c\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n n\n \n \n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle c,d\\rangle :=c_{1}{\\overline {d_{1}}}+\\cdots +c_{n}{\\overline {d_{n}}}}\n \n (because the real part of this map \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\,\\cdot ,\\cdot \\,\\rangle }\n \n is equal to the dot product).Real vs. complex inner productsLet \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathbb {R} }}\n \n denote \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n considered as a vector space over the real numbers rather than complex numbers.\nThe real part of the complex inner product \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle }\n \n is the map \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n \n ⟩\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n =\n Re\n ⁡\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n  \n :\n  \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n ×\n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n →\n \n R\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle _{\\mathbb {R} }=\\operatorname {Re} \\langle x,y\\rangle ~:~V_{\\mathbb {R} }\\times V_{\\mathbb {R} }\\to \\mathbb {R} ,}\n \n which necessarily forms a real inner product on the real vector space \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathbb {R} }.}\n \n Every inner product on a real vector space is a bilinear and symmetric map.For example, if \n \n \n \n V\n =\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=\\mathbb {C} }\n \n with inner product \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n x\n \n \n y\n ¯\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =x{\\overline {y}},}\n \n where \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a vector space over the field \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} ,}\n \n then \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathbb {R} }=\\mathbb {R} ^{2}}\n \n is a vector space over \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {R} }\n \n and \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n \n ⟩\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle _{\\mathbb {R} }}\n \n is the dot product \n \n \n \n x\n ⋅\n y\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\cdot y,}\n \n where \n \n \n \n x\n =\n a\n +\n i\n b\n ∈\n V\n =\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=a+ib\\in V=\\mathbb {C} }\n \n is identified with the point \n \n \n \n (\n a\n ,\n b\n )\n ∈\n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n R\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (a,b)\\in V_{\\mathbb {R} }=\\mathbb {R} ^{2}}\n \n (and similarly for \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n); thus the standard inner product \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n x\n \n \n y\n ¯\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =x{\\overline {y}},}\n \n on \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbb {C} }\n \n is an \"extension\" the dot product . Also, had \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle }\n \n been instead defined to be the symmetric map \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n x\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =xy}\n \n (rather than the usual conjugate symmetric map \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n x\n \n \n y\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =x{\\overline {y}}}\n \n) then its real part \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n \n ⟩\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle _{\\mathbb {R} }}\n \n would not be the dot product; furthermore, without the complex conjugate, if \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in \\mathbb {C} }\n \n but \n \n \n \n x\n ∉\n \n R\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\not \\in \\mathbb {R} }\n \n then \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n =\n x\n x\n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n ∉\n [\n 0\n ,\n ∞\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,x\\rangle =xx=x^{2}\\not \\in [0,\\infty )}\n \n so the assignment \n \n \n \n x\n ↦\n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\mapsto {\\sqrt {\\langle x,x\\rangle }}}\n \n would not define a norm.The next examples show that although real and complex inner products have many properties and results in common, they are not entirely interchangeable.\nFor instance, if \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle =0}\n \n then \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n \n ⟩\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n =\n 0\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle _{\\mathbb {R} }=0,}\n \n but the next example shows that the converse is in general not true.\nGiven any \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in V,}\n \n the vector \n \n \n \n i\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ix}\n \n (which is the vector \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n rotated by 90°) belongs to \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n and so also belongs to \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathbb {R} }}\n \n (although scalar multiplication of \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n by \n \n \n \n i\n =\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle i={\\sqrt {-1}}}\n \n is not defined in \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathbb {R} },}\n \n the vector in \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n denoted by \n \n \n \n i\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle ix}\n \n is nevertheless still also an element of \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathbb {R} }}\n \n). For the complex inner product, \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n i\n x\n ⟩\n =\n −\n i\n ‖\n x\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,ix\\rangle =-i\\|x\\|^{2},}\n \n whereas for the real inner product the value is always \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n i\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,ix\\rangle _{\\mathbb {R} }=0.}If \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\,\\cdot ,\\cdot \\,\\rangle }\n \n is a complex inner product and \n \n \n \n A\n :\n V\n →\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A:V\\to V}\n \n is a continuous linear operator that satisfies \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n A\n x\n ⟩\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,Ax\\rangle =0}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in V,}\n \n then \n \n \n \n A\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A=0.}\n \n This statement is no longer true if \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n ⋅\n ,\n ⋅\n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\,\\cdot ,\\cdot \\,\\rangle }\n \n is instead a real inner product, as this next example shows. \nSuppose that \n \n \n \n V\n =\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=\\mathbb {C} }\n \n has the inner product \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n :=\n x\n \n \n y\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle :=x{\\overline {y}}}\n \n mentioned above. Then the map \n \n \n \n A\n :\n V\n →\n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A:V\\to V}\n \n defined by \n \n \n \n A\n x\n =\n i\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Ax=ix}\n \n is a linear map (linear for both \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V_{\\mathbb {R} }}\n \n) that denotes rotation by \n \n \n \n \n 90\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 90^{\\circ }}\n \n in the plane. Because \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n and \n \n \n \n A\n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Ax}\n \n are perpendicular vectors and \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n A\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,Ax\\rangle _{\\mathbb {R} }}\n \n is just the dot product, \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n A\n x\n \n ⟩\n \n \n R\n \n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,Ax\\rangle _{\\mathbb {R} }=0}\n \n for all vectors \n \n \n \n x\n ;\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x;}\n \n nevertheless, this rotation map \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n is certainly not identically \n \n \n \n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0.}\n \n In contrast, using the complex inner product gives \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n A\n x\n ⟩\n =\n −\n i\n ‖\n x\n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,Ax\\rangle =-i\\|x\\|^{2},}\n \n which (as expected) is not identically zero.","title":"Basic results, terminology, and definitions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Orthogonal basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_basis"},{"link_name":"Orthonormal basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis"},{"link_name":"basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"Gram–Schmidt process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%E2%80%93Schmidt_process"},{"link_name":"orthonormal basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis"},{"link_name":"separable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separable_space"},{"link_name":"Hausdorff maximal principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausdorff_maximal_principle"},{"link_name":"complete inner product space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"complete inner product space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"},{"link_name":"Zorn's lemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorn%27s_lemma"},{"link_name":"Hilbert space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"ℵ\n \n 0\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\aleph _{0}.}","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleph-null"},{"link_name":"Hamel basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basis_(linear_algebra)#Related_notions"},{"link_name":"Hamel dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamel_dimension"},{"link_name":"Parseval's identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parseval%27s_identity"},{"link_name":"Fourier series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_series"},{"link_name":"trigonometric polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometric_polynomial"},{"link_name":"Hilbert space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"Weierstrass theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weierstrass_approximation_theorem"}],"text":"See also: Orthogonal basis and Orthonormal basisLet \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n be a finite dimensional inner product space of dimension \n \n \n \n n\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n.}\n \n Recall that every basis of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n consists of exactly \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n linearly independent vectors. Using the Gram–Schmidt process we may start with an arbitrary basis and transform it into an orthonormal basis. That is, into a basis in which all the elements are orthogonal and have unit norm. In symbols, a basis \n \n \n \n {\n \n e\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n e\n \n n\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{e_{1},\\ldots ,e_{n}\\}}\n \n is orthonormal if \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n e\n \n j\n \n \n ⟩\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle e_{i},e_{j}\\rangle =0}\n \n for every \n \n \n \n i\n ≠\n j\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\neq j}\n \n and \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n e\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n =\n ‖\n \n e\n \n a\n \n \n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle e_{i},e_{i}\\rangle =\\|e_{a}\\|^{2}=1}\n \n for each index \n \n \n \n i\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i.}This definition of orthonormal basis generalizes to the case of infinite-dimensional inner product spaces in the following way. Let \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n be any inner product space. Then a collectionE\n =\n \n \n {\n \n e\n \n a\n \n \n }\n \n \n a\n ∈\n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E=\\left\\{e_{a}\\right\\}_{a\\in A}}basisV\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}orthonormal basisV\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}⟨\n \n \n e\n \n a\n \n \n ,\n \n e\n \n b\n \n \n \n ⟩\n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\langle e_{a},e_{b}\\right\\rangle =0}a\n ≠\n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a\\neq b}⟨\n \n e\n \n a\n \n \n ,\n \n e\n \n a\n \n \n ⟩\n =\n ‖\n \n e\n \n a\n \n \n \n ‖\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle e_{a},e_{a}\\rangle =\\|e_{a}\\|^{2}=1}a\n ,\n b\n ∈\n A\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a,b\\in A.}Using an infinite-dimensional analog of the Gram-Schmidt process one may show:Theorem. Any separable inner product space has an orthonormal basis.Using the Hausdorff maximal principle and the fact that in a complete inner product space orthogonal projection onto linear subspaces is well-defined, one may also show thatTheorem. Any complete inner product space has an orthonormal basis.The two previous theorems raise the question of whether all inner product spaces have an orthonormal basis. The answer, it turns out is negative. This is a non-trivial result, and is proved below. The following proof is taken from Halmos's A Hilbert Space Problem Book (see the references).[citation needed]Proof\n\n\nRecall that the dimension of an inner product space is the cardinality of a maximal orthonormal system that it contains (by Zorn's lemma it contains at least one, and any two have the same cardinality). An orthonormal basis is certainly a maximal orthonormal system but the converse need not hold in general. If \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n is a dense subspace of an inner product space \n \n \n \n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V,}\n \n then any orthonormal basis for \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n is automatically an orthonormal basis for \n \n \n \n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V.}\n \n Thus, it suffices to construct an inner product space \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n with a dense subspace \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n whose dimension is strictly smaller than that of \n \n \n \n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V.}\n \n\nLet \n \n \n \n K\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K}\n \n be a Hilbert space of dimension \n \n \n \n \n ℵ\n \n 0\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\aleph _{0}.}\n \n (for instance, \n \n \n \n K\n =\n \n ℓ\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n \n N\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K=\\ell ^{2}(\\mathbb {N} )}\n \n). Let \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}\n \n be an orthonormal basis of \n \n \n \n K\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K,}\n \n so \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n =\n \n ℵ\n \n 0\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |E|=\\aleph _{0}.}\n \n Extend \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}\n \n to a Hamel basis \n \n \n \n E\n ∪\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E\\cup F}\n \n for \n \n \n \n K\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K,}\n \nwhere \n \n \n \n E\n ∩\n F\n =\n ∅\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E\\cap F=\\varnothing .}\n \n Since it is known that the Hamel dimension of \n \n \n \n K\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K}\n \n is \n \n \n \n c\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c,}\n \n the cardinality of the continuum, it must be that \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n F\n \n |\n \n =\n c\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |F|=c.}\n \n\nLet \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L}\n \n be a Hilbert space of dimension \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c}\n \n (for instance, \n \n \n \n L\n =\n \n ℓ\n \n 2\n \n \n (\n \n R\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L=\\ell ^{2}(\\mathbb {R} )}\n \n). Let \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle B}\n \n be an orthonormal basis for \n \n \n \n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L}\n \n and let \n \n \n \n φ\n :\n F\n →\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\varphi :F\\to B}\n \n be a bijection. Then there is a linear transformation \n \n \n \n T\n :\n K\n →\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T:K\\to L}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n T\n f\n =\n φ\n (\n f\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Tf=\\varphi (f)}\n \n for \n \n \n \n f\n ∈\n F\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\in F,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n T\n e\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Te=0}\n \n for \n \n \n \n e\n ∈\n E\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e\\in E.}\n \n\nLet \n \n \n \n V\n =\n K\n ⊕\n L\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V=K\\oplus L}\n \n and let \n \n \n \n G\n =\n {\n (\n k\n ,\n T\n k\n )\n :\n k\n ∈\n K\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G=\\{(k,Tk):k\\in K\\}}\n \n be the graph of \n \n \n \n T\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T.}\n \n Let \n \n \n \n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {G}}}\n \n be the closure of \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n in \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n; we will show \n \n \n \n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n =\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {G}}=V.}\n \n Since for any \n \n \n \n e\n ∈\n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e\\in E}\n \n we have \n \n \n \n (\n e\n ,\n 0\n )\n ∈\n G\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (e,0)\\in G,}\n \n it follows that \n \n \n \n K\n ⊕\n 0\n ⊆\n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle K\\oplus 0\\subseteq {\\overline {G}}.}\n \n\nNext, if \n \n \n \n b\n ∈\n B\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b\\in B,}\n \n then \n \n \n \n b\n =\n T\n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b=Tf}\n \n for some \n \n \n \n f\n ∈\n F\n ⊆\n K\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\in F\\subseteq K,}\n \n so \n \n \n \n (\n f\n ,\n b\n )\n ∈\n G\n ⊆\n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (f,b)\\in G\\subseteq {\\overline {G}}}\n \n; since \n \n \n \n (\n f\n ,\n 0\n )\n ∈\n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (f,0)\\in {\\overline {G}}}\n \n as well, we also have \n \n \n \n (\n 0\n ,\n b\n )\n ∈\n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (0,b)\\in {\\overline {G}}.}\n \n It follows that \n \n \n \n 0\n ⊕\n L\n ⊆\n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0\\oplus L\\subseteq {\\overline {G}},}\n \n so \n \n \n \n \n \n G\n ¯\n \n \n =\n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\overline {G}}=V,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n is dense in \n \n \n \n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V.}\n \n\nFinally, \n \n \n \n {\n (\n e\n ,\n 0\n )\n :\n e\n ∈\n E\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{(e,0):e\\in E\\}}\n \n is a maximal orthonormal set in \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n; if\n\n \n \n \n 0\n =\n ⟨\n (\n e\n ,\n 0\n )\n ,\n (\n k\n ,\n T\n k\n )\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n e\n ,\n k\n ⟩\n +\n ⟨\n 0\n ,\n T\n k\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n e\n ,\n k\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0=\\langle (e,0),(k,Tk)\\rangle =\\langle e,k\\rangle +\\langle 0,Tk\\rangle =\\langle e,k\\rangle }\n \n\nfor all \n \n \n \n e\n ∈\n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e\\in E}\n \n then \n \n \n \n k\n =\n 0\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=0,}\n \n so \n \n \n \n (\n k\n ,\n T\n k\n )\n =\n (\n 0\n ,\n 0\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle (k,Tk)=(0,0)}\n \n is the zero vector in \n \n \n \n G\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G.}\n \n Hence the dimension of \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G}\n \n is \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n E\n \n |\n \n =\n \n ℵ\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |E|=\\aleph _{0},}\n \n whereas it is clear that the dimension of \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is \n \n \n \n c\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c.}\n \n This completes the proof.Parseval's identity leads immediately to the following theorem:Theorem. Let \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n be a separable inner product space and \n \n \n \n \n \n {\n \n e\n \n k\n \n \n }\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\left\\{e_{k}\\right\\}_{k}}\n \n an orthonormal basis of \n \n \n \n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V.}\n \n Then the mapx\n ↦\n \n \n {\n \n \n ⟨\n \n e\n \n k\n \n \n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n \n }\n \n \n \n k\n ∈\n \n N\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\mapsto {\\bigl \\{}\\langle e_{k},x\\rangle {\\bigr \\}}_{k\\in \\mathbb {N} }}V\n →\n \n ℓ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V\\rightarrow \\ell ^{2}}This theorem can be regarded as an abstract form of Fourier series, in which an arbitrary orthonormal basis plays the role of the sequence of trigonometric polynomials. Note that the underlying index set can be taken to be any countable set (and in fact any set whatsoever, provided \n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell ^{2}}\n \n is defined appropriately, as is explained in the article Hilbert space). In particular, we obtain the following result in the theory of Fourier series:Theorem. Let \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n be the inner product space \n \n \n \n C\n [\n −\n π\n ,\n π\n ]\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C[-\\pi ,\\pi ].}\n \n Then the sequence (indexed on set of all integers) of continuous functionse\n \n k\n \n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n \n \n e\n \n i\n k\n t\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e_{k}(t)={\\frac {e^{ikt}}{\\sqrt {2\\pi }}}}C\n [\n −\n π\n ,\n π\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle C[-\\pi ,\\pi ]}L\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle L^{2}}f\n ↦\n \n \n 1\n \n 2\n π\n \n \n \n \n \n {\n \n \n ∫\n \n −\n π\n \n \n π\n \n \n f\n (\n t\n )\n \n e\n \n −\n i\n k\n t\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n t\n \n }\n \n \n k\n ∈\n \n Z\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f\\mapsto {\\frac {1}{\\sqrt {2\\pi }}}\\left\\{\\int _{-\\pi }^{\\pi }f(t)e^{-ikt}\\,\\mathrm {d} t\\right\\}_{k\\in \\mathbb {Z} }}Orthogonality of the sequence \n \n \n \n {\n \n e\n \n k\n \n \n \n }\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{e_{k}\\}_{k}}\n \n follows immediately from the fact that if \n \n \n \n k\n ≠\n j\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k\\neq j,}\n \n then∫\n \n −\n π\n \n \n π\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n i\n (\n j\n −\n k\n )\n t\n \n \n \n \n d\n \n t\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\int _{-\\pi }^{\\pi }e^{-i(j-k)t}\\,\\mathrm {d} t=0.}Normality of the sequence is by design, that is, the coefficients are so chosen so that the norm comes out to 1. Finally the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, in the inner product norm, follows from the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, this time in the space of continuous periodic functions on \n \n \n \n [\n −\n π\n ,\n π\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [-\\pi ,\\pi ]}\n \n with the uniform norm. This is the content of the Weierstrass theorem on the uniform density of trigonometric polynomials.","title":"Orthonormal sequences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear"},{"link_name":"Continuous linear maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_linear_operator"},{"link_name":"Isometries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometry"},{"link_name":"antilinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilinear_map"},{"link_name":"antilinear map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilinear_map"},{"link_name":"polarization identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarization_identity"},{"link_name":"injective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective"},{"link_name":"Mazur–Ulam theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazur%E2%80%93Ulam_theorem"},{"link_name":"affine transformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine_transformation"},{"link_name":"morphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphism"},{"link_name":"orthogonal matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_matrix"},{"link_name":"surjective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective"},{"link_name":"bijective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijective"},{"link_name":"unitary matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitary_matrix"},{"link_name":"spectral theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_theorem"},{"link_name":"normal operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_operator"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Several types of linear maps \n \n \n \n A\n :\n V\n →\n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A:V\\to W}\n \n between inner product spaces \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n and \n \n \n \n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W}\n \n are of relevance:Continuous linear maps: \n \n \n \n A\n :\n V\n →\n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A:V\\to W}\n \n is linear and continuous with respect to the metric defined above, or equivalently, \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n is linear and the set of non-negative reals \n \n \n \n {\n ‖\n A\n x\n ‖\n :\n ‖\n x\n ‖\n ≤\n 1\n }\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\|Ax\\|:\\|x\\|\\leq 1\\},}\n \n where \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n ranges over the closed unit ball of \n \n \n \n V\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V,}\n \n is bounded.\nSymmetric linear operators: \n \n \n \n A\n :\n V\n →\n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A:V\\to W}\n \n is linear and \n \n \n \n ⟨\n A\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n A\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle Ax,y\\rangle =\\langle x,Ay\\rangle }\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in V.}\n \n\nIsometries: \n \n \n \n A\n :\n V\n →\n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A:V\\to W}\n \n satisfies \n \n \n \n ‖\n A\n x\n ‖\n =\n ‖\n x\n ‖\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|Ax\\|=\\|x\\|}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\in V.}\n \n A linear isometry (resp. an antilinear isometry) is an isometry that is also a linear map (resp. an antilinear map). For inner product spaces, the polarization identity can be used to show that \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n is an isometry if and only if \n \n \n \n ⟨\n A\n x\n ,\n A\n y\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle Ax,Ay\\rangle =\\langle x,y\\rangle }\n \n for all \n \n \n \n x\n ,\n y\n ∈\n V\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x,y\\in V.}\n \n All isometries are injective. The Mazur–Ulam theorem establishes that every surjective isometry between two real normed spaces is an affine transformation. Consequently, an isometry \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A}\n \n between real inner product spaces is a linear map if and only if \n \n \n \n A\n (\n 0\n )\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A(0)=0.}\n \n Isometries are morphisms between inner product spaces, and morphisms of real inner product spaces are orthogonal transformations (compare with orthogonal matrix).\nIsometrical isomorphisms: \n \n \n \n A\n :\n V\n →\n W\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A:V\\to W}\n \n is an isometry which is surjective (and hence bijective). Isometrical isomorphisms are also known as unitary operators (compare with unitary matrix).From the point of view of inner product space theory, there is no need to distinguish between two spaces which are isometrically isomorphic. The spectral theorem provides a canonical form for symmetric, unitary and more generally normal operators on finite dimensional inner product spaces. A generalization of the spectral theorem holds for continuous normal operators in Hilbert spaces.[13]","title":"Operators on inner product spaces"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Any of the axioms of an inner product may be weakened, yielding generalized notions. The generalizations that are closest to inner products occur where bilinearity and conjugate symmetry are retained, but positive-definiteness is weakened.","title":"Generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelfand%E2%80%93Naimark%E2%80%93Segal_construction"},{"link_name":"semi-definite kernels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercer%27s_theorem"}],"sub_title":"Degenerate inner products","text":"If \n \n \n \n V\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V}\n \n is a vector space and \n \n \n \n ⟨\n \n ⋅\n \n ,\n \n ⋅\n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\,\\cdot \\,,\\,\\cdot \\,\\rangle }\n \n a semi-definite sesquilinear form, then the function:‖\n x\n ‖\n =\n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n x\n ⟩\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x\\|={\\sqrt {\\langle x,x\\rangle }}}‖\n x\n ‖\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\|x\\|=0}x\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x=0}semi-normW\n =\n V\n \n /\n \n {\n x\n :\n ‖\n x\n ‖\n =\n 0\n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W=V/\\{x:\\|x\\|=0\\}.}⟨\n \n ⋅\n \n ,\n \n ⋅\n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle \\,\\cdot \\,,\\,\\cdot \\,\\rangle }W\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W.}This construction is used in numerous contexts. The Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction is a particularly important example of the use of this technique. Another example is the representation of semi-definite kernels on arbitrary sets.","title":"Generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"nondegenerate form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondegenerate_form"},{"link_name":"differential geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_geometry"},{"link_name":"Riemannian manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_manifold"},{"link_name":"pseudo-Riemannian manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-Riemannian_manifold"},{"link_name":"Sylvester's law of inertia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvester%27s_law_of_inertia"},{"link_name":"Minkowski space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_space"},{"link_name":"dimensions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"\"+\" and \"−\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"differs depending on conventions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_convention#Metric_signature"}],"sub_title":"Nondegenerate conjugate symmetric forms","text":"Alternatively, one may require that the pairing be a nondegenerate form, meaning that for all non-zero \n \n \n \n x\n ≠\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x\\neq 0}\n \n there exists some \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n such that \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n ≠\n 0\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\langle x,y\\rangle \\neq 0,}\n \n though \n \n \n \n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle y}\n \n need not equal \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x}\n \n; in other words, the induced map to the dual space \n \n \n \n V\n →\n \n V\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V\\to V^{*}}\n \n is injective. This generalization is important in differential geometry: a manifold whose tangent spaces have an inner product is a Riemannian manifold, while if this is related to nondegenerate conjugate symmetric form the manifold is a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. By Sylvester's law of inertia, just as every inner product is similar to the dot product with positive weights on a set of vectors, every nondegenerate conjugate symmetric form is similar to the dot product with nonzero weights on a set of vectors, and the number of positive and negative weights are called respectively the positive index and negative index. Product of vectors in Minkowski space is an example of indefinite inner product, although, technically speaking, it is not an inner product according to the standard definition above. Minkowski space has four dimensions and indices 3 and 1 (assignment of \"+\" and \"−\" to them differs depending on conventions).Purely algebraic statements (ones that do not use positivity) usually only rely on the nondegeneracy (the injective homomorphism \n \n \n \n V\n →\n \n V\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle V\\to V^{*}}\n \n) and thus hold more generally.","title":"Generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"outer product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outer_product"},{"link_name":"trace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_(linear_algebra)"},{"link_name":"simple tensor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_tensor"},{"link_name":"interior product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_product"},{"link_name":"exterior product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_product"},{"link_name":"vector fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field"},{"link_name":"differential forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_form"},{"link_name":"exterior algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exterior_algebra"},{"link_name":"geometric algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_algebra"},{"link_name":"Clifford algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_algebra"},{"link_name":"wedge product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedge_product"}],"text":"The term \"inner product\" is opposed to outer product, which is a slightly more general opposite. Simply, in coordinates, the inner product is the product of a \n \n \n \n 1\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\times n}\n \n covector with an \n \n \n \n n\n ×\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n\\times 1}\n \n vector, yielding a \n \n \n \n 1\n ×\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\times 1}\n \n matrix (a scalar), while the outer product is the product of an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times 1}\n \n vector with a \n \n \n \n 1\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\times n}\n \n covector, yielding an \n \n \n \n m\n ×\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m\\times n}\n \n matrix. The outer product is defined for different dimensions, while the inner product requires the same dimension. If the dimensions are the same, then the inner product is the trace of the outer product (trace only being properly defined for square matrices). In an informal summary: \"inner is horizontal times vertical and shrinks down, outer is vertical times horizontal and expands out\".More abstractly, the outer product is the bilinear map \n \n \n \n W\n ×\n \n V\n \n ∗\n \n \n →\n hom\n ⁡\n (\n V\n ,\n W\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle W\\times V^{*}\\to \\hom(V,W)}\n \n sending a vector and a covector to a rank 1 linear transformation (simple tensor of type (1, 1)), while the inner product is the bilinear evaluation map \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n ∗\n \n \n ×\n V\n →\n F\n \n \n {\\displaystyle V^{*}\\times V\\to F}\n \n given by evaluating a covector on a vector; the order of the domain vector spaces here reflects the covector/vector distinction.The inner product and outer product should not be confused with the interior product and exterior product, which are instead operations on vector fields and differential forms, or more generally on the exterior algebra.As a further complication, in geometric algebra the inner product and the exterior (Grassmann) product are combined in the geometric product (the Clifford product in a Clifford algebra) – the inner product sends two vectors (1-vectors) to a scalar (a 0-vector), while the exterior product sends two vectors to a bivector (2-vector) – and in this context the exterior product is usually called the outer product (alternatively, wedge product). The inner product is more correctly called a scalar product in this context, as the nondegenerate quadratic form in question need not be positive definite (need not be an inner product).","title":"Related products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"bra-ket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bra-ket"},{"link_name":"Paul Dirac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dirac"}],"text":"^ By combining the linear in the first argument property with the conjugate symmetry property you get conjugate-linear in the second argument: \n \n \n \n ⟨\n x\n ,\n b\n y\n ⟩\n =\n ⟨\n x\n ,\n y\n ⟩\n \n \n b\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\langle x,by\\rangle =\\langle x,y\\rangle {\\overline {b}}}\n \n. This is how the inner product was originally defined and is used in most mathematical contexts. A different convention has been adopted in theoretical physics and quantum mechanics, originating in the bra-ket notation of Paul Dirac, where the inner product is taken to be linear in the second argument and conjugate-linear in the first argument; this convention is used in many other domains such as engineering and computer science.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Springer-Verlag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springer-Verlag"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-387-98258-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-98258-8"},{"link_name":"Dieudonné, Jean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Dieudonn%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Academic 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F","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segal%E2%80%93Bargmann_space"}],"text":"Axler, Sheldon (1997). Linear Algebra Done Right (2nd ed.). Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-98258-8.\nDieudonné, Jean (1969). Treatise on Analysis, Vol. I [Foundations of Modern Analysis] (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-4067-2791-3.\nEmch, Gerard G. (1972). Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory. Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-23900-0.\nHalmos, Paul R. (8 November 1982). A Hilbert Space Problem Book. Graduate Texts in Mathematics. Vol. 19 (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0-387-90685-0. OCLC 8169781.\nLax, Peter D. (2002). Functional Analysis (PDF). Pure and Applied Mathematics. New York: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-55604-6. OCLC 47767143. Retrieved July 22, 2020.\nRudin, Walter (1991). Functional Analysis. International Series in Pure and Applied Mathematics. Vol. 8 (Second ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math. ISBN 978-0-07-054236-5. OCLC 21163277.\nSchaefer, Helmut H.; Wolff, Manfred P. (1999). Topological Vector Spaces. GTM. Vol. 8 (Second ed.). New York, NY: Springer New York Imprint Springer. ISBN 978-1-4612-7155-0. OCLC 840278135.\nSchechter, Eric (1996). Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-622760-4. OCLC 175294365.\nSwartz, Charles (1992). An introduction to Functional Analysis. New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 978-0-8247-8643-4. OCLC 24909067.\nTrèves, François (2006) [1967]. Topological Vector Spaces, Distributions and Kernels. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-45352-1. OCLC 853623322.\nYoung, Nicholas (1988). An Introduction to Hilbert Space. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33717-5.\nZamani, A.; Moslehian, M.S.; & Frank, M. (2015) \"Angle Preserving Mappings\", Journal of Analysis and Applications 34: 485 to 500 doi:10.4171/ZAA/1551vteLinear algebra\nOutline\nGlossary\nBasic concepts\nScalar\nVector\nVector space\nScalar multiplication\nVector projection\nLinear span\nLinear map\nLinear projection\nLinear independence\nLinear combination\nBasis\nChange of basis\nRow and column vectors\nRow and column spaces\nKernel\nEigenvalues and eigenvectors\nTranspose\nLinear equations\nMatrices\nBlock\nDecomposition\nInvertible\nMinor\nMultiplication\nRank\nTransformation\nCramer's rule\nGaussian elimination\nBilinear\nOrthogonality\nDot product\nHadamard product\nInner product space\nOuter product\nKronecker product\nGram–Schmidt process\nMultilinear algebra\nDeterminant\nCross product\nTriple product\nSeven-dimensional cross product\nGeometric algebra\nExterior algebra\nBivector\nMultivector\nTensor\nOutermorphism\nVector space constructions\nDual\nDirect sum\nFunction space\nQuotient\nSubspace\nTensor product\nNumerical\nFloating-point\nNumerical stability\nBasic Linear Algebra Subprograms\nSparse matrix\nComparison of linear algebra libraries\n\n CategoryvteFunctional analysis (topics – glossary)Spaces\nBanach\nBesov\nFréchet\nHilbert\nHölder\nNuclear\nOrlicz\nSchwartz\nSobolev\nTopological vector\nProperties\nBarrelled\nComplete\nDual (Algebraic/Topological)\nLocally convex\nReflexive\nSeparable\nTheorems\nHahn–Banach\nRiesz representation\nClosed graph\nUniform boundedness principle\nKakutani fixed-point\nKrein–Milman\nMin–max\nGelfand–Naimark\nBanach–Alaoglu\nOperators\nAdjoint\nBounded\nCompact\nHilbert–Schmidt\nNormal\nNuclear\nTrace class\nTranspose\nUnbounded\nUnitary\nAlgebras\nBanach algebra\nC*-algebra\nSpectrum of a C*-algebra\nOperator algebra\nGroup algebra of a locally compact group\nVon Neumann algebra\nOpen problems\nInvariant subspace problem\nMahler's conjecture\nApplications\nHardy space\nSpectral theory of ordinary differential equations\nHeat kernel\nIndex theorem\nCalculus of variations\nFunctional calculus\nIntegral operator\nJones polynomial\nTopological quantum field theory\nNoncommutative geometry\nRiemann hypothesis\nDistribution (or Generalized functions)\nAdvanced topics\nApproximation property\nBalanced set\nChoquet theory\nWeak topology\nBanach–Mazur distance\nTomita–Takesaki theory\n\n CategoryvteHilbert spacesBasic concepts\nAdjoint\nInner product and L-semi-inner product\nHilbert space and Prehilbert space\nOrthogonal complement\nOrthonormal basis\nMain results\nBessel's inequality\nCauchy–Schwarz inequality\nRiesz representation\nOther results\nHilbert projection theorem\nParseval's identity\nPolarization identity (Parallelogram law)\nMaps\nCompact operator on Hilbert space\nDensely defined\nHermitian form\nHilbert–Schmidt\nNormal\nSelf-adjoint\nSesquilinear form\nTrace class\nUnitary\nExamples\nCn(K) with K compact & n<∞\nSegal–Bargmann F","title":"Bibliography"}]
[{"image_text":"Geometric interpretation of the angle between two vectors defined using an inner product","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Inner-product-angle.png/300px-Inner-product-angle.png"},{"image_text":"Scalar product spaces, over any field, have \"scalar products\" that are symmetrical and linear in the first argument. Hermitian product spaces are restricted to the field of complex numbers and have \"Hermitian products\" that are conjugate-symmetrical and linear in the first argument. Inner product spaces may be defined over any field, having \"inner products\" that are linear in the first argument, conjugate-symmetrical, and positive-definite. Unlike inner products, scalar products and Hermitian products need not be positive-definite.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Product_Spaces_Drawing_%281%29.png/300px-Product_Spaces_Drawing_%281%29.png"}]
[{"title":"Bilinear form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_form"},{"title":"Biorthogonal system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biorthogonal_system"},{"title":"Dual space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_space"},{"title":"Energetic space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energetic_space"},{"title":"L-semi-inner product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-semi-inner_product"},{"title":"Minkowski distance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_distance"},{"title":"Orthogonal basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_basis"},{"title":"Orthogonal complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_complement"},{"title":"Orthonormal basis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthonormal_basis"},{"title":"Riemannian manifold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riemannian_manifold"}]
[{"reference":"Moore, Gregory H. (1995). \"The axiomatization of linear algebra: 1875-1940\". Historia Mathematica. 22 (3): 262–303. doi:10.1006/hmat.1995.1025.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.1995.1025","url_text":"\"The axiomatization of linear algebra: 1875-1940\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fhmat.1995.1025","url_text":"10.1006/hmat.1995.1025"}]},{"reference":"Jain, P. K.; Ahmad, Khalil (1995). \"5.1 Definitions and basic properties of inner product spaces and Hilbert spaces\". Functional Analysis (2nd ed.). New Age International. p. 203. ISBN 81-224-0801-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yZ68h97pnAkC&pg=PA203","url_text":"\"5.1 Definitions and basic properties of inner product spaces and Hilbert spaces\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-224-0801-X","url_text":"81-224-0801-X"}]},{"reference":"Prugovečki, Eduard (1981). \"Definition 2.1\". Quantum Mechanics in Hilbert Space (2nd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 18ff. ISBN 0-12-566060-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GxmQxn2PF3IC&pg=PA18","url_text":"\"Definition 2.1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-566060-X","url_text":"0-12-566060-X"}]},{"reference":"Ouwehand, Peter (November 2010). \"Spaces of Random Variables\" (PDF). AIMS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-05. Retrieved 2017-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170905225616/http://users.aims.ac.za/~pouw/Lectures/Lecture_Spaces_Random_Variables.pdf","url_text":"\"Spaces of Random Variables\""},{"url":"http://users.aims.ac.za/~pouw/Lectures/Lecture_Spaces_Random_Variables.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Siegrist, Kyle (1997). \"Vector Spaces of Random Variables\". Random: Probability, Mathematical Statistics, Stochastic Processes. Retrieved 2017-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/expect/Spaces.html","url_text":"\"Vector Spaces of Random Variables\""}]},{"reference":"Bigoni, Daniele (2015). \"Appendix B: Probability theory and functional spaces\" (PDF). Uncertainty Quantification with Applications to Engineering Problems (PhD). Technical University of Denmark. Retrieved 2017-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://orbit.dtu.dk/files/106969507/phd359_Bigoni_D.pdf","url_text":"\"Appendix B: Probability theory and functional spaces\""}]},{"reference":"Apostol, Tom M. (1967). \"Ptolemy's Inequality and the Chordal Metric\". Mathematics Magazine. 40 (5): 233–235. doi:10.2307/2688275. JSTOR 2688275.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0025570X.1967.11975804","url_text":"\"Ptolemy's Inequality and the Chordal Metric\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2688275","url_text":"10.2307/2688275"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2688275","url_text":"2688275"}]},{"reference":"Axler, Sheldon (1997). Linear Algebra Done Right (2nd ed.). Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_studies
Communication studies
["1 History","1.1 Origins","1.2 Foundations of the academic discipline","1.3 In the United States","1.4 In Canada","2 Scope and topics","2.1 Business","2.2 Healthcare","2.3 Communication Studies and AI","3 Professional associations","4 See also","5 References","6 Bibliography"]
Academic discipline "Communication research" redirects here. For the journal, see Communication Research (journal). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Communication studies" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (May 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Communication PortalHistory General aspects Communication theory Information Semiotics Language Logic Sociology Fields Discourse analysis Linguistics Mass communication Organizational communication Pragmatics Semiotics Sociolinguistics Disciplines Public speaking Discourse Culture Argumentation Persuasion Research Rhetoric Categories Outline vte Communication studies or communication science is an academic discipline that deals with processes of human communication and behavior, patterns of communication in interpersonal relationships, social interactions and communication in different cultures. Communication is commonly defined as giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, information, signals or messages through appropriate media, enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek information, to give information or to express emotions effectively. Communication studies is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge that encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation at a level of individual agency and interaction to social and cultural communication systems at a macro level. Scholarly communication theorists focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of communication, examining statistics in order to help substantiate claims. The range of social scientific methods to study communication has been expanding. Communication researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of communication. Conversely, the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally focused techniques. As a field of study, communication is applied to journalism, business, mass media, public relations, marketing, news and television broadcasting, interpersonal and intercultural communication, education, public administration—and beyond. As all spheres of human activity and conveyance are affected by the interplay between social communication structure and individual agency, communication studies has gradually expanded its focus to other domains, such as health, medicine, economy, military and penal institutions, the Internet, social capital, and the role of communicative activity in the development of scientific knowledge. History Main article: History of communication studies Origins Communication, a natural human behavior, became a topic of study in the 20th century. As communication technologies developed, so did the serious study of communication. During this time, a renewed interest in the studies of rhetoric, such as persuasion and public address, was created, which ultimately laid the foundation for several of the forms of communication studies that we know of today. The focus of communication studies developed further in the 20th century, eventually including means of communication such as mass communication, interpersonal communication, and oral interpretation. When World War I ended, the interest in studying communication intensified. The methods of communication that had been used during the war had challenged the beliefs many people had on the limits of it that existed prior to these events. Innovations were invented during this period of time that no one had ever seen before, like the aircraft telephones and throat microphones. However, new ways of communicating that had been discovered, especially the use of morse code through portable morse code machines, helped troops to communicate in a much more rapid pace than ever before. This then sparked ideas for even more advanced ways of communication to later be created and discovered. The social science study was fully recognized as a legitimate discipline after World War II. Prior to being established as its own discipline, communication studies, was formed from three other major studies no: psychology, sociology, and political science. Communication studies focus on communication as central to the human experience, which involves understanding how people behave in creating, exchanging, and interpreting messages. Today, this accepted discipline now also encompasses more modern forms of communication studies as well, such as gender and communication, intercultural communication, political communication, health communication, and organizational communication. Foundations of the academic discipline The institutionalization of communication studies in U.S. higher education and research has often been traced to Columbia University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, where early pioneers of the field worked after the Second World War. Wilbur Schramm is considered the founder of the field of communication studies in the United States. Schramm was hugely influential in establishing communication as a field of study and in forming departments of communication studies across universities in the United States. He was the first individual to identify himself as a communication scholar; he created the first academic degree-granting programs with communication in their name; and he trained the first generation of communication scholars. Schramm had a background in English literature and developed communication studies partly by merging existing programs in speech communication, rhetoric, and journalism. He also edited a textbook The Process and Effects of Mass Communication (1954) that helped define the field, partly by claiming Paul Lazarsfeld, Harold Lasswell, Carl Hovland, and Kurt Lewin as its founding forefathers. Schramm established three important communication institutes: the Institute of Communications Research (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), the Institute for Communication Research (Stanford University), and the East-West Communication Institute (Honolulu). The patterns of scholarly work in communication studies that were set in motion at these institutes continue to this day. Many of Schramm's students, such as Everett Rogers and David Berlo went on to make important contributions of their own. The first college of communication was founded at Michigan State University in 1958, led by scholars from Schramm's original ICR and dedicated to studying communication scientifically using a quantitative approach. MSU was soon followed by important departments of communication at Purdue University, University of Texas-Austin, Stanford University, University of Iowa, University of Illinois, University of Pennsylvania, The University of Southern California, and Northwestern University. Associations related to Communication Studies were founded or expanded during the 1950s. The National Society for the Study of Communication (NSSC) was founded in 1950 to encourage scholars to pursue communication research as a social science. This Association launched the Journal of Communication in the same year as its founding. Like many communication associations founded around this decade, the name of the association changed with the field. In 1968 the name changed to the International Communication Association (ICA). In the United States Undergraduate curricula aim to prepare students to interrogate the nature of communication in society, and the development of communication as a specific field. The National Communication Association (NCA) recognizes several distinct but often overlapping specializations within the broader communication discipline including: technology, critical-cultural, health, intercultural, interpersonal-small group, mass communication, organizational, political, rhetorical, and environmental communication. Students take courses in these subject areas. Other programs and courses often integrated in communication programs include journalism, rhetoric, film criticism, theatre, public relations, political science (e.g., political campaign strategies, public speaking, effects of media on elections), as well as radio, television, computer-mediated communication, film production, and new media. Many colleges in the United States offer a variety of different majors within the realm of communication studies, consisting of programs of study in the areas mentioned above. Communication studies is often perceived by many in society as being primarily centered around the media arts, however, those that become communication studies graduates could move on to have careers in areas ranging from media arts to public advocacy to marketing to non-profit organizations and even more. In Canada With the early influence of federal institutional inquiries, notably the 1951 Massey Commission, which "investigated the overall state of culture in Canada", the study of communication in Canada has frequently focused on the development of a cohesive national culture, and on infrastructural empires of social and material circulation. Although influenced by the American Communication tradition and British Cultural Studies, Communication studies in Canada has been more directly oriented toward the state and the policy apparatus, for example the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission. Influential thinkers from the Canadian communication tradition include Harold Innis, Marshall McLuhan, Florian Sauvageau, Gertrude Robinson, Marc Raboy, Dallas Smythe, James R. Taylor, François Cooren, Gail Guthrie Valaskakis and George Grant. Communication studies within Canada are a relatively new discipline, however, there are programs and departments to support and teach this topic in about 13 Canadian universities and many colleges as well. The Communication et information from Laval, and the Canadian Journal of Communication from McGill University in Montréal, are two journals that exist in Canada. There are also organizations and associations, both national and in Québec, that appeal to the specific interests that are targeted towards these academics. These specific journals consist of representatives from the industry of communication, the government, and members of the public as a whole. Scope and topics Part of a series onRhetoric History Ancient Greece Asianism Atticism Attic orators Calliope Sophists Ancient India Ancient Rome The age of Cicero Second Sophistic Middle Ages Byzantine rhetoric Trivium Renaissance Studia humanitatis Modern period Concepts Captatio benevolentiae Chironomia Decorum Delectare Docere Device Eloquence Eloquentia perfecta Eunoia Enthymeme Facilitas Fallacy Informal Figure of speech Scheme Trope Five canons Inventio Dispositio Elocutio Memoria Pronuntiatio Hypsos Imitatio Kairos Method of loci Modes Operations Persuasion Ethos Pathos Logos Situation Style Grand Sotto voce Topos Genres Apologetics Debate Declamation Controversia Deliberative Demagogy Dialectic Socratic method Dissoi logoi Elocution Epideictic Encomium Panegyric Eulogy Farewell speech Forensic Funeral oration Homiletics‎ Sermon Invitational Lecture Public Lightning talk Maiden speech Oratory Polemic Diatribe Eristic Philippic Progymnasmata Suasoria Propaganda Spin Resignation speech Stump speech War-mongering Criticism Cluster Dramatic Pentadic Frame Genre Ideological Metaphoric Mimesis Narrative Neo-Aristotelian Rhetoricians Aristotle Aspasia Augustine Bakhtin Booth Brueggemann Burke Cicero de Man Demosthenes Derrida Erasmus Gorgias Hobbes Isocrates Lucian Lysias McLuhan Ong Perelman Pizan Plato Protagoras Quintilian Ramus Richards Smith Tacitus Toulmin Vico Weaver Works Gorgias (380 BC) Phaedrus (c. 370 BC) Rhetoric (c. 350 BC) Rhetoric to Alexander (c. 350 BC) De Sophisticis Elenchis (c. 350 BC) Topics (c. 350 BC) De Inventione (84 BC) Rhetorica ad Herennium (80 BC) De Oratore (55 BC) A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions (c. 50 BC) De Optimo Genere Oratorum (46 BC) Orator (46 BC) On the Sublime (c. 50) Institutio Oratoria (95) Panegyrici Latini (100–400) Dialogus de oratoribus (102) De doctrina Christiana (426) De vulgari eloquentia (1305) Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style (1521) Language as Symbolic Action (1966) A General Rhetoric (1970) Subfields Argumentation Cognitive Contrastive Constitutive Digital Feminist Native American New Health and medicine Pedagogy Procedural Science Technology Therapy Visual Composition Related Ars dictaminis Communication studies Composition studies Doxa Glossary of rhetorical terms Glossophobia List of feminist rhetoricians List of speeches Oral skills Orator Pistis Public rhetoric Rhetoric of social intervention model Rhetrickery Rogerian argument Seduction Speechwriting Talking point TED Terministic screen Toulmin model Wooden iron vte Main article: Outline of communication Communication studies integrates aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a social science, the discipline overlaps with sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy. From a humanities perspective, communication is concerned with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of Ancient Greece). Humanities approaches to communication often overlap with history, philosophy, English, and cultural studies. Communication research informs politicians and policy makers, educators, strategists, legislators, business magnates, managers, social workers, non-governmental organizations, non-profit organizations, and people interested in resolving communication issues in general. There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, cultural research, market research, and other statistical fields. Recent critiques have been made about the homogeneity of communication scholarship. For example, Chakravartty, et al. (2018) find that white scholars comprise the vast majority of publications, citations, and editorial positions. From a post-colonial point of view, this state is problematic because communication studies engages with a wide range of social justice concerns. Further information: Mediated quasi-interaction Business Main article: Business communication Business communication emerged as a field of study in the late 20th century, due to the centrality of communication within business relationships. The scope of the field is difficult to define because of the various ways in which communication is used between employers, employees, consumers, and brands. Because of this, the focus of the field is usually placed on the demands of employers, which is more universally understood by the revision of the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of business standards to emphasize written and oral communication as an important characteristic in the curriculum. Business communication studies, therefore, revolve around the, ever changing, written and oral communication aspects directly related to the field of business. Implementation of modern business communication curriculums are enhancing the study of business communication as a whole, while further preparing those to be able to effectively communicate in the business community. Healthcare Main article: Health communication Health communication is a multidisciplinary field that practices the application of "communication evidence, strategy, theory, and creativity" in order to advance the well-being of people and populations. The term was first coined in 1975 by the International Communication Association and, in 1997, Health communication was officially recognized in the broader fields of Public Health Education and Health Promotion by the American Public Health Association. The discipline integrates components of various theories and models, with a focus on social marketing. It uses marketing to develop "activities and interventions designed to positively change behaviors." This emergence affected several dynamics of the healthcare system. It brought elevated awareness to different avenues including promotional activities and communication between heath professionals and their employees, patients, and constituents. "Efforts to create marketing-oriented organizations called for the widespread dissemination of information", putting a spotlight on theories of "communication, the communication process, and the techniques that were being utilized to communicate in other settings." Now, health care organizations of all types are using things like social media. "Uses include communicating with the community and patients; enhancing organizational visibility; marketing products and services; establishing a venue for acquiring news about activities, promotions, and fund-raising; providing a channel for patient resources and education; and providing customer service and support." Further information: Medical writing Communication Studies and AI In their video essay, "Cybernetic Communication and Human/AI Interaction: New Horizons in Communication Studies," Drs. Norma Jones and Greg Langner explore Cybernetic Communication as a valuable way to reimagine the discipline of Communication Studies. They addressed how AI transforms our interpersonal and relational practices and considered ways we could examine and apply Cybernetic Communication as the borders between humans and machines, sentience and artificial intelligence, continue to blur. They asserted that as a field, Communication Studies is uniquely positioned to examine our interactions with technology and help ensure AI technologies are developed and used in ethical, inclusive, and beneficial ways. Professional associations American Journalism Historians Association (AJHA) Association for Business Communication (ABC) Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC) Association for Teachers of Technical Writing (ATTW) Black College Communication Association (BCCA) Broadcast Education Association (BEA) Central States Communication Association (CSCA) Council of Communication Associations (CCA) European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing (EATAW) European Communication Research and Education Association IEEE Professional Communication Society International Association for Media and Communications Research International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) International Communication Association (ICA), an international, academic association for communication studies concerned with all aspects of human and mediated communication National Association of Black Journalists: NABJ National Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE) National Communication Association (NCA), professional organization concerned with various aspects of communication studies in the United States Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) Rhetoric Society of America (RSA) Society for Cinema and Media Studies, organization for communication research pertaining to film studies Society for Technical Communication (STC) University Film and Video Association, organization for the study of motion-picture production See also Communication Communibiology Communication journals Communication theory Critical theory Cultural studies Digital rhetoric Linguistics Outline of communication Philosophy of language Popular culture studies Rhetoric Semiotics Semiotics of culture Text and conversation theory References ^ a b Calhoun, Craig (2012). "Communication as Social Science (and More)". In Jones, Steve (ed.). Communicating @ the Center. Hampton Press. ISBN 978-1-61289-082-1. OCLC 949793640. ^ Ferguson, Sherry Devereaux; Lennox Terrion, Jenepher (March 2014). Communication in Everyday Life: Personal and Professional Contexts. Don Mills, Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544928-0. OCLC 861207333. ^ Bauer, Talya (2015). Organizational Behavior. Boston, MA: FlatWorld. pp. 227–242. ISBN 978-1-4533-7118-3. ^ Craig, Robert T. (May 1999). "Communication Theory as a Field". Communication Theory. 9 (2): 119–161. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x. ^ a b Goffman, Erving (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life (Anchor books ed.). Garden City, New York. ISBN 978-0-385-09402-3. OCLC 256298.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Hayes, Andrew F. (2005). Statistical methods for communication science. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-1-4106-1370-7. OCLC 320950289. ^ Shannon, C. E. (2001-01-01). "A mathematical theory of communication". ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review. 5 (1): 3–55. doi:10.1145/584091.584093. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4317-B. S2CID 195349262. ^ a b Mifsud, Mari Lee (2019-04-03). "To the humanities: what does communication studies give?". Review of Communication. 19 (2): 77–93. doi:10.1080/15358593.2019.1599411. S2CID 182203816. ^ Severin, Werner J. (Werner Joseph) (2001). Communication theories : origins, methods, and uses in the mass media. Tankard, James W. (5th ed.). New York: Addison Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-8013-3335-0. OCLC 43397110. ^ Trenholm, Sarah, 1944- (2013). Interpersonal communication. Jensen, Arthur, 1954- (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-982750-3. OCLC 739914833.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ a b Griffin, Emory A. (2018-03-05). A first look at communication theory. Ledbetter, Andrew,, Sparks, Glenn Grayson (Tenth ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 978-1-260-13243-4. OCLC 1010662990.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ a b c "Study of Communication | Department of Communication". communication.humboldt.edu. Retrieved 2022-11-07. ^ a b c Archives, The National. "The National Archives - Fighting talk: First World War telecommunications - The National Archives". www.nationalarchives.gov.uk. Retrieved 2022-11-07. ^ Solymar, L. (Laszlo) (1999). Getting the message : a history of communications. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850333-4. OCLC 40602884. ^ a b Bannerman, Sara; Haggart, Blayne (2014-10-27). "Historical Institutionalism in Communication Studies: Historical Institutionalism in Communication Studies". Communication Theory. 25 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1111/comt.12051. ^ Jefferson D. Pooley, "The New History of Mass Communication Research", in History of Media and Communication Research: Contested Memories, edited with David Park (New York: Peter Lang, 2008) ^ a b William F. Eadie, "Communication as an Academic Field: USA and Canada", in International Encyclopedia of Communication, ed. Wolfgang Donsbach, Boston, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. ^ a b c "Wilbur Schramm; Wrote Many Works On Communications". The New York Times. 1 January 1988. Archived from the original on Sep 28, 2022. ^ Simonson, Peter (2013). The Handbook of Communication History. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415892599. ^ Anany, Emile G. Mc (1 December 1988). "Wilbur Schramm, 1907-1987: Roots of the past, Seeds of the Present". Journal of Communication. 38 (4): 109–122. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1988.tb02073.x. ^ a b c Rogers, Everett M. (1 September 2001). "The department of communication at Michigan state university as a seed institution for communication study". Communication Studies. 52 (3): 234–248. doi:10.1080/10510970109388556. S2CID 142732423. ^ Danielson, Wayne (1997). "The Beginnings of Communication Study in America: A Personal Memoir". Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. 73 (4): 890–910. ^ Rogers, Everett (1994). A History of Communication Study: A Biological Approach. NY: The Free Press. p. 29. ^ Rogers, Everett M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-2209-1. OCLC 52030797. ^ "David Kenneth Berlo". Chicago Tribune. 16 March 1996. Archived from the original on Oct 4, 2018. Retrieved 2019-12-02. ^ Ely, Donald (1960). "The Communications School: Neophyte in Higher Education". Audio Visual Communication Review. 8 (5): 20–27. doi:10.1007/BF02719714. S2CID 59735392 – via JSTOR. ^ a b Simonson, Peter; Peters, John Durham (2008-06-05), "Communication and Media Studies, History to 1968", The International Encyclopedia of Communication, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4051-8640-7, retrieved 2019-12-02 ^ Cohen, Herman (1995). The history of speech communication : the emergence of a discipline, 1914-1945. Annandale, Va: Speech Communication Association. ISBN 0-944811-14-0. OCLC 667177896. ^ Morreale, Sherwyn; Osborn, Michael; Pearson, Judy (2000). "Why Communication is Important: A Rationale for the Centrality of the Study of Communication" (PDF). Journal of the Association for Communication Administration. 29. National Communication Association: 1–25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-01-05. Retrieved 2016-09-07. ^ "What is Communication?". National Communication Association. 2016-04-26. Retrieved 2022-06-23. ^ "BA in Communication Studies". College of Liberal Arts. Retrieved 2022-11-07. ^ a b Stewart, J.D.M.; Kallmann, Helmut; McIntosh, Andrew (November 12, 2019) . "Massey Commission". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2018-10-25. ^ "British Cultural Studies". people.ucalgary.ca. Retrieved 2021-12-01. ^ Government of Canada, Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) (2014-03-21). "Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission". crtc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2021-12-01. ^ a b c d Salter, Liora (March 4, 2015) . "Communication Studies". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2022-11-08. ^ Routledge Handbook of Strategic Communication. : Routledge. 2019. ISBN 978-0-367-36773-2. OCLC 1107565954. ^ Miller, Katherine (January 2014). Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes (Seventh ed.). Stamford, Connecticut: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-16420-5. OCLC 864086905. ^ Chakravartty, Paula; Kuo, Rachel; Grubbs, Victoria; McIlwain, Charlton (2018). "#CommunicationSoWhite". Journal of Communication. 68 (2): 254–266. doi:10.1093/joc/jqy003. ^ a b Locker, Kitty O.; Miller, Scott L.; Richardson, Malcolm; Tebeaux, Elizabeth; Yates, JoAnne (1996-06-01). "Studying the History of Business Communication". Business Communication Quarterly. 59 (2): 109–127. doi:10.1177/108056999605900210. ISSN 1080-5699. S2CID 167570689. ^ Plutsky, Susan (1996-12-01). "Faculty Perceptions of Students' Business Communication Needs". Business Communication Quarterly. 59 (4): 69–76. doi:10.1177/108056999605900407. ISSN 1080-5699. S2CID 167893503. ^ Zhao, Jensen J. (1996-12-01). "Using Case Studies for International Business Communication Training". Business Communication Quarterly. 59 (4): 11–24. doi:10.1177/108056999605900402. ISSN 1080-5699. S2CID 167843015. ^ "About Health Communication". Society for Health Communication. Retrieved 1 May 2023. ^ "Health Communication". Rural Health Information Hub. 30 April 2018. Archived from the original on May 4, 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2023. ^ Thomas, Richard K (2006). Health Communication. Boston, MA: Springer. pp. 39–46. ISBN 9780387261164. ^ Ventola, C. Lee (July 2014). "Social Media and Health Care Professionals: Benefits, Risks, and Best Practices". P & T: A Peer-Reviewed Journal for Formulary Management. 39 (7): 491–520. PMC 4103576. PMID 25083128. ^ Cybernetic Communication and Human/AI Interaction: New Horizons in Communication Studies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kFBbid4SrW0&t=1s ^ ATTW ^ "BCCA". Archived from the original on 2016-01-09. Retrieved 2018-03-26. ^ EATAW ^ PCS ^ IAMCR ^ NAMLE Bibliography Carey, James. 1988 Communication as Culture. Cohen, Herman. 1994. The History of Speech Communication: The Emergence of a Discipline, 1914-1945. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association. Gehrke, Pat J. 2009. The Ethics and Politics of Speech: Communication and Rhetoric in the Twentieth Century. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Gehrke, Pat J. and William M. Keith, eds. 2014. A Century of Communication Studies: The Unfinished Conversation. New York: Routledge. Packer, J. & Robertson, C, eds. 2006. Thinking with James Carey: Essays on Communications, Transportation, History. Peters, John Durham and Peter Simonson, eds. 2004. Mass Communication and American Social Thought: Key Texts 1919-1968. Wahl-Jorgensen, Karin 2004, 'How Not to Found a Field: New Evidence on the Origins of Mass Communication Research', Journal of Communication, September 2004. vteCommunication studies History Outline Topics and terminology Biocommunication Broadcasting Communication Computer-mediated communication Conversation History of communication Information Intercultural Interpersonal Intrapersonal Journalism Mass media Meaning Media ecology Meta-communication Models of communication New media Nonverbal communication Nonviolent communication Propaganda Reading Speech Symbol Telecommunication Text and conversation theory Writing Subfields Closed-loop Communication design Communication theory Communicology Crisis Climate Cross-cultural Developmental Discourse analysis Environmental Global Health International Mass Media studies Mediated cross-border Organizational Political Risk Science Technical Visual Scholars Adorno Barthes Bateson Benjamin Burke Castells Chomsky Craig Ellul Fisher Flusser Gasset Gerbner Goffman Habermas Horkheimer Huxley Innis Jakobson Janis Johnson Kincaid Lippman Luhmann Marcuse McLuhan Mead Morgan Ong Packard Peirce Postman Quebral Richards Rogers Schramm Shannon Tankard Tannen Wertheimer Category vteSocial sciences Outline History Index Primary Anthropology archaeology cultural social physical Economics microeconomics macroeconomics econometrics mathematical Geography physical human technical integrated History cultural auxiliary sciences economic human military political social Law jurisprudence legal history legal systems public law private law Linguistics semiotics Political science international relations comparative philosophy public policy public administration Psychology abnormal cognitive developmental personality social Sociology criminology demography internet rural urban Interdisciplinary Administration business public Anthrozoology Area studies Business studies Cognitive science Communication studies Community studies Criminology Cultural studies Development studies Education Environmental social science studies Food studies Gender studies Global studies Historical sociology History of technology Human ecology Information science International studies Linguistics Management Media studies Philosophies science economics history psychology social science Planning land use regional urban Political ecology Political economy Political sociology Public health Regional science Science and technology studies Science studies historical Quantum social science Social work Vegan studies List List of social science journals Other categorizations Behavioral sciences Geisteswissenschaft Human science Humanities Category Commons Society portal Wikiversity Authority control databases: National Israel Latvia
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Communication Research (journal)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_Research_(journal)"},{"link_name":"academic discipline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_discipline"},{"link_name":"human communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_communication"},{"link_name":"behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_behavior"},{"link_name":"interpersonal relationships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship"},{"link_name":"social interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interaction"},{"link_name":"cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_(communication)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"social science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science"},{"link_name":"empirical investigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_method"},{"link_name":"critical analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_analysis"},{"link_name":"agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_(sociology)"},{"link_name":"social","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social"},{"link_name":"cultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-5"},{"link_name":"theoretical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"researchers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research"},{"link_name":"qualitative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_research"},{"link_name":"quantitative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_research"},{"link_name":"linguistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_turn"},{"link_name":"cultural turns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_turn"},{"link_name":"interpretative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verstehen"},{"link_name":"hermeneutic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutic"},{"link_name":"philosophic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophic"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism"},{"link_name":"business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business"},{"link_name":"mass media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media"},{"link_name":"public relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations"},{"link_name":"marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing"},{"link_name":"news","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"television broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"interpersonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communication"},{"link_name":"intercultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication"},{"link_name":"education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"},{"link_name":"public administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_administration"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:122-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health"},{"link_name":"medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine"},{"link_name":"economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy"},{"link_name":"military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_communications"},{"link_name":"penal institutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison"},{"link_name":"the Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"social capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_capital"},{"link_name":"scientific knowledge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_knowledge"}],"text":"\"Communication research\" redirects here. For the journal, see Communication Research (journal).Communication studies or communication science is an academic discipline that deals with processes of human communication and behavior, patterns of communication in interpersonal relationships, social interactions and communication in different cultures.[1] Communication is commonly defined as giving, receiving or exchanging ideas, information, signals or messages through appropriate media, enabling individuals or groups to persuade, to seek information, to give information or to express emotions effectively.[2][3] Communication studies is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge that encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation at a level of individual agency and interaction to social and cultural communication systems at a macro level.[4][5]Scholarly communication theorists focus primarily on refining the theoretical understanding of communication, examining statistics in order to help substantiate claims. The range of social scientific methods to study communication has been expanding. Communication researchers draw upon a variety of qualitative and quantitative techniques. The linguistic and cultural turns of the mid-20th century led to increasingly interpretative, hermeneutic, and philosophic approaches towards the analysis of communication.[6] Conversely, the end of the 1990s and the beginning of the 2000s have seen the rise of new analytically, mathematically, and computationally focused techniques.[7][failed verification]As a field of study, communication is applied to journalism, business, mass media, public relations, marketing, news and television broadcasting, interpersonal and intercultural communication, education, public administration—and beyond.[8][9] As all spheres of human activity and conveyance are affected by the interplay between social communication structure and individual agency,[5][10] communication studies has gradually expanded its focus to other domains, such as health, medicine, economy, military and penal institutions, the Internet, social capital, and the role of communicative activity in the development of scientific knowledge.","title":"Communication studies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-12"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-13"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:122-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:22-11"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:04-12"}],"sub_title":"Origins","text":"Communication, a natural human behavior, became a topic of study in the 20th century.[11] As communication technologies developed, so did the serious study of communication. During this time, a renewed interest in the studies of rhetoric, such as persuasion and public address, was created, which ultimately laid the foundation for several of the forms of communication studies that we know of today.[12] The focus of communication studies developed further in the 20th century, eventually including means of communication such as mass communication, interpersonal communication, and oral interpretation.[12] When World War I ended, the interest in studying communication intensified. The methods of communication that had been used during the war had challenged the beliefs many people had on the limits of it that existed prior to these events. Innovations were invented during this period of time that no one had ever seen before, like the aircraft telephones and throat microphones.[13] However, new ways of communicating that had been discovered, especially the use of morse code through portable morse code machines, helped troops to communicate in a much more rapid pace than ever before.[13] This then sparked ideas for even more advanced ways of communication to later be created and discovered.[13]The social science study was fully recognized as a legitimate discipline after World War II.[14] Prior to being established as its own discipline, communication studies, was formed from three other major studies no: psychology, sociology, and political science.[8][11][15] Communication studies focus on communication as central to the human experience, which involves understanding how people behave in creating, exchanging, and interpreting messages.[16] Today, this accepted discipline now also encompasses more modern forms of communication studies as well, such as gender and communication, intercultural communication, political communication, health communication, and organizational communication.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"University of Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Chicago"},{"link_name":"University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-15"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obit2-18"},{"link_name":"Wilbur Schramm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilbur_Schramm"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obit2-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-21"},{"link_name":"Paul Lazarsfeld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Lazarsfeld"},{"link_name":"Harold Lasswell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Lasswell"},{"link_name":"Carl Hovland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Hovland"},{"link_name":"Kurt Lewin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Lewin"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obit2-18"},{"link_name":"Institute of Communications Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UIUC_College_of_Media"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"East-West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Center"},{"link_name":"Honolulu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honolulu"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Free_Press2-23"},{"link_name":"Everett Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everett_Rogers"},{"link_name":"David Berlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Berlo"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-21"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Michigan State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan_State_University"},{"link_name":"ICR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UIUC_College_of_Media"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-21"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Purdue University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purdue_University"},{"link_name":"University of Texas-Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas-Austin"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"University of Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Iowa"},{"link_name":"University of Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Illinois"},{"link_name":"University of Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"The University of Southern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_University_of_Southern_California"},{"link_name":"Northwestern University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_University"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-27"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-17"},{"link_name":"Journal of Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Communication"},{"link_name":"International Communication Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Communication_Association"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Foundations of the academic discipline","text":"The institutionalization of communication studies in U.S. higher education and research has often been traced to Columbia University, the University of Chicago, and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, where early pioneers of the field worked after the Second World War.[15][17][18]Wilbur Schramm is considered the founder of the field of communication studies in the United States.[18] Schramm was hugely influential in establishing communication as a field of study and in forming departments of communication studies across universities in the United States.[19] He was the first individual to identify himself as a communication scholar; he created the first academic degree-granting programs with communication in their name; and he trained the first generation of communication scholars.[20][21] Schramm had a background in English literature and developed communication studies partly by merging existing programs in speech communication, rhetoric, and journalism. He also edited a textbook The Process and Effects of Mass Communication (1954) that helped define the field, partly by claiming Paul Lazarsfeld, Harold Lasswell, Carl Hovland, and Kurt Lewin as its founding forefathers.[18]Schramm established three important communication institutes: the Institute of Communications Research (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign), the Institute for Communication Research (Stanford University), and the East-West Communication Institute (Honolulu).[22] The patterns of scholarly work in communication studies that were set in motion at these institutes continue to this day.[23] Many of Schramm's students, such as Everett Rogers and David Berlo went on to make important contributions of their own.[21][24]The first college of communication was founded at Michigan State University in 1958, led by scholars from Schramm's original ICR and dedicated to studying communication scientifically using a quantitative approach.[21][25] MSU was soon followed by important departments of communication at Purdue University, University of Texas-Austin, Stanford University, University of Iowa, University of Illinois, University of Pennsylvania, The University of Southern California, and Northwestern University.[26][27]Associations related to Communication Studies were founded or expanded during the 1950s. The National Society for the Study of Communication (NSSC) was founded in 1950 to encourage scholars to pursue communication research as a social science.[17] This Association launched the Journal of Communication in the same year as its founding. Like many communication associations founded around this decade, the name of the association changed with the field. In 1968 the name changed to the International Communication Association (ICA).[27][28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"National Communication Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Communication_Association"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_communication"},{"link_name":"health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_communication"},{"link_name":"intercultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication"},{"link_name":"interpersonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communication"},{"link_name":"organizational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_communication"},{"link_name":"political","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_communication"},{"link_name":"environmental communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_communication"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism"},{"link_name":"rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric"},{"link_name":"film criticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_criticism"},{"link_name":"theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre"},{"link_name":"public relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_relations"},{"link_name":"political science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television"},{"link_name":"computer-mediated communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication"},{"link_name":"film production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_production"},{"link_name":"new media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_media"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"In the United States","text":"Undergraduate curricula aim to prepare students to interrogate the nature of communication in society, and the development of communication as a specific field.[29]The National Communication Association (NCA) recognizes several distinct but often overlapping specializations within the broader communication discipline including:[30] technology, critical-cultural, health, intercultural, interpersonal-small group, mass communication, organizational, political, rhetorical, and environmental communication. Students take courses in these subject areas. Other programs and courses often integrated in communication programs include[citation needed] journalism, rhetoric, film criticism, theatre, public relations, political science (e.g., political campaign strategies, public speaking, effects of media on elections), as well as radio, television, computer-mediated communication, film production, and new media.Many colleges in the United States offer a variety of different majors within the realm of communication studies, consisting of programs of study in the areas mentioned above. Communication studies is often perceived by many in society as being primarily centered around the media arts, however, those that become communication studies graduates could move on to have careers in areas ranging from media arts to public advocacy to marketing to non-profit organizations and even more.[31]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-emc-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-emc-32"},{"link_name":"British Cultural Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Cultural_Studies"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Radio-television_and_Telecommunications_Commission"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Harold Innis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Innis"},{"link_name":"Marshall McLuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan"},{"link_name":"Dallas Smythe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas_Smythe"},{"link_name":"James R. Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_R._Taylor"},{"link_name":"François Cooren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Cooren"},{"link_name":"Gail Guthrie Valaskakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gail_Guthrie_Valaskakis"},{"link_name":"George Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Grant_(philosopher)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-35"}],"sub_title":"In Canada","text":"With the early influence of federal institutional inquiries, notably the 1951 Massey Commission,[32] which \"investigated the overall state of culture in Canada\",[32] the study of communication in Canada has frequently focused on the development of a cohesive national culture, and on infrastructural empires of social and material circulation. Although influenced by the American Communication tradition and British Cultural Studies,[33] Communication studies in Canada has been more directly oriented toward the state and the policy apparatus, for example the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission.[34] Influential thinkers from the Canadian communication tradition include Harold Innis, Marshall McLuhan, Florian Sauvageau, Gertrude Robinson, Marc Raboy, Dallas Smythe, James R. Taylor, François Cooren, Gail Guthrie Valaskakis and George Grant.Communication studies within Canada are a relatively new discipline, however, there are programs and departments to support and teach this topic in about 13 Canadian universities and many colleges as well.[35] The Communication et information from Laval, and the Canadian Journal of Communication from McGill University in Montréal, are two journals that exist in Canada.[35] There are also organizations and associations, both national and in Québec, that appeal to the specific interests that are targeted towards these academics.[35] These specific journals consist of representatives from the industry of communication, the government, and members of the public as a whole.[35]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"social science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science"},{"link_name":"sociology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology"},{"link_name":"psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology"},{"link_name":"anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropology"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"political science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_science"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"public policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"humanities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanities"},{"link_name":"rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric"},{"link_name":"persuasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persuasion"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History"},{"link_name":"philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_literature"},{"link_name":"cultural studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_studies"},{"link_name":"politicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politician"},{"link_name":"policy makers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy"},{"link_name":"educators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education"},{"link_name":"strategists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategist"},{"link_name":"legislators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislator"},{"link_name":"business magnates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_magnate"},{"link_name":"managers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management"},{"link_name":"social workers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_worker"},{"link_name":"non-governmental organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-governmental_organization"},{"link_name":"non-profit organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit_organization"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"social research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_research_and_methods"},{"link_name":"market research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_research"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-#CommunicationSoWhite-38"},{"link_name":"post-colonial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcolonialism"},{"link_name":"Mediated quasi-interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediated_quasi-interaction"}],"text":"Communication studies integrates aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a social science, the discipline overlaps with sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy.[1] From a humanities perspective, communication is concerned with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of Ancient Greece).[36] Humanities approaches to communication often overlap with history, philosophy, English, and cultural studies.Communication research informs politicians and policy makers, educators, strategists, legislators, business magnates, managers, social workers, non-governmental organizations, non-profit organizations, and people interested in resolving communication issues in general.[37] There is often a great deal of crossover between social research, cultural research, market research, and other statistical fields.Recent critiques have been made about the homogeneity of communication scholarship. For example, Chakravartty, et al. (2018)[38] find that white scholars comprise the vast majority of publications, citations, and editorial positions. From a post-colonial point of view, this state is problematic because communication studies engages with a wide range of social justice concerns.Further information: Mediated quasi-interaction","title":"Scope and topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-39"}],"sub_title":"Business","text":"Business communication emerged as a field of study in the late 20th century, due to the centrality of communication within business relationships. The scope of the field is difficult to define because of the various ways in which communication is used between employers, employees, consumers, and brands.[39] Because of this, the focus of the field is usually placed on the demands of employers, which is more universally understood by the revision of the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of business standards to emphasize written and oral communication as an important characteristic in the curriculum.[40] Business communication studies, therefore, revolve around the, ever changing, written and oral communication aspects directly related to the field of business.[41] Implementation of modern business communication curriculums are enhancing the study of business communication as a whole, while further preparing those to be able to effectively communicate in the business community.[39]","title":"Scope and topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Health communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_communication"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Medical writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_writing"}],"sub_title":"Healthcare","text":"Health communication is a multidisciplinary field that practices the application of \"communication evidence, strategy, theory, and creativity\" in order to advance the well-being of people and populations. The term was first coined in 1975 by the International Communication Association and, in 1997, Health communication was officially recognized in the broader fields of Public Health Education and Health Promotion by the American Public Health Association.[42] The discipline integrates components of various theories and models, with a focus on social marketing. It uses marketing to develop \"activities and interventions designed to positively change behaviors.\"[43] This emergence affected several dynamics of the healthcare system. It brought elevated awareness to different avenues including promotional activities and communication between heath professionals and their employees, patients, and constituents. \"Efforts to create marketing-oriented organizations called for the widespread dissemination of information\", putting a spotlight on theories of \"communication, the communication process, and the techniques that were being utilized to communicate in other settings.\"[44] Now, health care organizations of all types are using things like social media. \"Uses include communicating with the community and patients; enhancing organizational visibility; marketing products and services; establishing a venue for acquiring news about activities, promotions, and fund-raising; providing a channel for patient resources and education; and providing customer service and support.\"[45]Further information: Medical writing","title":"Scope and topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Communication Studies and AI","text":"In their video essay, \"Cybernetic Communication and Human/AI Interaction: New Horizons in Communication Studies,\" Drs. Norma Jones and Greg Langner explore Cybernetic Communication as a valuable way to reimagine the discipline of Communication Studies. They addressed how AI transforms our interpersonal and relational practices and considered ways we could examine and apply Cybernetic Communication as the borders between humans and machines, sentience and artificial intelligence, continue to blur. They asserted that as a field, Communication Studies is uniquely positioned to examine our interactions with technology and help ensure AI technologies are developed and used in ethical, inclusive, and beneficial ways.[46]","title":"Scope and topics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Journalism Historians Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journalism_Historians_Association"},{"link_name":"Association for Business Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Business_Communication"},{"link_name":"Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Education_in_Journalism_and_Mass_Communication"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Broadcast Education Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast_Education_Association"},{"link_name":"Central States Communication Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_States_Communication_Association"},{"link_name":"Council of Communication Associations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Communication_Associations"},{"link_name":"European Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Association_for_the_Teaching_of_Academic_Writing"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"European Communication Research and Education Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Communication_Research_and_Education_Association"},{"link_name":"IEEE Professional Communication Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Professional_Communication_Society"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"International Association of Business Communicators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Association_of_Business_Communicators"},{"link_name":"International Communication Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Communication_Association"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"National Communication Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Communication_Association"},{"link_name":"professional organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_organization"},{"link_name":"Public Relations Society of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Relations_Society_of_America"},{"link_name":"Rhetoric Society of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//rhetoricsociety.org/aws/RSA/pt/sp/home_page"},{"link_name":"Society for Cinema and Media Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Cinema_and_Media_Studies"},{"link_name":"Society for Technical Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Technical_Communication"},{"link_name":"University Film and Video Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Film_and_Video_Association"}],"text":"American Journalism Historians Association (AJHA)\nAssociation for Business Communication (ABC)\nAssociation for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (AEJMC)\nAssociation for Teachers of Technical Writing (ATTW)[47]\nBlack College Communication Association (BCCA)[48]\nBroadcast Education Association (BEA)\nCentral States Communication Association (CSCA)\nCouncil of Communication Associations (CCA)\nEuropean Association for the Teaching of Academic Writing (EATAW)[49]\nEuropean Communication Research and Education Association\nIEEE Professional Communication Society[50]\nInternational Association for Media and Communications Research[51]\nInternational Association of Business Communicators (IABC)\nInternational Communication Association (ICA), an international, academic association for communication studies concerned with all aspects of human and mediated communication\nNational Association of Black Journalists: NABJ\nNational Association for Media Literacy Education (NAMLE)[52]\nNational Communication Association (NCA), professional organization concerned with various aspects of communication studies in the United States\nPublic Relations Society of America (PRSA)\nRhetoric Society of America (RSA)\nSociety for Cinema and Media Studies, organization for communication research pertaining to film studies\nSociety for Technical Communication (STC)\nUniversity Film and Video Association, organization for the study of motion-picture production","title":"Professional associations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Communication_studies"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Communication_studies"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communication_studies"},{"link_name":"Communication studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_communication_studies"},{"link_name":"Outline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_communication"},{"link_name":"Biocommunication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biocommunication_(science)"},{"link_name":"Broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcasting"},{"link_name":"Communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication"},{"link_name":"Computer-mediated communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication"},{"link_name":"Conversation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversation"},{"link_name":"History of communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_communication"},{"link_name":"Information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information"},{"link_name":"Intercultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercultural_communication"},{"link_name":"Interpersonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communication"},{"link_name":"Intrapersonal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrapersonal_communication"},{"link_name":"Journalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalism"},{"link_name":"Mass media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media"},{"link_name":"Meaning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy_of_language)"},{"link_name":"Media 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databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q14623843#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543384705171"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000320140&P_CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"Carey, James. 1988 Communication as Culture.\nCohen, Herman. 1994. The History of Speech Communication: The Emergence of a Discipline, 1914-1945. Annandale, VA: Speech Communication Association.\nGehrke, Pat J. 2009. The Ethics and Politics of Speech: Communication and Rhetoric in the Twentieth Century. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.\nGehrke, Pat J. and William M. Keith, eds. 2014. A Century of Communication Studies: The Unfinished Conversation. New York: Routledge.\nPacker, J. & Robertson, C, eds. 2006. Thinking with James Carey: Essays on Communications, Transportation, History.\nPeters, John Durham and Peter Simonson, eds. 2004. Mass Communication and American Social Thought: Key Texts 1919-1968.\nWahl-Jorgensen, Karin 2004, 'How Not to Found a Field: New Evidence on the Origins of Mass Communication Research', Journal of Communication, September 2004.vteCommunication studies\nHistory\nOutline\nTopics and terminology\nBiocommunication\nBroadcasting\nCommunication\nComputer-mediated communication\nConversation\nHistory of communication\nInformation\nIntercultural\nInterpersonal\nIntrapersonal \nJournalism\nMass media\nMeaning\nMedia ecology\nMeta-communication\nModels of communication\nNew media\nNonverbal communication\nNonviolent communication\nPropaganda\nReading\nSpeech\nSymbol\nTelecommunication\nText and conversation theory\nWriting\nSubfields\nClosed-loop\nCommunication design\nCommunication theory\nCommunicology\nCrisis\nClimate\nCross-cultural\nDevelopmental\nDiscourse analysis\nEnvironmental\nGlobal\nHealth\nInternational\nMass\nMedia studies\nMediated cross-border\nOrganizational\nPolitical\nRisk\nScience\nTechnical\nVisual\nScholars\nAdorno\nBarthes\nBateson\nBenjamin\nBurke\nCastells\nChomsky\nCraig\nEllul\nFisher\nFlusser\nGasset\nGerbner\nGoffman\nHabermas\nHorkheimer\nHuxley\nInnis\nJakobson\nJanis\nJohnson\nKincaid\nLippman\nLuhmann\nMarcuse\nMcLuhan\nMead\nMorgan\nOng\nPackard\nPeirce\nPostman\nQuebral\nRichards\nRogers\nSchramm\nShannon\nTankard\nTannen\nWertheimer\n\n CategoryvteSocial sciences\nOutline\nHistory\nIndex\nPrimary\nAnthropology\narchaeology\ncultural\nsocial\nphysical\nEconomics\nmicroeconomics\nmacroeconomics\neconometrics\nmathematical\nGeography\nphysical\nhuman\ntechnical\nintegrated\nHistory\ncultural\nauxiliary sciences\neconomic\nhuman\nmilitary\npolitical\nsocial\nLaw\njurisprudence\nlegal history\nlegal systems\npublic law\nprivate law\nLinguistics\nsemiotics\nPolitical science\ninternational relations\ncomparative\nphilosophy\npublic policy\npublic administration\nPsychology\nabnormal\ncognitive\ndevelopmental\npersonality\nsocial\nSociology\ncriminology\ndemography\ninternet\nrural\nurban\nInterdisciplinary\nAdministration\nbusiness\npublic\nAnthrozoology\nArea studies\nBusiness studies\nCognitive science\nCommunication studies\nCommunity studies\nCriminology\nCultural studies\nDevelopment studies\nEducation\nEnvironmental\nsocial science\nstudies\nFood studies\nGender studies\nGlobal studies\nHistorical sociology\nHistory of technology\nHuman ecology\nInformation science\nInternational studies\nLinguistics\nManagement\nMedia studies\nPhilosophies\nscience\n economics\nhistory\npsychology\nsocial science\nPlanning\nland use\nregional\nurban\nPolitical ecology\nPolitical economy\nPolitical sociology\nPublic health\nRegional science\nScience and technology studies\nScience studies\nhistorical\nQuantum social science\nSocial work\nVegan studies\nList\nList of social science journals\nOther categorizations\nBehavioral sciences\nGeisteswissenschaft\nHuman science\nHumanities\n\n Category\n Commons\n Society portal\n WikiversityAuthority control databases: National \nIsrael\nLatvia","title":"Bibliography"}]
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[{"reference":"Calhoun, Craig (2012). \"Communication as Social Science (and More)\". In Jones, Steve (ed.). Communicating @ the Center. Hampton Press. ISBN 978-1-61289-082-1. OCLC 949793640.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61289-082-1","url_text":"978-1-61289-082-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/949793640","url_text":"949793640"}]},{"reference":"Ferguson, Sherry Devereaux; Lennox Terrion, Jenepher (March 2014). Communication in Everyday Life: Personal and Professional Contexts. Don Mills, Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544928-0. OCLC 861207333.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-544928-0","url_text":"978-0-19-544928-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/861207333","url_text":"861207333"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Talya (2015). Organizational Behavior. Boston, MA: FlatWorld. pp. 227–242. ISBN 978-1-4533-7118-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4533-7118-3","url_text":"978-1-4533-7118-3"}]},{"reference":"Craig, Robert T. (May 1999). \"Communication Theory as a Field\". Communication Theory. 9 (2): 119–161. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1468-2885.1999.tb00355.x"}]},{"reference":"Goffman, Erving (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life (Anchor books ed.). Garden City, New York. ISBN 978-0-385-09402-3. OCLC 256298.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/presentationofse00goff_0","url_text":"The presentation of self in everyday life"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-09402-3","url_text":"978-0-385-09402-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/256298","url_text":"256298"}]},{"reference":"Hayes, Andrew F. (2005). Statistical methods for communication science. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-1-4106-1370-7. OCLC 320950289.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4106-1370-7","url_text":"978-1-4106-1370-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/320950289","url_text":"320950289"}]},{"reference":"Shannon, C. E. (2001-01-01). \"A mathematical theory of communication\". ACM SIGMOBILE Mobile Computing and Communications Review. 5 (1): 3–55. doi:10.1145/584091.584093. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002C-4317-B. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquisition_of_the_Netherlands
Inquisition in the Netherlands
["1 References","2 Further reading"]
Extension of the Papal Inquisition The Inquisition in the Netherlands was an extension of the Papal Inquisition in the Netherlands, established during the reign of Charles V. Although it was widely believed at the time that the government intended to introduce the Spanish Inquisition into the Netherlands, the Inquisition in the Netherlands remained separate from that of Spain. Apart from the short-lived attempt by Charles V to establish a special court for the pursuit of heretics in 1522 (possibly revived in 1550), there never was any scheme to establish a Holy Office of the sort known in Castile in the Netherlands.— Duke (1997, p. 143) On 23 April 1523, Charles V appointed Frans Van der Hulst the first inquisitor general of the Seventeen Provinces, an appointment ratified by Pope Adrian VI. He and his successors were empowered by the imperial edict to actively search out and rigorously punish all those guilty or even suspected of heresy, or of aiding a heretic in any way. He was appointed inquisitor for County of Flanders in 1545 and was in office until the operation of the inquisition was suspended in 1566. Between 1523 and 1566, more than 1,300 people were executed as heretics, far more relative to the overall population than, for instance, in France. Before the death of Charles V, the Netherlands were mainly Catholic and thus the Inquisition did not have a very drastic impact on people's lives in general. However, with the rapid spread of Calvinism in the early years of the reign of his son, Philip II, its scope widened vastly. The Edicts of 1521 had banned all preaching or practice of the reformed religion, even in private dwellings, and this power was now brought into full swing. On 2 June 1545 Pieter Titelmans was appointed as Inquisitor. The Inquisition in the Netherlands should be understood as an office held by individual, successive inquisitors rather than as a tribunal. Individual inquisitors were called upon as specialized judges in cases dealing with offending clerics. They were also involved in judicial procedures related to heresy but these were conducted by laymen, not the inquisitors. Inquisitors were often appointed ad hoc after the death of the previous holder of the function and there were not many of them in total. References ^ Joseph Blötzer, "Inquisition", in The Catholic Encyclopedia, Vol. 8 (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1910). Retrieved 8 December 2019. ^ Van Nierop 2007, p. 83. ^ J. I. Israel, The Dutch Republic: its rise, greatness, and fall (Oxford University Press) 1995, 82. ^ Herman J. Selderhuis and Peter Nissen, "The Sixteenth Century", in Handbook of Dutch Church History (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014), p. 189. ^ J. I. Israel, The Dutch Republic: its rise, greatness, and fall (Oxford University Press) 1995, 99 144-6. ^ G. Gielis & V. Soen, "The Inquisitorial Office in the Sixteenth-Century Habsburg Low Countries: A Dynamic Perspective" in The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 66 (1), 2015, p.66. doi:10.1017/s0022046914001286 Further reading Balzani, U. (1889). "The early history of the inquisition in the Netherlands". The Academy and Literature (886): 283. Beemon, F. E. (1994). "The myth of the Spanish Inquisition and the preconditions for the Dutch Revolt". Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte. 85: 246–264. doi:10.14315/arg-1994-jg13. ISSN 0003-9381. S2CID 191407101. Broderick, T. (2013). "New Amsterdam and the Great Dutch Toleration Debates" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2015. Christman, Victoria (2005). Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Creation of a Secular Inquisition in Early Modern Brabant (Thesis). van Dixhoorn, A. (2012). "The making of a public issue in early modern Europe: the Spanish inquisition and public opinion in the Netherlands". In Rospocher, Massimo (ed.). Beyond the public sphere: Opinions, publics, spaces in early modern Europe. Bologna Berlin: Il Mulino Duncker & Humblot. pp. 249–270. hdl:1854/LU-1856623. ISBN 978-88-15-24028-6. OCLC 817744703. Duke, A. (1997). "A legend in the making: News of the 'Spanish Inquisition' in the Low Countries in German evangelical pamphlets, 1546–1550". Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis/Dutch Review of Church History. 77 (2): 125–144. doi:10.1163/002820397X00225. JSTOR 24011467. Duke, A. (2003). "The Inquisition and the Repression of Religious Dissent in the Habsburg Netherlands, 1521–1566". In L'inquisizione (pp. 419–443). Biblioteca apostolica vaticana. "Fredericq's (dr. P.) corpus documentorum inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis neerlandicae (book review)". The Academy. 35 (886): 283. 1889. ProQuest 1298616001. GIELIS, GERT; SOEN, VIOLET (2015). "The Inquisitorial Office in the Sixteenth-Century Habsburg Low Countries: A Dynamic Perspective". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 66 (1). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 47–66. doi:10.1017/s0022046914001286. ISSN 0022-0469. S2CID 159667630. Muchembled, Robert (2000). "Review of Les Inquisitions modernes dans les Pays-Bas Méridionaux, 1520-1633". Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine. 47 (3): 627–631. JSTOR 20530591. Van Nierop, Henk (2007). "'And Ye Shall Hear Of Wars And Rumours Of Wars'. Rumour And The Revolt Of The Netherlands". Public Opinion and Changing Identities in the Early Modern Netherlands. Brill. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004155275.i-310.11. ISBN 978-90-04-15527-5. Koenigsberger, H.G. (1998). "Reviews : Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1997; ISBN 0-300-07081-0; xvi + 384 pp.; £25". European History Quarterly. 28 (4). SAGE Publications: 568–571. doi:10.1177/026569149802800411. ISSN 0265-6914. S2CID 144637260. "The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada. By Henry Charles Lea, LL.D., S.T.D. (New York and London: The Macmillan Company. 1908. Pp. xvi, 564.)". The American Historical Review. Oxford University Press. 1908. doi:10.1086/ahr/13.4.847. ISSN 1937-5239. Lea, H.C. (2010). The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada. Cambridge Library Collection – European History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-01458-8. Shepherd, William R.; Lea, Henry Charles (1908). "The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies". Political Science Quarterly. 23 (2). Wiley: 328. doi:10.2307/2141330. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2141330. Thon, Peter (1968). "Bruegel's The Triumph of Death Reconsidered". Renaissance Quarterly. 21 (3): 289–299. doi:10.2307/2859416. JSTOR 2859416. S2CID 155357940. Young, A. (1895). History of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium). The Werner school and family library. Werner Company. pp. 67ff. vteHistory of Christianity Early Christianity Spread Centuries 1st 2nd and 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st Origins andApostolic Age Background Life of Jesus Baptism Ministry Crucifixion Resurrection Great Commission Holy Spirit Apostles in the New Testament Jewish Christians Paul the Apostle Council of Jerusalem Gospels Acts Pauline epistles General epistles Revelation Ante-Niceneperiod Diversity Adoptionism Arianism Docetism Donatism Gnosticism Marcionism Montanism Canon development Persecution Church / Apostolic Fathers Clement of Rome Polycarp Ignatius Irenaeus Justin Martyr Tertullian Origen Early African Late antiquity(Great Church) Constantine Constantinian shift Roman state religion Monasticism Councils Nicaea I Creed Christianity Athanasius Jerome Augustine Constantinople I Ephesus I Chalcedon Chalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian Biblical canon Catholicism Papacy Development of primacy Eastern Orthodox opposition Crusading movement Lateran IV Art patronage of Julius II Leo X Counter-Reformation Trent Art Catholic Reformation Jesuits Xavier Thomas More Monastery dissolution Wars Mass rocks and priest holes Guadalupe Jansenists Molinists Neo-Scholasticism Teresa Modernism Independent Catholics Vatican I and Vatican II Ecclesial community Timeline EasternChristianity Eastern Orthodoxy Church of the East Oriental Orthodoxy Chrysostom Nestorianism Icons Iconodulism Iconoclasm Great Schism Fall of Constantinople Armenia Georgia Greece Egypt Syriac Serbian Ethiopia Ottoman Empire Russia America Middle Ages Pelagianism Gregory I Celtic Germanic Anglo-Saxon Franks Gothic Scandinavian Iceland Slavs Bohemia Bulgaria Kievan Rus' Moravia Poland Pomerania Investiture Anselm Abelard Bernard Bogomils Bosnian Cathars Apostolic Brethren Dulcinian Crusades Waldensians Inquisition Early Scholasticism Christian mysticism Dominic Francis Bonaventure Aquinas Five Ways Wycliffe Avignon Papal Schism Bohemian Reformation Hus Conciliarism Synods ReformationandProtestantism Erasmus Eucharist Calvinist–Arminian debate Arminianism Wars Resistance theories Separation of church and state Nicodemites Hymnody of continental Europe Formal and material principles Literature Protestant work ethic Lutheranism Luther Ninety-five Theses Diet of Worms Theology Bible Melanchthon Book of Concord Orthodoxy Scholasticism Eucharist Art Calvinism Zwingli Calvin Huguenots Presbyterianism Scotland Knox TULIP Baptism Law and Gospel Dort Three Forms of Unity Westminster Scholasticism Metrical psalters Anglicanism Timeline Henry VIII Cranmer Elizabethan 39 Articles Puritans Civil War Church music Book of Common Prayer King James Version Anabaptism Theology Radical Reformation Grebel Swiss Brethren Müntzer Martyrs' Synod Menno Simons Smyth Martyrs Mirror Ausbund 1640–1789 Revivalism Missionaries Baptists Separation of church and state Edicts of toleration Congregationalism First Great Awakening Methodism Millerism Pietism Fostering of early experimental science Neo- and Old Lutherans 1789–present Camp meeting Holiness movement Second Great Awakening Restorationists Jehovah's Witnesses Mormonism Seventh-day Adventist Adventism Oxford Movement Laestadianism Finnish Awakening Christian existentialism Third Great Awakening Azusa Revival Gospel music Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy Pacifism Ecumenism Five solae Jesus movement Pentecostalism Charismatics Liberation theology Reformed epistemology Fourth Great Awakening Evangelical and Mainline Protestants Christian right and left Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America Timeline Missions Martyrs Theology Eastern Orthodoxy Oriental Orthodoxy Protestantism Catholicism vteReligious persecution and discriminationBy group Ahmadiyya Atheism Baháʼí Faith Buddhism Catholicism Christianity post–Cold War era Falun Gong Hinduism Persecution Untouchability Islam Persecution Jehovah's Witnesses Judaism Persecution LDS or Mormon Neopaganism Eastern Orthodox Oriental Orthodox Protestantism Rastafari Shi'ism Sufism Zoroastrianism Methods Censorship Communal violence Cultural genocide Deprogramming Desecration Domicide Discrimination Ethnic cleansing Ethnic conflict Ethnic violence Extrajudicial killing Extrajudicial punishment Forced conversion Forced displacement Hate crime Iconoclasm Intolerance Pogrom Political violence Population cleansing Population transfer Sectarian violence Social cleansing Segregation State atheism State religion Terrorism Violence War Events Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (64–313) Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire (c. 324–c. 491) Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent (c.550–c. 1200) Yellow Turban Rebellion (c.184–c. 205) Battle of Tours (732) Rhineland massacres (1096) Jerusalem massacre (1099) Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent (643–1526) Inquisition (1184–1908) Massacre at Ayyadieh (1191) Northern Crusades (12th–16th cent.) 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Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain (1500–1526) European wars of religion (1522–1712) Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526-1791) Goa Inquisition (1561–1812) French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609–1614) Test Acts (1673–1829) Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction (1683–1922) Christianization of the Sámi people (1700s) French Revolutionary dechristianisation (1789–1801) Utah War (1857–1858) 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war (1860) Circassian genocide (1864) Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) Adana massacre (1909) Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) Greek genocide (1913–1922) Pontic Greek genocide Assyrian genocide (1914–1924) Armenian genocide (1915–1923) Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc (1917–1990) Soviet persecution (1922–1991) 1917–1921 1921–1928 1928–1941 1958–1964 1970–1987 legislation Šahovići massacre (1924) White Terror (Spain) (1936–1975) Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses (1933) The Holocaust (1939–1945) Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) Communist Polish persecution (1945–1989) Communist Romanian persecution (1945–1989) Noakhali riots (1946) Direct Action Day (1946) 1946 Bihar riots (1946) Rawalpindi massacres (1947) Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan (1947-ongoing) Violence against Muslims in India (1947-ongoing) Violence against Hindus in independent India (1947-ongoing) 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight (1948) Jewish exodus from the Muslim world (1948–1980) Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party (1949-ongoing) Persecution of Tibetans (1950-ongoing) Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950) Religious violence in Nigeria (1953-ongoing) Istanbul pogrom (1955) Buddhist crisis (1963) Huế Phật Đản shootings (1963) Thích Quảng Đức (1963) Xá Lợi Pagoda raids (1963) Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) Four Olds (1966) Famen Temple (1966) Bangladesh genocide (1971) Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh (1971-ongoing) Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) Cambodian genocide (1975–1979) 1984 anti-Sikh riots (1984) Revival Process (1984-1989) Big Excursion (1989) Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus (1990) Yugoslav Wars (1991-2001) Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War (1992–1996) Bosnian genocide (1995) War crimes in the Kosovo War (1999) Walisongo school massacre (2000) Kosheh massacres (2000) September 11 attacks (2001) 2002 Gujarat riots (2002) South Thailand insurgency (2004–ongoing) Boko Haram insurgency (2009–ongoing) Maspero demonstrations (2011) Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh (2013–2016) Yazidi genocide (2014–2017) Genocide of Christians by ISIL (2014–ongoing) Iraqi Turkmen genocide (2014–2017) Persecution of Uyghurs in China (2014–ongoing) Rohingya genocide (2016–ongoing) Christchurch mosque shootings (2019) 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings (2019) 2020 Delhi riots (2020) 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel (2023) Crocus City Hall attack (2024) Religion
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Although it was widely believed at the time that the government intended to introduce the Spanish Inquisition into the Netherlands, the Inquisition in the Netherlands remained separate from that of Spain.[2]Apart from the short-lived attempt by Charles V to establish a special court for the pursuit of heretics in 1522 (possibly revived in 1550), there never was any scheme to establish a Holy Office of the sort known in Castile in the Netherlands.— Duke (1997, p. 143)On 23 April 1523, Charles V appointed Frans Van der Hulst the first inquisitor general of the Seventeen Provinces, an appointment ratified by Pope Adrian VI.[3][4] He and his successors were empowered by the imperial edict to actively search out and rigorously punish all those guilty or even suspected of heresy, or of aiding a heretic in any way. He was appointed inquisitor for County of Flanders in 1545 and was in office until the operation of the inquisition was suspended in 1566.[5] Between 1523 and 1566, more than 1,300 people were executed as heretics, far more relative to the overall population than, for instance, in France.Before the death of Charles V, the Netherlands were mainly Catholic and thus the Inquisition did not have a very drastic impact on people's lives in general. However, with the rapid spread of Calvinism in the early years of the reign of his son, Philip II, its scope widened vastly. The Edicts of 1521 had banned all preaching or practice of the reformed religion, even in private dwellings, and this power was now brought into full swing. On 2 June 1545 Pieter Titelmans was appointed as Inquisitor.The Inquisition in the Netherlands should be understood as an office held by individual, successive inquisitors rather than as a tribunal. Individual inquisitors were called upon as specialized judges in cases dealing with offending clerics. They were also involved in judicial procedures related to heresy but these were conducted by laymen, not the inquisitors. 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Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Famen_Temple#People's_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh_genocide"},{"link_name":"Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus#Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Lebanese Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Cambodian genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodian_genocide"},{"link_name":"1984 anti-Sikh riots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_anti-Sikh_riots"},{"link_name":"Revival Process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revival_Process"},{"link_name":"Big Excursion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Excursion"},{"link_name":"Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exodus_of_Kashmiri_Hindus"},{"link_name":"Yugoslav Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_Wars"},{"link_name":"Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing_in_the_Bosnian_War"},{"link_name":"Bosnian genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_genocide"},{"link_name":"War crimes in the Kosovo War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War"},{"link_name":"Walisongo school massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walisongo_school_massacre"},{"link_name":"Kosheh massacres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosheh_massacres"},{"link_name":"September 11 attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_11_attacks"},{"link_name":"2002 Gujarat riots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_Gujarat_riots"},{"link_name":"South Thailand insurgency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Thailand_insurgency"},{"link_name":"Boko Haram insurgency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boko_Haram_insurgency"},{"link_name":"Maspero demonstrations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maspero_demonstrations"},{"link_name":"Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_by_Islamic_extremists_in_Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Yazidi genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazidi_genocide"},{"link_name":"Genocide of Christians by ISIL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_by_the_Islamic_State"},{"link_name":"Iraqi Turkmen genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraqi_Turkmen_genocide"},{"link_name":"Persecution of Uyghurs in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China"},{"link_name":"Rohingya genocide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohingya_genocide"},{"link_name":"Christchurch mosque shootings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christchurch_mosque_shootings"},{"link_name":"2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Sri_Lanka_Easter_bombings"},{"link_name":"2020 Delhi riots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Delhi_riots"},{"link_name":"2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Hamas-led_attack_on_Israel"},{"link_name":"Crocus City Hall attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocus_City_Hall_attack"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P_religion_world.svg"},{"link_name":"Religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Religion"}],"text":"Balzani, U. (1889). \"The early history of the inquisition in the Netherlands\". The Academy and Literature (886): 283.\nBeemon, F. E. (1994). \"The myth of the Spanish Inquisition and the preconditions for the Dutch Revolt\". Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte. 85: 246–264. doi:10.14315/arg-1994-jg13. ISSN 0003-9381. S2CID 191407101.\nBroderick, T. (2013). \"New Amsterdam and the Great Dutch Toleration Debates\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2015.\nChristman, Victoria (2005). Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Creation of a Secular Inquisition in Early Modern Brabant (Thesis).\nvan Dixhoorn, A. (2012). \"The making of a public issue in early modern Europe: the Spanish inquisition and public opinion in the Netherlands\". In Rospocher, Massimo (ed.). Beyond the public sphere: Opinions, publics, spaces in early modern Europe. Bologna Berlin: Il Mulino Duncker & Humblot. pp. 249–270. hdl:1854/LU-1856623. ISBN 978-88-15-24028-6. OCLC 817744703.\nDuke, A. (1997). \"A legend in the making: News of the 'Spanish Inquisition' in the Low Countries in German evangelical pamphlets, 1546–1550\". Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis/Dutch Review of Church History. 77 (2): 125–144. doi:10.1163/002820397X00225. JSTOR 24011467.\nDuke, A. (2003). \"The Inquisition and the Repression of Religious Dissent in the Habsburg Netherlands, 1521–1566\". In L'inquisizione (pp. 419–443). Biblioteca apostolica vaticana.\n\"Fredericq's (dr. P.) corpus documentorum inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis neerlandicae (book review)\". The Academy. 35 (886): 283. 1889. ProQuest 1298616001.\nGIELIS, GERT; SOEN, VIOLET (2015). \"The Inquisitorial Office in the Sixteenth-Century Habsburg Low Countries: A Dynamic Perspective\". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 66 (1). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 47–66. doi:10.1017/s0022046914001286. ISSN 0022-0469. S2CID 159667630.\nMuchembled, Robert (2000). \"Review of Les Inquisitions modernes dans les Pays-Bas Méridionaux, 1520-1633\". Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine. 47 (3): 627–631. JSTOR 20530591.\nVan Nierop, Henk (2007). \"'And Ye Shall Hear Of Wars And Rumours Of Wars'. Rumour And The Revolt Of The Netherlands\". Public Opinion and Changing Identities in the Early Modern Netherlands. Brill. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004155275.i-310.11. ISBN 978-90-04-15527-5.\nKoenigsberger, H.G. (1998). \"Reviews : Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1997; ISBN 0-300-07081-0; xvi + 384 pp.; £25\". European History Quarterly. 28 (4). SAGE Publications: 568–571. doi:10.1177/026569149802800411. ISSN 0265-6914. S2CID 144637260.\n\"The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada. By Henry Charles Lea, LL.D., S.T.D. (New York and London: The Macmillan Company. 1908. Pp. xvi, 564.)\". The American Historical Review. Oxford University Press. 1908. doi:10.1086/ahr/13.4.847. ISSN 1937-5239.\nLea, H.C. (2010). The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada. Cambridge Library Collection – European History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-01458-8.\nShepherd, William R.; Lea, Henry Charles (1908). \"The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies\". Political Science Quarterly. 23 (2). Wiley: 328. doi:10.2307/2141330. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2141330.\nThon, Peter (1968). \"Bruegel's The Triumph of Death Reconsidered\". Renaissance Quarterly. 21 (3): 289–299. doi:10.2307/2859416. JSTOR 2859416. S2CID 155357940.\nYoung, A. (1895). History of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium). The Werner school and family library. Werner Company. pp. 67ff.vteHistory of Christianity\nEarly Christianity\nSpread\nCenturies\n1st\n2nd and 3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\n14th\n15th\n16th\n17th\n18th\n19th\n20th\n21st\nOrigins andApostolic Age\nBackground\nLife of Jesus\nBaptism\nMinistry\nCrucifixion\nResurrection\nGreat Commission\nHoly Spirit\nApostles in the New Testament\nJewish Christians\nPaul the Apostle\nCouncil of Jerusalem\nGospels\nActs\nPauline epistles\nGeneral epistles\nRevelation\nAnte-Niceneperiod\nDiversity\nAdoptionism\nArianism\nDocetism\nDonatism\nGnosticism\nMarcionism\nMontanism\nCanon development\nPersecution\nChurch / Apostolic Fathers\nClement of Rome\nPolycarp\nIgnatius\nIrenaeus\nJustin Martyr\nTertullian\nOrigen\nEarly African\nLate antiquity(Great Church)\nConstantine\nConstantinian shift\nRoman state religion\nMonasticism\nCouncils\nNicaea I\nCreed\nChristianity\nAthanasius\nJerome\nAugustine\nConstantinople I\nEphesus I\nChalcedon\nChalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian\nBiblical canon\nCatholicism\nPapacy\nDevelopment of primacy\nEastern Orthodox opposition\nCrusading movement\nLateran IV\nArt patronage of Julius II\nLeo X\nCounter-Reformation\nTrent\nArt\nCatholic Reformation\nJesuits\nXavier\nThomas More\nMonastery dissolution\nWars\nMass rocks and priest holes\nGuadalupe\nJansenists\nMolinists\nNeo-Scholasticism\nTeresa\nModernism\nIndependent Catholics\nVatican I and Vatican II\nEcclesial community\nTimeline\nEasternChristianity\nEastern Orthodoxy\nChurch of the East\nOriental Orthodoxy\nChrysostom\nNestorianism\nIcons\nIconodulism\nIconoclasm\nGreat Schism\nFall of Constantinople\nArmenia\nGeorgia\nGreece\nEgypt\nSyriac\nSerbian\nEthiopia\nOttoman Empire\nRussia\nAmerica\nMiddle Ages\nPelagianism\nGregory I\nCeltic\nGermanic\nAnglo-Saxon\nFranks\nGothic\nScandinavian\nIceland\nSlavs\nBohemia\nBulgaria\nKievan Rus'\nMoravia\nPoland\nPomerania\nInvestiture\nAnselm\nAbelard\nBernard\nBogomils\nBosnian\nCathars\nApostolic Brethren\nDulcinian\nCrusades\nWaldensians\nInquisition\nEarly Scholasticism\nChristian mysticism\nDominic\nFrancis\nBonaventure\nAquinas\nFive Ways\nWycliffe\nAvignon\nPapal Schism\nBohemian Reformation\nHus\nConciliarism\nSynods\nReformationandProtestantism\nErasmus\nEucharist\nCalvinist–Arminian debate\nArminianism\nWars\nResistance theories\nSeparation of church and state\nNicodemites\nHymnody of continental Europe\nFormal and material principles\nLiterature\nProtestant work ethic\nLutheranism\nLuther\nNinety-five Theses\nDiet of Worms\nTheology\nBible\nMelanchthon\nBook of Concord\nOrthodoxy\nScholasticism\nEucharist\nArt\nCalvinism\nZwingli\nCalvin\nHuguenots\nPresbyterianism\nScotland\nKnox\nTULIP\nBaptism\nLaw and Gospel\nDort\nThree Forms of Unity\nWestminster\nScholasticism\nMetrical psalters\nAnglicanism\nTimeline\nHenry VIII\nCranmer\nElizabethan\n39 Articles\nPuritans\nCivil War\nChurch music\nBook of Common Prayer\nKing James Version\nAnabaptism\nTheology\nRadical Reformation\nGrebel\nSwiss Brethren\nMüntzer\nMartyrs' Synod\nMenno Simons\nSmyth\nMartyrs Mirror\nAusbund\n\n1640–1789\nRevivalism\nMissionaries\nBaptists\nSeparation of church and state\nEdicts of toleration\nCongregationalism\nFirst Great Awakening\nMethodism\nMillerism\nPietism\nFostering of early experimental science\nNeo- and Old Lutherans\n1789–present\nCamp meeting\nHoliness movement\nSecond Great Awakening\nRestorationists\nJehovah's Witnesses\nMormonism\nSeventh-day Adventist\nAdventism\nOxford Movement\nLaestadianism\nFinnish Awakening\nChristian existentialism\nThird Great Awakening\nAzusa Revival\nGospel music\nFundamentalist – Modernist controversy\nPacifism\nEcumenism\nFive solae\nJesus movement\nPentecostalism\nCharismatics\nLiberation theology\nReformed epistemology\nFourth Great Awakening\nEvangelical and Mainline Protestants\nChristian right and left\nPolitical influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America\n\nTimeline\nMissions\nMartyrs\nTheology\nEastern Orthodoxy\nOriental Orthodoxy\nProtestantism\nCatholicismvteReligious persecution and discriminationBy group\n\nAhmadiyya\nAtheism\nBaháʼí Faith\nBuddhism\nCatholicism\nChristianity\npost–Cold War era\nFalun Gong\nHinduism\nPersecution\nUntouchability\nIslam\nPersecution\nJehovah's Witnesses\nJudaism\nPersecution\nLDS or Mormon\nNeopaganism\nEastern Orthodox\nOriental Orthodox\nProtestantism\nRastafari\nShi'ism\nSufism\nZoroastrianism\nMethods\nCensorship\nCommunal violence\nCultural genocide\nDeprogramming\nDesecration\nDomicide\nDiscrimination\nEthnic cleansing\nEthnic conflict\nEthnic violence\nExtrajudicial killing\nExtrajudicial punishment\nForced conversion\nForced displacement\nHate crime\nIconoclasm\nIntolerance\nPogrom\nPolitical violence\nPopulation cleansing\nPopulation transfer\nSectarian violence\nSocial cleansing\nSegregation\nState atheism\nState religion\nTerrorism\nViolence\nWar\nEvents\nPersecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (64–313)\nPersecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire (c. 324–c. 491)\nDecline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent (c.550–c. 1200)\nYellow Turban Rebellion (c.184–c. 205)\nBattle of Tours (732)\nRhineland massacres (1096)\nJerusalem massacre (1099)\nMuslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent (643–1526)\nInquisition (1184–1908)\nMassacre at Ayyadieh (1191)\nNorthern Crusades (12th–16th cent.)\nCrusades against schismatics (13th–15th cent.)\nForced conversions of Muslims in Spain (1500–1526)\nEuropean wars of religion (1522–1712)\nOttoman–Habsburg wars (1526-1791)\nGoa Inquisition (1561–1812)\nFrench Wars of Religion (1562–1598)\nExpulsion of the Moriscos (1609–1614)\nTest Acts (1673–1829)\nPersecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction (1683–1922)\nChristianization of the Sámi people (1700s)\nFrench Revolutionary dechristianisation (1789–1801)\nUtah War (1857–1858)\n1860 Mount Lebanon civil war (1860)\nCircassian genocide (1864)\nDungan Revolt (1862–1877)\nAdana massacre (1909)\nMassacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913)\nGreek genocide (1913–1922)\nPontic Greek genocide\nAssyrian genocide (1914–1924)\nArmenian genocide (1915–1923)\nPersecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc (1917–1990)\nSoviet persecution (1922–1991)\n1917–1921\n1921–1928\n1928–1941\n1958–1964\n1970–1987\nlegislation\nŠahovići massacre (1924)\nWhite Terror (Spain) (1936–1975)\nNazi boycott of Jewish businesses (1933)\nThe Holocaust (1939–1945)\nGenocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)\nCommunist Polish persecution (1945–1989)\nCommunist Romanian persecution (1945–1989)\nNoakhali riots (1946)\nDirect Action Day (1946)\n1946 Bihar riots (1946)\nRawalpindi massacres (1947)\nPersecution of Hindus in Pakistan (1947-ongoing)\nViolence against Muslims in India (1947-ongoing)\nViolence against Hindus in independent India (1947-ongoing)\n1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight (1948)\nJewish exodus from the Muslim world (1948–1980)\nAntireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party (1949-ongoing)\nPersecution of Tibetans (1950-ongoing)\nExodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950)\nReligious violence in Nigeria (1953-ongoing)\nIstanbul pogrom (1955)\nBuddhist crisis (1963)\nHuế Phật Đản shootings (1963)\nThích Quảng Đức (1963)\nXá Lợi Pagoda raids (1963)\nCultural Revolution (1966–1976)\nFour Olds (1966)\nFamen Temple (1966)\nBangladesh genocide (1971)\nPersecution of Hindus in Bangladesh (1971-ongoing)\nLebanese Civil War (1975–1990)\nCambodian genocide (1975–1979)\n1984 anti-Sikh riots (1984)\nRevival Process (1984-1989)\nBig Excursion (1989)\nExodus of Kashmiri Hindus (1990)\nYugoslav Wars (1991-2001)\nEthnic cleansing in the Bosnian War (1992–1996)\nBosnian genocide (1995)\nWar crimes in the Kosovo War (1999)\nWalisongo school massacre (2000)\nKosheh massacres (2000)\nSeptember 11 attacks (2001)\n2002 Gujarat riots (2002)\nSouth Thailand insurgency (2004–ongoing)\nBoko Haram insurgency (2009–ongoing)\nMaspero demonstrations (2011)\nAttacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh (2013–2016)\nYazidi genocide (2014–2017)\nGenocide of Christians by ISIL (2014–ongoing)\nIraqi Turkmen genocide (2014–2017)\nPersecution of Uyghurs in China (2014–ongoing)\nRohingya genocide (2016–ongoing)\nChristchurch mosque shootings (2019)\n2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings (2019)\n2020 Delhi riots (2020)\n2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel (2023)\nCrocus City Hall attack (2024)\n Religion","title":"Further reading"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Balzani, U. (1889). \"The early history of the inquisition in the Netherlands\". The Academy and Literature (886): 283.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.proquest.com/openview/d55fd04523f02816","url_text":"\"The early history of the inquisition in the Netherlands\""}]},{"reference":"Beemon, F. E. (1994). \"The myth of the Spanish Inquisition and the preconditions for the Dutch Revolt\". Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte. 85: 246–264. doi:10.14315/arg-1994-jg13. ISSN 0003-9381. S2CID 191407101.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.14315%2Farg-1994-jg13","url_text":"10.14315/arg-1994-jg13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9381","url_text":"0003-9381"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191407101","url_text":"191407101"}]},{"reference":"Broderick, T. (2013). \"New Amsterdam and the Great Dutch Toleration Debates\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 February 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150210133632/http://www1.umassd.edu/euro/2013papers/broderick.pdf","url_text":"\"New Amsterdam and the Great Dutch Toleration Debates\""},{"url":"http://www1.umassd.edu/euro/2013papers/broderick.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Christman, Victoria (2005). Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Creation of a Secular Inquisition in Early Modern Brabant (Thesis).","urls":[{"url":"https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/10150/195502","url_text":"Orthodoxy and Opposition: The Creation of a Secular Inquisition in Early Modern Brabant"}]},{"reference":"van Dixhoorn, A. (2012). \"The making of a public issue in early modern Europe: the Spanish inquisition and public opinion in the Netherlands\". In Rospocher, Massimo (ed.). Beyond the public sphere: Opinions, publics, spaces in early modern Europe. Bologna Berlin: Il Mulino Duncker & Humblot. pp. 249–270. hdl:1854/LU-1856623. ISBN 978-88-15-24028-6. OCLC 817744703.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1854%2FLU-1856623","url_text":"1854/LU-1856623"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-15-24028-6","url_text":"978-88-15-24028-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/817744703","url_text":"817744703"}]},{"reference":"Duke, A. (1997). \"A legend in the making: News of the 'Spanish Inquisition' in the Low Countries in German evangelical pamphlets, 1546–1550\". Nederlands Archief voor Kerkgeschiedenis/Dutch Review of Church History. 77 (2): 125–144. doi:10.1163/002820397X00225. JSTOR 24011467.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F002820397X00225","url_text":"10.1163/002820397X00225"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/24011467","url_text":"24011467"}]},{"reference":"\"Fredericq's (dr. P.) corpus documentorum inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis neerlandicae (book review)\". The Academy. 35 (886): 283. 1889. ProQuest 1298616001.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/1298616001","url_text":"1298616001"}]},{"reference":"GIELIS, GERT; SOEN, VIOLET (2015). \"The Inquisitorial Office in the Sixteenth-Century Habsburg Low Countries: A Dynamic Perspective\". The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 66 (1). Cambridge University Press (CUP): 47–66. doi:10.1017/s0022046914001286. ISSN 0022-0469. S2CID 159667630.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0022046914001286","url_text":"10.1017/s0022046914001286"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0469","url_text":"0022-0469"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159667630","url_text":"159667630"}]},{"reference":"Muchembled, Robert (2000). \"Review of Les Inquisitions modernes dans les Pays-Bas Méridionaux, 1520-1633\". Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine. 47 (3): 627–631. JSTOR 20530591.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/20530591","url_text":"20530591"}]},{"reference":"Van Nierop, Henk (2007). \"'And Ye Shall Hear Of Wars And Rumours Of Wars'. Rumour And The Revolt Of The Netherlands\". Public Opinion and Changing Identities in the Early Modern Netherlands. Brill. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004155275.i-310.11. ISBN 978-90-04-15527-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004155275.i-310.11","url_text":"10.1163/ej.9789004155275.i-310.11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15527-5","url_text":"978-90-04-15527-5"}]},{"reference":"Koenigsberger, H.G. (1998). \"Reviews : Henry Kamen, Philip of Spain, New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1997; ISBN 0-300-07081-0; xvi + 384 pp.; £25\". European History Quarterly. 28 (4). SAGE Publications: 568–571. doi:10.1177/026569149802800411. ISSN 0265-6914. S2CID 144637260.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F026569149802800411","url_text":"10.1177/026569149802800411"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0265-6914","url_text":"0265-6914"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144637260","url_text":"144637260"}]},{"reference":"\"The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada. By Henry Charles Lea, LL.D., S.T.D. (New York and London: The Macmillan Company. 1908. Pp. xvi, 564.)\". The American Historical Review. Oxford University Press. 1908. doi:10.1086/ahr/13.4.847. ISSN 1937-5239.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr%2F13.4.847","url_text":"10.1086/ahr/13.4.847"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1937-5239","url_text":"1937-5239"}]},{"reference":"Lea, H.C. (2010). The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada. Cambridge Library Collection – European History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-01458-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=M5tahbWvvB8C","url_text":"The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies: Sicily, Naples, Sardinia, Milan, the Canaries, Mexico, Peru, New Granada"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01458-8","url_text":"978-1-108-01458-8"}]},{"reference":"Shepherd, William R.; Lea, Henry Charles (1908). \"The Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies\". Political Science Quarterly. 23 (2). Wiley: 328. doi:10.2307/2141330. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 2141330.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2141330","url_text":"10.2307/2141330"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0032-3195","url_text":"0032-3195"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2141330","url_text":"2141330"}]},{"reference":"Thon, Peter (1968). \"Bruegel's The Triumph of Death Reconsidered\". Renaissance Quarterly. 21 (3): 289–299. doi:10.2307/2859416. JSTOR 2859416. S2CID 155357940.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2859416","url_text":"10.2307/2859416"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2859416","url_text":"2859416"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155357940","url_text":"155357940"}]},{"reference":"Young, A. (1895). History of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium). The Werner school and family library. Werner Company. pp. 67ff.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IZExAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA67","url_text":"History of the Netherlands (Holland and Belgium)"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inscribed_figure
Inscribed figure
["1 Properties","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
Geometric figure which is "snugly enclosed" by another figure Inscribed circles of various polygons An inscribed triangle of a circle A tetrahedron (red) inscribed in a cube (yellow) which is, in turn, inscribed in a rhombic triacontahedron (grey).(Click here for rotating model) In geometry, an inscribed planar shape or solid is one that is enclosed by and "fits snugly" inside another geometric shape or solid. To say that "figure F is inscribed in figure G" means precisely the same thing as "figure G is circumscribed about figure F". A circle or ellipse inscribed in a convex polygon (or a sphere or ellipsoid inscribed in a convex polyhedron) is tangent to every side or face of the outer figure (but see Inscribed sphere for semantic variants). A polygon inscribed in a circle, ellipse, or polygon (or a polyhedron inscribed in a sphere, ellipsoid, or polyhedron) has each vertex on the outer figure; if the outer figure is a polygon or polyhedron, there must be a vertex of the inscribed polygon or polyhedron on each side of the outer figure. An inscribed figure is not necessarily unique in orientation; this can easily be seen, for example, when the given outer figure is a circle, in which case a rotation of an inscribed figure gives another inscribed figure that is congruent to the original one. Familiar examples of inscribed figures include circles inscribed in triangles or regular polygons, and triangles or regular polygons inscribed in circles. A circle inscribed in any polygon is called its incircle, in which case the polygon is said to be a tangential polygon. A polygon inscribed in a circle is said to be a cyclic polygon, and the circle is said to be its circumscribed circle or circumcircle. The inradius or filling radius of a given outer figure is the radius of the inscribed circle or sphere, if it exists. The definition given above assumes that the objects concerned are embedded in two- or three-dimensional Euclidean space, but can easily be generalized to higher dimensions and other metric spaces. For an alternative usage of the term "inscribed", see the inscribed square problem, in which a square is considered to be inscribed in another figure (even a non-convex one) if all four of its vertices are on that figure. Properties Every circle has an inscribed triangle with any three given angle measures (summing of course to 180°), and every triangle can be inscribed in some circle (which is called its circumscribed circle or circumcircle). Every triangle has an inscribed circle, called the incircle. Every circle has an inscribed regular polygon of n sides, for any n ≥ 3, and every regular polygon can be inscribed in some circle (called its circumcircle). Every regular polygon has an inscribed circle (called its incircle), and every circle can be inscribed in some regular polygon of n sides, for any n ≥ 3. Not every polygon with more than three sides has an inscribed circle; those polygons that do are called tangential polygons. Not every polygon with more than three sides is an inscribed polygon of a circle; those polygons that are so inscribed are called cyclic polygons. Every triangle can be inscribed in an ellipse, called its Steiner circumellipse or simply its Steiner ellipse, whose center is the triangle's centroid. Every triangle has an infinitude of inscribed ellipses. One of them is a circle, and one of them is the Steiner inellipse which is tangent to the triangle at the midpoints of the sides. Every acute triangle has three inscribed squares. In a right triangle two of them are merged and coincide with each other, so there are only two distinct inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has a single inscribed square, with one side coinciding with part of the triangle's longest side. A Reuleaux triangle, or more generally any curve of constant width, can be inscribed with any orientation inside a square of the appropriate size. See also Circumconic and inconic Cyclic quadrilateral References ^ Sanders, J. Edward; Zerr, G. B. M. (1908). "193". The American Mathematical Monthly. 15 (10): 189–190. doi:10.2307/2969584. JSTOR 2969584. External links Inscribed and circumscribed figures. A.B. Ivanov (originator), Encyclopedia of Mathematics.
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A circle or ellipse inscribed in a convex polygon (or a sphere or ellipsoid inscribed in a convex polyhedron) is tangent to every side or face of the outer figure (but see Inscribed sphere for semantic variants). A polygon inscribed in a circle, ellipse, or polygon (or a polyhedron inscribed in a sphere, ellipsoid, or polyhedron) has each vertex on the outer figure; if the outer figure is a polygon or polyhedron, there must be a vertex of the inscribed polygon or polyhedron on each side of the outer figure. An inscribed figure is not necessarily unique in orientation; this can easily be seen, for example, when the given outer figure is a circle, in which case a rotation of an inscribed figure gives another inscribed figure that is congruent to the original one.Familiar examples of inscribed figures include circles inscribed in triangles or regular polygons, and triangles or regular polygons inscribed in circles. A circle inscribed in any polygon is called its incircle, in which case the polygon is said to be a tangential polygon. A polygon inscribed in a circle is said to be a cyclic polygon, and the circle is said to be its circumscribed circle or circumcircle.The inradius or filling radius of a given outer figure is the radius of the inscribed circle or sphere, if it exists.The definition given above assumes that the objects concerned are embedded in two- or three-dimensional Euclidean space, but can easily be generalized to higher dimensions and other metric spaces.For an alternative usage of the term \"inscribed\", see the inscribed square problem, in which a square is considered to be inscribed in another figure (even a non-convex one) if all four of its vertices are on that figure.","title":"Inscribed figure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"angle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle"},{"link_name":"circumscribed circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumscribed_circle"},{"link_name":"incircle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incircle_and_excircles_of_a_triangle"},{"link_name":"tangential polygons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangential_polygon"},{"link_name":"cyclic polygons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_polygon"},{"link_name":"Steiner circumellipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steiner_circumellipse"},{"link_name":"centroid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centroid"},{"link_name":"ellipses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellipse"},{"link_name":"Steiner inellipse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steiner_inellipse"},{"link_name":"three inscribed squares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangle#Figures_inscribed_in_a_triangle"},{"link_name":"Reuleaux triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuleaux_triangle"},{"link_name":"curve of constant width","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curve_of_constant_width"},{"link_name":"orientation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orientation_(geometry)"}],"text":"Every circle has an inscribed triangle with any three given angle measures (summing of course to 180°), and every triangle can be inscribed in some circle (which is called its circumscribed circle or circumcircle).\nEvery triangle has an inscribed circle, called the incircle.\nEvery circle has an inscribed regular polygon of n sides, for any n ≥ 3, and every regular polygon can be inscribed in some circle (called its circumcircle).\nEvery regular polygon has an inscribed circle (called its incircle), and every circle can be inscribed in some regular polygon of n sides, for any n ≥ 3.\nNot every polygon with more than three sides has an inscribed circle; those polygons that do are called tangential polygons. Not every polygon with more than three sides is an inscribed polygon of a circle; those polygons that are so inscribed are called cyclic polygons.\nEvery triangle can be inscribed in an ellipse, called its Steiner circumellipse or simply its Steiner ellipse, whose center is the triangle's centroid.\nEvery triangle has an infinitude of inscribed ellipses. One of them is a circle, and one of them is the Steiner inellipse which is tangent to the triangle at the midpoints of the sides.\nEvery acute triangle has three inscribed squares. In a right triangle two of them are merged and coincide with each other, so there are only two distinct inscribed squares. An obtuse triangle has a single inscribed square, with one side coinciding with part of the triangle's longest side.\nA Reuleaux triangle, or more generally any curve of constant width, can be inscribed with any orientation inside a square of the appropriate size.","title":"Properties"}]
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[{"title":"Circumconic and inconic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumconic_and_inconic"},{"title":"Cyclic quadrilateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_quadrilateral"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecil_Howard_Green
Cecil Howard Green
["1 Biography","2 Philanthropy","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]
British-born American geophysicist, engineer and electronics executive This article is about the educational philanthropist. For the racing driver, see Cecil Green. Cecil Howard GreenKBECecil Green (mid 1980s)Born(1900-08-06)August 6, 1900Whitefield, EnglandDiedApril 11, 2003(2003-04-11) (aged 102)La Jolla, San Diego, CaliforniaEducation1924, BSEE, MSEE Massachusetts Institute of TechnologyAlma materUniversity of British Columbia MITKnown for Cofounder of Texas Instruments(1951) Chairman of GSI (1955–1959) President of GSI (1951–1955) Vice president of GSI (1941–1951) SpouseIda GreenAwardsPublic Welfare MedalRevelle Medal Cecil Howard Green KBE (August 6, 1900 – April 11, 2003) was a British-born American geophysicist, electrical engineer, and electronics manufacturing executive, who trained at the University of British Columbia and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was a cofounder of Texas Instruments. He and his wife Ida Green were philanthropists who helped found the University of Texas at Dallas, Green College at the University of British Columbia, St. Mark's School of Texas, and Green College at the University of Oxford. They were also major contributors to the Cecil H. Green Library at Stanford University, the Cecil H. & Ida Green Graduate and Professional Center at the Colorado School of Mines, the Cecil H. & Ida Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at the University of California San Diego, the Cecil & Ida Green Building for earth sciences at MIT (designed by I.M. Pei), and the Cecil and Ida Green Tower (the headquarters of the international Society of Exploration Geophysicists in Tulsa, OK). Biography Born in Whitefield, England, in 1900, Green and his family migrated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada and San Francisco, United States, where he witnessed the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The family moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, where Green attended UBC for two years before transferring to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, earning both a bachelor's and master's degree in electrical engineering in 1924. Green met Ida Flansburgh in 1923 while working on his master's thesis at the General Electric Research Center in Schenectady, New York. They were married for 60 years, until her death in 1986. In 1941, Green and his partners J. Erik Jonsson, Eugene McDermott and H.B. Peacock bought Geophysical Service Incorporated (GSI), primarily a petroleum exploration company. GSI began to manufacture a broader range of electronics equipment and instruments during World War II, including anti-submarine sonar detectors. In 1951 GSI spun off Texas Instruments Incorporated (TI) to pursue the manufacture of a broader range of electronics equipment and instruments, while GSI, now as a wholly owned subsidiary of TI, continued to focus solely on oil exploration services. Green was vice president (1941–1951), president (1951–1955) and chairman of GSI (1955–1959). He was vice president and a director of Texas Instruments and in 1976 was named an honorary director of the company. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1970. In 1978, he was given the inaugural Maurice Ewing Medal of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, its highest award. In 1979 Green and his wife were awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences. In 1985, Green received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Cecil Howard Green died in 2003 at the age of 102. Philanthropy The growth of TI made Green an enormously wealthy man, and he and Ida quickly set about giving his wealth away. The Greens' philanthropic efforts totalled over $200 million, and most of this money was given to education and medicine. He was given an honorary knighthood in 1991 (at age 91) by Queen Elizabeth II. One gift was the founding of the Cecil H. and Ida M. Green branch of the University of California Systemwide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP). This branch is located at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. It was because of Green's gift that Green College, Oxford was founded in 1979. Green College merged with Templeton College in 2008 to become Green Templeton College, on the site of what was previously Green College. Some of Green's philanthropy at the University of British Columbia (UBC) was encouraged by William Carleton Gibson, a neurologist in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Both Gibson and Green referred to Gibson as "Cecil Green's most expensive friend" due to his encouragement to fund the Cecil and Ida Green Visiting Professorship and Green College, University of British Columbia. In 1998, the UBC Alumni Association gave Green and Gibson alumni "Lifetime Achievement Awards" in recognition of their support for the university. See also Cecil H. Green Library Green College, Oxford Green College, University of British Columbia References ^ "The Revelle Medal". ^ "Green interested in education, wife shares interest" (PDF). The Tech. October 7, 1964. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 7, 2016. Retrieved January 9, 2018. ^ Cecil H. and Ida M. Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (2006-07-12). "History Cecil and Ida Green: Benefactors and philanthropists". IGPP web site. Archived from the original on 2007-02-17. Retrieved 2007-03-05. ^ Texas Instruments. "Founders' Biographies – Cecil H. Green". TI web site. Retrieved 2007-03-05. ^ "Philanthropist Cecil Green dies at 102" (Press release). MIT News Office. 2003-04-18. Retrieved 2007-03-05. ^ a b c "News Releases". Texas Instruments News Center. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2013-05-01. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter G" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 7 April 2011. ^ "Public Welfare Award". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2011. ^ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement. ^ Lewis, Paul (15 April 2003). "Cecil H. Green, 102, Dies; Texas Instruments Founder". The New York Times. Retrieved 16 September 2023. ^ "Home – Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics". www.igpp.ucsd.edu. ^ "Philanthropist, student leader, World Cup medalist to get alumni honours". UBC Reports. University of British Columbia Public Affairs Office. October 1, 1998. p. 8. Archived from the original on May 20, 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-23. This issue of UBC Reports is also online in PDF form. ^ "Student, business leaders earn alumni awards". UBC Reports. University of British Columbia Public Affairs Office. May 21, 1998. p. 8. Archived from the original on May 20, 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-23. This issue of UBC Reports is also online in PDF form. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Cecil Howard Green. Cecil Green's trips to Arabia, 1939 & 1978 List of Cecil and Ida Green philanthropies Cecil H. Green: An Oral History, Stanford Historical Society, 1989 Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Other SNAC
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cecil Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecil_Green"},{"link_name":"KBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"geophysicist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysicist"},{"link_name":"University of British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"philanthropists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philanthropist"},{"link_name":"University of Texas at Dallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Dallas"},{"link_name":"Green College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_College,_University_of_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"University of British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"St. Mark's School of Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Mark%27s_School_of_Texas"},{"link_name":"Green College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"University of Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Cecil H. Green Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecil_H._Green_Library"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"Colorado School of Mines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_School_of_Mines"},{"link_name":"University of California San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_San_Diego"},{"link_name":"Cecil & Ida Green Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Building_(MIT)"},{"link_name":"I.M. Pei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I.M._Pei"},{"link_name":"Society of Exploration Geophysicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Exploration_Geophysicists"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"This article is about the educational philanthropist. For the racing driver, see Cecil Green.Cecil Howard Green KBE (August 6, 1900 – April 11, 2003) was a British-born American geophysicist, electrical engineer, and electronics manufacturing executive, who trained at the University of British Columbia and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.He was a cofounder of Texas Instruments. He and his wife Ida Green were philanthropists who helped found the University of Texas at Dallas, Green College at the University of British Columbia, St. Mark's School of Texas, and Green College at the University of Oxford. They were also major contributors to the Cecil H. Green Library at Stanford University, the Cecil H. & Ida Green Graduate and Professional Center at the Colorado School of Mines, the Cecil H. & Ida Green Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics at the University of California San Diego, the Cecil & Ida Green Building for earth sciences at MIT (designed by I.M. Pei), and the Cecil and Ida Green Tower (the headquarters of the international Society of Exploration Geophysicists in Tulsa, OK).[2]","title":"Cecil Howard Green"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Whitefield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitefield,_Greater_Manchester"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"Toronto, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"1906 San Francisco earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_San_Francisco_earthquake"},{"link_name":"Vancouver, British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"UBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scripps_UCSD-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TI_2003-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MIT_2003-5"},{"link_name":"General Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"Schenectady, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schenectady,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tinews-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tinews-6"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tinews-6"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAAS-7"},{"link_name":"Maurice Ewing Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Ewing_Medal"},{"link_name":"Public Welfare Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Welfare_Medal"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PublicWelfare-8"},{"link_name":"American Academy of Achievement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Achievement"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Born in Whitefield, England, in 1900, Green and his family migrated to Toronto, Ontario, Canada and San Francisco, United States, where he witnessed the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The family moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, where Green attended UBC for two years before transferring to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, earning both a bachelor's and master's degree in electrical engineering in 1924.[3][4][5]Green met Ida Flansburgh in 1923 while working on his master's thesis at the General Electric Research Center in Schenectady, New York. They were married for 60 years, until her death in 1986.[6]In 1941, Green and his partners J. Erik Jonsson, Eugene McDermott and H.B. Peacock bought Geophysical Service Incorporated (GSI), primarily a petroleum exploration company.[6] GSI began to manufacture a broader range of electronics equipment and instruments during World War II, including anti-submarine sonar detectors. In 1951 GSI spun off Texas Instruments Incorporated (TI) to pursue the manufacture of a broader range of electronics equipment and instruments, while GSI, now as a wholly owned subsidiary of TI, continued to focus solely on oil exploration services.[6]Green was vice president (1941–1951), president (1951–1955) and chairman of GSI (1955–1959). He was vice president and a director of Texas Instruments and in 1976 was named an honorary director of the company. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1970.[7]\nIn 1978, he was given the inaugural Maurice Ewing Medal of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists, its highest award.\nIn 1979 Green and his wife were awarded the Public Welfare Medal from the National Academy of Sciences.[8] In 1985, Green received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.[9]Cecil Howard Green died in 2003 at the age of 102.[10]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"honorary knighthood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_knighthood"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"University of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California"},{"link_name":"Scripps Institution of Oceanography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripps_Institution_of_Oceanography"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IGPP-11"},{"link_name":"Green College, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Templeton College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templeton_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"Green Templeton College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Templeton_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"University of British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"William Carleton Gibson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Carleton_Gibson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"neurologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurologist"},{"link_name":"Victoria, British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria,_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Green College, University of British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_College,_University_of_British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UBC_Reports_1998/10-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UBC_Reports_1998/05-13"}],"text":"The growth of TI made Green an enormously wealthy man, and he and Ida quickly set about giving his wealth away. The Greens' philanthropic efforts totalled over $200 million, and most of this money was given to education and medicine. He was given an honorary knighthood in 1991 (at age 91) by Queen Elizabeth II.One gift was the founding of the Cecil H. and Ida M. Green branch of the University of California Systemwide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP). This branch is located at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography.[11]It was because of Green's gift that Green College, Oxford was founded in 1979. Green College merged with Templeton College in 2008 to become Green Templeton College, on the site of what was previously Green College.Some of Green's philanthropy at the University of British Columbia (UBC) was encouraged by William Carleton Gibson, a neurologist in Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Both Gibson and Green referred to Gibson as \"Cecil Green's most expensive friend\" due to his encouragement to fund the Cecil and Ida Green Visiting Professorship and Green College, University of British Columbia. In 1998, the UBC Alumni Association gave Green and Gibson alumni \"Lifetime Achievement Awards\" in recognition of their support for the university.[12][13]","title":"Philanthropy"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Iran)
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Iran)
["1 Ministers and officials","2 Assigned activities","3 Building","4 See also","5 References"]
Coordinates: 35°41′15.22″N 51°25′2.26″E / 35.6875611°N 51.4172944°E / 35.6875611; 51.4172944Iranian government ministry Ministry of Foreign Affairsوزارت امور خارجهLogo of the Iran Ministry of Foreign AffairsFlag of the Iran Ministry of Foreign AffairsMinistry Building (Shahrbani Palace)Agency overviewFormed15 October 1821; 202 years ago (1821-10-15)JurisdictionGovernment of the Islamic Republic of IranHeadquartersNational Garden, TehranEmployees3,518 (2019)Annual budget31.4 billion Iranian Rial (2021)Minister responsibleAli Bagheri (acting)Websitemfa.gov.ir The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Persian: وزارت امور خارجه, romanized: Vezārat-e Omūr-e Khārejeh) is an Iranian government ministry headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who is a member of cabinet. The office is currently held by Ali Bagheri after the death of Hossein Amir-Abdollahian. Foreign policy decisions are made in the Supreme National Security Council and according to Ali Khamenei's high courts.35°41′15.22″N 51°25′2.26″E / 35.6875611°N 51.4172944°E / 35.6875611; 51.4172944 Ministers and officials The first minister of foreign affairs of Iran was Mirza Abdulvahab Khan, who served from 1821 to 1823. The Office of the Minister is currently vacant following the death of Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, who was appointed on 25 August 2021 to succeed Mohammad Javad Zarif. The current officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs are: Minister of Foreign Affairs – Ali Bagheri (Acting) Deputy for Political Affairs – Ali Bagheri Deputy for Legal & International Affairs – Reza Najafi Deputy for Economic Diplomacy Affairs – Mehdi Safari Deputy for Consular, Parliament and Iranians Affairs – Alireza Bigdeli Deputy for Administrative and Financial Affairs – Mohammad Fathali Spokesman & Head of the Center for Public and Media Diplomacy – Nasser Kanaani Head of the Center for Political and International Studies – Mohammad Hassan Sheykholeslami The Minister Senior Assistant in Special Political Affairs – Ali Asghar Khaji Assigned activities Since 5 September 2013, the Ministry has been responsible for the negotiation of the Comprehensive agreement on Iranian nuclear program, which had previously been carried out by the Supreme National Security Council. In 2023 ministry and president began an Africa tour of 3 states to boost relations. Building The building of the Ministry was completed in 1939. Minister's office Foreign Ministry Reception Hall Shahrbani Palace One of the buildings of the Foreign Ministry Entrance of the 8th building Entrance of the Main building United Nations street Windows and balconies Shahrbani Palace (2) Shahrbani Palace (3) South side See also Iran portal Politics of Iran Foreign relations of Iran Minister of Foreign Affairs (Iran) Commission of National-Security and Foreign-Policy (of Islamic Parliament of I.R.Iran) References ^ "تاریخ وزارت امور خارجه ایران". Tebyan (in Persian). 9 October 2016. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021. ^ جزییات تعداد کارمندان دولت در سال ۹۷ Archived 8 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine Tasnim News ^ "افزایش بودجه وزارت خارجه/ رشد ۷۶ درصدی اعتبارات دستگاه دیپلماسی". Mehr News (in Persian). 4 January 2021. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2021. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 23 March 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ "Iran's Rouhani shifts responsibility for nuclear talks". BBC News. 5 September 2013. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 5 September 2013. ^ "Iran's President to Set Out on Rare Africa Tour". VOA. 10 July 2023. ^ "Iran and Sudan look to restore diplomatic ties". Reuters. 6 July 2023. ^ "Saudi Foreign Minister Arrives in Tehran Amid Rapprochement: Iran TV". VOA. 17 June 2023. ^ "Architecture. Pahlavi, before World War II". Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 4 January 2018. Retrieved 22 August 2013. vte Foreign relations of IranAfrica Algeria Burkina Faso Egypt Gambia Ghana Kenya Libya Morocco Senegal South Africa Sudan Tunisia Americas Argentina Bolivia Brazil Canada Cuba Ecuador Mexico United States after 1979 Uruguay Venezuela Asia Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh China Georgia History India Indonesia Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Lebanon Malaysia North Korea Oman Pakistan Palestine Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia South Korea Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Europe Albania Belarus Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Holy See Italy Kosovo Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom Oceania Australia Former Rome Yugoslavia Multilateral relations Arab League European Union NATO Disputes Nuclear program of Iran Views on the nuclear program of Iran Iran–Israel proxy conflict Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict Israeli–Sunni Coalition Sanctions U.S. sanctions Related Ministry of Foreign Affairs Minister of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic missions of / in Iran Trade Promotion Organization of Iran Foreign direct investment in Iran Propaganda in Iran Iranian diaspora Ambassadors from Iran vteMinistries of Iran Education Communications and Information Technology Intelligence Economic Affairs and Finance Foreign Affairs Health and Medical Education Agriculture Justice Defence Science, Research and Technology Culture and Islamic Guidance Interior Petroleum Energy Sport and Youth Roads and Urban Development Industry, Mine and Trade Cooperatives, Labour, and Social Welfare Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism vteForeign affairs ministries of the worldAfrica Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burundi Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Kenya Lesotho Liberia Mauritania Morocco Niger Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Seychelles Somalia Somaliland South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Americas Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominican Republic Guatemala Guyana Haiti Jamaica Mexico Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis United States Uruguay Venezuela Asia Afghanistan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China East Timor India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Kazakhstan Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Myanmar Mongolia Nepal North Korea Oman Pakistan Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore South Korea Sri Lanka Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Vietnam Europe Albania Andorra Austria Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Kosovo Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City Oceania Australia Fiji Kiribati New Zealand Former Czechoslovakia Ottoman Empire Qing dynasty Republic of China (Mainland) Soviet Union Yugoslavia
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Persian"},{"link_name":"Iranian government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_government"},{"link_name":"Minister of Foreign Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Iran)"},{"link_name":"Ali Bagheri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Bagheri"},{"link_name":"Hossein Amir-Abdollahian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hossein_Amir-Abdollahian"},{"link_name":"Supreme National Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_National_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"Ali Khamenei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Khamenei"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"35°41′15.22″N 51°25′2.26″E / 35.6875611°N 51.4172944°E / 35.6875611; 51.4172944","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Iran)&params=35_41_15.22_N_51_25_2.26_E_"}],"text":"Iranian government ministryThe Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Persian: وزارت امور خارجه, romanized: Vezārat-e Omūr-e Khārejeh) is an Iranian government ministry headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, who is a member of cabinet. The office is currently held by Ali Bagheri after the death of Hossein Amir-Abdollahian.Foreign policy decisions are made in the Supreme National Security Council and according to Ali Khamenei's high courts.[4]35°41′15.22″N 51°25′2.26″E / 35.6875611°N 51.4172944°E / 35.6875611; 51.4172944","title":"Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Iran)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Mirza Abdulvahab Khan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mirza_Abdulvahab_Khan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hossein Amir-Abdollahian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hossein_Amir-Abdollahian"},{"link_name":"Mohammad Javad Zarif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Javad_Zarif"},{"link_name":"Ali Bagheri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Bagheri"},{"link_name":"Ali Bagheri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Bagheri"},{"link_name":"Spokesman & Head of the Center for Public and Media Diplomacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokesperson_for_the_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_of_Iran"},{"link_name":"Nasser Kanaani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasser_Kanaani"},{"link_name":"Center for Political and International Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Political_and_International_Studies"}],"text":"The first minister of foreign affairs of Iran was Mirza Abdulvahab Khan, who served from 1821 to 1823. The Office of the Minister is currently vacant following the death of Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, who was appointed on 25 August 2021 to succeed Mohammad Javad Zarif.The current officials of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs are:Minister of Foreign Affairs – Ali Bagheri (Acting)\nDeputy for Political Affairs – Ali Bagheri\nDeputy for Legal & International Affairs – Reza Najafi\nDeputy for Economic Diplomacy Affairs – Mehdi Safari\nDeputy for Consular, Parliament and Iranians Affairs – Alireza Bigdeli\nDeputy for Administrative and Financial Affairs – Mohammad Fathali\nSpokesman & Head of the Center for Public and Media Diplomacy – Nasser Kanaani\nHead of the Center for Political and International Studies – Mohammad Hassan Sheykholeslami\nThe Minister Senior Assistant in Special Political Affairs – Ali Asghar Khaji","title":"Ministers and officials"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Comprehensive agreement on Iranian nuclear program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_agreement_on_Iranian_nuclear_program"},{"link_name":"Supreme National Security Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_National_Security_Council"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bbc-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Since 5 September 2013, the Ministry has been responsible for the negotiation of the Comprehensive agreement on Iranian nuclear program, which had previously been carried out by the Supreme National Security Council.[5]In 2023 ministry and president began an Africa tour of 3 states to boost relations.[6][7][8]","title":"Assigned activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iran_Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_building.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FM.IRAN.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ministery_of_Foreign_Affairs.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MFA_IRAN.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ministry_of_Foreign_Affairs_of_Iran.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kakh_Shahrbani_Bagh-e_Melli.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IRAN.FM.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kakh_Shahrbani_Achaemenid_architecture.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shahrbani_-_Arash_G_Tehrani_2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shahrbani_-_Arash_G_Tehrani.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sakhtemaan-_Vezaarat-e_Omur-e_Khaareje.JPG"}],"text":"The building of the Ministry was completed in 1939.[9]Minister's office\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tForeign Ministry Reception Hall\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShahrbani Palace\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOne of the buildings of the Foreign Ministry\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEntrance of the 8th building\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEntrance of the Main building\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tUnited Nations street\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWindows and balconies\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShahrbani Palace (2)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShahrbani Palace (3)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSouth side","title":"Building"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir_Damad
Mir Damad
["1 Philosophy","2 Architecture","3 Family","4 Works","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
Iranian philosopher Bust of Mir Damad This article is about the philosopher. For the boulevard in Tehran, see Mirdamad Boulevard. Mir Damad (Persian: ميرداماد) (c. 1561 – 1631/1632), known also as Mir Mohammad Baqer Esterabadi, or Asterabadi, was a Twelver Shia Iranian philosopher in the Neoplatonizing Islamic Peripatetic traditions of Avicenna. He also was a Suhrawardi, a scholar of the traditional Islamic sciences, and foremost figure (together with his student Mulla Sadra) of the cultural renaissance of Iran undertaken under the Safavid dynasty. He was also the central founder of the School of Isfahan, noted by his students and admirers as the Third Teacher (mu'alim al-thalith) after Aristotle and al-Farabi. Philosophy His major contribution to Islamic philosophy was his novel formulation regarding gradations of time and the emanations of the separate categories of time as descending divine hypostases. He resolved the controversy of the createdness or uncreatedness of the world in time by proposing the notion of huduth-e-dahri (atemporal origination) as an explanation grounded in Avicennan and Suhrawardian categories, whilst transcending them. In brief, excepting God, he argued all things, including the earth and all heavenly bodies, share in both eternal and temporal origination. He influenced the revival of al-falsafa al-yamani (Philosophy of Yemen), a philosophy based on revelation and sayings of prophets rather than the rationalism of the Greeks, and he is widely recognized as the founder of the School of Isfahan, which embraced a theosophical outlook known as hikmat-i ilahi (divine wisdom). Mir Damad’s many treatises on Islamic philosophy include Taqwim al-Iman (Calendars of Faith, a treasure on creation and divine knowledge), the Kitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah (Book of the Divine Embers of Fiery Kindling), wherein he lays out his concept of atemporal origination, Kitab al-Jadhawat and Sirat al-Mustaqim. He also wrote poetry under the pseudonym of Ishraq (Illumination). He also wrote a couple of books on mathematics, but with secondary importance. Among his many other students besides Mulla Sadra were Seyyed Ahmad-ibn-Reyn-al-A’bedin Alavi, Mohammad ibn Alireza ibn Agajanii, Qutb-al-Din Mohammad Ashkevari and Mulla Shams Gilani. Mir Damad's philosophical prose is often accounted as being among the most dense and obtusely difficult of styles to understand, deliberately employing as well as coining convoluted philosophical terminology and neologisms that require systematic analysis and detailed commentary. He was called Mir Damad (Groom of the King) because he married Shah Abbas's daughter and hence his fame was based on that event. Architecture Mir Damad was also the architect of the Masjide Shah (Shah Mosque) in Isfahan which employed highly advanced mathematical calculations which required the knowledge of the speed of sound at that time. The geometry of the dome is as such that all sound dissipated from the base will echo in hundreds of carefully calculated and masterly executed interior corners of the dome which will ultimately collide in the center of the dome. The geometrical analysis of the dome is of absolute sophistication and the design of the dome is a magnificent piece of art and furthermore the construction of such dome in the 17th century to a precision where all sound waves must travel and collide in an imaginary point above. Family His son was Seyed Ali Naghi Astarabadi and his grandson was Sayyid Mahdi bin Sayyid Ali Naqi. His daughter was the wife of Sayyid Ahmad ibn Zayn al-Abidin Alavi. This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the article. There might be a discussion about this on the talk page. (July 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The man has not been seen: Seyyed Ali Naqi Ibn Al-Seyyed Al-Musa (father of three sons: Seyyed Kamal Hassanzadeh Hafshjani, Seyyed Musa Hassanzadeh Hafshjani, Seyyed Mohammad Hafshjani and three daughters: Seyyed Ala Ala Begum Hassanzadeh Esther Shamsabadi, who had a special reputation): Mirza Nasrollah  Karimian, Mirza Assadollah Karimian, Mirza Ali Karimian, Mirza Mehdi Karimian (father of musician Kaveh Karimian), Mirza Reza Karimian, Mirza Jalal Karimian, Mirza Hassan (father of Dr. Milad Karimian), Mirza Taghi Karimian, Seyedeh Tajzadeh Astarabad, Seyedeh Aghabazadeh, Hassanzadeh family). Male result: Sayyid Hassan bin Al-Sayyid Mahdi Works Among his 134 works known: Taqwim al-Iman (Calendars of Faith) Kitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah (Book of the Divine Embers of Fiery Kindling) Kitab al-Jadhawat (Book of Spiritual Attractions) Sirat al-Mustaqim (The Straight Path) See also Islamic scholars List of Iranian scholars Sayyid Husayn Ahlati References ^ S.H. Nasr (2006), Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy, State University of New York Press, p. 214: "Some 134 works of Mir Damad have been identified ..." Further reading Ian Richard Netton (2013). Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion. Routledge, Oxon, UK. ISBN 1135179670. Encyclopædia Iranica: Mir Damad. Webster Encyclopedia of Religion. Rizvi, Sajjad H. (2006). "Between Time and Eternity: Mīr Dāmād on God's Creative Agency". Journal of Islamic Studies. 17 (2). Oxford University Press: 158–176. doi:10.1093/jis/etl003. External links Islamic Philosophy Online vteIslamic philosophyFields Alchemy Aqidah (theology) 'Aql (intellect) Cosmology astrology medieval astronomy Eschatology Ethics Kalam (dialectic) Fiqh (jurisprudence) Logic Metaphysics Natural philosophy (physics) Peace Madrasah (education) Medieval science Medieval psychology Sufism (mysticism) Schools Early Farabism Avicennism Averroism Illuminationism Sufi cosmology metaphysics psychology Transcendent theosophy Traditionalist Contemporary Concepts ʻAṣabīya Ḥāl Iʻjaz ʼIjtihād ʻIlm ʻIrfān Ijmāʿ Maslaha Nafs Qadar Qalb Qiyās Shūrā Tawḥīd Ummah Philosophers by century (CE)9th–10th Al-Kindi Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri Abu Bakr al-Razi Apharabius Abu Hatim al-Razi Al Amiri Ikhwan al-Safa Abu Sulayman Sijistani Ibn Masarrah Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani 11th Al-Ghazali Ibn Miskawayh Avicenna Ibn Hazm Bahmanyār Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi Nasir Khusraw Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani 12th Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī Afdal al-Din Kashani Ahi Evren Ahmad Yasavi Ayn-al-Quzat Averroes Ibn Tufail Omar Khayyám Suhrawardi Shams Tabrizi 13th Hajji Bektash Wali Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi Ibn Sab’in Ibn Arabi al-Abharī Nasir al-Din Tusi Fakhr al-Din al-Razi Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi Ibn Taymiyya 14th–16th Ibn Khaldun Yunus Emre Hajji Bayram Jalaladdin Davani Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki Aziz Mahmud Hudayi Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi Mahmud Shabistari Sayyid Haydar Amuli Dawūd al-Qayṣarī Jami 17th–19th Mir Damad Mir Fendereski Mulla Sadra Mohsen Fayz Kashani Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani Rajab Ali Tabrizi Qazi Sa’id Qumi Shah Waliullah Dehlawi Hādī Sabzavārī 20th–present Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei Muhammad Iqbal Gohar Shahi Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr René Guénon Frithjof Schuon Martin Lings Hossein Nasr Naquib al-Attas Abdolkarim Soroush Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani Taha Abdurrahman Mohammed Abed al-Jabri Mohammed Arkoun Fouad Zakariyya Reza Davari Ardakani Ahmad Fardid Mostafa Malekian Hasanzadeh Amoli Javadi Amoli Partawi Shah Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Sweden Netherlands Other IdRef İslâm Ansiklopedisi
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Head_Statue_of_Mir_Damad%E2%80%93%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF.png"},{"link_name":"Mirdamad Boulevard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirdamad_Boulevard"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Iranian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"philosopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy"},{"link_name":"Neoplatonizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism"},{"link_name":"Islamic Peripatetic traditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Avicenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna"},{"link_name":"Suhrawardi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahab_al-Din_Suhrawardi"},{"link_name":"Mulla Sadra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulla_Sadra"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Safavid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid"},{"link_name":"School of Isfahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_Isfahan"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"al-Farabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Farabi"}],"text":"Bust of Mir DamadThis article is about the philosopher. For the boulevard in Tehran, see Mirdamad Boulevard.Mir Damad (Persian: ميرداماد) (c. 1561 – 1631/1632), known also as Mir Mohammad Baqer Esterabadi, or Asterabadi, was a Twelver Shia Iranian philosopher in the Neoplatonizing Islamic Peripatetic traditions of Avicenna. He also was a Suhrawardi, a scholar of the traditional Islamic sciences, and foremost figure (together with his student Mulla Sadra) of the cultural renaissance of Iran undertaken under the Safavid dynasty. He was also the central founder of the School of Isfahan, noted by his students and admirers as the Third Teacher (mu'alim al-thalith) after Aristotle and al-Farabi.","title":"Mir Damad"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Islamic philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Philosophy of Yemen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_Yemen&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"rationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism"},{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_philosophy"},{"link_name":"theosophical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)"},{"link_name":"Taqwim al-Iman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taqwim_al-Iman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kitab_Qabasat_al-Ilahiyah&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kitab al-Jadhawat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kitab_al-Jadhawat&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sirat al-Mustaqim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirat_al-Mustaqim"},{"link_name":"Mulla Sadra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulla_Sadra"},{"link_name":"Qutb-al-Din Mohammad Ashkevari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qutb-al-Din_Mohammad_Ashkevari&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mulla Shams Gilani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mulla_Shams_Gilani&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shah Abbas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia"}],"text":"His major contribution to Islamic philosophy was his novel formulation regarding gradations of time and the emanations of the separate categories of time as descending divine hypostases. He resolved the controversy of the createdness or uncreatedness of the world in time by proposing the notion of huduth-e-dahri (atemporal origination) as an explanation grounded in Avicennan and Suhrawardian categories, whilst transcending them. In brief, excepting God, he argued all things, including the earth and all heavenly bodies, share in both eternal and temporal origination. He influenced the revival of al-falsafa al-yamani (Philosophy of Yemen), a philosophy based on revelation and sayings of prophets rather than the rationalism of the Greeks, and he is widely recognized as the founder of the School of Isfahan, which embraced a theosophical outlook known as hikmat-i ilahi (divine wisdom).Mir Damad’s many treatises on Islamic philosophy include Taqwim al-Iman (Calendars of Faith, a treasure on creation and divine knowledge), the Kitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah (Book of the Divine Embers of Fiery Kindling), wherein he lays out his concept of atemporal origination, Kitab al-Jadhawat and Sirat al-Mustaqim. He also wrote poetry under the pseudonym of Ishraq (Illumination). He also wrote a couple of books on mathematics, but with secondary importance.Among his many other students besides Mulla Sadra were Seyyed Ahmad-ibn-Reyn-al-A’bedin Alavi, Mohammad ibn Alireza ibn Agajanii, Qutb-al-Din Mohammad Ashkevari and Mulla Shams Gilani.Mir Damad's philosophical prose is often accounted as being among the most dense and obtusely difficult of styles to understand, deliberately employing as well as coining convoluted philosophical terminology and neologisms that require systematic analysis and detailed commentary.\nHe was called Mir Damad (Groom of the King) because he married Shah Abbas's daughter and hence his fame was based on that event.","title":"Philosophy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Shah Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Mosque_(Isfahan)"}],"text":"Mir Damad was also the architect of the Masjide Shah (Shah Mosque) in Isfahan which employed highly advanced mathematical calculations which required the knowledge of the speed of sound at that time. The geometry of the dome is as such that all sound dissipated from the base will echo in hundreds of carefully calculated and masterly executed interior corners of the dome which will ultimately collide in the center of the dome. The geometrical analysis of the dome is of absolute sophistication and the design of the dome is a magnificent piece of art and furthermore the construction of such dome in the 17th century to a precision where all sound waves must travel and collide in an imaginary point above.","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"His son was Seyed Ali Naghi Astarabadi and his grandson was Sayyid Mahdi bin Sayyid Ali Naqi. His daughter was the wife of Sayyid Ahmad ibn Zayn al-Abidin Alavi.The man has not been seen: Seyyed Ali Naqi Ibn Al-Seyyed Al-Musa (father of three sons: Seyyed Kamal Hassanzadeh Hafshjani, Seyyed Musa Hassanzadeh Hafshjani, Seyyed Mohammad Hafshjani and three daughters: Seyyed Ala Ala Begum Hassanzadeh Esther Shamsabadi, who had a special reputation): Mirza Nasrollah  Karimian, Mirza Assadollah Karimian, Mirza Ali Karimian, Mirza Mehdi Karimian (father of musician Kaveh Karimian), Mirza Reza Karimian, Mirza Jalal Karimian, Mirza Hassan (father of Dr. Milad Karimian), Mirza Taghi Karimian, Seyedeh Tajzadeh Astarabad, Seyedeh Aghabazadeh, Hassanzadeh family).Male result: Sayyid Hassan bin Al-Sayyid Mahdi","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Taqwim al-Iman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taqwim_al-Iman&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kitab_Qabasat_al-Ilahiyah&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kitab al-Jadhawat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kitab_al-Jadhawat&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sirat al-Mustaqim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirat_al-Mustaqim"}],"text":"Among his 134[1] works known:Taqwim al-Iman (Calendars of Faith)\nKitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah (Book of the Divine Embers of Fiery Kindling)\nKitab al-Jadhawat (Book of Spiritual Attractions)\nSirat al-Mustaqim (The Straight Path)","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=J6JlAgAAQBAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1135179670","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1135179670"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Iranica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica"},{"link_name":"Mir Damad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iranicaonline.org/articles/damad-mir-e-sayyed-mohammad-baqer-b"},{"link_name":"Webster Encyclopedia of Religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ZP_f9icf2roC"},{"link_name":"\"Between Time and Eternity: Mīr Dāmād on God's Creative Agency\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//academic.oup.com/jis/article/17/2/158/688020?searchresult=1"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/jis/etl003","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fjis%2Fetl003"}],"text":"Ian Richard Netton (2013). Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion. Routledge, Oxon, UK. ISBN 1135179670.\nEncyclopædia Iranica: Mir Damad.\nWebster Encyclopedia of Religion.\nRizvi, Sajjad H. (2006). \"Between Time and Eternity: Mīr Dāmād on God's Creative Agency\". Journal of Islamic Studies. 17 (2). Oxford University Press: 158–176. doi:10.1093/jis/etl003.","title":"Further reading"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercing
Body piercing
["1 History","1.1 Ear piercing","1.2 Nose piercing","1.3 Piercings of the lip and tongue","1.4 Nipple, navel and genital piercing","1.5 Growing popularity in the West","1.6 21st century","2 Reasons for piercing","3 Piercing prohibitions and taboos","4 World records","5 Contemporary piercing practices","5.1 Contemporary body piercing jewellery","5.2 Piercing tools","6 Risks associated with body piercing","6.1 The healing process and body piercing aftercare","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"]
Form of body modification For other uses, see Piercing (disambiguation). Nipple piercings, vertical labret piercing and stretched ears Body piercing, which is a form of body modification, is the practice of puncturing or cutting a part of the human body, creating an opening in which jewellery may be worn, or where an implant could be inserted. The word piercing can refer to the act or practice of body piercing, or to an opening in the body created by this act or practice. It can also, by metonymy, refer to the resulting decoration, or to the decorative jewelry used. Piercing implants alter the body and/or skin profile and appearance (e.g. golden threads installed subdermal, platinum, titanium or medical grade steel subdermal implants). Although the history of body piercing is obscured by popular misinformation and by a lack of scholarly reference, ample evidence exists to document that it has been practiced in various forms by multiple sexes since ancient times throughout the world. Body piercing can be performed on people of all ages, although most minors are only permitted to have earlobe piercings. Ear piercing and nose piercing have been particularly widespread and are well represented in historical records and among grave goods. The oldest mummified remains ever discovered had earrings, attesting to the existence of the practice more than 5,000 years ago. Nose piercing is documented as far back as 1500 BCE. Piercings of these types have been documented globally, while lip and tongue piercings were historically found in African cultures and many more but is actually from the Middle East. Nipple and genital piercing have also been practiced by various cultures, with nipple piercing dating back at least to Ancient Rome while genital piercing is described in Ancient India c. 320 to 550 CE. The history of navel piercing is less clear. The practice of body piercing has waxed and waned in Western culture, but it has experienced an increase in popularity since World War II, with sites other than the ears gaining subcultural popularity in the 1970s and spreading to the mainstream in the 1990s. The reasons for piercing or not piercing are varied. Some people pierce for religious or spiritual reasons, while others pierce for self-expression, for aesthetic value, for sexual pleasure, to conform to their culture or to rebel against it. Some forms of piercing remain controversial, particularly when applied to youth. The display or placement of piercings have been restricted by schools, employers and religious groups. In spite of the controversy, some people have practiced extreme forms of body piercing, with Guinness bestowing World Records on individuals with hundreds and even thousands of permanent and temporary piercings. Contemporary body piercing practices emphasize the use of safe body piercing materials, frequently utilizing specialized tools developed for the purpose. Body piercing is an invasive procedure with some risks, including allergic reaction, infection, excessive scarring and unanticipated physical injuries, but such precautions as sanitary piercing procedures and careful aftercare are emphasized to minimize the likelihood of encountering serious problems. The healing time required for a body piercing may vary widely according to placement, from as little as a month for some genital piercings to as much as two full years for the navel. Some piercings may be more complicated, leading to rejection. History An earring found in an Alamannic grave in Germany, dated c. 6th or 7th century Body adornment has only recently become a subject of serious scholarly research by archaeologists, who have been hampered in studying body piercing by a scarcity of primary sources. Early records rarely discussed the use of piercings or their meaning, and while jewellery is common among grave goods, the deterioration of the flesh that it once adorned makes it difficult to discern how the jewellery may have been used. The modern record has been also distorted by the 20th-century inventions of piercing enthusiast Doug Malloy. In the 1960s and 1970s, Malloy marketed contemporary body piercing by giving it the patina of history. His pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief included such commonly reproduced urban legends as the notion that Prince Albert invented the piercing that shares his name in order to diminish the appearance of his large penis in tight trousers, and that Roman centurions attached their capes to nipple piercings. Some of Malloy's myths were reprinted as fact in subsequently published histories of piercing. Ear piercing See also: Earrings A traditional Burmese ear-boring ceremony Ear piercing has been practiced all over the world since ancient times, and there is considerable written and archaeological evidence of the practice. Mummified bodies with pierced ears have been discovered, including the oldest mummified body discovered to date, the 5,300-year-old Ötzi the Iceman, which was found in a glacier in Italy. The mummy had an ear piercing 7–11 mm (0.28–0.43 in) in diameter. The oldest earrings found in a grave date to 2500 BCE. These were located in the Sumerian city of Ur, home of the Biblical patriarch Abraham. Earrings are mentioned in the Bible. In Genesis 35:4, Jacob buries the earrings worn by members of his household along with their idols. In Exodus 32, Aaron makes the golden calf from melted earrings. Deuteronomy 15:12–17 dictates ear piercing for a slave who chooses not to be freed. Earrings are also referenced in connection to the Hindu goddess Lakshmi in the Vedas. Earrings for pierced ears were found in a grave in the Ukok region between Russia and China dated between 400 and 300 BCE. A Karen woman from Burma with traditional ear plugs Among the Tlingit people of the Pacific Northwest of America, earrings were a sign of nobility and wealth, as the placement of each earring on a child had to be purchased at an expensive potlatch. Earrings were common in the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BCE), generally taking the form of a dangling, gold hoop. Gem-studded, golden earrings shaped like asps seem to have been reserved for nobility. The ancient Greeks wore paste pendant earrings shaped like sacred birds or demigods, while the women of ancient Rome wore precious gemstones in their ears. In Europe, earrings for women fell from fashion generally between the 4th and 16th centuries, as styles in clothing and hair tended to obscure the ears, but they gradually thereafter came back into vogue in Italy, Spain, England and France—spreading as well to North America—until after World War I when piercing fell from favor and the newly invented Clip-on earring became fashionable. According to The Anatomie of Abuses by Philip Stubbs, earrings were even more common among men of the 16th century than women, while Raphael Holinshed in 1577 confirms the practice among "lusty courtiers" and "gentlemen of courage." Evidently originating in Spain, the practice of ear piercing among European men spread to the court of Henry III of France and then to Elizabethan era England, where earrings (typically worn in one ear only) were sported by such notables as Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset, Shakespeare, Sir Walter Raleigh and Charles I of England. Common men wore earrings as well. From the European Middle Ages, a superstitious belief that piercing one ear improved long-distance vision led to the practice among sailors and explorers. Sailors also pierced their ears in the belief that their earrings could pay for a Christian burial if their bodies washed up on shore. Nose piercing Main article: Nose piercing Khond woman with ear, septum and nostril piercings Nose piercing also has a long history. c. 1500 BCE, the Vedas refer to Lakshmi's nose piercings, but modern practice in India is believed to have spread from the Middle Eastern nomadic tribes by route of the Mughal emperors in the 16th century. It remains customary for Indian Hindu women of childbearing age to wear a nose stud, usually in the left nostril, due to the nostril's association with the female reproductive organs in Ayurvedic medicine. This piercing is sometimes done the night before the woman marries. In Genesis 24:22, Abraham's servant gives Rebecca a nose ring. Nose piercing has been practiced by the Bedouin tribes of the Middle East and the Berber and Beja peoples of Africa, as well as Australian Aboriginals. Many Native American and Alaskan tribes practiced septum piercing. It was popular among the Aztecs, the Mayans and the tribes of New Guinea, who adorned their pierced noses with bones and feathers to symbolize wealth and (among men) virility. The name of the Nez Perce tribe was derived from the practice, though nose piercing was not common within the tribe. The Aztecs, Mayans and Incas wore gold septum rings for adornment, with the practice continued to this day by the Kuna of Panama. Nose piercing also remains popular in Pakistan and Bangladesh and is practiced in a number of Middle Eastern and Arab countries. Piercings of the lip and tongue Main articles: Lip piercing and Tongue piercing A Nilotic Mursi woman Lip piercing and lip stretching were historically found in certain tribal cultures in Africa and the Americas. Pierced adornments of the lip, or labrets, were sported by the Tlingit as well as peoples of Papua New Guinea and the Amazon basin. Aztecs and Mayans also wore labrets, while the Dogon people of Mali and the Nuba of the Nile Valley wore rings. The practice of stretching the lips by piercing them and inserting plates or plugs was found throughout Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and South America as well as among some of the tribes of the Pacific Northwest and Africa. In some parts of Malawi, it was quite common for women to adorn their lips with a lip disc called a "pelele" that by means of gradual enlargement from childhood could reach several inches of diameter and would eventually alter the occlusion of the jaw. Such lip stretching is still practiced in some places. Women of the Nilotic Mursi tribe in the Nile Valley wear lip rings on occasion that may reach 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in diameter. In some Pre-Columbian and North American cultures, labrets were seen as a status symbol. They were the oldest form of high status symbol among the Haida women, though the practice of wearing them died out due to Western influence. Tongue piercing was practiced by the Aztec, Olmec and Mayan cultures as a ritual symbol. Wall paintings highlight a ritual of the Mayans during which nobility would pierce their tongues with thorns. The blood would be collected on bark, which would be burned in honor of the Mayan gods. It was also practiced by the Haida, Kwakiutl and Tlingit, as well as the Fakirs and Sufis of the Middle East. Nipple, navel and genital piercing Main articles: Nipple piercing, Navel piercing, and Genital piercing Woman with navel and genital piercings The history of nipple piercing, navel piercing, and genital piercing has been particularly misrepresented by printed works continuing to repeat myths that were originally promulgated by Malloy in the pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief. For example, according to Malloy's colleague Jim Ward, Malloy claimed navel piercing was popular among ancient Egyptian aristocrats and was depicted in Egyptian statuary, a claim that is widely repeated. Other sources say there are no records to support a historical practice for navel piercing. However, records do exist that refer to practices of nipple and genital piercing in various cultures prior to the 20th century. Kama Sutra, dated to the Gupta Empire of Ancient India, describes genital piercing to permit sexual enhancement by inserting pins and other objects into the foreskin of the penis. The Dayak tribesmen of Borneo passed a shard of bone through their glans for the opposite reason, to diminish their sexual activity. In the Talmud (Tractate Shabbat 64a), there may be mention of a genital piercing in the prohibition against the kumaz, which medieval French Talmudic commenter Rashi interpreted as a chastity piercing for women. Other interpreters have, however, suggested that the kumaz was rather a pendant shaped like a vulva or a girdle. Nipple piercing may have been a sign of masculinity for the soldiers of Rome. Nipple piercing has also been connected to rites of passage for both British and American sailors who had traveled beyond a significant latitude and longitude. It is widely reported that in the 1890s, nipple rings called "bosom rings" resurfaced as a fashion statement among women of the West, who would wear them on one or both sides, but if such a trend existed, it was short-lived. Growing popularity in the West Person with several facial piercings (Monroe, Septum and Lip) By the early part of the 20th century, piercing of any body part other than the ear lobe had become uncommon in the West. After World War II, it began increasing in popularity among the gay male subculture. Clip-on earrings were primarily the preferred fashion in the 1920s; however, the physical piercing of lobes began growing in popularity from the 1960s. In the 1970s, piercing began to expand, as the punk movement embraced it, featuring nontraditional adornment such as safety pins; and Fakir Musafar began popularizing it as a form of Modern Primitivism, which incorporated piercing elements from other cultures, such as stretching. Body piercing was also heavily popularized in the United States by a group of Californians, including Doug Malloy and Jim Ward. Ward (inspired by and with money from Malloy) opened The Gauntlet as a home business in November 1975 and then as a commercial storefront operation in West Hollywood on 17 November 1978. The establishment of this business – considered the first of its type in the United States – was the beginning of the body piercing industry. As word of body piercing spread to the wider community, Ward began to publish the first publication dedicated to the subject, PFIQ. A table in Larry Townsend's The Leatherman's Handbook II (the 1983 second edition; the 1972 first edition did not include this list) which is generally considered authoritative states that a purple handkerchief is a symbol for body piercing in the handkerchief code, which is employed usually among gay male casual-sex seekers or BDSM practitioners in the United States, Canada, Australia and Europe. Wearing the handkerchief on the left indicates the top, dominant, or active partner; right the bottom, submissive, or passive partner. However, negotiation with a prospective partner remains important because, as Townsend noted, people may wear hankies of any color "only because the idea of the hankie turns them on" or "may not even know what it means". A significant development in body piercing in England occurred in 1987, when during Operation Spanner, a group of homosexuals—including well known body piercer Alan Oversby—were convicted of assault for their involvement in consensual sadomasochism over a 10-year period, including acts of body piercing. The courts declared that decorative body piercing was not illegal, but that erotic body piercing was. Subsequently, the group Countdown on Spanner formed in 1992 in protest. The group appealed the decision before the High Court of Justice, the House of Lords and finally the European Commission of Human Rights, attempting to overturn the verdict which ruled consent immaterial in acts of sadomasochism, without success. In spite of their repeated failures, the situation publicized the issue, with The Times editorializing the court's decision as "illiberal nonsense" in 1993. In 1996 Countdown on Spanner received the Large Nonprofit Organization of the Year award as part of the Pantheon of Leather Awards. A screen shot from "Cryin'", featuring Alicia Silverstone and body piercer Paul King Body modification in general became more popular in the United States in the 1990s, as piercing also became more widespread, with growing availability and access to piercings of the navel, nose, eyebrows, lips, tongue, nipples, and genitals. In 1993, a navel piercing was depicted in MTV Video Music Awards' "Music Video of the Year", "Cryin'", which inspired a plethora of young female fans to follow suit. According to 2009's The Piercing Bible, it was this consumer drive that "essentially inspired the creation of body-piercing as a full-fledged industry." Body piercing was given another media-related boost in 2004, when during a halftime performance at Super Bowl XXXVIII, singer Janet Jackson experienced a "wardrobe malfunction" that left exposed Jackson's pierced nipple. Some professional body piercers reported considerable increases in business following the heavily publicized event. Two young women with navel piercings, 2004 Alongside traditional piercing techniques, modern body adornment includes variant techniques such as pocketing and flesh stapling, although as of 2007 these were still not widely made available by piercers. In the first of these, a scalpel opens the skin or mucous membranes, into which the larger end of a piece of jewellery or—if using a bar—two ends are inserted. These kinds of piercings may be difficult to remove, as fibrous tissue can form around the end or ends of the jewellery or the implanted tube into which the jewellery is placed. When a bar is used, pocketing looks quite similar to flesh stapling. The latter technique is frequently done in the form of a ladder. Modern body piercing practices also include dermal anchoring or dermal piercing, which combines piercing and implantation to create a single point of opening in the body (whereas pocketing creates two) to permit one end of the jewellery to show above the surface of the skin. While this technique can be performed almost anywhere on the body, as of 2007 it was popularly done between the eyes, on the chest, or on the finger, to simulate a ring. 21st century Septum piercing and Nipple piercing are both piercings that gained increased popularity in the second decade of the 21st century. The practice of body piercing is subject to trends and fashions. Belly button and eyebrow piercings were popular during the 1990s when the piercing trend entered the mainstream. In 2015, the septum piercing and nipple piercing were considered highly fashionable. Additionally, the practice of ear lobe gauging or stretching has become popular with the turn of the century. A 2005 survey of 10,503 people in England over the age of 16 found that approximately 10% (1,049) had body piercings in sites other than the earlobe, with a heavy representation of women aged 16–24 (46.2% piercing in that demographic). Among the most common body sites, the navel was top at 33%, with the nose and ear (other than lobe) following at 19% and 13%. The tongue and nipple tied at 9%. The eyebrow, lip and genitals were 8%, 4% and 2%, respectively. Preference among women followed closely on that ranking, though eyebrow piercings were more common than nipple piercings. Among male responders, the order was significantly different, descending in popularity from nipple, eyebrow, ear, tongue, nose, lip and genitals. A cross-cultural study published in 2011 found that individuals with piercings were likely to be involved in other forms of countercultural expression as well. Reasons for piercing A Tamil man in a religious procession with a trident piercing his cheeks Reasons for piercing vary greatly. A 2001 survey in Clinical Nursing Research, an international publication, found that 62% of people who have had piercings have done so in an effort "to express their individuality." People also pierce to commemorate landmark events or to overcome traumatic ones. According to the assistant director of the Frankfurt University Teaching Hospital for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, some sexual abuse survivors choose body piercing as a means of "reclaiming body parts from memories of abuse". Piercing can also be chosen for simple aesthetic value, to highlight particular areas of the body, as a navel piercing may reflect a woman's satisfaction with the shape and condition of her stomach. Some people pierce, permanently or temporarily, to enhance sexual pleasure. Genital and nipple piercings may increase sexual satisfaction. Some people participate in a form of body play known as play piercing, in which piercings may be done temporarily on the genitals or elsewhere on the body for sexual gratification. Piercing combined with suspension was historically important in the religious ceremonies of some Native Americans, featuring in many variants of the Sun Dance ceremony, including that practiced by the Crow Nation. During the Crow ceremony, men who wished to obtain visions were pierced in the shoulders or chest by men who had undergone the ceremony in the past and then suspended by these piercings from poles in or outside of the Sun Dance Lodge. Some contemporary Southeast Asian rituals also practice body piercing, as a form of spiritual self-mortification. Generally, the subject attempts to enter an analgesic trance prior to the piercing. Cheek piercing at a ritual in Qionghai, Hainan, China Bridging the gap between self-expressive piercing and spiritual piercing, modern indigenous people may use piercing and other forms of body modification as a way of ritually reconnecting with themselves and society, which according to Musafar once used piercing as a culturally binding ritual. But at the same time that piercing can be culturally binding, it may also be a means of rebellion, particularly for adolescents in Western cultures. A fifteen-year analysis published in 2011, Body Piercing and Identity Construction, found that public piercing served as a mechanism of both accelerated camaraderie and political communication, while private piercings served to enhance sexuality and contest heteronormativity. Certain piercings are done to enhance sexual pleasure. One example is the Prince Albert Piercing. Prince Albert (PA) piercing may be done for different reasons. Some men go for it for aesthetic reasons, whereas some may try it as an adventure. Men with PA piercing report an increased sense of sexual gratification. This piercing works by stimulating the urethral area (the passage through which urine and semen pass) during sex. The jewelry may provide greater sexual pleasure while masturbating or during oral, anal, or vaginal sex. PA piercing also increases the sexual pleasure of the partner. It can stimulate the nerves in the mouth and genital areas of the partner during sex. Piercing prohibitions and taboos See also: Consent While body piercing has grown more widespread, it remains controversial. Some countries impose age of consent laws requiring parental permission for minors to receive body piercings. Scotland requires parental consent for youths below 16, while in 2011 Wales began considering a similar law. In addition to imposing parental consent requirements, Western Australia prohibits piercing private areas of minors, including genitals and nipples, on penalty of fine and imprisonment for the piercer. Many states in the U.S. also require parental consent to pierce minors, with some also requiring the physical presence of the parents during the act. The state of Idaho has imposed a minimum age for body piercing at 14. In 2004, controversy erupted in Crothersville, Indiana, when a local high school featured a spread on "Body Decorations" in its yearbook that featured tattoos and body piercings of teachers and students. That same year, in Henry County, Georgia, a 15-year-old boy remained in in-school suspension for a full month for violating school policy by wearing eyebrow, nose, labret and tongue piercings to school. His mother subsequently decided to homeschool him. As of 2022, the school district has maintained its policy against body piercing. According to 2006's Tattoos and Body Piercing, corporate dress codes can also strictly limit piercing displays. At that time, Starbucks limited piercings to two per ear and jewelry to small, matched earrings. Employees of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts were not permitted to display piercings at all. However, also in 2006, amid a series of employment discrimination cases in the United States, it became clear that the legality of these dress codes depended upon broader social acceptance of body piercing. As early as 2011, some management literature acknowledged that workplace prohibitions on body modification could negatively impact human resources development; one author compared the practice to older prohibitions on long hair. As of 2020, employment discrimination based on personal appearance including body piercings may be illegal in France. Body piercing in some religions is held to be destructive to the body. Some passages of the Bible, including Leviticus 19:28, have been interpreted as prohibiting body modification because the body is held to be the property of God. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has taken an official position against most piercings unless for medical reasons, although they accept piercings for women as long as there is only one set of piercings in the lower lobe of the ears and no other place on the body. Wearing of very large nose rings on Shabbat is forbidden by the Talmud. In 2018 the first piercing business in the UAE was opened in Dubai by American piercer, Maria Tash. World records Elaine Davidson, the "Most Pierced Woman" in the world as of 2009 Officially titled "Most Pierced Woman", Elaine Davidson of Brazil holds the Guinness World Record for most permanent piercings, first setting this record in 2000 upon verification by Guinness judges of 462 body piercings, with 192 at the time being around her head and face. As of 8 June 2006, her Guinness-certified piercings numbered 4,225. In February 2009, The Daily Telegraph reported that she had 6,005. The "Most Pierced Man" as of 2009 was Luis Antonio Agüero, who had 230 permanent piercings, with 175 rings adorning his face alone. In January 2003, Canadian Brent Moffat set the World Record for most body piercings in one session (700 piercings with 18g surgical needles in 1 session of 7 hours, using play piercing where the skin is pierced and sometimes jewellery is inserted, which is worn temporarily). In December of the same year, Moffat had 900 piercings in 4½ hours. On 4 March 2006, the record was overturned by Kam Ma, who had 1,015 temporary metal rings inserted in 7 hours and 55 minutes. The record for most body piercings with surgical needles was set on 29 May 2008, when Robert Jesus Rubio allowed 900 18-gauge, 0.5 centimetres (0.20 in)-long surgical needles to be inserted into his body. Contemporary piercing practices Contemporary body piercing jewellery Body piercing jewellery should be hypoallergenic. A number of materials are used, with varying strengths and weaknesses. Surgical stainless steel, niobium and titanium are commonly used metals, with titanium the least likely to cause allergic reaction of the three. Platinum and palladium are also safe alternatives, even in fresh piercings. Initial piercings should never be done with gold of any grade, as gold is mixed with other metals, and sterling silver is not a good alternative in a piercing, as it may cause allergies in initial piercings and will tarnish in piercings of any age. An additional risk for allergic reaction may arise when the stud or clasp of jewellery is made from a different metal than the primary piece. Body piercing jewellery is measured by thickness and diameter/length. Most countries use millimeters. In the US, the Brown & Sharpe AWG gauging system is used, which assigns lower numbers to thicker middles. 00 gauge is 9.246 millimetres (0.3640 in), while 20 gauge is 0.813 millimetres (0.0320 in). For discussion of gauges, see: "Body jewelry sizes." Piercing tools Permanent body piercings are performed by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced. This can either be done by puncturing an opening using a needle (usually a hollow medical needle) or scalpel or by removing tissue, either with a dermal punch or through scalpelling. Tools used in body piercing include: Piercer using a clamp in the early stages of the navel piercing process The piercing needle The standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a beveled-tip hollow medical needle, which is available in different lengths, gauges and even shapes. While straight needles are useful for many body parts, curved needles are manufactured for areas where straight needles are not ideal. The needle selected is typically the same gauge (or sometimes larger as with cartilage piercings) as the initial jewellery to be worn, with higher gauges indicating thinner needles. The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced, frequently by hand but sometimes with the aid of a needle holder or pusher. While the needle is still in the body, the initial jewellery to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening, following the back of the needle. Jewellery is often inserted into the hollow end of a needle, so that as the needle pulls through the jewellery is left behind. The indwelling cannula Outside of the United States, many piercers use a needle containing a cannula (or catheter), a hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle. In some countries, the piercing needle favoured in the United States is regarded as a medical device and is illegal for body piercers. The procedure is similar to the piercing needle method, but the initial jewellery is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewellery are then pulled through the piercing. More bleeding may follow, as the piercing is larger than the jewellery. The dermal punch A dermal punch is used to remove a circular area of tissue, into which jewellery is placed, and may be useful for larger cartilage piercings. They are popular for use in ears, though not legal for use by nonmedical personnel in some parts of the United States. The piercing gun The vast majority of women in the west have their ears pierced with a piercing gun. The safety of piercing guns has been disputed. The Department of Health of Western Australia does not recommend their use for piercing body parts other than the lobes of ears, and the USA Association of Professional Piercers recommends that piercing guns not be used for any piercing, requiring members to agree not to use piercing guns in their practice. Cork Cork may be placed on the opposite side of the body part being pierced to receive the needle. Forceps Forceps, or clamps, may be used to hold and stabilize the tissue to be pierced. Most piercings that are stabilized with forceps use the triangular-headed "Pennington" forcep, while tongues are usually stabilized with an oval-headed forcep. Most forceps have large enough openings in their jaws to permit the needle and jewellery to pass directly through, though some slotted forceps are designed with a removable segment instead for removal after the piercing. Forceps are not used in the freehand method, in which the piercer supports the tissue by hand. Needle receiving tubes A hollow tube made of metal, shatter-resistant glass or plastic, needle receiving tubes, like forceps, are used to support the tissue at the piercing site and are common in septum and some cartilage piercings. Not only are these tubes intended to support the tissue, but they also receive the needle once it has passed through the tissue, offering protection from the sharp point. Needle receiving tubes are not used in the freehand piercing method. Anaesthesia Anaesthesia is supplied by some piercers, particularly in the United Kingdom and Europe. The anaesthesia may be topical or injected. Piercers and other non-medical personnel are not legally permitted to administer anaesthetics in the United States. Risks associated with body piercing Two models of Statim autoclaves shown above are commonly found in professional piercing studios, that use pulsing steam under pressure to sterilize body jewellery and equipment immediately prior to use.Autoclaves such as this one are standard equipment in professional piercing studios, helping to prevent infection. This type uses a vacuum pump to remove air from the chamber before sterilizing sealed packages of items for later use. Hypertrophic scar that developed on the lip seven weeks after piercing it Body piercing is an invasive procedure with risks. In a 2005 survey of 10,503 persons over the age of 16 in England, complications were reported in 31% of piercings, with professional help being necessary in 15.2%. 0.9% had complications serious enough to require hospitalization. Some risks of note include: Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewellery, particularly nickel. This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewellery manufactured from titanium or niobium or similar inert metals. Metal piercing jewellery puts metal in contact with damaged skin, increasing the risk of developing a metal allergy; this is thought to be why such allergies are more common in women. Infection, bacterial or viral, particularly from Staphylococcus aureus, group A streptococcus and Pseudomonas spp. Reports at the 16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases in 2006 indicated that bacterial infections are seldom serious, but that ten to twenty percent of piercings result in local benign bacterial infection. The Mayo Clinic estimates 30%. Risk of infection is greatest among those with congenital heart disease, who have a much higher chance of developing life-threatening infective endocarditis, hemophiliacs and diabetics, as well as those taking corticosteroids. In 2006, a diabetic woman in Indiana lost a breast due to an infection from a nipple piercing. Viral infections may include hepatitis B, hepatitis C and, potentially, HIV, although as of 2009 there had been no documented cases of HIV caused by piercing. While rare, infection due to piercing of the tongue can be fatal. Higher prevalence of colonization of Candida albicans was reported in young individuals with tongue piercing, in comparison to non-tongue-pierced matched individuals. Excess scar tissue, including hypertrophic scar and keloid formation. While piercings can be removed, they may leave a hole, mark or scar. Physical trauma including tearing, friction or bumping of the piercing site, which may cause edema and delay healing. The risks can be minimized by wearing properly sized jewellery and not changing it unnecessarily, by not touching the piercing more than required for aftercare, and by being conscious of environmental factors (such as clothing) that may impact the piercing. Oral trauma, including recession of gingival tissue and dental fracture and wear. Recession of gingival tissue affects 19% to 68% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments. In some cases, the alveolar tooth-bearing bone is also involved, jeopardizing the stability and durability of the teeth in place and requiring a periodontal regeneration surgery. Dental fracture and wear affects 14% to 41% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments. Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer. Piercers are expected to sanitize the location to be pierced as well as their hands, even though they will often wear gloves during the procedure (and in some areas must, as it is prescribed by law). Quite frequently, these gloves will be changed multiple times, often one pair for each step of setup to avoid cross contamination. For example, after a piercer wearing gloves has cleaned the area to be pierced on a client, the piercer may change gloves to avoid recontaminating the area. Wearing sterile gloves is required by law for professional piercing procedures in some areas, such as the states of Florida and South Carolina. Tools and jewellery should be sterilized in autoclaves, and non-autoclavable surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant agents on a regular basis and between clients. In addition, the Association of Professional Piercers recommends classes in First Aid in blood-borne pathogens as part of professional training. The healing process and body piercing aftercare Dried sebum deposit on body jewellery The aftercare process for body piercing has evolved gradually through practice, and many myths and harmful recommendations persist. A reputable piercing studio should provide clients with written and verbal aftercare instructions, as is in some areas mandated by law. The healing process of piercings is broken down into three stages: The inflammatory phase, during which the wound is open and bleeding, inflammation and tenderness are all to be expected; The growth or proliferative phase, during which the body produces cells and protein to heal the puncture and the edges contract around the piercing, forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a fistula. This phase may last weeks, months, or longer than a year. The maturation or remodeling phase, as the cells lining the piercing strengthen and stabilize. This stage takes months or years to complete. It is normal for a white or slightly yellow discharge to be noticeable on the jewellery, as the sebaceous glands produce an oily substance meant to protect and moisturize the wound. While these sebum deposits may be expected for some time, only a small amount of pus, which is a sign of inflammation or infection, should be expected, and only within the initial phase. While sometimes difficult to distinguish, sebum is "more solid and cheeselike and has a distinctive rotten odour", according to The Piercing Bible. The amount of time it typically takes a piercing to heal varies widely according to the placement of the piercing. Genital piercings can be among the quicker to heal, with piercings of the clitoral hood and Prince Albert piercings healing in as little as a month, though some may take longer. Navel piercings can be the slowest to heal, with one source reporting a range of six months to two full years. The prolonged healing of navel piercings may be connected to clothing friction. See also Body jewelry sizes Body piercing regulation in the UK Corset piercing Genital piercing List of body piercings Play piercing Suspension piercing Notes ^ a b c d e f g (Angel 2009, p. 2) ^ (Smith 2002, p. 171) ^ (Woods 2006) ^ a b c (Ward 2004) ^ a b (Hesse 2007, p. xvii) ^ (Hesse 2007, p. 78) ^ Genesis 35:4 ^ Exodus 32 ^ Deuteronomy 15:12–17 ^ (Ullman 2008) ^ a b c d (Angel 2009, p. 12) ^ (Gay & Whittington 2002, p. 53) ^ (White 1970, p. 116) ^ (Wilkinson 1837, pp. 370–371) ^ (Wilkinson 1837, p. 79) ^ (Wilkinson 1837, pp. 79–80) ^ (Smith 1908, p. 233) ^ (Prisant 2003, p. 406) ^ a b (Smith 1908, pp. 234–235) ^ a b c (Hesse 2007, p. 26) ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 13) ^ a b c (DeMello 2007, p. 204) ^ (Pitts-Taylor 2008, p. 365) ^ (DeMello 2012, pp. 239–240) ^ Genesis 24:22 ^ a b c (DeMello 2007, p. 205) ^ a b (Hastings 2003, p. 397) ^ (King 2007, p. 5) ^ a b (DeMello 2007, p. 209) ^ (DeMello 2007, p. 248) ^ (Weule & Werner 1909, pp. 55–56) ^ (Wood 1874, pp. 395–396) ^ (Phillips & Carillet 2006, p. 207) ^ (Lawman 2004, p. 92) ^ (van den Brink 1974, p. 71) ^ (McRae & Davies 2006, p. 36) ^ (Miller 2004, p. 17) ^ (Vale & Juno 1989, p. 104) ^ (Parents 2007, p. 151) "Navel piercing. Unlike the other body piercings, this one has not been recorded in history." ^ (Rutty 2004, p. 163) ^ (Brodsky 2006, p. 55) "Kumaz is the chastity belt of the vagina that they would make for their daughters. They would pierce the walls of the vagina like they would pierce the ears. They would insert it  so that the men could not have sex with them." ^ (Wagner 2006, p. 248) ^ (Adler 1998, p. 144) ^ (Graves 2000, p. 13) ^ (Kern 1975, p. 95) "In the late 1890s the "bosom ring" came into fashion briefly and sold in expensive Parisian jewellery shops. These anneaux de sein were inserted through the nipple, and some women wore one on either side." ^ a b c d e f (Porterfield 2003, p. 356) ^ a b c (Angel 2009, p. 16) ^ a b (Voss 2007) ^ (Ward n.d.) ^ (Ferguson 2000) ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 15) ^ Townsend, Larry (1983). The Leatherman's Handbook II. New York: Modernismo Publications. p. 26. ISBN 0-89237-010-6. ^ (Pitts 2003, p. 95) ^ a b (Camp 2007) ^ "Pantheon of Leather Awards All Time Recipients - The Leather Journal". www.theleatherjournal.com. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2021. ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 15–16) ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 11) ^ (DeMello 2007, p. 219) ^ a b (DeMello 2007, pp. 218–219) ^ a b (De Cuyper, Pérez-Cotopos & Cossio 2010, p. 44) ^ (DeMello 2007, p. 92) ^ (Garnsworthy 2015) ^ (Arata 2015) ^ (Wilbur 2016) ^ (Spencer 2015) ^ (Hull Daily 2015) ^ (Duff 2015) ^ (Lough 2015) ^ (McClatchey 2015) ^ a b c d e (Bone et al. 2008, pp. 1426–1428) ^ a b (Romanienko 2011, pp. 33–50, 131–139) ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 29) ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 30, 34) ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 34) ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 28) ^ a b c d (Meltzer 2005) ^ (Miller 2004, p. 121) ^ (American Museum of Natural History 1921, pp. 21–22) ^ (Ooi 2004, p. 1139) ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 36) ^ "Why Do Guys Get Prince Alberts?". MedicineNet. Retrieved 26 March 2023. ^ "Body Piercing Client Consent Form" (PDF). Stockton-on-Tees Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2019. ^ (BBC News 2011) ^ "Children and Community Services Act 2004 - Sect 104A". Western Australian Consolidated Acts. 2004. Retrieved 3 January 2013. ^ "Written consent form for body piercing of a child under 18 years of age in the CEO's care" (PDF). Government of Western Australia, Department for Child Protection and Family Support. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2013. ^ a b "Tattooing and Body Piercing | State Laws, Statutes and Regulations". National Conference of State Legislatures. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2020. ^ (Miller 2004, pp. 17–18) ^ (Miller 2004, p. 19) ^ Reid, S. A. (24 September 2004). "Student fights to sport metal". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ProQuest 337133263. ^ "Dress Code / Overview". schoolwires.henry.k12.ga.us. Retrieved 5 September 2022. ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 76–77) ^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 77) ^ Fox, Michael W (June 2006). "The changing face of discrimination law". Texas Bar Journal. 69: 564–569 – via Hein Online. ^ Elzweig, Brian; Peeples, Donna K. (2011). "Tattoos and piercings: Issues of body modification and the workplace". SAM Advanced Management Journal. 76 (1): 13–23. ISSN 0749-7075 – via Business Source Complete. ^ Le Roux, Marion (20 July 2020). "Tackling discrimination based on looks: guidance from France". Lexology. Retrieved 30 January 2022. ^ "Body Piercing". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 14 December 2009. ^ (Day 2018) ^ a b (Daily Telegraph 2009) ^ a b c (Glenday 2009, p. 105) ^ (Folkard 2004, p. 50) ^ (Daily Times 2004) ^ (Guinness World Records 2009) ^ (Miller 2004, p. 21) ^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 25) ^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 26) ^ (Miller 2004, p. 27) ^ (Angel 2009, p. 57) ^ (Miller 2004, p. 103) ^ a b c d (Angel 2009, p. 58) ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 241) ^ a b c (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 56) ^ "The Use of Ear Piercing Guns/Nose Piercing Guns" (PDF). Department of Health, Western Australia. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2013. ^ "FAQ". Association of Professional Piercers. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012. ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 58–59) ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 60) ^ (Angel 2009, p. 59) ^ (Angel 2009, p. 61) ^ a b c (Koenig & Carnes 1999, pp. 379–385) ^ (Brody 2000) ^ Riedel, F; Aparicio-Soto, M; Curato, C; Thierse, HJ; Siewert, K; Luch, A (15 October 2021). "Immunological Mechanisms of Metal Allergies and the Nickel-Specific TCR-pMHC Interface". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (20): 10867. doi:10.3390/ijerph182010867. PMC 8535423. PMID 34682608. ^ (Medical News Today 2006) ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 46) ^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 46–48) ^ (Alvarez 2006) ^ (Angel 2009, p. 22) ^ (BBC News 1999) ^ (Siegel 2008) ^ (Mason 2009) ^ (Zadik et al. 2010) ^ a b (Mayo Clinic staff 2008) ^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 186) ^ (Levin, Zadik & Becker 2005) ^ a b (Levin & Zadik 2007) ^ (Zadik & Sandler 2007) ^ (Levin 2007) ^ (Angel 2009, p. 56) ^ (Angel 2009, p. 37) ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 180–181) ^ (Angel 2009, p. 181) ^ (Angel 2009, pp. 181–182) ^ a b c (Angel 2009, p. 182) ^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 106) References "3,000 Piercings as 9/11 Tributes". Daily Times. 7 September 2004. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009. Adler, Rachel (January 1998). Engendering Judaism: an inclusive theology and ethics. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0584-8. Alvarez, Manny (17 November 2006). "Dr. Manny's Health Beat: Do's & Don'ts for Safe Body Piercing". FOX News. Archived from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2009. American Museum of Natural History (1921). Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 16. Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. Arata, Emily (30 September 2015). "A Pro Piercer Answers All The Questions You're Way Too Nervous To Ask". Elite Daily. Bone, Angie; Fortune Ncube; Tom Nichols; Norman D Noah (21 June 2008). "Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe". British Medical Journal. 336 (7658): 1426–1428. doi:10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25. PMC 2432173. PMID 18556275. Retrieved 6 January 2010. Brodsky, David (2006). A Bride Without a Blessing: a Study in the Redaction and Content of Massekhet Kallah and its Gemara. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-149019-4. Brody, Jane E. (4 April 2000). "Fresh Warnings on the Perils of Piercing". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 December 2009. Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. Day, Emma (5 November 2018). "This Celebrity-Beloved Jeweler is Opening up a Dubai Boutique". Vogue Arabia. Retrieved 15 March 2019. De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa; Cossio, Laura (2010). "Piercings: Techniques and Complications". In De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa (eds.). Dermatologic Complications with Body Art: Tattoos, Piercings and Permanent Make-Up. Springer Books. pp. 43–52. ISBN 978-3-642-03291-2. DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. DeMello, Margo (2012). Faces Around the World. ABC-Clio. ISBN 978-1-59884-617-1. Duff, Anna (5 October 2015). "There's a New 'It' Piercing that Celebrities Love". Look. Ferguson, Henry (January 2000). "Body piercing". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 319 (7225). Student BMJ: 1627–1629. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1627. PMC 1127091. PMID 10600973. Folkard, Claire (2004). Guinness World Records (50 ed.). Guinness World Records. ISBN 1-892051-22-2. Gay, Kathlyn; Whittington, Christine (2002). Body Marks: Tattooing, Piercing, and Scarification. Women at War. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-2352-X. Garnsworthy, Jasmine (13 February 2015). "It's Official: Septum Rings Are Trending With Fashion Week's Street Style Crowd". SC. Glenday, Craig (2009). Guinness World Records. Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-553-59256-6. Graves, Bonnie B. (2000). Tattooing and Body Piercing: Perspectives on Physical Health. Capstone Press. ISBN 0-7368-0417-X. Hastings, James (2003). "Nose-ornaments". In Selbie, John A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 17. Kessinger Publishing. p. 397. ISBN 0-7661-3694-9. Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5. Kern, Stephen (1975). Anatomy and Destiny: a Cultural History of the Human Body. Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0-672-52091-5. King, David C. (2007). The Nez Perce. First Americans – Group 3. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2680-6. Koenig, Laura M.; Carnes, M (1999). "Body Piercing: Medical Concerns with Cutting-Edge Fashion". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 14 (6): 379–85. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.1999.00357.x. PMC 1496593. PMID 10354260. Lawman, Denise, ed. (2004). "Labrets". Illustrated Dictionary of Anthropology. Lotus Press. ISBN 81-89093-10-X. Levin, Liran (June 2007). "Alveolar Bone Loss and Gingival Recession Due to Lip and Tongue Piercing". N Y State Dent J. 73 (4): 48–50. PMID 17891882. Levin, Liran; Zadik, Yehuda (October 2007). "Oral Piercing: Complications and Side Effects". Am J Dent. 20 (5): 340–344. PMID 17993034. Levin, Liran; Zadik, Yehuda; Becker, Tal (December 2005). "Oral and Dental Complications of Intra-oral Piercing". Dent Traumatol. 21 (6): 341–343. doi:10.1111/j.1600-9657.2005.00395.x. PMID 16262620. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2008. Lough, Kate (7 October 2015). "It's official, the nipple piercing is the new 'it' piercing - just ask Kendall Jenner and Bella Hadid". Evening Standard. Retrieved 11 October 2015. Lundskow, George (2008). The Sociology of Religion: A Substantive and Transdisciplinary Approach. Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-3721-4. Mason, Jennifer (18 October 2009). "Tongue Piercing Infection Death Prompts Warning". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 6 April 2010. Mayo Clinic staff (16 February 2008). "Piercings: How to Prevent Complications". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 6 December 2009. McClatchey, Carolina (21 November 2011). "Ear stretching: Why is lobe 'gauging' growing in popularity?". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 11 October 2015. McRae, Anne; Davies, Gill (2006). 365 Awesome Facts & Records about Everything. Struik. ISBN 1-77007-428-7. Meltzer, Donna I. (15 November 2005). "Complications of Body Piercing". American Family Physician. 72 (10): 2029–2034. PMID 16342832. Retrieved 14 December 2009. Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. "Most Body Piercings (surgical needles)". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 2 January 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2009. "A Nose for Fashion. Septum Piercings are the Latest Trend". Hull Daily Mail. 13 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2015. Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: a Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-770-5. Parents. Stellan Consult Ltd. 2007. "Parents 'should approve skin piercings for under-16s'". BBC News. 18 October 2011. "Past Out—What was Operation Spanner?". Camp. Kansas City Anti-Violence Project. 24 December 2007. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009. Phillips, Matt; Carillet, Jean-Bernard (2006). Ethiopia & Eritrea. Lonely Planet guidebooks (3rd ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74104-436-7. Pitts, Victoria (2003). In the Flesh: the Cultural Politics of Body Modification. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29311-9. Pitts-Taylor, Victoria (2008). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body: M-Z. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-34147-2. Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-238-X. Prisant, Carol (18 January 2003). Antiques Roadshow Collectibles: the Complete Guide to Collecting 20th-century Toys, Glassware, Costume Jewelry, Memorabilia, Ceramics & More. Workman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7611-2822-9. Romanienko, Lisiunia (2011). Body Piercing and Identity Construction. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11032-8. Rutty, Guy N. (31 January 2004). Essentials of Autopsy Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-85233-541-0. Siegel, Judy (23 September 2008). "Soldier's Tongue Piercing Causes Fatal Infection". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2010. Smith, Harold Clifford (1908). Davenport, C. (ed.). Jewellery. Connoisseur's library. Vol. 16 (2nd ed.). Methuen and co. Smith, R. J. (2002). "The Many Faces of Korla Pandit". In Lethem, Jonathan; Bresnick, Paul (eds.). Da Capo Best Music Writing 2002: The Year's Finest Writing on Rock, Pop, Jazz, Country, and More. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81166-9. Spencer, Hayley (10 August 2015). "Why Septum Piercings Are Trending (And There's No Age Cap)". Grazia Daily. Retrieved 11 October 2015. "Tattoo, Piercing and Breast Implantation Infections". Medical News Today. 8 April 2006. Archived from the original on 29 November 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2008. "Tongue Piercing 'Can Be Fatal'". BBC News. 21 July 1999. Retrieved 6 April 2010. Ullman, Yirmiyahu (15 March 2008). "Hoops on Studs". Ask the Rabbi. Ohr Somayach. Retrieved 4 April 2010. Vale, V.; Juno, Andrea (1989). Modern Primitives: an Investigation of Contemporary Adornment & Ritual. Re/Search Publications. ISBN 978-0-940642-14-0. van den Brink, Jacob Herman (1974). The Haida Indians: Cultural Change Mainly between 1876–1970. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-03991-0. Voss, Brandon (9 October 2007). "Father Knows Best". The Advocate. Retrieved 25 November 2007. Wagner, Stanley M. (2006). Onkelos on the Torah: Understanding the Bible Text. Gefen Publishing House Ltd. ISBN 978-965-229-341-1. Ward, Jim (23 January 2004). "Who was Doug Malloy". BMEzine. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2010. Ward, Jim (n.d.). "Running the Gauntlet". Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Weule, Karl; Werner, Alice (1909). Native Life in East Africa: the Results of an Ethnological Research Expedition. Sir I. Pitman & Sons. White, Jon Ewbank Manchip (1970). Ancient Egypt; Its Culture and History. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-22548-8. Wilbur, Hayley (16 September 2016). "The unexpected rise of 2016's biggest trend: the nipple piercing". Mic. Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner (1837). Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Vol. 3. J. Murray. Wood, John George (1874). The Natural History of Man. Vol. 1. Routledge. Woods, Stacey Grenrock (1 February 2006). "Why is the Prince Albert Piercing Named after Prince Albert?". Esquire. Archived from the original on 4 December 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2009. "World's Most Pierced Woman Adds to Her Collection". The Daily Telegraph. 23 February 2009. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2009. Zadik, Yehuda; Sandler, Vadim (August 2007). "Periodontal Attachment Loss Due to Applying Force by Tongue Piercing" (PDF). J Calif Dent Assoc. 35 (8): 550–553. PMID 17941300. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008. Zadik, Yehuda; Burnstein, Saar; Derazne, Estella; Sandler, Vadim; Ianculovici, Clariel; Halperin, Tamar (March 2010). "Colonization of Candida: prevalence among tongue-pierced and non-pierced immunocompetent adults". Oral Dis. 16 (2): 172–5. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2009.01618.x. PMID 19732353. External links Amelia Guimarin (14 May 2005). "In the Flesh: Body Piercing as a Form of Commodity-Based Identity" (slides). Mentor: Teresa Caldiera. Body piercing at Wikipedia's sister projects:Media from CommonsQuotations from Wikiquote vteBody piercingGeneral piercing topics Contemporary piercing practices Scalpelling Stretching Play piercing Pocketing Surface piercing Ear piercing gun Jewelry (materials) Barbell Claw Captive bead ring Flesh tunnel Plug Prince's wand Spiral Stud Nose chain Nipple shield Ear piercings Antitragus Conch Daith Helix Industrial Orbital Rook Snug Tragus Facial piercings Anti-eyebrow Cheek Eyebrow Jestrum Labret Lip (Lip plate) Monroe Nose (Septum piercing) Nose bridge Philtrum Oral piercings Lip frenulum Tongue Tongue frenulum Uvula Body piercings Corset Hand web Hip Madison Nape Navel Neck Nipple Wrist Unisex genital piercings Anus Guiche Pubic Chastity Female genital piercings Christina Clitoris Clitoral hood Fourchette Isabella Labia Nefertiti Princess Albertina Triangle Male genital piercings Ampallang Apadravya Deep shaft Dydoe Fibula Foreskin Frenum Hafada Lorum Magic cross Prince Albert Reverse Prince Albert Transscrotal See also Body piercing regulation in the UK List of body piercings vteJewelleryForms Anklet Barrette Belly chain Belt buckle Bindi Bolo tie Bracelet Brooch Chatelaine Collar pin Crown Cufflink Earring Ferronnière Genital Lapel pin Necklace Neck ring Pectoral Pendant Ring Tiara Tie chain Tie clip Tie pin Toe ring Watch pocket strap MakingPeople Bench jeweler Clockmaker Goldsmith Jewellery designer Lapidarist Silversmith Watchmaker Processes Carving Casting centrifugal lost-wax vacuum Enameling Engraving Filigree Kazaziye Metal clay Plating Polishing Repoussé and chasing Soldering Stonesetting Wire sculpture Wire wrapped jewelry Tools Draw plate File Hammer Mandrel Pliers MaterialsPrecious metals Gold Palladium Platinum Rhodium Silver Precious metal alloys Britannia silver Colored gold Crown gold Electrum Shakudō Shibuichi Sterling silver Argentium Tumbaga Base metals Brass Bronze Copper Mokume-gane Nickel silver (alpacca) Pewter Pinchbeck Stainless steel Titanium Tungsten Mineral gemstones Agate Amazonite Amethyst Aventurine Beryl (red) Carnelian Chrysoberyl Chrysocolla Diamond Diopside Emerald Fluorite Garnet Howlite Jade Jasper Kyanite Labradorite Lapis lazuli Larimar Malachite Marcasite Moonstone Obsidian Onyx Opal Peridot Prasiolite Quartz (smoky) Ruby Sapphire Sodalite Spinel Sunstone Tanzanite Tiger's eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Zircon Organic gemstones Abalone Amber Ammolite Copal Coral Black Precious Ivory Jet Nacre Operculum Pearl Tortoiseshell Other natural objects Bezoar Bog-wood Ebonite (vulcanite) Gutta-percha Hair Shell Spondylus shell Toadstone Terms Art jewelry Carat (mass) Carat (purity) Finding Fineness Related topics Body piercing Fashion Gemology Metalworking Phaleristics Wearable art Authority control databases: National Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Piercing (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piercing_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Body_art.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nipple piercings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipple_piercing"},{"link_name":"vertical labret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_labret"},{"link_name":"stretched","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretching_(body_piercing)"},{"link_name":"body modification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_modification"},{"link_name":"jewellery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewellery"},{"link_name":"implant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implant_(medicine)"},{"link_name":"metonymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymy"},{"link_name":"medical grade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_grade"},{"link_name":"subdermal implants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdermal_implants"},{"link_name":"where?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)"},{"link_name":"Ear piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear_piercing"},{"link_name":"nose piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nose_piercing"},{"link_name":"grave goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grave_goods"},{"link_name":"mummified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummy"},{"link_name":"earrings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earring"},{"link_name":"lip and tongue piercings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Piercings_of_the_lip_and_tongue"},{"link_name":"Nipple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipple_piercing"},{"link_name":"genital piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_piercing"},{"link_name":"Ancient Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"Ancient India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_India"},{"link_name":"Western culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Guinness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness"},{"link_name":"World Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Records"},{"link_name":"body piercing materials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercing_materials"},{"link_name":"infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection"},{"link_name":"scarring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scar"}],"text":"Form of body modificationFor other uses, see Piercing (disambiguation).Nipple piercings, vertical labret piercing and stretched earsBody piercing, which is a form of body modification, is the practice of puncturing or cutting a part of the human body, creating an opening in which jewellery may be worn, or where an implant could be inserted. The word piercing can refer to the act or practice of body piercing, or to an opening in the body created by this act or practice. It can also, by metonymy, refer to the resulting decoration, or to the decorative jewelry used. Piercing implants alter the body and/or skin profile and appearance (e.g. golden threads installed subdermal, platinum, titanium or medical grade steel subdermal implants). Although the history of body piercing is obscured by popular misinformation and by a lack of scholarly reference, ample evidence exists to document that it has been practiced in various forms by multiple sexes since ancient times throughout the world. Body piercing can be performed on people of all ages, although most minors [where?] are only permitted to have earlobe piercings.Ear piercing and nose piercing have been particularly widespread and are well represented in historical records and among grave goods. The oldest mummified remains ever discovered had earrings, attesting to the existence of the practice more than 5,000 years ago. Nose piercing is documented as far back as 1500 BCE. Piercings of these types have been documented globally, while lip and tongue piercings were historically found in African cultures and many more but is actually from the Middle East. Nipple and genital piercing have also been practiced by various cultures, with nipple piercing dating back at least to Ancient Rome while genital piercing is described in Ancient India c. 320 to 550 CE. The history of navel piercing is less clear. The practice of body piercing has waxed and waned in Western culture, but it has experienced an increase in popularity since World War II, with sites other than the ears gaining subcultural popularity in the 1970s and spreading to the mainstream in the 1990s.The reasons for piercing or not piercing are varied. Some people pierce for religious or spiritual reasons, while others pierce for self-expression, for aesthetic value, for sexual pleasure, to conform to their culture or to rebel against it. Some forms of piercing remain controversial, particularly when applied to youth. The display or placement of piercings have been restricted by schools, employers and religious groups. In spite of the controversy, some people have practiced extreme forms of body piercing, with Guinness bestowing World Records on individuals with hundreds and even thousands of permanent and temporary piercings.Contemporary body piercing practices emphasize the use of safe body piercing materials, frequently utilizing specialized tools developed for the purpose. Body piercing is an invasive procedure with some risks, including allergic reaction, infection, excessive scarring and unanticipated physical injuries, but such precautions as sanitary piercing procedures and careful aftercare are emphasized to minimize the likelihood of encountering serious problems. The healing time required for a body piercing may vary widely according to placement, from as little as a month for some genital piercings to as much as two full years for the navel. Some piercings may be more complicated, leading to rejection.","title":"Body piercing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Biigabe1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alamannic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamannic"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"archaeologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeologist"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel-1"},{"link_name":"Doug Malloy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Malloy"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"urban legends","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_legend"},{"link_name":"Prince Albert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert,_Prince_Consort"},{"link_name":"piercing that shares his name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_piercing"},{"link_name":"centurions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centurion"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ward-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel-1"}],"text":"An earring found in an Alamannic grave in Germany, dated c. 6th or 7th centuryBody adornment has only recently become a subject of serious scholarly research by archaeologists, who have been hampered in studying body piercing by a scarcity of primary sources.[1] Early records rarely discussed the use of piercings or their meaning, and while jewellery is common among grave goods, the deterioration of the flesh that it once adorned makes it difficult to discern how the jewellery may have been used.[1]The modern record has been also distorted by the 20th-century inventions of piercing enthusiast Doug Malloy.[1] In the 1960s and 1970s, Malloy marketed contemporary body piercing by giving it the patina of history.[2] His pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief included such commonly reproduced urban legends as the notion that Prince Albert invented the piercing that shares his name in order to diminish the appearance of his large penis in tight trousers, and that Roman centurions attached their capes to nipple piercings.[3][4] Some of Malloy's myths were reprinted as fact in subsequently published histories of piercing.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Earrings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earrings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ear-boring_ceremony--Burma.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ötzi the Iceman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96tzi_the_Iceman"},{"link_name":"glacier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hesse-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hesse-5"},{"link_name":"earrings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earrings"},{"link_name":"Sumerian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer"},{"link_name":"Ur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur"},{"link_name":"Biblical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"patriarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Abraham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Jacob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob"},{"link_name":"idols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_image"},{"link_name":"Exodus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodus"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Aaron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron"},{"link_name":"golden calf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_calf"},{"link_name":"Deuteronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteronomy"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ohr-10"},{"link_name":"Hindu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu"},{"link_name":"Lakshmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshmi"},{"link_name":"Vedas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel-1"},{"link_name":"Ukok","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukok"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel2-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thai_Earplug_5.jpg"},{"link_name":"Karen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karen_people"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"plugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_(jewellery)"},{"link_name":"Tlingit people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit_people"},{"link_name":"Pacific Northwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest"},{"link_name":"potlatch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potlatch"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Eighteenth dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"ancient Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"demigods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demigod"},{"link_name":"gemstones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemstone"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Philip Stubbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Stubbs"},{"link_name":"Raphael Holinshed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_Holinshed"},{"link_name":"courtiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtier"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-S45-19"},{"link_name":"Henry III of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_France"},{"link_name":"Elizabethan era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_era"},{"link_name":"Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Carr,_1st_Earl_of_Somerset"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Sir Walter Raleigh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Walter_Raleigh"},{"link_name":"Charles I of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_of_England"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-S45-19"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H26-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel3-21"}],"sub_title":"Ear piercing","text":"See also: EarringsA traditional Burmese ear-boring ceremonyEar piercing has been practiced all over the world since ancient times, and there is considerable written and archaeological evidence of the practice. Mummified bodies with pierced ears have been discovered, including the oldest mummified body discovered to date, the 5,300-year-old Ötzi the Iceman, which was found in a glacier in Italy.[5] The mummy had an ear piercing 7–11 mm (0.28–0.43 in) in diameter.[5] The oldest earrings found in a grave date to 2500 BCE. These were located in the Sumerian city of Ur, home of the Biblical patriarch Abraham.[6] Earrings are mentioned in the Bible. In Genesis 35:4,[7] Jacob buries the earrings worn by members of his household along with their idols. In Exodus 32,[8] Aaron makes the golden calf from melted earrings. Deuteronomy 15:12–17[9] dictates ear piercing for a slave who chooses not to be freed.[10] Earrings are also referenced in connection to the Hindu goddess Lakshmi in the Vedas.[1] Earrings for pierced ears were found in a grave in the Ukok region between Russia and China dated between 400 and 300 BCE.[11]A Karen woman from Burma with traditional ear plugsAmong the Tlingit people of the Pacific Northwest of America, earrings were a sign of nobility and wealth, as the placement of each earring on a child had to be purchased at an expensive potlatch.[12] Earrings were common in the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (1550–1292 BCE), generally taking the form of a dangling, gold hoop.[13] Gem-studded, golden earrings shaped like asps seem to have been reserved for nobility.[14] The ancient Greeks wore paste pendant earrings shaped like sacred birds or demigods, while the women of ancient Rome wore precious gemstones in their ears.[15]In Europe, earrings for women fell from fashion generally between the 4th and 16th centuries, as styles in clothing and hair tended to obscure the ears, but they gradually thereafter came back into vogue in Italy, Spain, England and France—spreading as well to North America—until after World War I when piercing fell from favor and the newly invented Clip-on earring became fashionable.[16][17][18] According to The Anatomie of Abuses by Philip Stubbs, earrings were even more common among men of the 16th century than women, while Raphael Holinshed in 1577 confirms the practice among \"lusty courtiers\" and \"gentlemen of courage.\"[19] Evidently originating in Spain, the practice of ear piercing among European men spread to the court of Henry III of France and then to Elizabethan era England, where earrings (typically worn in one ear only) were sported by such notables as Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset, Shakespeare, Sir Walter Raleigh and Charles I of England.[19] Common men wore earrings as well. From the European Middle Ages, a superstitious belief that piercing one ear improved long-distance vision led to the practice among sailors and explorers.[20] Sailors also pierced their ears in the belief that their earrings could pay for a Christian burial if their bodies washed up on shore.[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kutia_kondh_woman_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Khond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khond"},{"link_name":"septum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_septum"},{"link_name":"nostril","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nostril"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel-1"},{"link_name":"Mughal emperors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_emperors"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeMello-22"},{"link_name":"Hindu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu"},{"link_name":"Ayurvedic medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayurvedic_medicine"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Rebecca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rebecca"},{"link_name":"Bedouin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouin"},{"link_name":"Berber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berber_people"},{"link_name":"Beja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beja_people"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D205-26"},{"link_name":"Australian Aboriginals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Aboriginals"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hastings-27"},{"link_name":"Aztecs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztec"},{"link_name":"Mayans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_culture"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H26-20"},{"link_name":"Nez Perce tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nez_Perce_tribe"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Incas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incas"},{"link_name":"Kuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuna_(people)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D205-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D205-26"}],"sub_title":"Nose piercing","text":"Khond woman with ear, septum and nostril piercingsNose piercing also has a long history. c. 1500 BCE, the Vedas refer to Lakshmi's nose piercings,[1] but modern practice in India is believed to have spread from the Middle Eastern nomadic tribes by route of the Mughal emperors in the 16th century.[22] It remains customary for Indian Hindu women of childbearing age to wear a nose stud, usually in the left nostril, due to the nostril's association with the female reproductive organs in Ayurvedic medicine.[23][24] This piercing is sometimes done the night before the woman marries.In Genesis 24:22,[25] Abraham's servant gives Rebecca a nose ring. Nose piercing has been practiced by the Bedouin tribes of the Middle East and the Berber and Beja peoples of Africa,[26] as well as Australian Aboriginals.[27] Many Native American and Alaskan tribes practiced septum piercing. It was popular among the Aztecs, the Mayans and the tribes of New Guinea, who adorned their pierced noses with bones and feathers to symbolize wealth and (among men) virility.[20] The name of the Nez Perce tribe was derived from the practice, though nose piercing was not common within the tribe.[28] The Aztecs, Mayans and Incas wore gold septum rings for adornment, with the practice continued to this day by the Kuna of Panama.[26] Nose piercing also remains popular in Pakistan and Bangladesh and is practiced in a number of Middle Eastern and Arab countries.[26]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Murzi2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nilotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilotic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Mursi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mursi_people"},{"link_name":"lip stretching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretching_(body_piercing)"},{"link_name":"labrets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labret"},{"link_name":"Tlingit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit_people"},{"link_name":"Papua New Guinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea"},{"link_name":"Amazon basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_basin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel2-11"},{"link_name":"Dogon people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogon_people"},{"link_name":"Nuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuba"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D209-29"},{"link_name":"plates or plugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_plate"},{"link_name":"Pre-Columbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Nilotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilotic_peoples"},{"link_name":"Mursi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mursi_people"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Haida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haida_people"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Olmec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olmec"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel2-11"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-H26-20"},{"link_name":"Mayan gods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayan_gods"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Kwakiutl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwakiutl"},{"link_name":"Fakirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fakir"},{"link_name":"Sufis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi"},{"link_name":"Middle East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D209-29"}],"sub_title":"Piercings of the lip and tongue","text":"A Nilotic Mursi womanLip piercing and lip stretching were historically found in certain tribal cultures in Africa and the Americas. Pierced adornments of the lip, or labrets, were sported by the Tlingit as well as peoples of Papua New Guinea and the Amazon basin.[11] Aztecs and Mayans also wore labrets, while the Dogon people of Mali and the Nuba of the Nile Valley wore rings.[29] The practice of stretching the lips by piercing them and inserting plates or plugs was found throughout Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and South America as well as among some of the tribes of the Pacific Northwest and Africa.[30] In some parts of Malawi, it was quite common for women to adorn their lips with a lip disc called a \"pelele\" that by means of gradual enlargement from childhood could reach several inches of diameter and would eventually alter the occlusion of the jaw.[31][32] Such lip stretching is still practiced in some places. Women of the Nilotic Mursi tribe in the Nile Valley wear lip rings on occasion that may reach 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in diameter.[33]In some Pre-Columbian and North American cultures, labrets were seen as a status symbol.[34] They were the oldest form of high status symbol among the Haida women, though the practice of wearing them died out due to Western influence.[35]Tongue piercing was practiced by the Aztec, Olmec and Mayan cultures as a ritual symbol.[11][20] Wall paintings highlight a ritual of the Mayans during which nobility would pierce their tongues with thorns. The blood would be collected on bark, which would be burned in honor of the Mayan gods.[36] It was also practiced by the Haida, Kwakiutl and Tlingit, as well as the Fakirs and Sufis of the Middle East.[29]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Selfie_with_Piercings.jpg"},{"link_name":"nipple piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipple_piercing"},{"link_name":"navel piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navel_piercing"},{"link_name":"genital piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_piercing"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ward-4"},{"link_name":"Jim Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Ward_(body_piercer)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ward-4"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ValeJuno1989-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parents-39"},{"link_name":"Kama Sutra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kama_Sutra"},{"link_name":"Gupta Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire"},{"link_name":"foreskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreskin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel2-11"},{"link_name":"Dayak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayak_people"},{"link_name":"Borneo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo"},{"link_name":"glans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glans_penis"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rutty-40"},{"link_name":"Tractate Shabbat 64a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat_(Talmud)"},{"link_name":"Talmudic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud"},{"link_name":"Rashi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashi"},{"link_name":"chastity piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chastity_piercing"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brodsky2006-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeMello-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeMello-22"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Nipple, navel and genital piercing","text":"Woman with navel and genital piercingsThe history of nipple piercing, navel piercing, and genital piercing has been particularly misrepresented by printed works continuing to repeat myths that were originally promulgated by Malloy in the pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief.[1][4] For example, according to Malloy's colleague Jim Ward, Malloy claimed navel piercing was popular among ancient Egyptian aristocrats and was depicted in Egyptian statuary,[4] a claim that is widely repeated.[37][38] Other sources say there are no records to support a historical practice for navel piercing.[39]However, records do exist that refer to practices of nipple and genital piercing in various cultures prior to the 20th century. Kama Sutra, dated to the Gupta Empire of Ancient India, describes genital piercing to permit sexual enhancement by inserting pins and other objects into the foreskin of the penis.[11] The Dayak tribesmen of Borneo passed a shard of bone through their glans for the opposite reason, to diminish their sexual activity.[40] In the Talmud (Tractate Shabbat 64a), there may be mention of a genital piercing in the prohibition against the kumaz, which medieval French Talmudic commenter Rashi interpreted as a chastity piercing for women.[41] Other interpreters have, however, suggested that the kumaz was rather a pendant shaped like a vulva or a girdle.[42][43]Nipple piercing may have been a sign of masculinity for the soldiers of Rome.[44] Nipple piercing has also been connected to rites of passage for both British and American sailors who had traveled beyond a significant latitude and longitude.[22] It is widely reported that in the 1890s, nipple rings called \"bosom rings\" resurfaced as a fashion statement among women of the West, who would wear them on one or both sides, but if such a trend existed, it was short-lived.[22][45]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_dark_haired_girl_with_beautiful_eyes_and_several_piercings.jpg"},{"link_name":"Monroe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monroe_piercing"},{"link_name":"Septum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_septum_piercing"},{"link_name":"Lip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_piercing"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Porterfield-46"},{"link_name":"gay male","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality"},{"link_name":"subculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subculture"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Porterfield-46"},{"link_name":"Clip-on earrings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clip-on_earring&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Porterfield-46"},{"link_name":"punk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_subculture"},{"link_name":"safety pins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_pin"},{"link_name":"Fakir Musafar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fakir_Musafar"},{"link_name":"Modern Primitivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Primitivism"},{"link_name":"stretching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretching_(body_piercing)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Porterfield-46"},{"link_name":"Doug Malloy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Malloy"},{"link_name":"Jim Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Ward_(body_piercer)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel6-47"},{"link_name":"The Gauntlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauntlet_(body_piercing_studio)"},{"link_name":"West Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Hollywood"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Advocate-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Advocate-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"PFIQ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFIQ"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel5-51"},{"link_name":"Larry Townsend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Townsend"},{"link_name":"handkerchief code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handkerchief_code"},{"link_name":"BDSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BDSM"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Operation Spanner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Spanner"},{"link_name":"Alan Oversby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Oversby"},{"link_name":"assault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assault_occasioning_actual_bodily_harm"},{"link_name":"consensual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_(criminal_law)"},{"link_name":"sadomasochism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadomasochism"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel5-51"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pitts-53"},{"link_name":"High Court of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"European Commission of Human Rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission_of_Human_Rights"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Camp-54"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Camp-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cryinvid.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cryin'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryin%27#Music_video"},{"link_name":"Alicia Silverstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alicia_Silverstone"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel6-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Porterfield-46"},{"link_name":"MTV Video Music Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV_Video_Music_Awards"},{"link_name":"Cryin'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryin%27#Music_video"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel6-47"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"halftime performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_halftime_show"},{"link_name":"Super Bowl XXXVIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXXVIII"},{"link_name":"Janet Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Jackson"},{"link_name":"wardrobe malfunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardrobe_malfunction"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM11-57"},{"link_name":"the heavily publicized event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_XXXVIII_halftime_show_controversy"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM11-57"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:California_girls_with_pierced_navels.jpg"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Body_piercing&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeMello219-58"},{"link_name":"mucous membranes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucous_membrane"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeMello218-219-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeCuyper-60"},{"link_name":"fibrous tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeMello218-219-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeCuyper-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Body_piercing&action=edit"}],"sub_title":"Growing popularity in the West","text":"Person with several facial piercings (Monroe, Septum and Lip)By the early part of the 20th century, piercing of any body part other than the ear lobe had become uncommon in the West.[46] After World War II, it began increasing in popularity among the gay male subculture.[46] Clip-on earrings were primarily the preferred fashion in the 1920s; however, the physical piercing of lobes began growing in popularity from the 1960s.[46] In the 1970s, piercing began to expand, as the punk movement embraced it, featuring nontraditional adornment such as safety pins; and Fakir Musafar began popularizing it as a form of Modern Primitivism, which incorporated piercing elements from other cultures, such as stretching.[46]Body piercing was also heavily popularized in the United States by a group of Californians, including Doug Malloy and Jim Ward.[47] Ward (inspired by and with money from Malloy) opened The Gauntlet as a home business in November 1975 and then as a commercial storefront operation in West Hollywood on 17 November 1978. The establishment of this business – considered the first of its type in the United States[48] – was the beginning of the body piercing industry.[48][49][50] As word of body piercing spread to the wider community, Ward began to publish the first publication dedicated to the subject, PFIQ.[51]A table in Larry Townsend's The Leatherman's Handbook II (the 1983 second edition; the 1972 first edition did not include this list) which is generally considered authoritative states that a purple handkerchief is a symbol for body piercing in the handkerchief code, which is employed usually among gay male casual-sex seekers or BDSM practitioners in the United States, Canada, Australia and Europe. Wearing the handkerchief on the left indicates the top, dominant, or active partner; right the bottom, submissive, or passive partner. However, negotiation with a prospective partner remains important because, as Townsend noted, people may wear hankies of any color \"only because the idea of the hankie turns them on\" or \"may not even know what it means\".[52]A significant development in body piercing in England occurred in 1987, when during Operation Spanner, a group of homosexuals—including well known body piercer Alan Oversby—were convicted of assault for their involvement in consensual sadomasochism over a 10-year period, including acts of body piercing.[51] The courts declared that decorative body piercing was not illegal, but that erotic body piercing was.[53] Subsequently, the group Countdown on Spanner formed in 1992 in protest. The group appealed the decision before the High Court of Justice, the House of Lords and finally the European Commission of Human Rights, attempting to overturn the verdict which ruled consent immaterial in acts of sadomasochism, without success.[54] In spite of their repeated failures, the situation publicized the issue, with The Times editorializing the court's decision as \"illiberal nonsense\" in 1993.[54] In 1996 Countdown on Spanner received the Large Nonprofit Organization of the Year award as part of the Pantheon of Leather Awards.[55]A screen shot from \"Cryin'\", featuring Alicia Silverstone and body piercer Paul King[47]Body modification in general became more popular in the United States in the 1990s, as piercing also became more widespread, with growing availability and access to piercings of the navel, nose, eyebrows, lips, tongue, nipples, and genitals.[46] In 1993, a navel piercing was depicted in MTV Video Music Awards' \"Music Video of the Year\", \"Cryin'\", which inspired a plethora of young female fans to follow suit.[47] According to 2009's The Piercing Bible, it was this consumer drive that \"essentially inspired the creation of body-piercing as a full-fledged industry.\"[56] Body piercing was given another media-related boost in 2004, when during a halftime performance at Super Bowl XXXVIII, singer Janet Jackson experienced a \"wardrobe malfunction\" that left exposed Jackson's pierced nipple.[57] Some professional body piercers reported considerable increases in business following the heavily publicized event.[57]Two young women with navel piercings, 2004Alongside traditional piercing techniques, modern body adornment includes variant techniques such as pocketing and flesh stapling, although as of 2007[update] these were still not widely made available by piercers.[58] In the first of these, a scalpel opens the skin or mucous membranes, into which the larger end of a piece of jewellery or—if using a bar—two ends are inserted.[59][60] These kinds of piercings may be difficult to remove, as fibrous tissue can form around the end or ends of the jewellery or the implanted tube into which the jewellery is placed. When a bar is used, pocketing looks quite similar to flesh stapling.[59] The latter technique is frequently done in the form of a ladder.[60] Modern body piercing practices also include dermal anchoring or dermal piercing, which combines piercing and implantation to create a single point of opening in the body (whereas pocketing creates two) to permit one end of the jewellery to show above the surface of the skin.[61] While this technique can be performed almost anywhere on the body, as of 2007[update] it was popularly done between the eyes, on the chest, or on the finger, to simulate a ring.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pierced_Septum.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Decorated_body.jpg"},{"link_name":"Septum piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septum_piercing"},{"link_name":"Nipple piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipple_piercing"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"septum piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septum_piercing"},{"link_name":"nipple piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipple_piercing"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"gauging or stretching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stretching_(body_piercing)"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMJ-70"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMJ-70"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMJ-70"},{"link_name":"countercultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterculture"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Romanienko-71"}],"sub_title":"21st century","text":"Septum piercing and Nipple piercing are both piercings that gained increased popularity in the second decade of the 21st century.[62][63][64]The practice of body piercing is subject to trends and fashions. Belly button and eyebrow piercings were popular during the 1990s when the piercing trend entered the mainstream. In 2015, the septum piercing and nipple piercing were considered highly fashionable.[65][66][67][68] Additionally, the practice of ear lobe gauging or stretching has become popular with the turn of the century.[69]A 2005 survey of 10,503 people in England over the age of 16 found that approximately 10% (1,049) had body piercings in sites other than the earlobe, with a heavy representation of women aged 16–24 (46.2% piercing in that demographic).[70] Among the most common body sites, the navel was top at 33%, with the nose and ear (other than lobe) following at 19% and 13%. The tongue and nipple tied at 9%. The eyebrow, lip and genitals were 8%, 4% and 2%, respectively.[70] Preference among women followed closely on that ranking, though eyebrow piercings were more common than nipple piercings. Among male responders, the order was significantly different, descending in popularity from nipple, eyebrow, ear, tongue, nose, lip and genitals.[70]A cross-cultural study published in 2011 found that individuals with piercings were likely to be involved in other forms of countercultural expression as well.[71]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Piercing1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tamil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_people"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM29-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM34-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM29-72"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFP-76"},{"link_name":"play piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_piercing"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"suspension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(body_modification)"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"Sun Dance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Dance"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Porterfield-46"},{"link_name":"Crow Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crow_Nation"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"self-mortification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortification_of_the_flesh"},{"link_name":"trance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trance"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"Qionghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qionghai"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM34-74"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"heteronormativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heteronormativity"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Romanienko-71"},{"link_name":"Prince Albert Piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Piercing1669367607382.png/360px-Piercing1669367607382.png"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"}],"text":"A Tamil man in a religious procession with a trident piercing his cheeksReasons for piercing vary greatly. A 2001 survey in Clinical Nursing Research, an international publication, found that 62% of people who have had piercings have done so in an effort \"to express their individuality.\"[72] People also pierce to commemorate landmark events or to overcome traumatic ones.[73] According to the assistant director of the Frankfurt University Teaching Hospital for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, some sexual abuse survivors choose body piercing as a means of \"reclaiming body parts from memories of abuse\".[74] Piercing can also be chosen for simple aesthetic value, to highlight particular areas of the body, as a navel piercing may reflect a woman's satisfaction with the shape and condition of her stomach.[75] Some people pierce, permanently or temporarily, to enhance sexual pleasure. Genital and nipple piercings may increase sexual satisfaction.[72][76] Some people participate in a form of body play known as play piercing, in which piercings may be done temporarily on the genitals or elsewhere on the body for sexual gratification.[77]Piercing combined with suspension was historically important in the religious ceremonies of some Native Americans, featuring in many variants of the Sun Dance ceremony,[46] including that practiced by the Crow Nation.[78] During the Crow ceremony, men who wished to obtain visions were pierced in the shoulders or chest by men who had undergone the ceremony in the past and then suspended by these piercings from poles in or outside of the Sun Dance Lodge. Some contemporary Southeast Asian rituals also practice body piercing, as a form of spiritual self-mortification. Generally, the subject attempts to enter an analgesic trance prior to the piercing.[79]Cheek piercing at a ritual in Qionghai, Hainan, ChinaBridging the gap between self-expressive piercing and spiritual piercing, modern indigenous people may use piercing and other forms of body modification as a way of ritually reconnecting with themselves and society, which according to Musafar once used piercing as a culturally binding ritual.[74] But at the same time that piercing can be culturally binding, it may also be a means of rebellion, particularly for adolescents in Western cultures.[80]A fifteen-year analysis published in 2011, Body Piercing and Identity Construction, found that public piercing served as a mechanism of both accelerated camaraderie and political communication, while private piercings served to enhance sexuality and contest heteronormativity.[71]Certain piercings are done to enhance sexual pleasure. One example is the Prince Albert Piercing. Prince Albert (PA) piercing may be done for different reasons. Some men go for it for aesthetic reasons, whereas some may try it as an adventure. Men with PA piercing report an increased sense of sexual gratification. This piercing works by stimulating the urethral area (the passage through which urine and semen pass) during sex. The jewelry may provide greater sexual pleasure while masturbating or during oral, anal, or vaginal sex. PA piercing also increases the sexual pleasure of the partner. It can stimulate the nerves in the mouth and genital areas of the partner during sex.[81]","title":"Reasons for piercing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Consent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent"},{"link_name":"parental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Western Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NCSL-86"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NCSL-86"},{"link_name":"Crothersville, Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crothersville,_Indiana"},{"link_name":"yearbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yearbook"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Henry County, Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_County,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"in-school suspension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-school_suspension"},{"link_name":"homeschool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeschooling"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"dress codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dress_code"},{"link_name":"Starbucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starbucks"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Walt Disney Parks and Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney_Parks_and_Resorts"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM77-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible"},{"link_name":"Leviticus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leviticus"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM77-92"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Angel3-21"},{"link_name":"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"Shabbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shabbat"},{"link_name":"Talmud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talmud"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hastings-27"},{"link_name":"UAE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates"},{"link_name":"Dubai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dubai"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Maria Tash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Tash"}],"text":"See also: ConsentWhile body piercing has grown more widespread, it remains controversial. Some countries impose age of consent laws requiring parental permission for minors to receive body piercings.[82] Scotland requires parental consent for youths below 16, while in 2011 Wales began considering a similar law.[83] In addition to imposing parental consent requirements, Western Australia prohibits piercing private areas of minors, including genitals and nipples, on penalty of fine and imprisonment for the piercer.[84][85] Many states in the U.S. also require parental consent to pierce minors, with some also requiring the physical presence of the parents during the act.[86] The state of Idaho has imposed a minimum age for body piercing at 14.[86]In 2004, controversy erupted in Crothersville, Indiana, when a local high school featured a spread on \"Body Decorations\" in its yearbook that featured tattoos and body piercings of teachers and students.[87] That same year, in Henry County, Georgia, a 15-year-old boy remained in in-school suspension for a full month for violating school policy by wearing eyebrow, nose, labret and tongue piercings to school. His mother subsequently decided to homeschool him.[88][89] As of 2022, the school district has maintained its policy against body piercing.[90]According to 2006's Tattoos and Body Piercing, corporate dress codes can also strictly limit piercing displays. At that time, Starbucks limited piercings to two per ear and jewelry to small, matched earrings.[91] Employees of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts were not permitted to display piercings at all.[92] However, also in 2006, amid a series of employment discrimination cases in the United States, it became clear that the legality of these dress codes depended upon broader social acceptance of body piercing.[93] As early as 2011, some management literature acknowledged that workplace prohibitions on body modification could negatively impact human resources development; one author compared the practice to older prohibitions on long hair.[94] As of 2020, employment discrimination based on personal appearance including body piercings may be illegal in France.[95]Body piercing in some religions is held to be destructive to the body. Some passages of the Bible, including Leviticus 19:28,[92] have been interpreted as prohibiting body modification because the body is held to be the property of God.[21] The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has taken an official position against most piercings unless for medical reasons, although they accept piercings for women as long as there is only one set of piercings in the lower lobe of the ears and no other place on the body.[96] Wearing of very large nose rings on Shabbat is forbidden by the Talmud.[27]In 2018 the first piercing business in the UAE was opened in Dubai[97] by American piercer, Maria Tash.","title":"Piercing prohibitions and taboos"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elaine_Davidson_Front.jpg"},{"link_name":"Elaine Davidson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_Davidson"},{"link_name":"Elaine Davidson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elaine_Davidson"},{"link_name":"Guinness World Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinness_World_Record"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TDT-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GWR-99"},{"link_name":"The Daily Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TDT-98"},{"link_name":"Luis Antonio Agüero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luis_Antonio_Ag%C3%BCero&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GWR-99"},{"link_name":"Brent Moffat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brent_Moffat&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Kam Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kam_Ma&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GWR-99"},{"link_name":"Robert Jesus Rubio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Jesus_Rubio&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"text":"Elaine Davidson, the \"Most Pierced Woman\" in the world as of 2009Officially titled \"Most Pierced Woman\", Elaine Davidson of Brazil holds the Guinness World Record for most permanent piercings, first setting this record in 2000 upon verification by Guinness judges of 462 body piercings, with 192 at the time being around her head and face.[98] As of 8 June 2006, her Guinness-certified piercings numbered 4,225.[99] In February 2009, The Daily Telegraph reported that she had 6,005.[98] The \"Most Pierced Man\" as of 2009 was Luis Antonio Agüero, who had 230 permanent piercings, with 175 rings adorning his face alone.[99]In January 2003, Canadian Brent Moffat set the World Record for most body piercings in one session (700 piercings with 18g surgical needles in 1 session of 7 hours, using play piercing where the skin is pierced and sometimes jewellery is inserted, which is worn temporarily).[100] In December of the same year, Moffat had 900 piercings in 4½ hours.[101] On 4 March 2006, the record was overturned by Kam Ma, who had 1,015 temporary metal rings inserted in 7 hours and 55 minutes.[99] The record for most body piercings with surgical needles was set on 29 May 2008, when Robert Jesus Rubio allowed 900 18-gauge, 0.5 centimetres (0.20 in)-long surgical needles to be inserted into his body.[102]","title":"World records"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Contemporary piercing practices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Body piercing jewellery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercing_jewellery"},{"link_name":"hypoallergenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoallergenic"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"stainless steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stainless_steel"},{"link_name":"niobium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niobium"},{"link_name":"titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M25-104"},{"link_name":"Platinum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum"},{"link_name":"palladium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller,_26-105"},{"link_name":"gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold"},{"link_name":"sterling silver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterling_silver"},{"link_name":"tarnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarnish"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M25-104"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFP-76"},{"link_name":"Brown & Sharpe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_%26_Sharpe"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller,_26-105"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"Body jewelry sizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_jewelry_sizes"}],"sub_title":"Contemporary body piercing jewellery","text":"Body piercing jewellery should be hypoallergenic.[103] A number of materials are used, with varying strengths and weaknesses. Surgical stainless steel, niobium and titanium are commonly used metals, with titanium the least likely to cause allergic reaction of the three.[104] Platinum and palladium are also safe alternatives, even in fresh piercings.[105] Initial piercings should never be done with gold of any grade, as gold is mixed with other metals, and sterling silver is not a good alternative in a piercing, as it may cause allergies in initial piercings and will tarnish in piercings of any age.[104] An additional risk for allergic reaction may arise when the stud or clasp of jewellery is made from a different metal than the primary piece.[76]Body piercing jewellery is measured by thickness and diameter/length. Most countries use millimeters. In the US, the Brown & Sharpe AWG gauging system is used, which assigns lower numbers to thicker middles.[105] 00 gauge is 9.246 millimetres (0.3640 in), while 20 gauge is 0.813 millimetres (0.0320 in).[106] For discussion of gauges, see: \"Body jewelry sizes.\"","title":"Contemporary piercing practices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scalpel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalpel"},{"link_name":"scalpelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalpelling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First_piercing.jpg"},{"link_name":"navel piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navel_piercing"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A57-107"},{"link_name":"cartilage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartilage"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"cannula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannula"},{"link_name":"catheter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catheter"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A58-109"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A58-109"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A241-110"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A241-110"},{"link_name":"piercing gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear_piercing_instrument"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM56-111"},{"link_name":"Western Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Australia"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"Association of Professional Piercers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Professional_Piercers"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM56-111"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A58-109"},{"link_name":"Forceps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forceps"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A58-109"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A60-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A59-116"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A60-115"},{"link_name":"Anaesthesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anesthesia"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"topical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topical_anesthetic"}],"sub_title":"Piercing tools","text":"Permanent body piercings are performed by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced. This can either be done by puncturing an opening using a needle (usually a hollow medical needle) or scalpel or by removing tissue, either with a dermal punch or through scalpelling.Tools used in body piercing include:Piercer using a clamp in the early stages of the navel piercing processThe piercing needle\nThe standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a beveled-tip hollow medical needle, which is available in different lengths, gauges and even shapes.[107] While straight needles are useful for many body parts, curved needles are manufactured for areas where straight needles are not ideal. The needle selected is typically the same gauge (or sometimes larger as with cartilage piercings) as the initial jewellery to be worn, with higher gauges indicating thinner needles. The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced, frequently by hand but sometimes with the aid of a needle holder or pusher. While the needle is still in the body, the initial jewellery to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening, following the back of the needle. Jewellery is often inserted into the hollow end of a needle, so that as the needle pulls through the jewellery is left behind.[108]\nThe indwelling cannula\nOutside of the United States, many piercers use a needle containing a cannula (or catheter), a hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle.[109] In some countries, the piercing needle favoured in the United States is regarded as a medical device and is illegal for body piercers.[109] The procedure is similar to the piercing needle method, but the initial jewellery is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewellery are then pulled through the piercing. More bleeding may follow, as the piercing is larger than the jewellery.\nThe dermal punch\nA dermal punch is used to remove a circular area of tissue, into which jewellery is placed, and may be useful for larger cartilage piercings.[110] They are popular for use in ears, though not legal for use by nonmedical personnel in some parts of the United States.[110]\nThe piercing gun\nThe vast majority of women in the west have their ears pierced with a piercing gun.[111] The safety of piercing guns has been disputed. The Department of Health of Western Australia does not recommend their use for piercing body parts other than the lobes of ears,[112] and the USA Association of Professional Piercers recommends that piercing guns not be used for any piercing,[111] requiring members to agree not to use piercing guns in their practice.[113]\nCork\nCork may be placed on the opposite side of the body part being pierced to receive the needle.[109]\nForceps\nForceps, or clamps, may be used to hold and stabilize the tissue to be pierced.[109] Most piercings that are stabilized with forceps use the triangular-headed \"Pennington\" forcep, while tongues are usually stabilized with an oval-headed forcep. Most forceps have large enough openings in their jaws to permit the needle and jewellery to pass directly through, though some slotted forceps are designed with a removable segment instead for removal after the piercing.[114] Forceps are not used in the freehand method, in which the piercer supports the tissue by hand.[115]\nNeedle receiving tubes\nA hollow tube made of metal, shatter-resistant glass or plastic, needle receiving tubes, like forceps, are used to support the tissue at the piercing site and are common in septum and some cartilage piercings.[116] Not only are these tubes intended to support the tissue, but they also receive the needle once it has passed through the tissue, offering protection from the sharp point. Needle receiving tubes are not used in the freehand piercing method.[115]\nAnaesthesia\nAnaesthesia is supplied by some piercers, particularly in the United Kingdom and Europe.[117] The anaesthesia may be topical or injected. Piercers and other non-medical personnel are not legally permitted to administer anaesthetics in the United States.","title":"Contemporary piercing practices"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statim2000and5000autoclaves.jpg"},{"link_name":"Statim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statim"},{"link_name":"autoclaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclave"},{"link_name":"sterilize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)"},{"link_name":"body jewellery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_jewellery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Melag_Autoclave_01.JPG"},{"link_name":"Autoclaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoclave"},{"link_name":"sterilizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hypertrophic_Scar_Lip_Piercing.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hypertrophic scar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertrophic_scar"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMJ-70"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMJ-70"},{"link_name":"nickel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-koenig-118"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brody-119"},{"link_name":"metal allergy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_allergy"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-immune-120"},{"link_name":"bacterial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"viral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus"},{"link_name":"Staphylococcus aureus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus"},{"link_name":"group A streptococcus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus"},{"link_name":"Pseudomonas spp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"Mayo Clinic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayo_Clinic"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM46-122"},{"link_name":"congenital heart disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congenital_heart_disease"},{"link_name":"infective endocarditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infective_endocarditis"},{"link_name":"hemophiliacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemophilia"},{"link_name":"diabetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetic"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"corticosteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFP-76"},{"link_name":"Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alvarez-124"},{"link_name":"hepatitis B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis"},{"link_name":"hepatitis C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepatitis"},{"link_name":"HIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-koenig-118"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"prevalence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence"},{"link_name":"colonization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization"},{"link_name":"Candida albicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candida_albicans"},{"link_name":"tongue piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tongue_piercing"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CANDIDA-129"},{"link_name":"hypertrophic scar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertrophic_scar"},{"link_name":"keloid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keloid"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-koenig-118"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mayo-130"},{"link_name":"Physical trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_trauma"},{"link_name":"edema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edema"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mayo-130"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A186-131"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A186-131"},{"link_name":"Oral trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_trauma"},{"link_name":"gingival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gingiva"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DTLEVIN-132"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMLevin-133"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AMLevin-133"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A56-136"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Association of Professional Piercers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Professional_Piercers"},{"link_name":"First Aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Aid"},{"link_name":"blood-borne pathogens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood-borne_disease"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM56-111"}],"text":"Two models of Statim autoclaves shown above are commonly found in professional piercing studios, that use pulsing steam under pressure to sterilize body jewellery and equipment immediately prior to use.Autoclaves such as this one are standard equipment in professional piercing studios, helping to prevent infection. This type uses a vacuum pump to remove air from the chamber before sterilizing sealed packages of items for later use.Hypertrophic scar that developed on the lip seven weeks after piercing itBody piercing is an invasive procedure with risks. In a 2005 survey of 10,503 persons over the age of 16 in England, complications were reported in 31% of piercings, with professional help being necessary in 15.2%.[70] 0.9% had complications serious enough to require hospitalization.[70]Some risks of note include:Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewellery, particularly nickel. This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewellery manufactured from titanium or niobium or similar inert metals.[118][119] Metal piercing jewellery puts metal in contact with damaged skin, increasing the risk of developing a metal allergy; this is thought to be why such allergies are more common in women.[120]\nInfection, bacterial or viral, particularly from Staphylococcus aureus, group A streptococcus and Pseudomonas spp. Reports at the 16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases in 2006 indicated that bacterial infections are seldom serious, but that ten to twenty percent of piercings result in local benign bacterial infection.[121] The Mayo Clinic estimates 30%.[122] Risk of infection is greatest among those with congenital heart disease, who have a much higher chance of developing life-threatening infective endocarditis, hemophiliacs and diabetics,[123] as well as those taking corticosteroids.[76] In 2006, a diabetic woman in Indiana lost a breast due to an infection from a nipple piercing.[124] Viral infections may include hepatitis B, hepatitis C and, potentially, HIV,[118] although as of 2009 there had been no documented cases of HIV caused by piercing.[125] While rare, infection due to piercing of the tongue can be fatal.[126][127][128] Higher prevalence of colonization of Candida albicans was reported in young individuals with tongue piercing, in comparison to non-tongue-pierced matched individuals.[129]\nExcess scar tissue, including hypertrophic scar and keloid formation.[118] While piercings can be removed, they may leave a hole, mark or scar.[130]\nPhysical trauma including tearing, friction or bumping of the piercing site, which may cause edema and delay healing.[130][131] The risks can be minimized by wearing properly sized jewellery and not changing it unnecessarily, by not touching the piercing more than required for aftercare, and by being conscious of environmental factors (such as clothing) that may impact the piercing.[131]\nOral trauma, including recession of gingival tissue and dental fracture and wear. Recession of gingival tissue affects 19% to 68% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments.[132][133] In some cases, the alveolar tooth-bearing bone is also involved, jeopardizing the stability and durability of the teeth in place and requiring a periodontal regeneration surgery.[134][135] Dental fracture and wear affects 14% to 41% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments.[133]Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer. Piercers are expected to sanitize the location to be pierced as well as their hands, even though they will often wear gloves during the procedure (and in some areas must, as it is prescribed by law).[136] Quite frequently, these gloves will be changed multiple times, often one pair for each step of setup to avoid cross contamination. For example, after a piercer wearing gloves has cleaned the area to be pierced on a client, the piercer may change gloves to avoid recontaminating the area. Wearing sterile gloves is required by law for professional piercing procedures in some areas, such as the states of Florida and South Carolina. Tools and jewellery should be sterilized in autoclaves,[137] and non-autoclavable surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant agents on a regular basis and between clients.In addition, the Association of Professional Piercers recommends classes in First Aid in blood-borne pathogens as part of professional training.[111]","title":"Risks associated with body piercing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plasma_on_body_ring.jpg"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"fistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fistula"},{"link_name":"discharge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exudate"},{"link_name":"sebaceous glands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebaceous_gland"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A182-141"},{"link_name":"sebum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebum#Sebum"},{"link_name":"pus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pus"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A182-141"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A182-141"},{"link_name":"Genital piercings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_piercing"},{"link_name":"clitoral hood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clitoral_hood"},{"link_name":"Prince Albert piercings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_(genital_piercing)"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M106-142"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M106-142"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AFP-76"}],"sub_title":"The healing process and body piercing aftercare","text":"Dried sebum deposit on body jewelleryThe aftercare process for body piercing has evolved gradually through practice, and many myths and harmful recommendations persist.[138] A reputable piercing studio should provide clients with written and verbal aftercare instructions, as is in some areas mandated by law.[139]The healing process of piercings is broken down into three stages:[140]The inflammatory phase, during which the wound is open and bleeding, inflammation and tenderness are all to be expected;\nThe growth or proliferative phase, during which the body produces cells and protein to heal the puncture and the edges contract around the piercing, forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a fistula. This phase may last weeks, months, or longer than a year.\nThe maturation or remodeling phase, as the cells lining the piercing strengthen and stabilize. This stage takes months or years to complete.It is normal for a white or slightly yellow discharge to be noticeable on the jewellery, as the sebaceous glands produce an oily substance meant to protect and moisturize the wound.[141] While these sebum deposits may be expected for some time, only a small amount of pus, which is a sign of inflammation or infection, should be expected, and only within the initial phase.[141] While sometimes difficult to distinguish, sebum is \"more solid and cheeselike and has a distinctive rotten odour\", according to The Piercing Bible.[141]The amount of time it typically takes a piercing to heal varies widely according to the placement of the piercing. Genital piercings can be among the quicker to heal, with piercings of the clitoral hood and Prince Albert piercings healing in as little as a month, though some may take longer.[142] Navel piercings can be the slowest to heal, with one source reporting a range of six months to two full years.[142] The prolonged healing of navel piercings may be connected to clothing friction.[76]","title":"Risks associated with body piercing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel_1-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel_1-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel_1-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel_1-6"},{"link_name":"Angel 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2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFUllman2008"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel2_11-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel2_11-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel2_11-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Angel2_11-3"},{"link_name":"Angel 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAngel2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Gay & Whittington 2002","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGayWhittington2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"White 1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWhite1970"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"Wilkinson 1837","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFWilkinson1837"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Wilkinson 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2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAngel2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-139"},{"link_name":"Angel 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAngel2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-140"},{"link_name":"Angel 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAngel2009"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-A182_141-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-A182_141-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-A182_141-2"},{"link_name":"Angel 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAngel2009"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-M106_142-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-M106_142-1"},{"link_name":"Miller 2004","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMiller2004"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f g (Angel 2009, p. 2)\n\n^ (Smith 2002, p. 171)\n\n^ (Woods 2006)\n\n^ a b c (Ward 2004)\n\n^ a b (Hesse 2007, p. xvii)\n\n^ (Hesse 2007, p. 78)\n\n^ Genesis 35:4\n\n^ Exodus 32\n\n^ Deuteronomy 15:12–17\n\n^ (Ullman 2008)\n\n^ a b c d (Angel 2009, p. 12)\n\n^ (Gay & Whittington 2002, p. 53)\n\n^ (White 1970, p. 116)\n\n^ (Wilkinson 1837, pp. 370–371)\n\n^ (Wilkinson 1837, p. 79)\n\n^ (Wilkinson 1837, pp. 79–80)\n\n^ (Smith 1908, p. 233)\n\n^ (Prisant 2003, p. 406)\n\n^ a b (Smith 1908, pp. 234–235)\n\n^ a b c (Hesse 2007, p. 26)\n\n^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 13)\n\n^ a b c (DeMello 2007, p. 204)\n\n^ (Pitts-Taylor 2008, p. 365)\n\n^ (DeMello 2012, pp. 239–240)\n\n^ Genesis 24:22\n\n^ a b c (DeMello 2007, p. 205)\n\n^ a b (Hastings 2003, p. 397)\n\n^ (King 2007, p. 5)\n\n^ a b (DeMello 2007, p. 209)\n\n^ (DeMello 2007, p. 248)\n\n^ (Weule & Werner 1909, pp. 55–56)\n\n^ (Wood 1874, pp. 395–396)\n\n^ (Phillips & Carillet 2006, p. 207)\n\n^ (Lawman 2004, p. 92)\n\n^ (van den Brink 1974, p. 71)\n\n^ (McRae & Davies 2006, p. 36)\n\n^ (Miller 2004, p. 17)\n\n^ (Vale & Juno 1989, p. 104)\n\n^ (Parents 2007, p. 151) \"Navel piercing. Unlike the other body piercings, this one has not been recorded in history.\"\n\n^ (Rutty 2004, p. 163)\n\n^ (Brodsky 2006, p. 55) \"Kumaz is the chastity belt of the vagina that they would make for their daughters. They would pierce the walls of the vagina like they would pierce the ears. They would insert it [...] so that the men could not have sex with them.\"\n\n^ (Wagner 2006, p. 248)\n\n^ (Adler 1998, p. 144)\n\n^ (Graves 2000, p. 13)\n\n^ (Kern 1975, p. 95) \"In the late 1890s the \"bosom ring\" came into fashion briefly and sold in expensive Parisian jewellery shops. These anneaux de sein were inserted through the nipple, and some women wore one on either side.\"\n\n^ a b c d e f (Porterfield 2003, p. 356)\n\n^ a b c (Angel 2009, p. 16)\n\n^ a b (Voss 2007)\n\n^ (Ward n.d.)\n\n^ (Ferguson 2000)\n\n^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 15)\n\n^ Townsend, Larry (1983). The Leatherman's Handbook II. New York: Modernismo Publications. p. 26. ISBN 0-89237-010-6.\n\n^ (Pitts 2003, p. 95)\n\n^ a b (Camp 2007)\n\n^ \"Pantheon of Leather Awards All Time Recipients - The Leather Journal\". www.theleatherjournal.com. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2021.\n\n^ (Angel 2009, pp. 15–16)\n\n^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 11)\n\n^ (DeMello 2007, p. 219)\n\n^ a b (DeMello 2007, pp. 218–219)\n\n^ a b (De Cuyper, Pérez-Cotopos & Cossio 2010, p. 44)\n\n^ (DeMello 2007, p. 92)\n\n^ (Garnsworthy 2015)\n\n^ (Arata 2015)\n\n^ (Wilbur 2016)\n\n^ (Spencer 2015)\n\n^ (Hull Daily 2015)\n\n^ (Duff 2015)\n\n^ (Lough 2015)\n\n^ (McClatchey 2015)\n\n^ a b c d e (Bone et al. 2008, pp. 1426–1428)\n\n^ a b (Romanienko 2011, pp. 33–50, 131–139)\n\n^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 29)\n\n^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 30, 34)\n\n^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 34)\n\n^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 28)\n\n^ a b c d (Meltzer 2005)\n\n^ (Miller 2004, p. 121)\n\n^ (American Museum of Natural History 1921, pp. 21–22)\n\n^ (Ooi 2004, p. 1139)\n\n^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 36)\n\n^ \"Why Do Guys Get Prince Alberts?\". MedicineNet. Retrieved 26 March 2023.\n\n^ \"Body Piercing Client Consent Form\" (PDF). Stockton-on-Tees Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2019.\n\n^ (BBC News 2011)\n\n^ \"Children and Community Services Act 2004 - Sect 104A\". Western Australian Consolidated Acts. 2004. Retrieved 3 January 2013.\n\n^ \"Written consent form for body piercing of a child under 18 years of age in the CEO's care\" (PDF). Government of Western Australia, Department for Child Protection and Family Support. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2013.\n\n^ a b \"Tattooing and Body Piercing | State Laws, Statutes and Regulations\". National Conference of State Legislatures. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2020.\n\n^ (Miller 2004, pp. 17–18)\n\n^ (Miller 2004, p. 19)\n\n^ Reid, S. A. (24 September 2004). \"Student fights to sport metal\". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ProQuest 337133263.\n\n^ \"Dress Code / Overview\". schoolwires.henry.k12.ga.us. Retrieved 5 September 2022.[permanent dead link]\n\n^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 76–77)\n\n^ a b (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 77)\n\n^ Fox, Michael W (June 2006). \"The changing face of discrimination law\". Texas Bar Journal. 69: 564–569 – via Hein Online.\n\n^ Elzweig, Brian; Peeples, Donna K. (2011). \"Tattoos and piercings: Issues of body modification and the workplace\". SAM Advanced Management Journal. 76 (1): 13–23. ISSN 0749-7075 – via Business Source Complete.\n\n^ Le Roux, Marion (20 July 2020). \"Tackling discrimination based on looks: guidance from France\". Lexology. Retrieved 30 January 2022.\n\n^ \"Body Piercing\". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 14 December 2009.\n\n^ (Day 2018)\n\n^ a b (Daily Telegraph 2009)\n\n^ a b c (Glenday 2009, p. 105)\n\n^ (Folkard 2004, p. 50)\n\n^ (Daily Times 2004)\n\n^ (Guinness World Records 2009)\n\n^ (Miller 2004, p. 21)\n\n^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 25)\n\n^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 26)\n\n^ (Miller 2004, p. 27)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, p. 57)\n\n^ (Miller 2004, p. 103)\n\n^ a b c d (Angel 2009, p. 58)\n\n^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 241)\n\n^ a b c (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 56)\n\n^ \"The Use of Ear Piercing Guns/Nose Piercing Guns\" (PDF). Department of Health, Western Australia. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2013.\n\n^ \"FAQ\". Association of Professional Piercers. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012.\n\n^ (Angel 2009, pp. 58–59)\n\n^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 60)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, p. 59)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, p. 61)\n\n^ a b c (Koenig & Carnes 1999, pp. 379–385)\n\n^ (Brody 2000)\n\n^ Riedel, F; Aparicio-Soto, M; Curato, C; Thierse, HJ; Siewert, K; Luch, A (15 October 2021). \"Immunological Mechanisms of Metal Allergies and the Nickel-Specific TCR-pMHC Interface\". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (20): 10867. doi:10.3390/ijerph182010867. PMC 8535423. PMID 34682608.\n\n^ (Medical News Today 2006)\n\n^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 46)\n\n^ (Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 46–48)\n\n^ (Alvarez 2006)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, p. 22)\n\n^ (BBC News 1999)\n\n^ (Siegel 2008)\n\n^ (Mason 2009)\n\n^ (Zadik et al. 2010)\n\n^ a b (Mayo Clinic staff 2008)\n\n^ a b (Angel 2009, p. 186)\n\n^ (Levin, Zadik & Becker 2005)\n\n^ a b (Levin & Zadik 2007)\n\n^ (Zadik & Sandler 2007)\n\n^ (Levin 2007)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, p. 56)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, p. 37)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, pp. 180–181)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, p. 181)\n\n^ (Angel 2009, pp. 181–182)\n\n^ a b c (Angel 2009, p. 182)\n\n^ a b (Miller 2004, p. 106)","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"Nipple piercings, vertical labret piercing and stretched ears","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Body_art.jpg/220px-Body_art.jpg"},{"image_text":"An earring found in an Alamannic grave in Germany, dated c. 6th or 7th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Biigabe1.jpg/220px-Biigabe1.jpg"},{"image_text":"A traditional Burmese ear-boring ceremony","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Ear-boring_ceremony--Burma.jpg/220px-Ear-boring_ceremony--Burma.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Karen woman from Burma with traditional ear plugs","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Thai_Earplug_5.jpg/220px-Thai_Earplug_5.jpg"},{"image_text":"Khond woman with ear, septum and nostril piercings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Kutia_kondh_woman_3.jpg/220px-Kutia_kondh_woman_3.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Nilotic Mursi woman","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Murzi2.jpg/220px-Murzi2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Woman with navel and genital piercings","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Selfie_with_Piercings.jpg/220px-Selfie_with_Piercings.jpg"},{"image_text":"Person with several facial piercings (Monroe, Septum and Lip)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Portrait_of_dark_haired_girl_with_beautiful_eyes_and_several_piercings.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_dark_haired_girl_with_beautiful_eyes_and_several_piercings.jpg"},{"image_text":"A screen shot from \"Cryin'\", featuring Alicia Silverstone and body piercer Paul King[47]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5d/Cryinvid.jpg/220px-Cryinvid.jpg"},{"image_text":"Two young women with navel piercings, 2004","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/California_girls_with_pierced_navels.jpg/170px-California_girls_with_pierced_navels.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Tamil man in a religious procession with a trident piercing his cheeks","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Piercing1.jpg/220px-Piercing1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Cheek piercing at a ritual in Qionghai, Hainan, China"},{"image_text":"Elaine Davidson, the \"Most Pierced Woman\" in the world as of 2009","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Elaine_Davidson_Front.jpg/220px-Elaine_Davidson_Front.jpg"},{"image_text":"Piercer using a clamp in the early stages of the navel piercing process","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/First_piercing.jpg/220px-First_piercing.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hypertrophic scar that developed on the lip seven weeks after piercing it","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Hypertrophic_Scar_Lip_Piercing.jpg/140px-Hypertrophic_Scar_Lip_Piercing.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dried sebum deposit on body jewellery","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9d/Plasma_on_body_ring.jpg/140px-Plasma_on_body_ring.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Body jewelry sizes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_jewelry_sizes"},{"title":"Body piercing regulation in the UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercing_regulation_in_the_UK"},{"title":"Corset piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corset_piercing"},{"title":"Genital piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genital_piercing"},{"title":"List of body piercings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_body_piercings"},{"title":"Play piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_piercing"},{"title":"Suspension piercing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suspension_(body_modification)"}]
[{"reference":"Townsend, Larry (1983). The Leatherman's Handbook II. New York: Modernismo Publications. p. 26. ISBN 0-89237-010-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89237-010-6","url_text":"0-89237-010-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Pantheon of Leather Awards All Time Recipients - The Leather Journal\". www.theleatherjournal.com. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201228055005/https://www.theleatherjournal.com/pantheon-awards/recipients","url_text":"\"Pantheon of Leather Awards All Time Recipients - The Leather Journal\""},{"url":"https://www.theleatherjournal.com/pantheon-awards/recipients","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Why Do Guys Get Prince Alberts?\". MedicineNet. Retrieved 26 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.medicinenet.com/why_do_guys_get_prince_alberts/article.htm","url_text":"\"Why Do Guys Get Prince Alberts?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Body Piercing Client Consent Form\" (PDF). Stockton-on-Tees Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200420005432/https://www.stockton.gov.uk/media/2117/tab-body-piercing-client-consent-form.pdf","url_text":"\"Body Piercing Client Consent Form\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockton-on-Tees","url_text":"Stockton-on-Tees"},{"url":"https://www.stockton.gov.uk/media/2117/tab-body-piercing-client-consent-form.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Children and Community Services Act 2004 - Sect 104A\". Western Australian Consolidated Acts. 2004. Retrieved 3 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cacsa2004318/s104a.html","url_text":"\"Children and Community Services Act 2004 - Sect 104A\""}]},{"reference":"\"Written consent form for body piercing of a child under 18 years of age in the CEO's care\" (PDF). Government of Western Australia, Department for Child Protection and Family Support. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130419203855/http://www.dcp.wa.gov.au/ChildProtection/Documents/Piercing/PiercingConsentForm.pdf","url_text":"\"Written consent form for body piercing of a child under 18 years of age in the CEO's care\""},{"url":"http://www.dcp.wa.gov.au/ChildProtection/Documents/Piercing/PiercingConsentForm.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Tattooing and Body Piercing | State Laws, Statutes and Regulations\". National Conference of State Legislatures. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131007110154/http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/tattooing-and-body-piercing.aspx","url_text":"\"Tattooing and Body Piercing | State Laws, Statutes and Regulations\""},{"url":"http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/tattooing-and-body-piercing.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Reid, S. A. (24 September 2004). \"Student fights to sport metal\". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ProQuest 337133263.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.proquest.com/docview/337133263","url_text":"\"Student fights to sport metal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlanta_Journal-Constitution","url_text":"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/337133263","url_text":"337133263"}]},{"reference":"\"Dress Code / Overview\". schoolwires.henry.k12.ga.us. Retrieved 5 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://schoolwires.henry.k12.ga.us/domain/http%3A%2F%2Fschoolwires.henry.k12.ga.us%2Fsite%2Fdefault.aspx%3FDomainID%3D12687","url_text":"\"Dress Code / Overview\""}]},{"reference":"Fox, Michael W (June 2006). \"The changing face of discrimination law\". Texas Bar Journal. 69: 564–569 – via Hein Online.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Elzweig, Brian; Peeples, Donna K. (2011). \"Tattoos and piercings: Issues of body modification and the workplace\". SAM Advanced Management Journal. 76 (1): 13–23. ISSN 0749-7075 – via Business Source Complete.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0749-7075","url_text":"0749-7075"}]},{"reference":"Le Roux, Marion (20 July 2020). \"Tackling discrimination based on looks: guidance from France\". Lexology. Retrieved 30 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=eb667520-ab2c-43b8-bd43-2ec2290941bd","url_text":"\"Tackling discrimination based on looks: guidance from France\""}]},{"reference":"\"Body Piercing\". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 14 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/true-to-the-faith/body-piercing","url_text":"\"Body Piercing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints","url_text":"The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints"}]},{"reference":"\"The Use of Ear Piercing Guns/Nose Piercing Guns\" (PDF). Department of Health, Western Australia. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110313010127/http://www.public.health.wa.gov.au/cproot/1469/2/Use_of_Ear_Piercing_Guns.pdf","url_text":"\"The Use of Ear Piercing Guns/Nose Piercing Guns\""},{"url":"http://www.public.health.wa.gov.au/cproot/1469/2/Use_of_Ear_Piercing_Guns.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"FAQ\". Association of Professional Piercers. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120114195410/http://www.safepiercing.org/piercing/faq/#guns","url_text":"\"FAQ\""},{"url":"http://www.safepiercing.org/piercing/faq/#guns","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Riedel, F; Aparicio-Soto, M; Curato, C; Thierse, HJ; Siewert, K; Luch, A (15 October 2021). \"Immunological Mechanisms of Metal Allergies and the Nickel-Specific TCR-pMHC Interface\". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (20): 10867. doi:10.3390/ijerph182010867. PMC 8535423. PMID 34682608.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8535423","url_text":"\"Immunological Mechanisms of Metal Allergies and the Nickel-Specific TCR-pMHC Interface\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph182010867","url_text":"10.3390/ijerph182010867"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8535423","url_text":"8535423"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34682608","url_text":"34682608"}]},{"reference":"\"3,000 Piercings as 9/11 Tributes\". Daily Times. 7 September 2004. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100606115922/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-9-2004_pg9_4","url_text":"\"3,000 Piercings as 9/11 Tributes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Times_(Pakistan)","url_text":"Daily Times"},{"url":"http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-9-2004_pg9_4","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Adler, Rachel (January 1998). Engendering Judaism: an inclusive theology and ethics. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0584-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Adler","url_text":"Adler, Rachel"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8276-0584-8","url_text":"978-0-8276-0584-8"}]},{"reference":"Alvarez, Manny (17 November 2006). \"Dr. Manny's Health Beat: Do's & Don'ts for Safe Body Piercing\". FOX News. Archived from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manny_Alvarez","url_text":"Alvarez, Manny"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090325175433/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,230101,00.html","url_text":"\"Dr. Manny's Health Beat: Do's & Don'ts for Safe Body Piercing\""},{"url":"http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,230101,00.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"American Museum of Natural History (1921). Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 16.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Museum_of_Natural_History","url_text":"American Museum of Natural History"}]},{"reference":"Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elayne_Angel","url_text":"Angel, Elayne"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC","url_text":"The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58091-193-1","url_text":"978-1-58091-193-1"}]},{"reference":"Arata, Emily (30 September 2015). \"A Pro Piercer Answers All The Questions You're Way Too Nervous To Ask\". Elite Daily.","urls":[{"url":"http://elitedaily.com/women/questions-afraid-ask-piercing/1228827/","url_text":"\"A Pro Piercer Answers All The Questions You're Way Too Nervous To Ask\""}]},{"reference":"Bone, Angie; Fortune Ncube; Tom Nichols; Norman D Noah (21 June 2008). \"Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe\". British Medical Journal. 336 (7658): 1426–1428. doi:10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25. PMC 2432173. PMID 18556275. Retrieved 6 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5","url_text":"\"Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.39580.497176.25","url_text":"10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2432173","url_text":"2432173"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18556275","url_text":"18556275"}]},{"reference":"Brodsky, David (2006). A Bride Without a Blessing: a Study in the Redaction and Content of Massekhet Kallah and its Gemara. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-149019-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-149019-4","url_text":"978-3-16-149019-4"}]},{"reference":"Brody, Jane E. (4 April 2000). \"Fresh Warnings on the Perils of Piercing\". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Brody","url_text":"Brody, Jane E."},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/04/health/personal-health-fresh-warnings-on-the-perils-of-piercing.html?pagewanted=all","url_text":"\"Fresh Warnings on the Perils of Piercing\""}]},{"reference":"Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11","url_text":"Tattoos and Body Piercing"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11","url_text":"11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59018-749-0","url_text":"1-59018-749-0"}]},{"reference":"Day, Emma (5 November 2018). \"This Celebrity-Beloved Jeweler is Opening up a Dubai Boutique\". Vogue Arabia. Retrieved 15 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.vogue.me/fashion/jewelry/maria-tash-dubai-mall/","url_text":"\"This Celebrity-Beloved Jeweler is Opening up a Dubai Boutique\""}]},{"reference":"De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa; Cossio, Laura (2010). \"Piercings: Techniques and Complications\". In De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa (eds.). Dermatologic Complications with Body Art: Tattoos, Piercings and Permanent Make-Up. Springer Books. pp. 43–52. ISBN 978-3-642-03291-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dermatologiccomp00cuyp_021","url_text":"Dermatologic Complications with Body Art: Tattoos, Piercings and Permanent Make-Up"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dermatologiccomp00cuyp_021/page/n48","url_text":"43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-03291-2","url_text":"978-3-642-03291-2"}]},{"reference":"DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Body Adornment"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33695-9","url_text":"978-0-313-33695-9"}]},{"reference":"DeMello, Margo (2012). Faces Around the World. ABC-Clio. 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PMID 10600973.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1127091","url_text":"\"Body piercing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_BMJ","url_text":"Student BMJ"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.319.7225.1627","url_text":"10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1627"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1127091","url_text":"1127091"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10600973","url_text":"10600973"}]},{"reference":"Folkard, Claire (2004). Guinness World Records (50 ed.). Guinness World Records. ISBN 1-892051-22-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-892051-22-2","url_text":"1-892051-22-2"}]},{"reference":"Gay, Kathlyn; Whittington, Christine (2002). Body Marks: Tattooing, Piercing, and Scarification. Women at War. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-2352-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7613-2352-X","url_text":"0-7613-2352-X"}]},{"reference":"Garnsworthy, Jasmine (13 February 2015). \"It's Official: Septum Rings Are Trending With Fashion Week's Street Style Crowd\". SC.","urls":[{"url":"http://stylecaster.com/its-official-septum-rings-are-trending-with-fashion-weeks-street-style-crowd/","url_text":"\"It's Official: Septum Rings Are Trending With Fashion Week's Street Style Crowd\""}]},{"reference":"Glenday, Craig (2009). Guinness World Records. Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-553-59256-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse","url_text":"Guinness World Records"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-553-59256-6","url_text":"978-0-553-59256-6"}]},{"reference":"Graves, Bonnie B. (2000). Tattooing and Body Piercing: Perspectives on Physical Health. Capstone Press. ISBN 0-7368-0417-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tattooingbodypie00bonn","url_text":"Tattooing and Body Piercing: Perspectives on Physical Health"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7368-0417-X","url_text":"0-7368-0417-X"}]},{"reference":"Hastings, James (2003). \"Nose-ornaments\". In Selbie, John A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 17. Kessinger Publishing. p. 397. ISBN 0-7661-3694-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7661-3694-9","url_text":"0-7661-3694-9"}]},{"reference":"Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C","url_text":"Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33507-5","url_text":"978-0-313-33507-5"}]},{"reference":"Kern, Stephen (1975). Anatomy and Destiny: a Cultural History of the Human Body. Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0-672-52091-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/anatomydestiny0000unse","url_text":"Anatomy and Destiny: a Cultural History of the Human Body"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-672-52091-5","url_text":"0-672-52091-5"}]},{"reference":"King, David C. (2007). The Nez Perce. First Americans – Group 3. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2680-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/nezperce0000king","url_text":"The Nez Perce"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7614-2680-6","url_text":"978-0-7614-2680-6"}]},{"reference":"Koenig, Laura M.; Carnes, M (1999). \"Body Piercing: Medical Concerns with Cutting-Edge Fashion\". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 14 (6): 379–85. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.1999.00357.x. PMC 1496593. PMID 10354260.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593","url_text":"\"Body Piercing: Medical Concerns with Cutting-Edge Fashion\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1525-1497.1999.00357.x","url_text":"10.1046/j.1525-1497.1999.00357.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593","url_text":"1496593"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10354260","url_text":"10354260"}]},{"reference":"Lawman, Denise, ed. (2004). \"Labrets\". Illustrated Dictionary of Anthropology. Lotus Press. ISBN 81-89093-10-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-89093-10-X","url_text":"81-89093-10-X"}]},{"reference":"Levin, Liran (June 2007). \"Alveolar Bone Loss and Gingival Recession Due to Lip and Tongue Piercing\". N Y State Dent J. 73 (4): 48–50. PMID 17891882.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17891882","url_text":"17891882"}]},{"reference":"Levin, Liran; Zadik, Yehuda (October 2007). \"Oral Piercing: Complications and Side Effects\". Am J Dent. 20 (5): 340–344. PMID 17993034.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17993034","url_text":"17993034"}]},{"reference":"Levin, Liran; Zadik, Yehuda; Becker, Tal (December 2005). \"Oral and Dental Complications of Intra-oral Piercing\". Dent Traumatol. 21 (6): 341–343. doi:10.1111/j.1600-9657.2005.00395.x. PMID 16262620. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121218001707/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118672805/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0","url_text":"\"Oral and Dental Complications of Intra-oral Piercing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-9657.2005.00395.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1600-9657.2005.00395.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16262620","url_text":"16262620"},{"url":"http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118672805/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lough, Kate (7 October 2015). \"It's official, the nipple piercing is the new 'it' piercing - just ask Kendall Jenner and Bella Hadid\". Evening Standard. Retrieved 11 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/it-s-official-the-nipple-piercing-is-the-new-it-piercing-just-ask-kendall-jenner-and-bella-hadid-a3084161.html","url_text":"\"It's official, the nipple piercing is the new 'it' piercing - just ask Kendall Jenner and Bella Hadid\""}]},{"reference":"Lundskow, George (2008). The Sociology of Religion: A Substantive and Transdisciplinary Approach. Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-3721-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-3721-4","url_text":"978-1-4129-3721-4"}]},{"reference":"Mason, Jennifer (18 October 2009). \"Tongue Piercing Infection Death Prompts Warning\". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 6 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/10/18/2717129.htm","url_text":"\"Tongue Piercing Infection Death Prompts Warning\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Australian Broadcasting Corporation"}]},{"reference":"Mayo Clinic staff (16 February 2008). \"Piercings: How to Prevent Complications\". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 6 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/piercings/SN00049","url_text":"\"Piercings: How to Prevent Complications\""}]},{"reference":"McClatchey, Carolina (21 November 2011). \"Ear stretching: Why is lobe 'gauging' growing in popularity?\". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 11 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15771237","url_text":"\"Ear stretching: Why is lobe 'gauging' growing in popularity?\""}]},{"reference":"McRae, Anne; Davies, Gill (2006). 365 Awesome Facts & Records about Everything. Struik. ISBN 1-77007-428-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-77007-428-7","url_text":"1-77007-428-7"}]},{"reference":"Meltzer, Donna I. (15 November 2005). \"Complications of Body Piercing\". American Family Physician. 72 (10): 2029–2034. PMID 16342832. Retrieved 14 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html","url_text":"\"Complications of Body Piercing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16342832","url_text":"16342832"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-425-19726-3","url_text":"0-425-19726-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Most Body Piercings (surgical needles)\". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 2 January 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100102055955/http://guinnessworldrecords.com/records/human_body/body_beautiful/most_body_piercings_surgical_needles.aspx","url_text":"\"Most Body Piercings (surgical needles)\""},{"url":"http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records/human_body/body_beautiful/most_body_piercings_surgical_needles.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"A Nose for Fashion. Septum Piercings are the Latest Trend\". Hull Daily Mail. 13 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150926155247/http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/nose-fashion-Septum-piercings-latest-trend/story-27774592-detail/story.html","url_text":"\"A Nose for Fashion. Septum Piercings are the Latest Trend\""},{"url":"http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/nose-fashion-Septum-piercings-latest-trend/story-27774592-detail/story.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: a Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. Vol. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-770-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-770-5","url_text":"1-57607-770-5"}]},{"reference":"Parents. Stellan Consult Ltd. 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KF8nAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Parents"}]},{"reference":"\"Parents 'should approve skin piercings for under-16s'\". BBC News. 18 October 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-15335707","url_text":"\"Parents 'should approve skin piercings for under-16s'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"}]},{"reference":"\"Past Out—What was Operation Spanner?\". Camp. Kansas City Anti-Violence Project. 24 December 2007. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100606055328/http://www.campkc.com/campkc-content.php?Page_ID=748","url_text":"\"Past Out—What was Operation Spanner?\""},{"url":"http://www.campkc.com/campkc-content.php?Page_ID=748","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Phillips, Matt; Carillet, Jean-Bernard (2006). Ethiopia & Eritrea. Lonely Planet guidebooks (3rd ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74104-436-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-74104-436-7","url_text":"1-74104-436-7"}]},{"reference":"Pitts, Victoria (2003). In the Flesh: the Cultural Politics of Body Modification. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29311-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/infleshculturalp2003pitt","url_text":"In the Flesh: the Cultural Politics of Body Modification"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-29311-9","url_text":"0-312-29311-9"}]},{"reference":"Pitts-Taylor, Victoria (2008). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body: M-Z. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-34147-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-34147-2","url_text":"978-0-313-34147-2"}]},{"reference":"Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-238-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-238-X","url_text":"1-57607-238-X"}]},{"reference":"Prisant, Carol (18 January 2003). Antiques Roadshow Collectibles: the Complete Guide to Collecting 20th-century Toys, Glassware, Costume Jewelry, Memorabilia, Ceramics & More. Workman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7611-2822-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/antiquesroadshow00caro","url_text":"Antiques Roadshow Collectibles: the Complete Guide to Collecting 20th-century Toys, Glassware, Costume Jewelry, Memorabilia, Ceramics & More"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7611-2822-9","url_text":"978-0-7611-2822-9"}]},{"reference":"Romanienko, Lisiunia (2011). Body Piercing and Identity Construction. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11032-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-11032-8","url_text":"978-0-230-11032-8"}]},{"reference":"Rutty, Guy N. (31 January 2004). Essentials of Autopsy Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-85233-541-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85233-541-0","url_text":"978-1-85233-541-0"}]},{"reference":"Siegel, Judy (23 September 2008). \"Soldier's Tongue Piercing Causes Fatal Infection\". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121105220441/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-156541113.html","url_text":"\"Soldier's Tongue Piercing Causes Fatal Infection\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Jerusalem_Post","url_text":"The Jerusalem Post"},{"url":"http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-156541113.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Harold Clifford (1908). Davenport, C. (ed.). Jewellery. Connoisseur's library. Vol. 16 (2nd ed.). Methuen and co.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Smith, R. J. (2002). \"The Many Faces of Korla Pandit\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellophane
Cellophane
["1 Production","2 History","3 Today","4 Material properties","5 Branding","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
Thin, transparent sheet made of cellulose For other uses, see Cellophane (disambiguation). Chocolates wrapped in cellophane Cellophane is a thin, transparent sheet made of regenerated cellulose. Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, bacteria, and liquid water makes it useful for food packaging. Cellophane is highly permeable to water vapour, but may be coated with nitrocellulose lacquer to prevent this. Cellophane is also used in transparent pressure-sensitive tape, tubing, and many other similar applications. Cellophane is compostable and biodegradable, and can be obtained from biomaterials. The original production process uses carbon disulfide (CS2), which has been found to be highly toxic to workers. The newer lyocell process can be used to produce cellulose film without involving carbon disulfide. "Cellophane" is a generic term in some countries, while in other countries it is a registered trademark. Production Cellulose from wood, cotton, hemp, or other sources is dissolved in alkali and carbon disulfide to make a solution called viscose, which is then extruded through a slit into a bath of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium sulfate to reconvert the viscose into cellulose. The film is then passed through several more baths, one to remove sulfur, one to bleach the film, and one to add softening materials such as glycerin to prevent the film from becoming brittle. A similar process, using a hole (a spinneret) instead of a slit, is used to make a fibre called rayon. Chemically, cellophane, rayon, and cellulose are polymers of glucose; they differ structurally rather than chemically. History Simplified view of the xanthation of cellulose. Cellophane was invented by Swiss chemist Jacques E. Brandenberger while employed by Blanchisserie et Teinturerie de Thaon. In 1900, inspired by seeing wine spill on a restaurant's tablecloth, he decided to create a cloth that could repel liquids rather than absorb them. His first step was to spray a waterproof coating onto fabric, and he opted to try viscose. The resultant coated fabric was far too stiff, but the diaphanous film coating could be separated from the backing cloth easily and in one undamaged piece. Seeing the possibilities of this new material on its own, Brandenberger soon abandoned his original idea. It took ten years for Brandenberger to perfect his film. His chief improvement over earlier work with such films was adding glycerin to soften the material. By 1912 he had constructed a machine to manufacture the film, which he had named Cellophane, from the words cellulose and diaphane ("transparent"). Cellophane was patented that year. The following year, the company Comptoir des Textiles Artificiels (CTA) bought the Thaon firm's interest in Cellophane and established Brandenberger in a new company, La Cellophane SA. 1953 DuPont advert for cellophane Whitman's candy company initiated use of cellophane for candy wrapping in the United States in 1912 for their Whitman's Sampler. They remained the largest user of imported cellophane from France until nearly 1924, when DuPont built the first cellophane manufacturing plant in the US. Cellophane saw limited sales in the US at first since while it was waterproof, it was not moisture proof—it held or repelled water but was permeable to water vapor. This meant that it was unsuited to packaging products that required moisture proofing. DuPont hired chemist William Hale Charch (1898–1958), who spent three years developing a nitrocellulose lacquer that, when applied to Cellophane, made it moisture proof. Following the introduction of moisture-proof Cellophane in 1927, the material's sales tripled between 1928 and 1930, and in 1938, Cellophane accounted for 10% of DuPont's sales and 25% of its profits. Cellophane played a crucial role in developing the self-service retailing of fresh meat. Cellophane visibility helped customers know quality of meat before buying. Cellophane also worked to consumers' disadvantage when manufacturers learned to manipulate the appearance of a product by controlling oxygen and moisture levels to prevent discolouration of food. It was considered such a useful invention that cellophane was listed alongside other modern marvels in the 1934 song "You're the Top" (from Anything Goes). The British textile company Courtaulds' viscose technology had allowed it to diversify in 1930 into viscose film, which it named "Viscacelle". However, competition with Cellophane was an obstacle to its sales, and in 1935 it founded British Cellophane Limited (BCL) in conjunction with the Cellophane Company and its French parent company CTA. A major production facility was constructed at Bridgwater, Somerset, England, from 1935 to 1937, employing 3,000 workers. BCL subsequently constructed plants in Cornwall, Ontario (BCL Canada), as an adjunct to the existing Courtaulds viscose rayon plant there (from which it bought the viscose solution), and in 1957 at Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria. The latter two plants were closed in the 1990s. Today Rolls of cellophane in various colours Cellulose film has been manufactured continuously since the mid-1930s and is still used today. As well as packaging a variety of food items, there are also industrial applications, such as a base for such self-adhesive tapes as Sellotape and Scotch Tape, a semi-permeable membrane in a certain type of battery, as dialysis tubing (Visking tubing), and as a release agent in the manufacture of fibreglass and rubber products. Cellophane is the most popular material for manufacturing cigar packaging; its permeability to water vapor makes cellophane a good product for this application as cigars must be allowed to "breathe" while wrapped and in storage. Cellophane sales have dwindled since the 1960s, due to alternative packaging options. The polluting effects of carbon disulfide and other by-products of the process used to make viscose may have also contributed to its falling behind lower cost petrochemical-based films such as biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BoPET) and biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) in the 1980s and 1990s. However, as of 2017, it has made something of a resurgence in recent times due to its being biosourced, compostable, and biodegradable. Its sustainability record is clouded by its energy-intensive manufacturing process and the potential negative impact of some of the chemicals used, but significant progress in recent years has been made by leading manufacturers in reducing their environmental footprint. Material properties When placed between two plane polarizing filters, cellophane produces prismatic colours due to its birefringent nature. Artists have used this effect to create stained glass-like creations that are kinetic and interactive. Cellophane is biodegradable, but highly toxic carbon disulfide is used in most cellophane production. Viscose factories vary widely in the amount of CS2 they expose their workers to, and most give no information about their quantitative safety limits or how well they keep to them. Branding In the UK and in many other countries, "Cellophane" is a registered trademark and the property of Futamura Chemical UK Ltd, based in Wigton, Cumbria, United Kingdom. In the USA and some other countries "cellophane" has become genericized, and is often used informally to refer to a wide variety of plastic film products, even those not made of cellulose, such as PVC-based plastic wrap. See also Bioplastics British Cellophane Genericized trademark References ^ a b Morris, Barry A. (2017). "Commonly Used Resins and Substrates in Flexible Packaging". In William, Andrew (ed.). The Science and Technology of Flexible Packaging: Multilayer Films from Resin and Process to End Use. Vol. Plastics Design Library. doi:10.1016/C2013-0-00506-3. ISBN 978-0-323-24273-8. S2CID 251206014. Retrieved 5 May 2021. Cellophane is biosourced, compostable, and biodegradable. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) ^ a b Swan, Norman; Blanc, Paul (20 February 2017). "The health burden of viscose rayon". ABC Radio National. ^ "Cellulose Sausage Skins via the Lyocell Process". AZO Materials. 27 August 2002. Retrieved 2 July 2022. ^ "Has cellophane become a generic trademark?". genericides.org. Retrieved 29 April 2021. ^ Krässig, Hans; Schurz, Josef; Steadman, Robert G.; Schliefer, Karl; Albrecht, Wilhelm; Mohring, Marc; Schlosser, Harald (2002). "Cellulose". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a05_375.pub2. ISBN 978-3527306732. ^ Carraher, Charles E. (Jr.) (2014). Carraher's Polymer Chemistry: Ninth Edition. Boca Raton Fl.: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-4665-5203-6. ^ Carlisle, Rodney (2004). Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p.338. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey. ISBN 0-471-24410-4. ^ a b Hounshell, David A.; John Kenly Smith (1988). Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902–1980. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-521-32767-9. ^ Winkler, John K. (1935). The Dupont Dynasty. Baltimore, MD: Waverly Press, Inc. p. 271. ^ a b Hisano, Ai. "Cellophane, the New Visuality, and the Creation of Self-Service Food Retailing" (PDF). Harvard Business School. ^ Finkelstein, Norman H. (17 August 2008). Plastics. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 9780761426004. ^ Hammack, William S. (6 September 2011). How Engineers Create the World: The Public Radio Commentaries of Bill Hammack. Bill Hammack. ISBN 9780983966104. ^ Harford, Tim (28 May 2020). The Next Fifty Things that Made the Modern Economy. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 9781408712641. ^ Davenport-Hines, Richard Peter Treadwell (1988). Enterprise, Management, and Innovation in British Business, 1914-80. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 0-7146-3348-8. ^ Michelle Nijhuis (June 2009). "Bamboo Boom: Is This Material for You?". Scientific American. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanearth0609-60 (inactive 19 February 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2024 (link) ^ "Trade mark number UK00905352786". Intellectual Property Office. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023. ^ "Compostable and renewable flexible packaging films". Futamura. 2 March 2018. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cellophane. Blanc, Paul David (2016). Fake silk : the lethal history of viscose rayon. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 328. ISBN 9780300204667. Cellophane Invention Authority control databases: National Germany Japan
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Its low permeability to air, oils, greases, bacteria, and liquid water makes it useful for food packaging. Cellophane is highly permeable to water vapour, but may be coated with nitrocellulose lacquer to prevent this.Cellophane is also used in transparent pressure-sensitive tape, tubing, and many other similar applications.Cellophane is compostable and biodegradable, and can be obtained from biomaterials.[1] The original production process uses carbon disulfide (CS2), which has been found to be highly toxic to workers.[2] The newer lyocell process can be used to produce cellulose film without involving carbon disulfide.[3]\"Cellophane\" is a generic term in some countries,[4] while in other countries it is a registered trademark.","title":"Cellophane"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood"},{"link_name":"cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton"},{"link_name":"hemp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp"},{"link_name":"alkali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali"},{"link_name":"carbon disulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_disulfide"},{"link_name":"viscose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscose"},{"link_name":"sulfuric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid"},{"link_name":"sodium sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfate"},{"link_name":"sulfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur"},{"link_name":"glycerin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerin"},{"link_name":"spinneret","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinneret_(polymers)"},{"link_name":"rayon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon"},{"link_name":"polymers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"glucose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose"}],"text":"Cellulose from wood, cotton, hemp, or other sources is dissolved in alkali and carbon disulfide to make a solution called viscose, which is then extruded through a slit into a bath of dilute sulfuric acid and sodium sulfate to reconvert the viscose into cellulose. The film is then passed through several more baths, one to remove sulfur, one to bleach the film, and one to add softening materials such as glycerin to prevent the film from becoming brittle.A similar process, using a hole (a spinneret) instead of a slit, is used to make a fibre called rayon. Chemically, cellophane, rayon, and cellulose are polymers of glucose; they differ structurally rather than chemically.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Xanthation.png"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ull-5"},{"link_name":"Jacques E. 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Brandenberger while employed by Blanchisserie et Teinturerie de Thaon.[6] In 1900, inspired by seeing wine spill on a restaurant's tablecloth, he decided to create a cloth that could repel liquids rather than absorb them. His first step was to spray a waterproof coating onto fabric, and he opted to try viscose. The resultant coated fabric was far too stiff, but the diaphanous film coating could be separated from the backing cloth easily and in one undamaged piece. Seeing the possibilities of this new material on its own, Brandenberger soon abandoned his original idea.It took ten years for Brandenberger to perfect his film. His chief improvement over earlier work with such films was adding glycerin to soften the material. By 1912 he had constructed a machine to manufacture the film, which he had named Cellophane, from the words cellulose and diaphane (\"transparent\"). Cellophane was patented that year.[7] The following year, the company Comptoir des Textiles Artificiels (CTA) bought the Thaon firm's interest in Cellophane and established Brandenberger in a new company, La Cellophane SA.[8]1953 DuPont advert for cellophaneWhitman's candy company initiated use of cellophane for candy wrapping in the United States in 1912 for their Whitman's Sampler. They remained the largest user of imported cellophane from France until nearly 1924, when DuPont built the first cellophane manufacturing plant in the US. Cellophane saw limited sales in the US at first since while it was waterproof, it was not moisture proof—it held or repelled water but was permeable to water vapor. This meant that it was unsuited to packaging products that required moisture proofing. DuPont hired chemist William Hale Charch (1898–1958), who spent three years developing a nitrocellulose lacquer that, when applied to Cellophane, made it moisture proof.[9] Following the introduction of moisture-proof Cellophane in 1927, the material's sales tripled between 1928 and 1930, and in 1938, Cellophane accounted for 10% of DuPont's sales and 25% of its profits.[8]Cellophane played a crucial role in developing the self-service retailing of fresh meat.[10] Cellophane visibility helped customers know quality of meat before buying. Cellophane also worked to consumers' disadvantage when manufacturers learned to manipulate the appearance of a product by controlling oxygen and moisture levels to prevent discolouration of food.[10] It was considered such a useful invention that cellophane was listed alongside other modern marvels in the 1934 song \"You're the Top\" (from Anything Goes).[11][12][13]The British textile company Courtaulds' viscose technology had allowed it to diversify in 1930 into viscose film, which it named \"Viscacelle\". However, competition with Cellophane was an obstacle to its sales, and in 1935 it founded British Cellophane Limited (BCL) in conjunction with the Cellophane Company and its French parent company CTA.[14] A major production facility was constructed at Bridgwater, Somerset, England, from 1935 to 1937, employing 3,000 workers. BCL subsequently constructed plants in Cornwall, Ontario (BCL Canada), as an adjunct to the existing Courtaulds viscose rayon plant there (from which it bought the viscose solution), and in 1957 at Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria. The latter two plants were closed in the 1990s.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cellophane.JPG"},{"link_name":"self-adhesive tapes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure_sensitive_tape"},{"link_name":"Sellotape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sellotape"},{"link_name":"Scotch Tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotch_Tape"},{"link_name":"semi-permeable membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semipermeable"},{"link_name":"battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_battery"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"dialysis tubing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialysis_tubing"},{"link_name":"fibreglass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibreglass"},{"link_name":"rubber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubber"},{"link_name":"cigar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigar"},{"link_name":"polluting effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon#manufacturing_health_hazards"},{"link_name":"carbon disulfide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_disulfide"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biaxially-oriented_polyethylene_terephthalate"},{"link_name":"biaxially oriented polypropylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene#Biaxially_oriented_polypropylene_(BOPP)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-1"}],"text":"Rolls of cellophane in various coloursCellulose film has been manufactured continuously since the mid-1930s and is still used today. As well as packaging a variety of food items, there are also industrial applications, such as a base for such self-adhesive tapes as Sellotape and Scotch Tape, a semi-permeable membrane in a certain type of battery,[which?] as dialysis tubing (Visking tubing), and as a release agent in the manufacture of fibreglass and rubber products. Cellophane is the most popular material for manufacturing cigar packaging; its permeability to water vapor makes cellophane a good product for this application as cigars must be allowed to \"breathe\" while wrapped and in storage.Cellophane sales have dwindled since the 1960s, due to alternative packaging options. The polluting effects of carbon disulfide and other by-products of the process used to make viscose may have also contributed[citation needed] to its falling behind lower cost petrochemical-based films such as biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate (BoPET) and biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP) in the 1980s and 1990s. However, as of 2017, it has made something of a resurgence in recent times due to its being biosourced, compostable, and biodegradable. Its sustainability record is clouded by its energy-intensive manufacturing process and the potential negative impact of some of the chemicals used, but significant progress in recent years has been made by leading manufacturers in reducing their environmental footprint.[1]","title":"Today"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"plane polarizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_polarized_light"},{"link_name":"birefringent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birefringent"},{"link_name":"CS2 they expose their workers to","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon#Carbon_disulfide_toxicity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Blanc-2"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scientificamerican.com-15"}],"text":"When placed between two plane polarizing filters, cellophane produces prismatic colours due to its birefringent nature. Artists have used this effect to create stained glass-like creations that are kinetic and interactive.Cellophane is biodegradable, but highly toxic carbon disulfide is used in most cellophane production. Viscose factories vary widely in the amount of CS2 they expose their workers to, and most give no information about their quantitative safety limits or how well they keep to them.[2][15]","title":"Material properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Futamura Chemical UK Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Futamura_Chemical_UK_Ltd&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Wigton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigton"},{"link_name":"Cumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"genericized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genericized_trademark"},{"link_name":"plastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic"},{"link_name":"PVC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride"},{"link_name":"plastic wrap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_wrap"}],"text":"In the UK and in many other countries, \"Cellophane\" is a registered trademark and the property of Futamura Chemical UK Ltd, based in Wigton, Cumbria, United Kingdom.[16][17] In the USA and some other countries \"cellophane\" has become genericized, and is often used informally to refer to a wide variety of plastic film products, even those not made of cellulose, such as PVC-based plastic wrap.","title":"Branding"}]
[{"image_text":"Chocolates wrapped in cellophane","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Chocolates_in_cellophane.jpg/220px-Chocolates_in_cellophane.jpg"},{"image_text":"Simplified view of the xanthation of cellulose.[5]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Xanthation.png/520px-Xanthation.png"},{"image_text":"1953 DuPont advert for cellophane","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Dupont-baby-bag-advert_%288080777436%29.jpg/170px-Dupont-baby-bag-advert_%288080777436%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rolls of cellophane in various colours","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Cellophane.JPG/220px-Cellophane.JPG"}]
[{"title":"Bioplastics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioplastics"},{"title":"British Cellophane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Cellophane"},{"title":"Genericized trademark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genericized_trademark"}]
[{"reference":"Morris, Barry A. (2017). \"Commonly Used Resins and Substrates in Flexible Packaging\". In William, Andrew (ed.). The Science and Technology of Flexible Packaging: Multilayer Films from Resin and Process to End Use. Vol. Plastics Design Library. doi:10.1016/C2013-0-00506-3. ISBN 978-0-323-24273-8. S2CID 251206014. Retrieved 5 May 2021. Cellophane is biosourced, compostable, and biodegradable.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323242738000046","url_text":"\"Commonly Used Resins and Substrates in Flexible Packaging\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FC2013-0-00506-3","url_text":"10.1016/C2013-0-00506-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-24273-8","url_text":"978-0-323-24273-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251206014","url_text":"251206014"}]},{"reference":"Swan, Norman; Blanc, Paul (20 February 2017). \"The health burden of viscose rayon\". ABC Radio National.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/healthreport/the-health-burden-of-viscose-rayon/8286870","url_text":"\"The health burden of viscose rayon\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cellulose Sausage Skins via the Lyocell Process\". AZO Materials. 27 August 2002. Retrieved 2 July 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=1606","url_text":"\"Cellulose Sausage Skins via the Lyocell Process\""}]},{"reference":"\"Has cellophane become a generic trademark?\". genericides.org. Retrieved 29 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.genericides.org/trademark/cellophane","url_text":"\"Has cellophane become a generic trademark?\""}]},{"reference":"Krässig, Hans; Schurz, Josef; Steadman, Robert G.; Schliefer, Karl; Albrecht, Wilhelm; Mohring, Marc; Schlosser, Harald (2002). \"Cellulose\". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a05_375.pub2. ISBN 978-3527306732.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullmann%27s_Encyclopedia_of_Industrial_Chemistry","url_text":"Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a05_375.pub2","url_text":"10.1002/14356007.a05_375.pub2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527306732","url_text":"978-3527306732"}]},{"reference":"Carraher, Charles E. (Jr.) (2014). Carraher's Polymer Chemistry: Ninth Edition. Boca Raton Fl.: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 301. ISBN 978-1-4665-5203-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YXo0AAAAQBAJ&q=Carraher+Jacques+E.+Brandenberger&pg=PA301","url_text":"Carraher's Polymer Chemistry: Ninth Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-5203-6","url_text":"978-1-4665-5203-6"}]},{"reference":"Hounshell, David A.; John Kenly Smith (1988). Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902–1980. Cambridge University Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-521-32767-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sciencecorporate0008houn/page/170","url_text":"Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902–1980"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/sciencecorporate0008houn/page/170","url_text":"170"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-32767-9","url_text":"0-521-32767-9"}]},{"reference":"Winkler, John K. (1935). The Dupont Dynasty. Baltimore, MD: Waverly Press, Inc. p. 271.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hisano, Ai. \"Cellophane, the New Visuality, and the Creation of Self-Service Food Retailing\" (PDF). Harvard Business School.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/17-106_cc97c076-3685-4e40-80b8-9de7342b0aac.pdf","url_text":"\"Cellophane, the New Visuality, and the Creation of Self-Service Food Retailing\""}]},{"reference":"Finkelstein, Norman H. (17 August 2008). Plastics. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 9780761426004.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=s-LwzeIcboQC&dq=%22You%27re+the+Top%22+cellophane&pg=PA47","url_text":"Plastics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761426004","url_text":"9780761426004"}]},{"reference":"Hammack, William S. (6 September 2011). How Engineers Create the World: The Public Radio Commentaries of Bill Hammack. Bill Hammack. ISBN 9780983966104.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DdwlKhVudMkC&dq=%22You%27re+the+Top%22+cellophane&pg=PA115","url_text":"How Engineers Create the World: The Public Radio Commentaries of Bill Hammack"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780983966104","url_text":"9780983966104"}]},{"reference":"Harford, Tim (28 May 2020). The Next Fifty Things that Made the Modern Economy. Little, Brown Book Group. ISBN 9781408712641.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eSucDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22You%27re+the+Top%22+cellophane&pg=PT140","url_text":"The Next Fifty Things that Made the Modern Economy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781408712641","url_text":"9781408712641"}]},{"reference":"Davenport-Hines, Richard Peter Treadwell (1988). Enterprise, Management, and Innovation in British Business, 1914-80. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 0-7146-3348-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7146-3348-8","url_text":"0-7146-3348-8"}]},{"reference":"Michelle Nijhuis (June 2009). \"Bamboo Boom: Is This Material for You?\". Scientific American. doi:10.1038/scientificamericanearth0609-60 (inactive 19 February 2024).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=bamboo-boom","url_text":"\"Bamboo Boom: Is This Material for You?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamericanearth0609-60","url_text":"10.1038/scientificamericanearth0609-60"}]},{"reference":"\"Trade mark number UK00905352786\". Intellectual Property Office. Archived from the original on 8 July 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmcase/page/Results/1/UK00905352786","url_text":"\"Trade mark number UK00905352786\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230708231245/https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmcase/page/Results/1/UK00905352786","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Compostable and renewable flexible packaging films\". Futamura. 2 March 2018. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.futamuragroup.com/en/divisions/cellulose-films/products/","url_text":"\"Compostable and renewable flexible packaging films\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230329103019/http://www.futamuragroup.com/en/divisions/cellulose-films/products/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Blanc, Paul David (2016). Fake silk : the lethal history of viscose rayon. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 328. ISBN 9780300204667.","urls":[{"url":"https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300204667/fake-silk","url_text":"Fake silk : the lethal history of viscose rayon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300204667","url_text":"9780300204667"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installation_(computer_programs)
Installation (computer programs)
["1 Overview","2 Zero-install and portable applications","3 Types","3.1 Custom installation","3.2 Attended installation","3.3 Silent installation","3.4 Unattended installation","3.5 Headless installation","3.6 Scheduled or automated installation","3.7 Clean installation","3.8 Network installation","4 Installer","4.1 Bootstrapper","4.2 Common types","4.3 System installer","5 See also","6 References","7 Sources"]
"Installer" redirects here. For the AmigaOS scripting language, see Installer (programming language). Process of making a computer program ready for execution This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) Software installation (Learn how and when to remove this message) Installation (or setup) of a computer program (including device drivers and plugins), is the act of making the program ready for execution. Installation refers to the particular configuration of software or hardware with a view to making it usable with the computer. A soft or digital copy of the piece of software (program) is needed to install it. There are different processes of installing a piece of software (program). Because the process varies for each program and each computer, programs (including operating systems) often come with an installer, a specialised program responsible for doing whatever is needed (see below) for the installation. Installation may be part of a larger software deployment process. Installation typically involves code (program) being copied/generated from the installation files to new files on the local computer for easier access by the operating system, creating necessary directories, registering environment variables, providing a separate program for un-installation etc. Because code is generally copied/generated in multiple locations, uninstallation usually involves more than just erasing the program folder. For example, registry files and other system code may need to be modified or deleted for a complete uninstallation. Overview Some computer programs can be executed by simply copying them into a folder stored on a computer and executing them. Other programs are supplied in a form unsuitable for immediate execution and therefore need an installation procedure. Once installed, the program can be executed again and again, without the need to reinstall before each execution. Common operations performed during software installations include: Making sure that necessary system requirements are met Checking for existing versions of the software Creating or updating program files and folders Adding configuration data such as configuration files, Windows registry entries or environment variables Making the software accessible to the user, for instance by creating links, shortcuts or bookmarks Configuring components that run automatically, such as daemons or Windows services Performing product activation Updating the software versions These operations may require some charges or be free of charge. In case of payment, installation costs means the costs connected and relevant to or incurred as a result of installing the drivers or the equipment in the customers' premises. Some installers may attempt to trick users into installing junkware such as various forms of adware, toolbars, trialware or software of partnering companies. To prevent this, extra caution on what exactly is being asked to be installed is needed. The installation of additional software then can simply be skipped or unchecked (this may require the user to use the "custom", "detailed" or "expert" version of the installation procedure).Such malicious conduct is not necessarily a decision by the software developers or their company but can also be an issue of external installers such as the Download.com installer by CNET. Zero-install and portable applications As mentioned earlier, some computer programs need no installation. This was once usual for many programs which run on DOS, the classic Mac OS, Atari TOS and AmigaOS. As computing environments grew more complex and fixed hard drives replaced floppy disks, the need for tangible installation presented itself. For example Commodore released the Installer for Amiga. The modern applications that can be run without going through formal process of installation and, in particular, do not require modifications of the operating system, are sometimes referred to as zero-install. Zero-install can be achieved through multiple means: a "normal" solution is to collect the application and its components together, copy them to a fixed directory, and run from there. In the case of Windows OS this approach is occasionally referred to as an "xcopy deployment"; a browser-based approach; utilizing a specialized tool, like Zero Install. The Linux distribution GoboLinux takes a similar approach (each applications gets its own directory structure), but still introduces the side-effects of the traditional Linux installation to maintain the backward compatibility with the standard Linux directory layout. Isolation of the OS from any changes required by the application can also be achieved through the application virtualization tools, like VMware ThinApp, Microsoft App-V, InstallFree Bridge. A class of modern applications that do not need installation and are located on a detachable storage device are known as portable applications, as they may be moved around onto different computers and run. Similarly, there are live operating systems, which do not need installation and can be run directly from a bootable CD, DVD, USB flash drive or loaded over the network as with thin clients. Examples are AmigaOS 4.0, various Linux distributions, MorphOS or Mac OS versions 1.0 through 9.0. (See live CD and live USB.) Finally, web applications, which run inside a web browser, do not need installation. Types Custom installation A custom installation allows the installer to choose to select components or parts that are required to be installed. This is sometimes preferred as opposed to installing the full suite of software components. Some situations that require the need for a custom install might be where only the basic components are required which are smaller in size instead of the full components which may take up too much hard drive space. Attended installation On Windows systems, this is the most common form of installation. An installation process usually needs a user who attend it to make choices, such as accepting or declining an end-user license agreement (EULA), specifying preferences such as the installation location, supplying passwords or assisting in product activation. In graphical environments, installers that offer a wizard-based interface are common. Attended installers may ask users to help mitigate the errors. For instance, if the disk in which the computer program is being installed was full, the installer may ask the user to specify another target path or clear enough space in the disk. A common misconception is unarchivation, which is not considered an installation action because it does not include user choices, such as accepting or declining EULA. Silent installation A "silent installation" is an installation that does not display messages or windows during its progress. "Silent installation" is not the same as "unattended installation" (see below): All silent installations are unattended but not all unattended installations are silent. The reason behind a silent installation may be convenience or subterfuge. Malware and viruses can be installed silently when a person clicks on a link while working at a business they think is real but is a hacker's program download. For normal users silent installation is not of much use, but in bigger organizations where thousands of users work, deploying the applications becomes a typical task and for that reason silent installation is performed so that the application is installed in the background without affecting the work of the user. Silent parameters can vary from software to software; if a software/application has silent parameters, it can be checked by " <software.exe> /? " or " <software.exe> /help " or " <software.exe> -help ". Silently installing a software program can be used to deploy a program on networks in educational institutions, including primary and secondary education and universities, in addition to business, government, and corporate networks. The person managing the silent installation can choose to add a desktop shortcut, for example, to silently install Google Drive with a desktop shortcut:GoogleDrive.exe --silent --desktop_shortcut=true Unattended installation Installation that is performed without user interaction during its progress or with no user present at all. One of the reasons to use this approach is to automate the installation of a large number of systems. An unattended installation either does not require the user to supply anything or has received all necessary input prior to the start of installation. Such input may be in the form of command line switches or an answer file, a file that contains all the necessary parameters. Windows XP and most Linux distributions are examples of operating systems that can be installed with an answer file. In unattended installation, it is assumed that there is no user to help mitigate errors. For instance, if the installation medium was faulty, the installer should fail the installation, as there is no user to fix the fault or replace the medium. Unattended installers may record errors in a computer log for later review. Headless installation Installation performed without using a computer monitor connected. In attended forms of headless installation, another machine connects to the target machine (for instance, via a local area network) and takes over the display output. Since a headless installation does not need a user at the location of the target computer, unattended headless installers may be used to install a program on multiple machines at the same time. Scheduled or automated installation An installation process that runs on a preset time or when a predefined condition transpires, as opposed to an installation process that starts explicitly on a user's command. For instance, a system administrator willing to install a later version of a computer program that is being used can schedule that installation to occur when that program is not running. An operating system may automatically install a device driver for a device that the user connects. (See plug and play.) Malware may also be installed automatically. For example, the infamous Con ficker was installed when the user plugged an infected device to their computer. Clean installation A clean installation is one that is done in the absence of any interfering elements such as old versions of the computer program being installed or leftovers from a previous installation. In particular, the clean installation of an operating system is an installation in which the target disk partition is erased before installation. Since the interfering elements are absent, a clean installation may succeed where an unclean installation may fail or may take significantly longer. Network installation Not to be confused with Network booting. Network installation, shortened net install, is an installation of a program from a shared network resource that may be done by installing a minimal system before proceeding to download further packages over the network. This may simply be a copy of the original media but software publishers which offer site licenses for institutional customers may provide a version intended for installation over a network. Installer Look up installer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. An installation program or installer is a computer program that installs files, such as applications, drivers, or other software, onto a computer. Some installers are specifically made to install the files they contain; other installers are general-purpose and work by reading the contents of the software package to be installed. They exist both as "standalone installer" (or "offline installer") & "web installer" (or "online installer"), where the former allows for offline installation as it contains all installation files, whereas the latter needs to download files necessary for installation from the web at the time of installation. The differences between a package management system and an installer are: This box: viewtalkedit Criterion Package manager Installer Shipped with Usually, the operating system Each computer program Location of installation information One central installation database It is entirely at the discretion of the installer. It could be a file within the app's folder, or among the operating system's files and folders. At best, they may register themselves with an uninstallers list without exposing installation information. Scope of maintenance Potentially all packages on the system Only the product with which it was bundled Developed by One package manager vendor Multiple installer vendors Package format A handful of well-known formats There could be as many formats as the number of apps Package format compatibility Can be consumed as long as the package manager supports it. Either newer versions of the package manager keep supporting it or the user does not upgrade the package manager. The installer is always compatible with its archive format, if it uses any. However, installers, like all computer programs, may be affected by software rot. Bootstrapper During an installation of a computer program, it is sometimes necessary to update the installer or package manager itself. To make this possible, a technique called bootstrapping is used. The common pattern for this is to use small executable files which update the installer and starts the real installation after the update. This small executable is called bootstrapper. Sometimes the bootstrapper installs other prerequisites for the software during the bootstrapping process too. Common types Main article: List of installation software Cross-platform installer builders produce installers that run on Windows, macOS and Linux. An example is InstallAnywhere by Flexera Software, which is based on Java. An instance of native code is InstallAware Multi Platform by InstallAware Software, featuring build toolchains and a setup engine that runs without dependencies; it can also switch to console mode if a graphical user interface (GUI) cannot be displayed on Linux. Windows NT family includes an installation API and an associated service called Windows Installer. Microsoft provides a minimum level of tools required to create installers using Windows Installer in the freely available Windows SDK, instead focusing on the API to allow developers and third parties to leverage it in creating custom installers. Third party tools may supporting create installers using this API to speed the process. Examples include InstallShield (Flexera Software) and WiX (Outercurve Foundation). Installation authoring tools that do not rely on Windows Installer include Wise Installation Studio (Wise Solutions, Inc.), Installer VISE (MindVision Software), Visual Installer (SamLogic), NSIS, Clickteam, InnoSetup and InstallSimple. InstallAware for Windows Installer features a hybrid installation engine, whereby a setup may be executed using either the Windows Installer APIs, or directly through InstallAware's native code setup engine. This hybrid engine also provides the capability to switch installation modes at runtime. macOS includes Installer, a native package manager. macOS also includes a separate software updating application, Software Update, that only supports Apple and system software. Included in the Dock as of 10.6.6, and also in the Apple menu, the Mac App Store shares many attributes with the successful App Store for iOS devices, such as a similar app approval process, the use of Apple ID for purchases, and automatic installation and updating. Although the App Store is Apple's preferred delivery method for macOS apps, previously purchased licenses cannot be transferred to the Mac App Store for downloading or automatic updating. Instead of an installer, many macOS applications distributed outside the Mac App Store use an Apple Disk Image (.dmg file) that contains an application bundle to be dragged and dropped into the Applications folder; those applications are described as drag-install applications. These often feature prominent installation instructions and a shortcut to the Applications folder; that style of drag-install application was invented and published by Iris Artin (formerly Ben Artin) during the development of Fetch 5 and subsequently gained wide adoption. Commercial applications for macOS may also use a third-party installer, such as the Mac version of Installer VISE (MindVision Software) or InstallerMaker (StuffIt). System installer A system installer is the software that is used to set up and install an operating system onto a device. Examples of Linux system installers: Anaconda: used by CentOS, Fedora Calamares: used by multiple Linux distributions (incl. some Ubuntu flavors, Debian, and derivates) Debian-Installer ("D-I"): classic Debian installer (textual and graphical interfaces) Subiquity Ubuntu Server installer Ubiquity: Ubuntu Desktop installer (until 22.10) Ubuntu Desktop Installer: current Ubuntu Desktop installer (starting 23.04) YaST for SUSE-based projects Another example is found in the Haiku operating system, which uses a utility called Haiku Installer to install itself onto a device after booting from a live CD or live USB. See also Application streaming Application virtualization Pre-installed software Self-extractable archive Software distribution Uninstaller References ^ Valente, Andrea; Marchetti, Emanuela (2022-03-01). "Simplifying Programming for Non-technical Students: A Hermeneutic Approach". KI - Künstliche Intelligenz. 36 (1): 17–33. doi:10.1007/s13218-021-00748-0. ISSN 1610-1987. PMC 8761527. PMID 35068698. ^ a b Hoffman, Chris (27 July 2013). "How to Avoid Installing Junk Programs When Downloading Free Software". HowToGeek. Retrieved 6 October 2015. ^ Mathews, Lee (22 August 2011). "Download.com wraps downloads in bloatware, lies about motivations". ExtremeTech. Retrieved 6 October 2015. ^ a b Eicher 2011, p. 5. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEicher2011 (help) ^ Oliveira & Martín-Rodríguez 2006, p. 6. ^ Eicher 2011, p. 11. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEicher2011 (help) ^ "What is a Silent Installation?". Webopedia. 2021-12-20. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ "Silent Install Definition". techterms.com. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ Bergner, Jason. "Google Drive Silent Install (How-To Guide)". Silent Install HQ. Retrieved 2022-05-05. ^ Lewkowicz, Jakub (18 April 2023). "InstallAware improves IDE's visual designers and setup engine in Multi Platform Beta 4". Software Development Times. Retrieved 17 June 2024. ^ "New InstallAware X15 with Context Menu Bridge for Windows 11". Software Development Times. San Francisco, CA. 21 March 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2024. ^ Nawrocki, Matthew (21 June 2013). "Five apps for creating installation packages". TechRepublic. Retrieved 17 June 2024. ^ "macOS - What is macOS". Apple. Retrieved 5 April 2018. ^ "Easy Access to the Applications Folder from a Disk Image". Mac Dev Center. Archived from the original on 2005-12-14. Retrieved 23 November 2023. ^ Debian Wiki: Debian Installer GUI Sources Oliveira, D.; Martín-Rodríguez, Fernando (2006). "EDNA: A Safe, Evolvable, Multi-version and On-demand Deployment System for GNU/EDMA Applications". Eicher, Bastian (2006). Desktop Integration Management for Portable, Zero-Install and Virtualized Applications (PDF). Department of Computer Science (BS thesis). Karlsruhe Institute of Technology. Authority control databases: National Germany
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Installer (programming language)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installer_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"computer program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program"},{"link_name":"device drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"plugins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug-in_(computing)"},{"link_name":"execution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_(computing)"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"software deployment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_deployment"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"environment variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_variable"}],"text":"\"Installer\" redirects here. For the AmigaOS scripting language, see Installer (programming language).Process of making a computer program ready for executionInstallation (or setup) of a computer program (including device drivers and plugins), is the act of making the program ready for execution. Installation refers to the particular configuration of software or hardware with a view to making it usable with the computer. A soft or digital copy of the piece of software (program) is needed to install it. There are different processes of installing a piece of software (program). Because the process varies for each program and each computer, programs (including operating systems) often come with an installer, a specialised program responsible for doing whatever is needed (see below) for the installation. Installation may be part of a larger software deployment process.[1]Installation typically involves code (program) being copied/generated from the installation files to new files on the local computer for easier access by the operating system, creating necessary directories, registering environment variables, providing a separate program for un-installation etc. Because code is generally copied/generated in multiple locations, uninstallation usually involves more than just erasing the program folder. For example, registry files and other system code may need to be modified or deleted for a complete uninstallation.","title":"Installation (computer programs)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"folder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folder_(computing)"},{"link_name":"system requirements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_requirements"},{"link_name":"files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_file"},{"link_name":"configuration files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Configuration_file"},{"link_name":"Windows registry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_registry"},{"link_name":"environment variables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_variable"},{"link_name":"links, shortcuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_shortcut"},{"link_name":"bookmarks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookmark_(world_wide_web)"},{"link_name":"daemons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Windows services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_service"},{"link_name":"product activation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_activation"},{"link_name":"junkware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junkware"},{"link_name":"adware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adware"},{"link_name":"toolbars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toolbar"},{"link_name":"trialware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trialware"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-avoid-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-avoid-2"},{"link_name":"Download.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Download.com"},{"link_name":"CNET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNET"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Some computer programs can be executed by simply copying them into a folder stored on a computer and executing them. Other programs are supplied in a form unsuitable for immediate execution and therefore need an installation procedure. Once installed, the program can be executed again and again, without the need to reinstall before each execution.Common operations performed during software installations include:Making sure that necessary system requirements are met\nChecking for existing versions of the software\nCreating or updating program files and folders\nAdding configuration data such as configuration files, Windows registry entries or environment variables\nMaking the software accessible to the user, for instance by creating links, shortcuts or bookmarks\nConfiguring components that run automatically, such as daemons or Windows services\nPerforming product activation\nUpdating the software versionsThese operations may require some charges or be free of charge. In case of payment, installation costs means the costs connected and relevant to or incurred as a result of installing the drivers or the equipment in the customers' premises.Some installers may attempt to trick users into installing junkware such as various forms of adware, toolbars, trialware or software of partnering companies.[2] To prevent this, extra caution on what exactly is being asked to be installed is needed. The installation of additional software then can simply be skipped or unchecked (this may require the user to use the \"custom\", \"detailed\" or \"expert\" version of the installation procedure).[2]Such malicious conduct is not necessarily a decision by the software developers or their company but can also be an issue of external installers such as the Download.com installer by CNET.[3]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS"},{"link_name":"classic Mac OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS"},{"link_name":"Atari TOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_TOS"},{"link_name":"AmigaOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS"},{"link_name":"hard drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drive"},{"link_name":"floppy disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disks"},{"link_name":"Commodore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_International"},{"link_name":"Installer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installer_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Amiga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiga"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEicher20115-4"},{"link_name":"directory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directory_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOliveiraMart%C3%ADn-Rodr%C3%ADguez20066-5"},{"link_name":"Windows OS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_OS"},{"link_name":"xcopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xcopy"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEicher20115-4"},{"link_name":"Zero Install","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Zero_Install"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"GoboLinux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GoboLinux"},{"link_name":"backward compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_compatibility"},{"link_name":"application virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_virtualization"},{"link_name":"VMware ThinApp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMware_ThinApp"},{"link_name":"Microsoft App-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_App-V"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEicher201111-6"},{"link_name":"portable applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_application"},{"link_name":"bootable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootable"},{"link_name":"CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compact_Disc"},{"link_name":"DVD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD"},{"link_name":"USB flash drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drive"},{"link_name":"thin clients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_client"},{"link_name":"AmigaOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AmigaOS"},{"link_name":"Linux distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_distribution"},{"link_name":"MorphOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MorphOS"},{"link_name":"live CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_CD"},{"link_name":"live USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_USB"},{"link_name":"web applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_application"},{"link_name":"web browser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser"}],"text":"As mentioned earlier, some computer programs need no installation. This was once usual for many programs which run on DOS, the classic Mac OS, Atari TOS and AmigaOS. As computing environments grew more complex and fixed hard drives replaced floppy disks, the need for tangible installation presented itself. For example Commodore released the Installer for Amiga.The modern applications that can be run without going through formal process of installation and, in particular, do not require modifications of the operating system, are sometimes referred to as zero-install.[4] Zero-install can be achieved through multiple means:a \"normal\" solution is to collect the application and its components together, copy them to a fixed directory, and run from there.[5] In the case of Windows OS this approach is occasionally referred to as an \"xcopy deployment\";[4]\na browser-based approach;\nutilizing a specialized tool, like Zero Install.The Linux distribution GoboLinux takes a similar approach (each applications gets its own directory structure), but still introduces the side-effects of the traditional Linux installation to maintain the backward compatibility with the standard Linux directory layout. Isolation of the OS from any changes required by the application can also be achieved through the application virtualization tools, like VMware ThinApp, Microsoft App-V, InstallFree Bridge.[6]A class of modern applications that do not need installation and are located on a detachable storage device are known as portable applications, as they may be moved around onto different computers and run. Similarly, there are live operating systems, which do not need installation and can be run directly from a bootable CD, DVD, USB flash drive or loaded over the network as with thin clients. Examples are AmigaOS 4.0, various Linux distributions, MorphOS or Mac OS versions 1.0 through 9.0. (See live CD and live USB.) Finally, web applications, which run inside a web browser, do not need installation.","title":"Zero-install and portable applications"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Custom installation","text":"A custom installation allows the installer to choose to select components or parts that are required to be installed.\nThis is sometimes preferred as opposed to installing the full suite of software components. Some situations that require\nthe need for a custom install might be where only the basic components are required which are smaller in size instead of the\nfull components which may take up too much hard drive space.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows"},{"link_name":"end-user license agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End-user_license_agreement"},{"link_name":"product activation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_activation"},{"link_name":"wizard-based interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizard_(software)"}],"sub_title":"Attended installation","text":"On Windows systems, this is the most common form of installation. An installation process usually needs a user who attend it to make choices, such as accepting or declining an end-user license agreement (EULA), specifying preferences such as the installation location, supplying passwords or assisting in product activation. In graphical environments, installers that offer a wizard-based interface are common. Attended installers may ask users to help mitigate the errors. For instance, if the disk in which the computer program is being installed was full, the installer may ask the user to specify another target path or clear enough space in the disk. A common misconception is unarchivation, which is not considered an installation action because it does not include user choices, such as accepting or declining EULA.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"primary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_education"},{"link_name":"secondary education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_education"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Silent installation","text":"A \"silent installation\" is an installation that does not display messages or windows during its progress. \"Silent installation\" is not the same as \"unattended installation\" (see below): All silent installations are unattended but not all unattended installations are silent. The reason behind a silent installation may be convenience or subterfuge. Malware and viruses can be installed silently when a person clicks on a link while working at a business they think is real but is a hacker's program download.[7][8] For normal users silent installation is not of much use, but in bigger organizations where thousands of users work, deploying the applications becomes a typical task and for that reason silent installation is performed so that the application is installed in the background without affecting the work of the user. Silent parameters can vary from software to software; if a software/application has silent parameters, it can be checked by \" <software.exe> /? \" or \" <software.exe> /help \" or \" <software.exe> -help \".Silently installing a software program can be used to deploy a program on networks in educational institutions, including primary and secondary education and universities, in addition to business, government, and corporate networks. The person managing the silent installation can choose to add a desktop shortcut, for example, to silently install Google Drive with a desktop shortcut[9]:GoogleDrive.exe --silent --desktop_shortcut=true","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"command line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch_(command_line)"},{"link_name":"Windows XP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP"},{"link_name":"most Linux distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions"},{"link_name":"computer log","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_logging"}],"sub_title":"Unattended installation","text":"Installation that is performed without user interaction during its progress or with no user present at all. One of the reasons to use this approach is to automate the installation of a large number of systems. An unattended installation either does not require the user to supply anything or has received all necessary input prior to the start of installation. Such input may be in the form of command line switches or an answer file, a file that contains all the necessary parameters. Windows XP and most Linux distributions are examples of operating systems that can be installed with an answer file. In unattended installation, it is assumed that there is no user to help mitigate errors. For instance, if the installation medium was faulty, the installer should fail the installation, as there is no user to fix the fault or replace the medium. Unattended installers may record errors in a computer log for later review.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor"},{"link_name":"local area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network"}],"sub_title":"Headless installation","text":"Installation performed without using a computer monitor connected. In attended forms of headless installation, another machine connects to the target machine (for instance, via a local area network) and takes over the display output. Since a headless installation does not need a user at the location of the target computer, unattended headless installers may be used to install a program on multiple machines at the same time.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"system administrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_administrator"},{"link_name":"plug and play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plug_and_play"}],"sub_title":"Scheduled or automated installation","text":"An installation process that runs on a preset time or when a predefined condition transpires, as opposed to an installation process that starts explicitly on a user's command. For instance, a system administrator willing to install a later version of a computer program that is being used can schedule that installation to occur when that program is not running. An operating system may automatically install a device driver for a device that the user connects. (See plug and play.) Malware may also be installed automatically. For example, the infamous Con ficker was installed when the user plugged an infected device to their computer.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"disk partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_partition"}],"sub_title":"Clean installation","text":"A clean installation is one that is done in the absence of any interfering elements such as old versions of the computer program being installed or leftovers from a previous installation. In particular, the clean installation of an operating system is an installation in which the target disk partition is erased before installation. Since the interfering elements are absent, a clean installation may succeed where an unclean installation may fail or may take significantly longer.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Network booting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_booting"},{"link_name":"shared network resource","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_resource"}],"sub_title":"Network installation","text":"Not to be confused with Network booting.Network installation, shortened net install, is an installation of a program from a shared network resource that may be done by installing a minimal system before proceeding to download further packages over the network. This may simply be a copy of the original media but software publishers which offer site licenses for institutional customers may provide a version intended for installation over a network.","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"installer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/installer"},{"link_name":"computer program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program"},{"link_name":"applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"drivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Device_driver"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"software package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_package_(installation)"},{"link_name":"offline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offline"},{"link_name":"package management system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package_management_system"},{"link_name":"view","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:PMS_vs_Installer"},{"link_name":"talk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:PMS_vs_Installer&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:PMS_vs_Installer"}],"text":"Look up installer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.An installation program or installer is a computer program that installs files, such as applications, drivers, or other software, onto a computer. Some installers are specifically made to install the files they contain; other installers are general-purpose and work by reading the contents of the software package to be installed.They exist both as \"standalone installer\" (or \"offline installer\") & \"web installer\" (or \"online installer\"), where the former allows for offline installation as it contains all installation files, whereas the latter needs to download files necessary for installation from the web at the time of installation.The differences between a package management system and an installer are:This box: viewtalkedit","title":"Installer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program"},{"link_name":"package manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package_manager"},{"link_name":"bootstrapping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bootstrapping"},{"link_name":"executable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executable"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"}],"sub_title":"Bootstrapper","text":"During an installation of a computer program, it is sometimes necessary to update the installer or package manager itself. To make this possible, a technique called bootstrapping is used. The common pattern for this is to use small executable files which update the installer and starts the real installation after the update. This small executable is called bootstrapper. Sometimes the bootstrapper installs other prerequisites for the software during the bootstrapping process too.","title":"Installer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"InstallAnywhere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InstallAnywhere"},{"link_name":"Flexera Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexera_Software"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Windows NT family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT_family"},{"link_name":"API","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_programming_interface"},{"link_name":"Windows Installer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Installer"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"Windows SDK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_SDK"},{"link_name":"InstallShield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InstallShield"},{"link_name":"Flexera Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexera_Software"},{"link_name":"WiX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WiX"},{"link_name":"Outercurve Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outercurve_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Wise Installation Studio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wise_Solutions,_Inc.#Wise_Installation_Studio_7"},{"link_name":"Wise Solutions, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wise_Solutions,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Installer VISE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installer_VISE"},{"link_name":"NSIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nullsoft_Scriptable_Install_System"},{"link_name":"Clickteam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clickteam"},{"link_name":"InnoSetup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InnoSetup"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Installer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installer_(macOS)"},{"link_name":"package manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package_manager"},{"link_name":"Software Update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Software_Update"},{"link_name":"Dock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dock_(macOS)"},{"link_name":"Apple menu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_menu"},{"link_name":"Mac App Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_App_Store"},{"link_name":"App Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/App_Store_(iOS)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Apple Disk Image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Disk_Image"},{"link_name":"application bundle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_bundle"},{"link_name":"dragged and dropped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag-and-drop"},{"link_name":"Fetch 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetch_(FTP_client)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Installer VISE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installer_VISE"},{"link_name":"StuffIt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/StuffIt"}],"sub_title":"Common types","text":"Cross-platform installer builders produce installers that run on Windows, macOS and Linux. An example is InstallAnywhere by Flexera Software, which is based on Java. An instance of native code is InstallAware Multi Platform by InstallAware Software, featuring build toolchains and a setup engine that runs without dependencies; it can also switch to console mode if a graphical user interface (GUI) cannot be displayed on Linux.[10]Windows NT family includes an installation API and an associated service called Windows Installer. Microsoft provides a minimum level of tools required to create installers using Windows Installer in the freely available Windows SDK, instead focusing on the API to allow developers and third parties to leverage it in creating custom installers. Third party tools may supporting create installers using this API to speed the process. Examples include InstallShield (Flexera Software) and WiX (Outercurve Foundation). Installation authoring tools that do not rely on Windows Installer include Wise Installation Studio (Wise Solutions, Inc.), Installer VISE (MindVision Software), Visual Installer (SamLogic), NSIS, Clickteam, InnoSetup and InstallSimple. InstallAware for Windows Installer features a hybrid installation engine, whereby a setup may be executed using either the Windows Installer APIs, or directly through InstallAware's native code setup engine. This hybrid engine also provides the capability to switch installation modes at runtime.[11][12]macOS includes Installer, a native package manager. macOS also includes a separate software updating application, Software Update, that only supports Apple and system software. Included in the Dock as of 10.6.6, and also in the Apple menu, the Mac App Store shares many attributes with the successful App Store for iOS devices, such as a similar app approval process, the use of Apple ID for purchases, and automatic installation and updating. Although the App Store is Apple's preferred delivery method for macOS apps,[13] previously purchased licenses cannot be transferred to the Mac App Store for downloading or automatic updating. Instead of an installer, many macOS applications distributed outside the Mac App Store use an Apple Disk Image (.dmg file) that contains an application bundle to be dragged and dropped into the Applications folder; those applications are described as drag-install applications. These often feature prominent installation instructions and a shortcut to the Applications folder; that style of drag-install application was invented and published by Iris Artin (formerly Ben Artin) during the development of Fetch 5[14] and subsequently gained wide adoption. Commercial applications for macOS may also use a third-party installer, such as the Mac version of Installer VISE (MindVision Software) or InstallerMaker (StuffIt).","title":"Installer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anaconda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaconda_(installer)"},{"link_name":"CentOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CentOS"},{"link_name":"Fedora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fedora_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Calamares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calamares_(software)"},{"link_name":"Debian-Installer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian-Installer"},{"link_name":"Debian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Subiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/canonical/subiquity"},{"link_name":"Ubiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquity_(software)"},{"link_name":"Ubuntu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Ubuntu Desktop Installer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/canonical/ubuntu-desktop-installer"},{"link_name":"Ubuntu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"YaST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YaST"},{"link_name":"SUSE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUSE_S.A."},{"link_name":"Haiku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Haiku Installer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku_Applications#Installer"},{"link_name":"live CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_CD"},{"link_name":"live USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_USB"}],"sub_title":"System installer","text":"A system installer is the software that is used to set up and install an operating system onto a device.Examples of Linux system installers:Anaconda: used by CentOS, Fedora\nCalamares: used by multiple Linux distributions (incl. some Ubuntu flavors, Debian, and derivates)\nDebian-Installer (\"D-I\"): classic Debian installer (textual and graphical[15] interfaces)\nSubiquity Ubuntu Server installer\nUbiquity: Ubuntu Desktop installer (until 22.10)\nUbuntu Desktop Installer: current Ubuntu Desktop installer (starting 23.04)\nYaST for SUSE-based projectsAnother example is found in the Haiku operating system, which uses a utility called Haiku Installer to install itself onto a device after booting from a live CD or live USB.","title":"Installer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"EDNA: A Safe, Evolvable, Multi-version and On-demand Deployment System for GNU/EDMA Applications\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/267972035"},{"link_name":"Desktop Integration Management for Portable, Zero-Install and Virtualized Applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//os.itec.kit.edu/downloads/ba_2011_eicher-bastian_desktop-integration-management.pdf"},{"link_name":"Karlsruhe Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q836862#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4388841-0"}],"text":"Oliveira, D.; Martín-Rodríguez, Fernando (2006). \"EDNA: A Safe, Evolvable, Multi-version and On-demand Deployment System for GNU/EDMA Applications\".\nEicher, Bastian (2006). Desktop Integration Management for Portable, Zero-Install and Virtualized Applications (PDF). Department of Computer Science (BS thesis). Karlsruhe Institute of Technology.Authority control databases: National \nGermany","title":"Sources"}]
[]
[{"title":"Application streaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_streaming"},{"title":"Application virtualization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_virtualization"},{"title":"Pre-installed software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-installed_software"},{"title":"Self-extractable archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-extractable_archive"},{"title":"Software distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_distribution"},{"title":"Uninstaller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninstaller"}]
[{"reference":"Valente, Andrea; Marchetti, Emanuela (2022-03-01). \"Simplifying Programming for Non-technical Students: A Hermeneutic Approach\". KI - Künstliche Intelligenz. 36 (1): 17–33. doi:10.1007/s13218-021-00748-0. ISSN 1610-1987. PMC 8761527. PMID 35068698.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8761527","url_text":"\"Simplifying Programming for Non-technical Students: A Hermeneutic Approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13218-021-00748-0","url_text":"10.1007/s13218-021-00748-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1610-1987","url_text":"1610-1987"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8761527","url_text":"8761527"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35068698","url_text":"35068698"}]},{"reference":"Hoffman, Chris (27 July 2013). \"How to Avoid Installing Junk Programs When Downloading Free Software\". HowToGeek. Retrieved 6 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.howtogeek.com/168691/how-to-avoid-installing-junk-programs-when-downloading-free-software/","url_text":"\"How to Avoid Installing Junk Programs When Downloading Free Software\""}]},{"reference":"Mathews, Lee (22 August 2011). \"Download.com wraps downloads in bloatware, lies about motivations\". ExtremeTech. Retrieved 6 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.extremetech.com/computing/93504-download-com-wraps-downloads-in-bloatware-lies-about-motivations","url_text":"\"Download.com wraps downloads in bloatware, lies about motivations\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is a Silent Installation?\". Webopedia. 2021-12-20. Retrieved 2022-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/silent-installation/","url_text":"\"What is a Silent Installation?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Silent Install Definition\". techterms.com. Retrieved 2022-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://techterms.com/definition/silent_install","url_text":"\"Silent Install Definition\""}]},{"reference":"Bergner, Jason. \"Google Drive Silent Install (How-To Guide)\". Silent Install HQ. Retrieved 2022-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://silentinstallhq.com/google-drive-silent-install-how-to-guide/","url_text":"\"Google Drive Silent Install (How-To Guide)\""}]},{"reference":"Lewkowicz, Jakub (18 April 2023). \"InstallAware improves IDE's visual designers and setup engine in Multi Platform Beta 4\". Software Development Times. 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Retrieved 17 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://sdtimes.com/installaware/new-installaware-x15-with-context-menu-bridge-for-windows-11/","url_text":"\"New InstallAware X15 with Context Menu Bridge for Windows 11\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_Development_Times","url_text":"Software Development Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco","url_text":"San Francisco"}]},{"reference":"Nawrocki, Matthew (21 June 2013). \"Five apps for creating installation packages\". TechRepublic. Retrieved 17 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techrepublic.com/article/five-apps-for-creating-installation-packages/","url_text":"\"Five apps for creating installation packages\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechRepublic","url_text":"TechRepublic"}]},{"reference":"\"macOS - What is macOS\". Apple. 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Karlsruhe Institute of Technology.","urls":[{"url":"https://os.itec.kit.edu/downloads/ba_2011_eicher-bastian_desktop-integration-management.pdf","url_text":"Desktop Integration Management for Portable, Zero-Install and Virtualized Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlsruhe_Institute_of_Technology","url_text":"Karlsruhe Institute of Technology"}]}]
[{"Link":"https://github.com/canonical/subiquity","external_links_name":"Subiquity"},{"Link":"https://github.com/canonical/ubuntu-desktop-installer","external_links_name":"Ubuntu Desktop Installer"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8761527","external_links_name":"\"Simplifying Programming for Non-technical Students: A Hermeneutic Approach\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13218-021-00748-0","external_links_name":"10.1007/s13218-021-00748-0"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1610-1987","external_links_name":"1610-1987"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8761527","external_links_name":"8761527"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35068698","external_links_name":"35068698"},{"Link":"https://www.howtogeek.com/168691/how-to-avoid-installing-junk-programs-when-downloading-free-software/","external_links_name":"\"How to Avoid Installing Junk Programs When Downloading Free Software\""},{"Link":"http://www.extremetech.com/computing/93504-download-com-wraps-downloads-in-bloatware-lies-about-motivations","external_links_name":"\"Download.com wraps downloads in bloatware, lies about motivations\""},{"Link":"https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/silent-installation/","external_links_name":"\"What is a Silent Installation?\""},{"Link":"https://techterms.com/definition/silent_install","external_links_name":"\"Silent Install Definition\""},{"Link":"https://silentinstallhq.com/google-drive-silent-install-how-to-guide/","external_links_name":"\"Google Drive Silent Install (How-To Guide)\""},{"Link":"https://sdtimes.com/software-development/installaware-improves-ides-visual-designers-and-setup-engine-in-multi-platform-beta-4/","external_links_name":"\"InstallAware improves IDE's visual designers and setup engine in Multi Platform Beta 4\""},{"Link":"https://sdtimes.com/installaware/new-installaware-x15-with-context-menu-bridge-for-windows-11/","external_links_name":"\"New InstallAware X15 with Context Menu Bridge for Windows 11\""},{"Link":"https://www.techrepublic.com/article/five-apps-for-creating-installation-packages/","external_links_name":"\"Five apps for creating installation packages\""},{"Link":"https://www.apple.com/mac/app-store/great-mac-apps.html","external_links_name":"\"macOS - What is macOS\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051214033213/http://www.macdevcenter.com/pub/a/mac/2005/09/02/easy-access-to-application-folder-from-a-disk.html","external_links_name":"\"Easy Access to the Applications Folder from a Disk Image\""},{"Link":"http://www.macdevcenter.com/pub/a/mac/2005/09/02/easy-access-to-application-folder-from-a-disk.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://wiki.debian.org/DebianInstaller/GUI","external_links_name":"Debian Wiki: Debian Installer GUI"},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267972035","external_links_name":"\"EDNA: A Safe, Evolvable, Multi-version and On-demand Deployment System for GNU/EDMA Applications\""},{"Link":"https://os.itec.kit.edu/downloads/ba_2011_eicher-bastian_desktop-integration-management.pdf","external_links_name":"Desktop Integration Management for Portable, Zero-Install and Virtualized Applications"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4388841-0","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_de_France
Institut de France
["1 History","2 Académies","3 Influence","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]
Coordinates: 48°51′26″N 2°20′13″E / 48.85722°N 2.33694°E / 48.85722; 2.33694French learned society Not to be confused with Institut Français. Institut de FranceThe Institut de France and Pont des Arts on the SeineFormation25 October 1795; 228 years ago (1795-10-25)FounderNational ConventionTypeLearned societyLocation6th arrondissement, Paris, FranceCoordinates48°51′26″N 2°20′13″E / 48.85722°N 2.33694°E / 48.85722; 2.33694ProtectorEmmanuel Macron (2017–present)(as President of France)ChancellorXavier Darcos (2018–present)SubsidiariesAcadémie FrançaiseAcadémie des inscriptions et belles-lettresAcadémie des sciencesAcadémie des Beaux-ArtsAcadémie des sciences morales et politiquesWebsiteinstitutdefrance.fr The Institut de France (French for 'Institute of France'; French: ) is a French learned society, grouping five académies, including the Académie Française. It was established in 1795 at the direction of the National Convention. Located on the Quai de Conti in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, the institute manages approximately 1,000 foundations, as well as museums and châteaux open for visit. It also awards prizes and subsidies, which amounted to a total of over €27 million per year in 2017. Most of these prizes are awarded by the institute on the recommendation of the académies. History The building was originally constructed as the Collège des Quatre-Nations by Cardinal Mazarin, as a school for students from new provinces attached to France under Louis XIV. The inscription over the façade reads "JUL. MAZARIN S.R.E. CARD BASILICAM ET GYMNAS F.C.A M.D.C.LXI", attesting that Mazarin ordered its construction in 1661. The Institut de France was established on 25 October 1795, by the National Convention. On 1 January 2018, Xavier Darcos took office as the Institut de France's chancellor. Elected in 2017 to succeed Gabriel de Broglie, he was reelected in 2020. The chancellor acts as the institute's secretary general, whilst the organisation itself is placed under the protection of the president of the republic. Esplanade in front of the institute, 1898 A plaque on the northern wall of the Institut de France shows the ancient location of the Tour de Nesle Académies Académie Française (French Academy, concerning the French language) – initiated in 1635, suppressed in 1793, and restored in 1803 as a division of the institute. Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (Academy of Humanities) – initiated 1663. Académie des sciences (Academy of Sciences) – initiated 1666. Académie des Beaux-Arts (Academy of Fine Arts) – created 1816 as the merger of: The Académie de peinture et de sculpture (Academy of Painting and Sculpture, initiated 1648); The Académie de musique (Academy of Music, initiated 1669) and; The Académie d'architecture (Academy of Architecture, initiated 1671). Académie des sciences morales et politiques (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences) – initiated 1795, suppressed 1803, reestablished 1832. Influence The Royal Society of Canada, initiated in 1882, was modeled after the Institut de France and the Royal Society of London. The Lebanese Academy of Sciences, known officially by its French name "Académie des Sciences du Liban" (ASL), is broadly fashioned after the French Academy of Sciences, with which it continues to develop joint programmes. See also Collège des Quatre-Nations National academy List of museums in Paris List of honorary societies References ^ "L'Institut de France et le mécénat". Institut de France. Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2019. ^ Planet, Lonely. "Institut de France in Paris, France". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 18 December 2017. ^ "Xavier Darcos devient chancelier de l'Institut de France". FIGARO (in French). 12 December 2017. Archived from the original on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2017. External links Media related to Institut de France at Wikimedia Commons Official website (in French) Notes on the Institut de France from the Scholarly Societies project (archived 28 March 2015) vteTourism in ParisLandmarks Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel Arènes de Lutèce Bourse Catacombs Conciergerie Eiffel Tower Gare d'Austerlitz Gare de l'Est Gare de Lyon Gare du Nord Gare Montparnasse Gare Saint-Lazare Grand Palais and Petit Palais Institut de France Jeanne d'Arc Les Invalides Louvre Pyramid Luxor Obelisk Odéon Opéra Bastille Opéra Garnier Panthéon Philharmonie de Paris Place Diana Flame of Liberty Porte Saint-Denis Porte Saint-Martin Sorbonne Tour Montparnasse Museums(list) Army Museum Bibliothèque nationale Carnavalet Centre Pompidou Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie Galerie nationale du Jeu de Paume Louis Vuitton Foundation Musée des Arts décoratifs Musée des Arts et Métiers Musée d'Art et d'Histoire du Judaïsme Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris Maison de Balzac Musée Bourdelle Musée de la Cinémathèque Musée Cognacq-Jay Musée Grévin Musée Guimet Maison de Victor Hugo Musée Jacquemart-André Musée du Louvre Musée Marmottan Monet Musée de Montmartre Musée National d'Art Moderne Musée national Eugène Delacroix Musée national Gustave Moreau Musée national des Monuments Français Muséum national d'histoire naturelle Musée de Cluny – Musée national du Moyen Âge Musée de l'Orangerie Musée d'Orsay Musée Pasteur Musée Picasso Musée du Quai Branly Musée Rodin Palais de la Légion d'Honneur Musée de la Légion d'honneur Musée de la Vie romantique Religious buildings Alexander Nevsky Cathedral American Cathedral American Church Armenian Cathedral of St. John the Baptist Chapelle expiatoire Grand Mosque Grand Synagogue Synagogue de Nazareth La Madeleine Notre-Dame de Paris Notre-Dame-de-Bonne-Nouvelle Notre-Dame-de-Lorette Notre-Dame-des-Victoires Sacré-Cœur Saint Ambroise Saint-Augustin Saint-Étienne-du-Mont Saint-Eustache Saint-François-Xavier Saint-Germain-des-Prés Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois Saint-Gervais-Saint-Protais Tour Saint-Jacques Saint-Jean de Montmartre Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis Saint-Pierre de Montmartre Saint-Roch Saint-Sulpice Saint-Vincent-de-Paul Sainte-Chapelle Sainte-Clotilde Sainte-Trinité Temple du Marais Val-de-Grâce Hôtels particuliersand palaces Élysée Palace Hôtel de Beauvais Hôtel de Charost Hôtel de Crillon Hôtel d'Estrées Hôtel de la Païva Hôtel de Pontalba Hôtel de Sens Hôtel de Soubise Hôtel de Sully Hôtel de Ville Hôtel Lambert Hôtel Matignon Luxembourg Palace Petit Luxembourg Palais Bourbon Palais de Justice Palais de la Cité Palais-Royal Bridges, streets,areas, squaresand waterways Avenue de l'Opéra Avenue Foch Avenue George V Boulevard de la Madeleine Boulevard de Sébastopol Canal de l'Ourcq Canal Saint-Martin Champ de Mars Champs-Élysées Covered passages Galerie Véro-Dodat Choiseul Panoramas Galerie Vivienne Havre Jouffroy Brady Latin Quarter Le Marais Montmartre Montparnasse Place Diana Place Dauphine Place de la Bastille Place de la Concorde Place de la Nation Place de la République Place des Émeutes-de-Stonewall Place des États-Unis Place des Pyramides Place des Victoires Place des Vosges Place du Carrousel Place du Châtelet Place du Tertre Place Saint-Michel Place Vendôme Pont Alexandre III Pont d'Iéna Pont de Bir-Hakeim Pont des Arts Pont Neuf Port du Louvre Rive Gauche Rue Basse Rue Bonaparte Rue Charlemagne Rue d'Argenteuil Rue de la Ferronnerie Rue de la Paix Rue de la Sourdière Rue de Montmorency Rue de Richelieu Rue de Rivoli Rue de Vaugirard Rue des Francs-Bourgeois Rue des Lombards Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré Rue Elzévir Rue Foyatier Rue Molière Rue Montorgueil Rue Radziwill Rue Rambuteau Rue Mondétour Rue Pastourelle Rue des Rosiers Rue Saint-Honoré Rue Saint-Denis Rue Sainte-Anne Saint-Germain-des-Prés Trocadéro Viaduc d'Austerlitz Parks and gardens Bois de Boulogne Jardin d'Acclimatation Bois de Vincennes Parc floral Jardin du Luxembourg Parc André-Citroën 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Disneyland Paris Disneyland Park Walt Disney Studios Park Exploradôme Fort Mont-Valérien Mémorial de la France combattante Suresnes American Cemetery and Memorial France Miniature Musée de l'air et de l'espace Musée Fragonard d'Alfort Parc Astérix Parc de Saint-Cloud Provins La Roche-Guyon Sèvres – Cité de la céramique Stade de France Vaux-le-Vicomte Culture and events Bastille Day military parade Dîner en Blanc Fête de la Musique Nuit Blanche Paris Air Show Paris Fashion Week Paris-Plages Republican Guard Solidays Other Axe historique Bateau-Lavoir Bateaux Mouches Café des 2 Moulins Café Procope Folies Bergère Fountains in Paris La Ruche Les Deux Magots Maxim's Moulin de la Galette Moulin Rouge Paris Métro entrances Montmartre Funicular Paris Musées Paris syndrome Paris Zoological Park Pyramide inversée World Heritage Centre Related List of tourist attractions in Paris Art in Paris Paris syndrome Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National France BnF data Catalonia Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Greece Poland Geographic MusicBrainz place Structurae Other IdRef
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Institut Français","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_Fran%C3%A7ais"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"[ɛ̃stity də fʁɑ̃s]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"learned society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society"},{"link_name":"Académie Française","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise"},{"link_name":"National Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Convention"},{"link_name":"6th arrondissement of Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_arrondissement_of_Paris"},{"link_name":"museums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum"},{"link_name":"châteaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"French learned societyNot to be confused with Institut Français.The Institut de France (French for 'Institute of France'; French: [ɛ̃stity də fʁɑ̃s]) is a French learned society, grouping five académies, including the Académie Française. It was established in 1795 at the direction of the National Convention. Located on the Quai de Conti in the 6th arrondissement of Paris, the institute manages approximately 1,000 foundations, as well as museums and châteaux open for visit. It also awards prizes and subsidies, which amounted to a total of over €27 million per year in 2017.[1] Most of these prizes are awarded by the institute on the recommendation of the académies.","title":"Institut de France"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Collège des Quatre-Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_des_Quatre-Nations"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Mazarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV"},{"link_name":"National Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Convention"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Xavier Darcos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xavier_Darcos"},{"link_name":"Gabriel de Broglie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel_de_Broglie"},{"link_name":"president of the republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_France"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Institut_de_France_1898.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TourDeNesleInstitut.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tour de Nesle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_de_Nesle"}],"text":"The building was originally constructed as the Collège des Quatre-Nations by Cardinal Mazarin, as a school for students from new provinces attached to France under Louis XIV. The inscription over the façade reads \"JUL. MAZARIN S.R.E. CARD BASILICAM ET GYMNAS F.C.A M.D.C.LXI\", attesting that Mazarin ordered its construction in 1661.The Institut de France was established on 25 October 1795, by the National Convention.[2]On 1 January 2018, Xavier Darcos took office as the Institut de France's chancellor. Elected in 2017 to succeed Gabriel de Broglie, he was reelected in 2020. The chancellor acts as the institute's secretary general, whilst the organisation itself is placed under the protection of the president of the republic.[3]Esplanade in front of the institute, 1898\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA plaque on the northern wall of the Institut de France shows the ancient location of the Tour de Nesle","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Académie Française","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_Fran%C3%A7aise"},{"link_name":"Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_inscriptions_et_belles-lettres"},{"link_name":"Académie des sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences"},{"link_name":"Académie des Beaux-Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Beaux-Arts"},{"link_name":"Académie de peinture et de sculpture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_peinture_et_de_sculpture"},{"link_name":"Académie de musique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_de_musique"},{"link_name":"Académie d'architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_royale_d%27architecture"},{"link_name":"Académie des sciences morales et politiques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acad%C3%A9mie_des_sciences_morales_et_politiques"}],"text":"Académie Française (French Academy, concerning the French language) – initiated in 1635, suppressed in 1793, and restored in 1803 as a division of the institute.\nAcadémie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (Academy of Humanities) – initiated 1663.\nAcadémie des sciences (Academy of Sciences) – initiated 1666.\nAcadémie des Beaux-Arts (Academy of Fine Arts) – created 1816 as the merger of:\nThe Académie de peinture et de sculpture (Academy of Painting and Sculpture, initiated 1648);\nThe Académie de musique (Academy of Music, initiated 1669) and;\nThe Académie d'architecture (Academy of Architecture, initiated 1671).\nAcadémie des sciences morales et politiques (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences) – initiated 1795, suppressed 1803, reestablished 1832.","title":"Académies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Society of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Lebanese Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanese_Academy_of_Sciences"}],"text":"The Royal Society of Canada, initiated in 1882, was modeled after the Institut de France and the Royal Society of London.The Lebanese Academy of Sciences, known officially by its French name \"Académie des Sciences du Liban\" (ASL), is broadly fashioned after the French Academy of Sciences, with which it continues to develop joint programmes.","title":"Influence"}]
[]
[{"title":"Collège des Quatre-Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_des_Quatre-Nations"},{"title":"National academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_academy"},{"title":"List of museums in Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Paris"},{"title":"List of honorary societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_honorary_societies"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_effect
Bohr effect
["1 Experimental discovery","1.1 Controversy","2 Physiological role","2.1 Strength of the effect and body size","3 Mechanism","3.1 Allosteric interactions","3.2 T-state stabilization","4 Special cases","4.1 Marine mammals","4.2 Carbon monoxide","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
Not to be confused with the Bohr equation. Concept in physiology Christian Bohr, who was credited with the discovery of the effect in 1904. The Bohr effect is a phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr. Hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity (see oxygen–haemoglobin dissociation curve) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide. That is, the Bohr effect refers to the shift in the oxygen dissociation curve caused by changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide or the pH of the environment. Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH, resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen. Conversely, a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH, which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen. Experimental discovery The original dissociation curves from Bohr's experiments in the first description of the Bohr effect, showing a decrease in oxygen affinity as the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases. This is also one of the first examples of cooperative binding. X-axis: oxygen partial pressure in mmHg, Y-axis % oxy-hemoglobin. The curves were obtained using whole dog blood, with the exception of the dashed curve, for which horse blood was used. In the early 1900s, Christian Bohr was a professor at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark, already well known for his work in the field of respiratory physiology. He had spent the last two decades studying the solubility of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases in various liquids, and had conducted extensive research on haemoglobin and its affinity for oxygen. In 1903, he began working closely with Karl Hasselbalch and August Krogh, two of his associates at the university, in an attempt to experimentally replicate the work of Gustav von Hüfner, using whole blood instead of haemoglobin solution. Hüfner had suggested that the oxygen-haemoglobin binding curve was hyperbolic in shape, but after extensive experimentation, the Copenhagen group determined that the curve was in fact sigmoidal. Furthermore, in the process of plotting out numerous dissociation curves, it soon became apparent that high partial pressures of carbon dioxide caused the curves to shift to the right. Further experimentation while varying the CO2 concentration quickly provided conclusive evidence, confirming the existence of what would soon become known as the Bohr effect. Controversy There is some more debate over whether Bohr was actually the first to discover the relationship between CO2 and oxygen affinity, or whether the Russian physiologist Bronislav Verigo  beat him to it, allegedly discovering the effect in 1898, six years before Bohr. While this has never been proven, Verigo did in fact publish a paper on the haemoglobin-CO2 relationship in 1892. His proposed model was flawed, and Bohr harshly criticized it in his own publications. Another challenge to Bohr's discovery comes from within his lab. Though Bohr was quick to take full credit, his associate Krogh, who invented the apparatus used to measure gas concentrations in the experiments, maintained throughout his life that he himself had actually been the first to demonstrate the effect. Though there is some evidence to support this, retroactively changing the name of a well-known phenomenon would be extremely impractical, so it remains known as the Bohr effect. Physiological role The Bohr effect increases the efficiency of oxygen transportation through the blood. After hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs due to the high oxygen concentrations, the Bohr effect facilitates its release in the tissues, particularly those tissues in most need of oxygen. When a tissue's metabolic rate increases, so does its carbon dioxide waste production. When released into the bloodstream, carbon dioxide forms bicarbonate and protons through the following reaction: CO 2 + H 2 O ↽ − − ⇀ H 2 CO 3 ↽ − − ⇀ H + + HCO 3 − {\displaystyle {\ce {CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3 <=> H+ + HCO3^-}}} Although this reaction usually proceeds very slowly, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (which is present in red blood cells) drastically speeds up the conversion to bicarbonate and protons. This causes the pH of the blood to decrease, which promotes the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin, and allows the surrounding tissues to obtain enough oxygen to meet their demands. In areas where oxygen concentration is high, such as the lungs, binding of oxygen causes haemoglobin to release protons, which recombine with bicarbonate to eliminate carbon dioxide during exhalation. These opposing protonation and deprotonation reactions occur in equilibrium resulting in little overall change in blood pH. The Bohr effect enables the body to adapt to changing conditions and makes it possible to supply extra oxygen to tissues that need it the most. For example, when muscles are undergoing strenuous activity, they require large amounts of oxygen to conduct cellular respiration, which generates CO2 (and therefore HCO3− and H+) as byproducts. These waste products lower the pH of the blood, which increases oxygen delivery to the active muscles. Carbon dioxide is not the only molecule that can trigger the Bohr effect. If muscle cells aren't receiving enough oxygen for cellular respiration, they resort to lactic acid fermentation, which releases lactic acid as a byproduct. This increases the acidity of the blood far more than CO2 alone, which reflects the cells' even greater need for oxygen. In fact, under anaerobic conditions, muscles generate lactic acid so quickly that pH of the blood passing through the muscles will drop to around 7.2, which causes haemoglobin to begin releasing roughly 10% more oxygen.The magnitude of the Bohr effect is given by Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH {\textstyle {\scriptstyle \Delta \log(P_{50}) \over \Delta {\text{pH}}}} , which is the slope on this graph. A steeper slope means a stronger Bohr effect. Strength of the effect and body size The magnitude of the Bohr effect is usually given by the slope of the log ⁡ ( P 50 ) {\textstyle \log(P_{50})} vs pH {\textstyle {\text{pH}}} curve where, P50 refers to the partial pressure of oxygen when 50% of haemoglobin's binding sites are occupied. The slope is denoted: Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH {\textstyle {\scriptstyle \Delta \log(P_{50}) \over \Delta {\text{pH}}}} where Δ {\textstyle \Delta } denotes change. That is, Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) {\textstyle \Delta \log(P_{50})} denotes the change in log ⁡ ( P 50 ) {\textstyle \log(P_{50})} and Δ pH {\textstyle \Delta {\text{pH}}} the change in pH {\textstyle {\text{pH}}} . Bohr effect strength exhibits an inverse relationship with the size of an organism: the magnitude increases as size and weight decreases. For example, mice possess a very strong Bohr effect, with a Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH {\textstyle {\scriptstyle \Delta \log(P_{50}) \over \Delta {\text{pH}}}} value of -0.96, which requires relatively minor changes in H+ or CO2 concentrations, while elephants require much larger changes in concentration to achieve a much weaker effect ( Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH = − 0.38 ) {\textstyle \left({\scriptstyle \Delta \log(P_{50}) \over \Delta {\text{pH}}}=-0.38\right)} . Mechanism Allosteric interactions Haemoglobin changes conformation from a high-affinity R state (oxygenated) to a low-affinity T state (deoxygenated) to improve oxygen uptake and delivery.The Bohr effect hinges around allosteric interactions between the hemes of the haemoglobin tetramer, a mechanism first proposed by Max Perutz in 1970. Haemoglobin exists in two conformations: a high-affinity R state and a low-affinity T state. When oxygen concentration levels are high, as in the lungs, the R state is favored, enabling the maximum amount of oxygen to be bound to the hemes. In the capillaries, where oxygen concentration levels are lower, the T state is favored, in order to facilitate the delivery of oxygen to the tissues. The Bohr effect is dependent on this allostery, as increases in CO2 and H+ help stabilize the T state and ensure greater oxygen delivery to muscles during periods of elevated cellular respiration. This is evidenced by the fact that myoglobin, a monomer with no allostery, does not exhibit the Bohr effect. Haemoglobin mutants with weaker allostery may exhibit a reduced Bohr effect. For example, in Hiroshima variant haemoglobinopathy, allostery in haemoglobin is reduced, and the Bohr effect is diminished. As a result, during periods of exercise, the mutant haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen and tissue may suffer minor oxygen starvation. T-state stabilization When hemoglobin is in its T state, the N-terminal amino groups of the α-subunits and the C-terminal histidine of the β-subunits are protonated, giving them a positive charge and allowing these residues to participate in ionic interactions with carboxyl groups on nearby residues. These interactions help hold the haemoglobin in the T state. Decreases in pH (increases in acidity) stabilize this state even more, since a decrease in pH makes these residues even more likely to be protonated, strengthening the ionic interactions. In the R state, the ionic pairings are absent, meaning that the R state's stability increases when the pH increases, as these residues are less likely to stay protonated in a more basic environment. The Bohr effect works by simultaneously destabilizing the high-affinity R state and stabilizing the low-affinity T state, which leads to an overall decrease in oxygen affinity. This can be visualized on an oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve by shifting the whole curve to the right. Carbon dioxide can also react directly with the N-terminal amino groups to form carbamates, according to the following reaction: R − NH 2 + CO 2 ↽ − − ⇀ R − NH − COO − + H + {\displaystyle {\ce {R-NH2 + CO2 <=> R-NH-COO^- + H+}}} CO2 forms carbamates more frequently with the T state, which helps to stabilize this conformation. The process also creates protons, meaning that the formation of carbamates also contributes to the strengthening of ionic interactions, further stabilizing the T state. Special cases Though they are one of the largest animals on the planet, humpback whales have a Bohr effect magnitude similar to that of a guinea pig. Marine mammals An exception to the otherwise well-supported link between animal body size and the sensitivity of its haemoglobin to changes in pH was discovered in 1961. Based on their size and weight, many marine mammals were hypothesized to have a very low, almost negligible Bohr effect. However, when their blood was examined, this was not the case. Humpback whales weighing 41,000 kilograms had an observed Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH {\textstyle {\scriptstyle \Delta \log(P_{50}) \over \Delta {\text{pH}}}} value of 0.82, which is roughly equivalent to the Bohr effect magnitude in a 0.57 kg guinea pig. This extremely strong Bohr effect is hypothesized to be one of marine mammals' many adaptations for deep, long dives, as it allows for virtually all of the bound oxygen on haemoglobin to dissociate and supply the whale's body while it is underwater. Examination of other marine mammal species supports this. In pilot whales and porpoises, which are primarily surface feeders and seldom dive for more than a few minutes, the Δ log ⁡ ( P 50 ) Δ pH {\textstyle {\scriptstyle \Delta \log(P_{50}) \over \Delta {\text{pH}}}} was 0.52, comparable to a cow, which is much closer to the expected Bohr effect magnitude for animals of their size. Carbon monoxide Another special case of the Bohr effect occurs when carbon monoxide is present. This molecule serves as a competitive inhibitor for oxygen, and binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin. Haemoglobin's affinity for CO is about 210 times stronger than its affinity for O2, meaning that it is very unlikely to dissociate, and once bound, it blocks the binding of O2 to that subunit. At the same time, CO is structurally similar enough to O2 to cause carboxyhemoglobin to favor the R state, raising the oxygen affinity of the remaining unoccupied subunits. This combination significantly reduces the delivery of oxygen to the tissues of the body, which is what makes carbon monoxide so toxic. This toxicity is reduced slightly by an increase in the strength of the Bohr effect in the presence of carboxyhemoglobin. This increase is ultimately due to differences in interactions between heme groups in carboxyhemoglobin relative to oxygenated hemoglobin. It is most pronounced when the oxygen concentration is extremely low, as a last-ditch effort when the need for oxygen delivery becomes critical. However, the physiological implications of this phenomenon remain unclear. See also Allosteric regulation Haldane effect Root effect Chloride shift References ^ a b c d Bohr; Hasselbalch, Krogh. "Concerning a Biologically Important Relationship - The Influence of the Carbon Dioxide Content of Blood on its Oxygen Binding". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ a b c d e f Voet, Donald; Judith G. Voet; Charlotte W. Pratt (2013). Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p. 189. ^ a b Irzhak, L. I. (2005). "Christian Bohr (On the Occasion of the 150th Anniversary of His Birth)". Human Physiology. 31 (3): 366–368. doi:10.1007/s10747-005-0060-x. ISSN 0362-1197. ^ a b c Edsall, J. T. (1972). "Blood and Hemoglobin: The Evolution of Knowledge of Functional Adaptation in a Biochemical System. Part I: The Adaptation of Chemical Structure to Function in Hemoglobin". Journal of the History of Biology. 5 (2): 205–257. doi:10.1007/bf00346659. JSTOR 4330576. PMID 11610121. S2CID 751105. ^ G. Hüfner, "Ueber das Gesetz der Dissociation des Oxyharmoglobins und über einige daran sich knupfenden wichtigen Fragen aus der Biologie," . Arch. Anat. Physiol. (in German) (Physiol. Abtheilung) (1890), 1-27. ^ "Вериго эффект - это... Что такое Вериго эффект?" . Словари и энциклопедии на Академике (in Russian). Retrieved 2016-11-08. ^ B. Werigo, "Zur Frage uber die Wirkung des Sauerstoffs auf die Kohlensaureausscheidung in den Lungen," . Pflügers Arch. ges. Physiol. (in German), 51 (1892), 321-361. ^ A. Krogh, "Apparat und Methoden zur Bestimmung der Aufnahme von Gasen im Blute bei verschiedenen Spannungen der Gase," . Skand. Arch. Physiol. (in German), 16 (1904), 390-401. ^ a b c d Riggs, Austen (1960-03-01). "The Nature and Significance of the Bohr Effect in Mammalian Hemoglobins". The Journal of General Physiology. 43 (4): 737–752. doi:10.1085/jgp.43.4.737. ISSN 0022-1295. PMC 2195025. PMID 19873527. ^ Perutz, Max (1998-01-15). Science is Not a Quiet Life. World Scientific. ISBN 9789814498517. ^ Olson, JS; Gibson QH; Nagel RL; Hamilton HB (December 1972). "The ligand-binding properties of hemoglobin Hiroshima ( 2 2 146asp )". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 247 (23): 7485–93. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)44551-1. PMID 4636319. ^ a b c Riggs, Austen (1961-04-01). "Bohr Effect in the Hæmoglobins of Marine Mammals". Nature. 190 (4770): 94–95. Bibcode:1961Natur.190...94R. doi:10.1038/190094a0. PMID 13741621. S2CID 26899569. ^ a b Hlastala, M. P.; McKenna, H. P.; Franada, R. L.; Detter, J. C. (1976-12-01). "Influence of carbon monoxide on hemoglobin-oxygen binding". Journal of Applied Physiology. 41 (6): 893–899. doi:10.1152/jappl.1976.41.6.893. ISSN 0021-8987. PMID 12132. ^ Hall, John E. (2010). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders/Elsevier. p. 502. ISBN 978-1416045748. External links Impact of training vteRespiratory physiologyRespiration breath inhalation exhalation obligate nasal breathing respiratory rate respirometer pulmonary surfactant compliance elastic recoil hysteresivity airway resistance bronchial hyperresponsiveness constriction dilatation mechanical ventilation Control pons pneumotaxic center apneustic center medulla dorsal respiratory group ventral respiratory group chemoreceptors central peripheral pulmonary stretch receptors Hering–Breuer reflex Lung volumes VC FRC Vt dead space CC PEF calculations respiratory minute volume FEV1/FVC ratio Lung function tests spirometry body plethysmography peak flow meter nitrogen washout Circulation pulmonary circulation hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction pulmonary shunt Interactions ventilation (V) Perfusion (Q) Ventilation/perfusion ratio V/Q scan zones of the lung gas exchange pulmonary gas pressures alveolar gas equation alveolar–arterial gradient hemoglobin oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve (Oxygen saturation 2,3-BPG Bohr effect Haldane effect) carbonic anhydrase (chloride shift) oxyhemoglobin respiratory quotient arterial blood gas diffusion capacity (DLCO) Insufficiency high altitude death zone oxygen toxicity hypoxia
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bohr equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohr_equation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_Bohr_u016a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Christian Bohr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Bohr"},{"link_name":"Hemoglobin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobin"},{"link_name":"oxygen–haemoglobin dissociation curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen%E2%80%93haemoglobin_dissociation_curve"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"carbon dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"carbonic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_acid"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Voet-2"}],"text":"Not to be confused with the Bohr equation.Concept in physiologyChristian Bohr, who was credited with the discovery of the effect in 1904.The Bohr effect is a phenomenon first described in 1904 by the Danish physiologist Christian Bohr. Hemoglobin's oxygen binding affinity (see oxygen–haemoglobin dissociation curve) is inversely related both to acidity and to the concentration of carbon dioxide.[1] That is, the Bohr effect refers to the shift in the oxygen dissociation curve caused by changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide or the pH of the environment. Since carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, an increase in CO2 results in a decrease in blood pH,[2] resulting in hemoglobin proteins releasing their load of oxygen. Conversely, a decrease in carbon dioxide provokes an increase in pH, which results in hemoglobin picking up more oxygen.","title":"Bohr effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bohr_effect.png"},{"link_name":"cooperative binding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperative_binding"},{"link_name":"mmHg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MmHg"},{"link_name":"oxy-hemoglobin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoglobin"},{"link_name":"dog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog"},{"link_name":"blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood"},{"link_name":"horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse"},{"link_name":"blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood"},{"link_name":"University of Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-3"},{"link_name":"Karl Hasselbalch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Albert_Hasselbalch"},{"link_name":"August Krogh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Krogh"},{"link_name":"Gustav von Hüfner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_von_H%C3%BCfner"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"hyperbolic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_function"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"sigmoidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigmoid_function"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"}],"text":"The original dissociation curves from Bohr's experiments in the first description of the Bohr effect, showing a decrease in oxygen affinity as the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases. This is also one of the first examples of cooperative binding. X-axis: oxygen partial pressure in mmHg, Y-axis % oxy-hemoglobin. The curves were obtained using whole dog blood, with the exception of the dashed curve, for which horse blood was used.In the early 1900s, Christian Bohr was a professor at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark, already well known for his work in the field of respiratory physiology.[3] He had spent the last two decades studying the solubility of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases in various liquids,[4] and had conducted extensive research on haemoglobin and its affinity for oxygen.[3] In 1903, he began working closely with Karl Hasselbalch and August Krogh, two of his associates at the university, in an attempt to experimentally replicate the work of Gustav von Hüfner, using whole blood instead of haemoglobin solution.[1] Hüfner had suggested that the oxygen-haemoglobin binding curve was hyperbolic in shape,[5] but after extensive experimentation, the Copenhagen group determined that the curve was in fact sigmoidal. Furthermore, in the process of plotting out numerous dissociation curves, it soon became apparent that high partial pressures of carbon dioxide caused the curves to shift to the right.[4] Further experimentation while varying the CO2 concentration quickly provided conclusive evidence, confirming the existence of what would soon become known as the Bohr effect.[1]","title":"Experimental discovery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bronislav Verigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bronislav_Verigo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BE,_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2_%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-4"}],"sub_title":"Controversy","text":"There is some more debate over whether Bohr was actually the first to discover the relationship between CO2 and oxygen affinity, or whether the Russian physiologist Bronislav Verigo [ru] beat him to it, allegedly discovering the effect in 1898, six years before Bohr.[6] While this has never been proven, Verigo did in fact publish a paper on the haemoglobin-CO2 relationship in 1892.[7] His proposed model was flawed, and Bohr harshly criticized it in his own publications.[1]Another challenge to Bohr's discovery comes from within his lab. Though Bohr was quick to take full credit, his associate Krogh, who invented the apparatus used to measure gas concentrations in the experiments,[8] maintained throughout his life that he himself had actually been the first to demonstrate the effect. Though there is some evidence to support this, retroactively changing the name of a well-known phenomenon would be extremely impractical, so it remains known as the Bohr effect.[4]","title":"Experimental discovery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung"},{"link_name":"bicarbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicarbonate"},{"link_name":"carbonic anhydrase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase"},{"link_name":"red blood cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cells"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Voet-2"},{"link_name":"exhalation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhalation"},{"link_name":"muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles"},{"link_name":"cellular respiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_respiration"},{"link_name":"lactic acid fermentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation"},{"link_name":"lactic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid"},{"link_name":"muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscles"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Voet-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bohr_Effect_Magnitude_vs_Body_Size.png"}],"text":"The Bohr effect increases the efficiency of oxygen transportation through the blood. After hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs due to the high oxygen concentrations, the Bohr effect facilitates its release in the tissues, particularly those tissues in most need of oxygen. When a tissue's metabolic rate increases, so does its carbon dioxide waste production. When released into the bloodstream, carbon dioxide forms bicarbonate and protons through the following reaction:CO\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n O\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ↽\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n ⇀\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n CO\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ↽\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n ⇀\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n +\n \n \n +\n \n HCO\n \n 3\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {CO2 + H2O <=> H2CO3 <=> H+ + HCO3^-}}}Although this reaction usually proceeds very slowly, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (which is present in red blood cells) drastically speeds up the conversion to bicarbonate and protons.[2] This causes the pH of the blood to decrease, which promotes the dissociation of oxygen from haemoglobin, and allows the surrounding tissues to obtain enough oxygen to meet their demands. In areas where oxygen concentration is high, such as the lungs, binding of oxygen causes haemoglobin to release protons, which recombine with bicarbonate to eliminate carbon dioxide during exhalation. These opposing protonation and deprotonation reactions occur in equilibrium resulting in little overall change in blood pH.The Bohr effect enables the body to adapt to changing conditions and makes it possible to supply extra oxygen to tissues that need it the most. For example, when muscles are undergoing strenuous activity, they require large amounts of oxygen to conduct cellular respiration, which generates CO2 (and therefore HCO3− and H+) as byproducts. These waste products lower the pH of the blood, which increases oxygen delivery to the active muscles. Carbon dioxide is not the only molecule that can trigger the Bohr effect. If muscle cells aren't receiving enough oxygen for cellular respiration, they resort to lactic acid fermentation, which releases lactic acid as a byproduct. This increases the acidity of the blood far more than CO2 alone, which reflects the cells' even greater need for oxygen. In fact, under anaerobic conditions, muscles generate lactic acid so quickly that pH of the blood passing through the muscles will drop to around 7.2, which causes haemoglobin to begin releasing roughly 10% more oxygen.[2]The magnitude of the Bohr effect is given by \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\scriptstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50}) \\over \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}}\n \n, which is the slope on this graph. A steeper slope means a stronger Bohr effect.","title":"Physiological role"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"P50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P50_(pressure)"},{"link_name":"mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse"},{"link_name":"elephants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"}],"sub_title":"Strength of the effect and body size","text":"The magnitude of the Bohr effect is usually given by the slope of the \n \n \n \n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\log(P_{50})}\n \n vs \n \n \n \n \n pH\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\text{pH}}}\n \n curve where, P50 refers to the partial pressure of oxygen when 50% of haemoglobin's binding sites are occupied. The slope is denoted: \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\scriptstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50}) \\over \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}}\n \n where \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\Delta }\n \n denotes change. That is, \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50})}\n \n denotes the change in \n \n \n \n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\log(P_{50})}\n \n and \n \n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}\n \n the change in \n \n \n \n \n pH\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\text{pH}}}\n \n.\nBohr effect strength exhibits an inverse relationship with the size of an organism: the magnitude increases as size and weight decreases. For example, mice possess a very strong Bohr effect, with a \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\scriptstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50}) \\over \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}}\n \n value of -0.96, which requires relatively minor changes in H+ or CO2 concentrations, while elephants require much larger changes in concentration to achieve a much weaker effect \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n \n =\n −\n 0.38\n \n )\n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\left({\\scriptstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50}) \\over \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}=-0.38\\right)}\n \n.[9]","title":"Physiological role"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hemoglobin_t-r_state_ani.gif"},{"link_name":"hemes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heme"},{"link_name":"tetramer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrameric_protein"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"myoglobin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myoglobin"},{"link_name":"monomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Voet-2"},{"link_name":"haemoglobinopathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemoglobinopathy"},{"link_name":"oxygen starvation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Allosteric interactions","text":"Haemoglobin changes conformation from a high-affinity R state (oxygenated) to a low-affinity T state (deoxygenated) to improve oxygen uptake and delivery.The Bohr effect hinges around allosteric interactions between the hemes of the haemoglobin tetramer, a mechanism first proposed by Max Perutz in 1970.[10] Haemoglobin exists in two conformations: a high-affinity R state and a low-affinity T state. When oxygen concentration levels are high, as in the lungs, the R state is favored, enabling the maximum amount of oxygen to be bound to the hemes. In the capillaries, where oxygen concentration levels are lower, the T state is favored, in order to facilitate the delivery of oxygen to the tissues. The Bohr effect is dependent on this allostery, as increases in CO2 and H+ help stabilize the T state and ensure greater oxygen delivery to muscles during periods of elevated cellular respiration. This is evidenced by the fact that myoglobin, a monomer with no allostery, does not exhibit the Bohr effect.[2] Haemoglobin mutants with weaker allostery may exhibit a reduced Bohr effect. For example, in Hiroshima variant haemoglobinopathy, allostery in haemoglobin is reduced, and the Bohr effect is diminished. As a result, during periods of exercise, the mutant haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen and tissue may suffer minor oxygen starvation.[11]","title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"N-terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-terminal"},{"link_name":"C-terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-terminal"},{"link_name":"histidine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histidine"},{"link_name":"ionic interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_bonding"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Voet-2"},{"link_name":"oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen%E2%80%93hemoglobin_dissociation_curve"},{"link_name":"carbamates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbamates"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Voet-2"}],"sub_title":"T-state stabilization","text":"When hemoglobin is in its T state, the N-terminal amino groups of the α-subunits and the C-terminal histidine of the β-subunits are protonated, giving them a positive charge and allowing these residues to participate in ionic interactions with carboxyl groups on nearby residues. These interactions help hold the haemoglobin in the T state. Decreases in pH (increases in acidity) stabilize this state even more, since a decrease in pH makes these residues even more likely to be protonated, strengthening the ionic interactions. In the R state, the ionic pairings are absent, meaning that the R state's stability increases when the pH increases, as these residues are less likely to stay protonated in a more basic environment. The Bohr effect works by simultaneously destabilizing the high-affinity R state and stabilizing the low-affinity T state, which leads to an overall decrease in oxygen affinity.[2] This can be visualized on an oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve by shifting the whole curve to the right.Carbon dioxide can also react directly with the N-terminal amino groups to form carbamates, according to the following reaction:R\n \n −\n \n \n NH\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n \n CO\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ↽\n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n ⇀\n \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n −\n \n NH\n \n −\n \n \n COO\n \n −\n \n \n +\n \n H\n \n +\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ce {R-NH2 + CO2 <=> R-NH-COO^- + H+}}}CO2 forms carbamates more frequently with the T state, which helps to stabilize this conformation. The process also creates protons, meaning that the formation of carbamates also contributes to the strengthening of ionic interactions, further stabilizing the T state.[2]","title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Humpback_whale_noaa.jpg"}],"text":"Though they are one of the largest animals on the planet, humpback whales have a Bohr effect magnitude similar to that of a guinea pig.","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"},{"link_name":"marine mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_mammal"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"Humpback whales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humpback_whale"},{"link_name":"guinea pig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea_pig"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"},{"link_name":"pilot whales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilot_whale"},{"link_name":"porpoises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porpoise"},{"link_name":"cow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cattle"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-9"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-12"}],"sub_title":"Marine mammals","text":"An exception to the otherwise well-supported link between animal body size and the sensitivity of its haemoglobin to changes in pH was discovered in 1961.[12] Based on their size and weight, many marine mammals were hypothesized to have a very low, almost negligible Bohr effect.[9] However, when their blood was examined, this was not the case. Humpback whales weighing 41,000 kilograms had an observed \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\scriptstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50}) \\over \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}}\n \n value of 0.82, which is roughly equivalent to the Bohr effect magnitude in a 0.57 kg guinea pig.[9] This extremely strong Bohr effect is hypothesized to be one of marine mammals' many adaptations for deep, long dives, as it allows for virtually all of the bound oxygen on haemoglobin to dissociate and supply the whale's body while it is underwater.[12] Examination of other marine mammal species supports this. In pilot whales and porpoises, which are primarily surface feeders and seldom dive for more than a few minutes, the \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\scriptstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50}) \\over \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}}\n \nwas 0.52, comparable to a cow,[9] which is much closer to the expected Bohr effect magnitude for animals of their size.[12]","title":"Special cases"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"carbon monoxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide"},{"link_name":"competitive inhibitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_inhibition"},{"link_name":"carboxyhaemoglobin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxyhemoglobin"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"toxic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-13"}],"sub_title":"Carbon monoxide","text":"Another special case of the Bohr effect occurs when carbon monoxide is present. This molecule serves as a competitive inhibitor for oxygen, and binds to haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin.[13] Haemoglobin's affinity for CO is about 210 times stronger than its affinity for O2,[14] meaning that it is very unlikely to dissociate, and once bound, it blocks the binding of O2 to that subunit. At the same time, CO is structurally similar enough to O2 to cause carboxyhemoglobin to favor the R state, raising the oxygen affinity of the remaining unoccupied subunits. This combination significantly reduces the delivery of oxygen to the tissues of the body, which is what makes carbon monoxide so toxic. This toxicity is reduced slightly by an increase in the strength of the Bohr effect in the presence of carboxyhemoglobin. This increase is ultimately due to differences in interactions between heme groups in carboxyhemoglobin relative to oxygenated hemoglobin. It is most pronounced when the oxygen concentration is extremely low, as a last-ditch effort when the need for oxygen delivery becomes critical. However, the physiological implications of this phenomenon remain unclear.[13]","title":"Special cases"}]
[{"image_text":"Christian Bohr, who was credited with the discovery of the effect in 1904.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Christian_Bohr_u016a.jpg/220px-Christian_Bohr_u016a.jpg"},{"image_text":"The original dissociation curves from Bohr's experiments in the first description of the Bohr effect, showing a decrease in oxygen affinity as the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases. This is also one of the first examples of cooperative binding. X-axis: oxygen partial pressure in mmHg, Y-axis % oxy-hemoglobin. The curves were obtained using whole dog blood, with the exception of the dashed curve, for which horse blood was used.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Bohr_effect.png/291px-Bohr_effect.png"},{"image_text":"The magnitude of the Bohr effect is given by \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Δ\n log\n ⁡\n (\n \n P\n \n 50\n \n \n )\n \n \n Δ\n \n pH\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\scriptstyle \\Delta \\log(P_{50}) \\over \\Delta {\\text{pH}}}}\n \n, which is the slope on this graph. A steeper slope means a stronger Bohr effect.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Bohr_Effect_Magnitude_vs_Body_Size.png/220px-Bohr_Effect_Magnitude_vs_Body_Size.png"},{"image_text":"Haemoglobin changes conformation from a high-affinity R state (oxygenated) to a low-affinity T state (deoxygenated) to improve oxygen uptake and delivery.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hemoglobin_t-r_state_ani.gif/278px-Hemoglobin_t-r_state_ani.gif"},{"image_text":"Though they are one of the largest animals on the planet, humpback whales have a Bohr effect magnitude similar to that of a guinea pig.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Humpback_whale_noaa.jpg/220px-Humpback_whale_noaa.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Allosteric regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allosteric_regulation"},{"title":"Haldane effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldane_effect"},{"title":"Root effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_effect"},{"title":"Chloride shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride_shift"}]
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ISSN 0362-1197.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10747-005-0060-x","url_text":"10.1007/s10747-005-0060-x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-1197","url_text":"0362-1197"}]},{"reference":"Edsall, J. T. (1972). \"Blood and Hemoglobin: The Evolution of Knowledge of Functional Adaptation in a Biochemical System. Part I: The Adaptation of Chemical Structure to Function in Hemoglobin\". Journal of the History of Biology. 5 (2): 205–257. doi:10.1007/bf00346659. JSTOR 4330576. PMID 11610121. S2CID 751105.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf00346659","url_text":"10.1007/bf00346659"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4330576","url_text":"4330576"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11610121","url_text":"11610121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:751105","url_text":"751105"}]},{"reference":"\"Вериго эффект - это... Что такое Вериго эффект?\" [Verigo effect is... What is the Verigo effect?]. Словари и энциклопедии на Академике (in Russian). Retrieved 2016-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/medic2/8579","url_text":"\"Вериго эффект - это... Что такое Вериго эффект?\""}]},{"reference":"Riggs, Austen (1960-03-01). \"The Nature and Significance of the Bohr Effect in Mammalian Hemoglobins\". The Journal of General Physiology. 43 (4): 737–752. doi:10.1085/jgp.43.4.737. ISSN 0022-1295. PMC 2195025. PMID 19873527.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2195025","url_text":"\"The Nature and Significance of the Bohr Effect in Mammalian Hemoglobins\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1085%2Fjgp.43.4.737","url_text":"10.1085/jgp.43.4.737"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0022-1295","url_text":"0022-1295"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2195025","url_text":"2195025"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19873527","url_text":"19873527"}]},{"reference":"Perutz, Max (1998-01-15). Science is Not a Quiet Life. World Scientific. ISBN 9789814498517.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789814498517","url_text":"9789814498517"}]},{"reference":"Olson, JS; Gibson QH; Nagel RL; Hamilton HB (December 1972). \"The ligand-binding properties of hemoglobin Hiroshima ( 2 2 146asp )\". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 247 (23): 7485–93. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(19)44551-1. PMID 4636319.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2819%2944551-1","url_text":"\"The ligand-binding properties of hemoglobin Hiroshima ( 2 2 146asp )\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0021-9258%2819%2944551-1","url_text":"10.1016/S0021-9258(19)44551-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4636319","url_text":"4636319"}]},{"reference":"Riggs, Austen (1961-04-01). \"Bohr Effect in the Hæmoglobins of Marine Mammals\". Nature. 190 (4770): 94–95. Bibcode:1961Natur.190...94R. doi:10.1038/190094a0. PMID 13741621. S2CID 26899569.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961Natur.190...94R","url_text":"1961Natur.190...94R"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2F190094a0","url_text":"10.1038/190094a0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13741621","url_text":"13741621"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26899569","url_text":"26899569"}]},{"reference":"Hlastala, M. P.; McKenna, H. P.; Franada, R. L.; Detter, J. C. (1976-12-01). \"Influence of carbon monoxide on hemoglobin-oxygen binding\". Journal of Applied Physiology. 41 (6): 893–899. doi:10.1152/jappl.1976.41.6.893. ISSN 0021-8987. PMID 12132.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fjappl.1976.41.6.893","url_text":"10.1152/jappl.1976.41.6.893"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8987","url_text":"0021-8987"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12132","url_text":"12132"}]},{"reference":"Hall, John E. (2010). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders/Elsevier. p. 502. ISBN 978-1416045748.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1416045748","url_text":"978-1416045748"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_Professor
List of institute professors at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
["1 List of institute professors","1.1 Current","1.2 Former","1.3 Emeritus","1.4 Deceased","2 References","3 External links"]
For a list of faculty at MIT, see List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty. The title of Institute professor is an honor bestowed by the Faculty and Administration of MIT on a faculty colleague who has demonstrated exceptional distinction by a combination of leadership, accomplishment, and service in the scholarly, educational, and general intellectual life of the Institute or wider academic community.— MIT Policies and Procedures: Special Professorial Appointments, Institute Professor Institute professor is the highest title that can be awarded to a faculty member at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. It is analogous to the titles of distinguished professor, university professor, or regents professor used at other universities in recognition of a professor's extraordinary research achievements and dedication to the school. At MIT, institute professors are granted a unique level of freedom and flexibility to pursue their research and teaching interests without regular departmental or school responsibilities; they report only to the provost. Usually no more than twelve professors hold this distinction at any one time. Institute professors are initially nominated by leaders representing either a department or school. The chair of the faculty then consults with the Academic Council and jointly appoints with the president an ad-hoc committee from various departments and non-MIT members to evaluate the qualifications and make a documented recommendation to the president. The final determination is made based upon recommendations from professionals in the nominee's field. The case is then reviewed again by the Academic Council and approved by the executive committee of the MIT Corporation. The position was created by President James R. Killian in 1951, and John C. Slater was the first to hold the title. List of institute professors Current Name Department Elected Notability Reference Daron Acemoglu Economics 2019 Author of Why Nations Fail; John Bates Clark Medal (2005) Suzanne Berger Political Science 2019 Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences; chevalier of France's Legion of Honour (2009) Arup Chakraborty Chemical Engineering 2021 Fellow of all three United States National academies; founding director of MIT’s Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Sallie W. Chisholm Civil and Environmental Engineering 2015 Discovery and biology of the Prochlorococcus marine cyanobacteria Ann Graybiel Brain and Cognitive Sciences 2008 Expert on the basal ganglia; National Medal of Science (2001) Paula T. Hammond Chemical Engineering 2021 Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and all three United States National academies Robert S. Langer Chemical Engineering & Biological Engineering 2005 Drug delivery and tissue engineering; youngest person to be elected to all three United States National academies; Millennium Technology Prize (2008), National Medal of Science (2007), Draper Prize (2002), and Lemelson-MIT Prize (1998) Thomas Magnanti Mechanical Engineering 1997 Operations research; Dean of Engineering (1999–2007) Marcus Thompson Music and Theater Arts 2015 Artistic director of Boston Chamber Music Society Former Name MIT department Current institution Elected Notability Reference David Baltimore Biology Caltech 1995 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1975) Emeritus Name Department Elected Notability Reference Emilio Bizzi Brain and Cognitive Sciences 2002 Motor control; President of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2006–2009) Noam Chomsky Linguistics and Philosophy 1976 Generative grammar; Kyoto Prize (1988); political activist and one of the most widely cited scholars alive John M. Deutch Chemistry 1990 Director of Central Intelligence (1995–1996); Deputy Secretary of Defense (1994–1995); Provost of MIT (1985–1990) Peter A. Diamond Economics 1997 Social Security reform; Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (2010) Jerome I. Friedman Physics 1991 Quantum chromodynamics; Nobel Prize in Physics (1990) John Harbison Music and Theater Arts 1995 MacArthur Fellow (1989); Pulitzer Prize for Music (1987) for The Flight into Egypt Barbara Liskov Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 2008 Contributions to data abstraction and programming languages; Turing Award (2008) and John von Neumann Medal (2004) John D.C. Little Management Little's law and Branch and bound; contributions to marketing and e-commerce Ron Rivest Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 2015 Co-inventor of the RSA algorithm; founder of Verisign and RSA Security Phillip Sharp Biology 1999 RNA interference and splicing; Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1993) Sheila Widnall Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering 1998 Secretary of the Air Force (1993–1997); first woman to chair the MIT faculty; first MIT alumna appointed to MIT engineering faculty Deceased Name Department Elected Notability Reference Mildred S. Dresselhaus Physics & Electrical Engineering 1985 Carbon nanotubes; National Medal of Science (1990) Murray Eden Electrical Engineering 1959-1994 Biomedical Engineering and Instrumentation Program directors award Manson Benedict Nuclear Engineering 1969 National Medal of Science (1975) Joel Moses Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1999 Algebraic manipulation algorithms and MACSYMA; Provost of MIT (1995–1998); Dean of Engineering (1991–1995) Norbert Wiener Mathematics 1959 National Medal of Science (1964) Gordon S. Brown Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1973 Automatic feedback-control systems and computer numerical control; Dean of Engineering (1959–1968) Martin Julian Buerger Mineralogy 1956 Crystallography Morris Cohen Material Science and Engineering 1974 Metallurgy of steel Charles S. Draper Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1966 Inertial guidance and gyro gunsight; founder of the Instrumentation Laboratory Harold Eugene "Doc" Edgerton Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1966 High-speed photography; Co-founder of EG&G; National Medal of Science (1973) Herman Feshbach Physics 1983 Nuclear reaction theory; National Medal of Science (1986) Edwin R. Gilliland Chemical Engineering 1971 Fractional distillation columns and fluidized catalytic cracking; President's Science Advisory Committee (1961–1965) Hermann Anton Haus Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1986 Optical communications; National Medal of Science (1995) Arthur von Hippel Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1962 Dielectric materials Arthur Thomas Ippen Civil Engineering 1970 Hydraulic engineering and water resources Roman O. Jakobson Linguistics and Philosophy Expert on Russian formalism, Slavic studies and linguistics György Kepes Architecture 1970 Founded the Center for Advanced Visual Studies; Bauhaus contributor; Hungarian Medal of Honor and Middle Cross (1996) Norman Levinson Mathematics 1971 Non-linear differential equations, mathematical analysis, and analytic number theory; testified at 1953 House Un-American Activities Committee Francis E. Low Physics Condensed matter physics; Provost of MIT (1980–1985) Franco Modigliani Economics & Management 1970 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (1985) Mario Molina Earth, Atmosphere, and Planetary Sciences 1997 Stratospheric ozone chemistry; Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1995) Philip Morrison Physics 1973 Theoretical astrophysics Walle J. H. Nauta Brain and Cognitive Sciences 1973 Nauta Silver Impregnation Method used to trace degenerating nerve fibers Walter A. Rosenblith Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1975 Psychoacoustics; elected to all three United States National academies; Provost of MIT (1971–1980) Bruno Rossi Physics 1966 X-ray astronomy and discovery of cosmic rays; Wolf Prize (1987) and National Medal of Science (1983) Paul Samuelson Economics 1966 National Medal of Science (1996), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (1970), and John Bates Clark Medal (1947) Francis O. Schmitt Biology 1955 Biological electron microscopy Nevin S. Scrimshaw Nutrition and Food Science 1980 Eliminating nutritional deficiency; World Food Prize (1991) Ascher H. Shapiro Mechanical Engineering 1975 Fluid mechanics and biomedical engineering Isadore Singer Mathematics 1987 Atiyah–Singer index theorem; Abel Prize (2004) John C. Slater Physics 1951 Quantum theory and electromagnetic theory of microwaves; advisor to William Shockley Cyril S. Smith Materials Science & Humanities Metallurgy, crystallography, and metallography of archaeological artifacts Carl R. Soderberg Mechanical Engineering 1959 Steam turbine electric generators; Dean of Engineering (1954–1959); consultant on the J-57 turbojet Charles H. Townes Physics 1961 Quantum Electronics and Maser; National Medal of Science (1982) and Nobel Prize in Physics (1964) Daniel I.C. Wang Chemical Engineering 1995 Biochemical process engineering John S. Waugh Chemistry Computational studies of spin systems Victor Weisskopf Physics 1965 Co-founder of the Union of Concerned Scientists; Wolf Prize (1981) and National Medal of Science (1980) Jerome Wiesner Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 1980 Chairman of the President's Science Advisory Committee (1961–1964); Dean of Science (1964–1966); Provost of MIT (1966–1971); President of MIT (1971–1980) Jerrold R. Zacharias Nuclear Science and Engineering 1966 Atomic beams and clocks; microwave radar; educational reform Chia-Chiao Lin Mathematics 1966 Fluid mechanics Morris Halle Linguistics and Philosophy 1981 Phonology; Author of The Sound Pattern of English Robert M. Solow Economics 1973 National Medal of Science (1999), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (1987), and John Bates Clark Medal (1961) References ^ a b c d "MIT Policies and Procedures: Special Professorial Appointments, Institute Professor". Retrieved 2007-03-24. ^ "Slater Takes New Post as Roving Physics Professor" (PDF). The Tech. September 18, 1951. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ Dizikes, Peter (July 10, 2019). "Daron Acemoglu named Institute Professor". news.mit.edu. MIT News Office. Archived from the original on 11 July 2019. ^ "Suzanne Berger named inaugural John M. Deutch Institute Professor". MIT News Office. July 2019. Retrieved 2019-07-18. ^ a b "Paula Hammond and Arup Chakraborty named Institute Professors". MIT News Office. May 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-10. ^ a b c "Chisholm, Rivest, and Thompson appointed as new Institute Professors". Retrieved 2015-06-29. ^ "Ann Graybiel named institute professor". MIT News Office. November 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-04. ^ "MIT's Ann Graybiel awarded national medal of science". Retrieved 2008-03-04. ^ Elizabeth A. Thomson (March 2, 2005). "Bob Langer named an Institute Professor". MIT News Office. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ a b c "Diamond, Magnanti and Molina are Institute Professors". MIT News Office. June 4, 1997. Retrieved 2007-03-24. ^ a b c "Baltimore, Harbison, Wang elevated to ranks of Institute Professors". MIT News Office. June 7, 1995. Archived from the original on 2007-02-12. Retrieved 2007-03-24. ^ Elizabeth A. Thomson (June 5, 2002). "Bizzi is named an Institute Professor". MIT News Office. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "Chomsky Is Citation Champ". MIT News Office. April 15, 1992. Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "According to a recent survey by the Institute for Scientific Information, only Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, and Freud are cited more often in academic journals than Chomsky, who edges out Hegel and Cicero." Samuel Hughes, The Pennsylvania Gazette Archived 2007-09-29 at the Wayback Machine, July/August, 2001 ^ "Chomsky Named Killian Lecturer". May 22, 1991. Archived from the original on 2004-11-25. Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "John M. Deutch Biography". Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "Deutch named Institute professor". December 7, 1990. Retrieved 2007-04-04. ^ "Friedman Named Institute Professor". MIT News Office. May 29, 1991. Archived from the original on 2004-05-11. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "Barbara Liskov named Institute Professor". Retrieved 2008-07-01. ^ "MIT Sloan Faculty webpage". Archived from the original on 2012-07-18. Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "Sharp named an Institute Professor". MIT News Office. March 10, 1999. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "Former Secretary of Air Force named Institute Professor by MIT". MIT News Office. December 1, 1998. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "MIT Physics Faculty". Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ Longtime Engineering Authority Eden Mourned, at NIH record, October 2, 2020 ^ Casanova, Stephanie (2020-08-18). "Murray Eden, a biomedical engineer with a love of singing, dies in Tucson at 99". Arizona Daily Star. Retrieved 2021-01-04. ^ "Manson Benedict, 98, chemist on Manhattan Project, dies". September 27, 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-04. ^ "Joel Moses, Institute Professor Emeritus and computer science trailblazer, dies at 80". MIT News Office. May 31, 2022. Retrieved 2023-11-23. ^ "Guide to the Papers of Norbert Wiener, dies at 69". March 18, 1964. Retrieved 2014-11-06. ^ "Gordon Brown, pioneer electrical engineer, educator at MIT, dies at 88". MIT News Office. August 26, 1996. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ Azaroff, L. V. J. Appl. Crystallogr. (1986) 19, 205-207. ^ Sarah H. Wright (May 31, 2005). "Institute Professor Morris Cohen dies". MIT News Office. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "Dr. Draper & His Lab". Draper Labs. Archived from the original on October 17, 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "MIT Loses a Colorful, Beloved Professor". January 10, 1990. Archived from the original on 2007-05-14. Retrieved 2007-04-04. ^ "Renowned nuclear physicist Feshbach, Institute Professor emeritus, dies at 83". MIT News Office. January 10, 2001. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ P.L. Thibaut Brian. "Memorial Tributes: National Academy of Engineering, Volume 1 (1979)". National Academies Press. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "Institute Professor Hermann Haus, quantum optics pioneer, dies at 77". MIT News Office. June 4, 2003. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "Institute Prof. von Hippel dies at 105; was leader in materials research". MIT News Office. January 14, 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ Hunter Rouse. "Memorial Tributes: National Academy of Engineering, Volume 1 (1979)". National Academies Press. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ Parpulova, Lyubomira D.; Gribble, Charles E.; Bailey, James O. (1984). "Obituary: Roman Jackobson (1896–1982)". Journal of American Folklore. 97 (383): 57–60. JSTOR 540396. ^ "Gyorgy Kepes, founder of CAVS, dies at 95". MIT News Office. January 16, 2002. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ a b c "3 Institute Profs Selected" (PDF). September 21, 1973. Retrieved 2007-04-04. ^ "Levinson biography". School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "Physicist Francis E. Low, former MIT provost, dies at 85". MIT News Office. February 20, 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "Nobel laureate Franco Modigliani dies at 85". September 25, 2003. Retrieved 2007-04-04. ^ "Institute Professor Philip Morrison dies at 89". MIT News Office. April 25, 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-07. ^ "Institute Professor Walle J.H. Nauta dies". MIT News Office. March 30, 1994. Retrieved 2007-03-24. ^ "Retired MIT Professor Rosenblith dies at 88; Pioneered use of computers to study brain". MIT News Office. May 3, 2002. Retrieved 2007-03-23. ^ "Dec. 15 memorial planned for Bruno Rossi". MIT News Office. December 1, 1993. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "Economist Paul Samuelson of MIT to Receive National Medal of Science". June 11, 1996. Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "Institute Professor Francis O. Schmitt dies at 91". MIT News Office. October 4, 1995. Retrieved 2007-03-24. ^ "Scrimshaw to Receive Food Prize". August 28, 1991. Archived from the original on September 11, 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "Bruno B. Rossi". MIT The Tech. November 23, 1993. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "MIT biography on Singer". Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "John C. Slater papers" (PDF). American Philosophical Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "Cyril Stanley Smith Dies at 88". September 2, 1992. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ Ascher H. Shapiro. "Carl Richard Soderberg (1895–1979)". National Academies Press. Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "Nobelist and former Institute Professor to speak at MIT". MIT News Office. April 11, 2001. Retrieved 2007-03-24. ^ "MIT Chemistry faculty webpage". Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "President emeritus Jerome Wiesner is dead at 79". October 26, 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-04. ^ Norman F. Ramsey. "Jerrold R. Zacharias (1905–1896)". Retrieved 2007-04-22. ^ "MIT Facts 2007: Faculty". Retrieved 2007-04-04. ^ "MIT Department of Linguistics faculty homepage". Retrieved 2007-03-26. ^ "Students Persuade Solow to Teach One Last Course". November 7, 1995. Retrieved 2007-04-04. External links MIT online directory of Institute Professors and Institute Professors Emeriti MIT Facts: Faculty and Staff MIT's Spectrvm magazine article vteMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyAcademics School of Architecture and Planning Engineering Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences Science Sloan School of Management Schwarzman College of Computing Department of Biology Brain and Cognitive Sciences Economics Mathematics Physics Health Sciences and Technology Research Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab Broad Institute Center for Bits and Atoms Information Systems Research International Studies Theoretical Physics Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Institute for Medical Engineering and Science Koch Institute Laboratory for Electromagnetic and Electronic Systems Information and Decision Systems Lincoln Laboratory Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center McGovern Institute Media Lab MIT Libraries Nuclear Research Reactor Picower Institute Plasma Science and Fusion Center Research Laboratory of Electronics Senseable City Lab Whitehead Institute People Alumni Faculty Institute Professors Presidents William Barton Rogers Culture Brass Rat Caltech rivalry Hacks Lemelson–MIT Prize List Visual Arts Center MIT $100K MIT Press MIT Technology Review MIT Science Fiction Society Mystery Hunt Project Athena Smoot Student Information Processing Board Tech Model Railroad Club Tech Squares The Tech Traditions and activities Campus Building 20 Chapel Dormitories Fraternities and sororities Green Building Infinite Corridor Killian Court Kresge Auditorium Libraries MIT Museum Police Stata Center Sean Collier Memorial Wiesner Building History History of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Round Hill Athletics Engineers Tech Dinghy Notable projects MIT App Inventor MIT OpenCourseWare MITx Scratch
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology_faculty"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MITdefinition-1"},{"link_name":"faculty member","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology_faculty"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Cambridge, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"distinguished professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor"},{"link_name":"university professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professors_in_the_United_States#Distinguished_(research/teaching)_professor"},{"link_name":"regents professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regents_professor"},{"link_name":"provost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provost_(education)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MITdefinition-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MITdefinition-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MITdefinition-1"},{"link_name":"James R. Killian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_R._Killian"},{"link_name":"John C. Slater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Slater"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"For a list of faculty at MIT, see List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty.The title of Institute professor is an honor bestowed by the Faculty and Administration of MIT on a faculty colleague who has demonstrated exceptional distinction by a combination of leadership, accomplishment, and service in the scholarly, educational, and general intellectual life of the Institute or wider academic community.[1]— MIT Policies and Procedures: Special Professorial Appointments, Institute ProfessorInstitute professor is the highest title that can be awarded to a faculty member at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. It is analogous to the titles of distinguished professor, university professor, or regents professor used at other universities in recognition of a professor's extraordinary research achievements and dedication to the school. At MIT, institute professors are granted a unique level of freedom and flexibility to pursue their research and teaching interests without regular departmental or school responsibilities; they report only to the provost.[1] Usually no more than twelve professors hold this distinction at any one time.[1]Institute professors are initially nominated by leaders representing either a department or school. The chair of the faculty then consults with the Academic Council and jointly appoints with the president an ad-hoc committee from various departments and non-MIT members to evaluate the qualifications and make a documented recommendation to the president. The final determination is made based upon recommendations from professionals in the nominee's field. The case is then reviewed again by the Academic Council and approved by the executive committee of the MIT Corporation.[1] The position was created by President James R. Killian in 1951, and John C. Slater was the first to hold the title.[2]","title":"List of institute professors at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of institute professors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Current","title":"List of institute professors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Former","title":"List of institute professors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Emeritus","title":"List of institute professors"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Deceased","title":"List of institute professors"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"\"MIT Policies and Procedures: Special Professorial Appointments, Institute Professor\". Retrieved 2007-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/policies/2.2.html","url_text":"\"MIT Policies and Procedures: Special Professorial Appointments, Institute Professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Slater Takes New Post as Roving Physics Professor\" (PDF). The Tech. September 18, 1951. Retrieved 2007-04-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://tech.mit.edu/archives/VOL_071/TECH_V071_S0128_P002.pdf","url_text":"\"Slater Takes New Post as Roving Physics Professor\""}]},{"reference":"Dizikes, Peter (July 10, 2019). \"Daron Acemoglu named Institute Professor\". news.mit.edu. MIT News Office. Archived from the original on 11 July 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190711175057/http://news.mit.edu/2019/daron-acemoglu-institute-professor-0710","url_text":"\"Daron Acemoglu named Institute Professor\""},{"url":"https://news.mit.edu/2019/daron-acemoglu-institute-professor-0710","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Suzanne Berger named inaugural John M. Deutch Institute Professor\". MIT News Office. July 2019. Retrieved 2019-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.mit.edu/2019/suzanne-berger-institute-professor-0710","url_text":"\"Suzanne Berger named inaugural John M. Deutch Institute Professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Paula Hammond and Arup Chakraborty named Institute Professors\". MIT News Office. May 2021. Retrieved 2021-08-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.mit.edu/2021/paula-hammond-arup-chakraborty-institute-0506","url_text":"\"Paula Hammond and Arup Chakraborty named Institute Professors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chisholm, Rivest, and Thompson appointed as new Institute Professors\". Retrieved 2015-06-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://newsoffice.mit.edu/2015/chisholm-rivest-thompson-institute-professors-0629","url_text":"\"Chisholm, Rivest, and Thompson appointed as new Institute Professors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ann Graybiel named institute professor\". MIT News Office. November 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/institute-prof-1103.html","url_text":"\"Ann Graybiel named institute professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"MIT's Ann Graybiel awarded national medal of science\". Retrieved 2008-03-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/graybiel.html","url_text":"\"MIT's Ann Graybiel awarded national medal of science\""}]},{"reference":"Elizabeth A. Thomson (March 2, 2005). \"Bob Langer named an Institute Professor\". MIT News Office. Retrieved 2007-03-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/langer-0302.html","url_text":"\"Bob Langer named an Institute Professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Diamond, Magnanti and Molina are Institute Professors\". MIT News Office. June 4, 1997. Retrieved 2007-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1997/professors-0604.html","url_text":"\"Diamond, Magnanti and Molina are Institute Professors\""}]},{"reference":"\"Baltimore, Harbison, Wang elevated to ranks of Institute Professors\". MIT News Office. June 7, 1995. Archived from the original on 2007-02-12. Retrieved 2007-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070212231749/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1995/40249/40276.html","url_text":"\"Baltimore, Harbison, Wang elevated to ranks of Institute Professors\""},{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1995/40249/40276.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Elizabeth A. Thomson (June 5, 2002). \"Bizzi is named an Institute Professor\". MIT News Office. Retrieved 2007-03-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/bizzi-0605.html","url_text":"\"Bizzi is named an Institute Professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chomsky Is Citation Champ\". MIT News Office. April 15, 1992. Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/citation-0415.html","url_text":"\"Chomsky Is Citation Champ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chomsky Named Killian Lecturer\". May 22, 1991. Archived from the original on 2004-11-25. Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20041125142800/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1991/may22/24734.html","url_text":"\"Chomsky Named Killian Lecturer\""},{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1991/may22/24734.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"John M. Deutch Biography\". Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/chemistry/deutch/biography.html","url_text":"\"John M. Deutch Biography\""}]},{"reference":"\"Deutch named Institute professor\". December 7, 1990. Retrieved 2007-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://tech.mit.edu/V110/N56/deutch.56n.html","url_text":"\"Deutch named Institute professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Friedman Named Institute Professor\". MIT News Office. May 29, 1991. Archived from the original on 2004-05-11. Retrieved 2007-03-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040511163848/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1991/may29/24749.html","url_text":"\"Friedman Named Institute Professor\""},{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1991/may29/24749.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Barbara Liskov named Institute Professor\". Retrieved 2008-07-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/liskov-0630.html","url_text":"\"Barbara Liskov named Institute Professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"MIT Sloan Faculty webpage\". Archived from the original on 2012-07-18. Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120718072454/http://sloancf.mit.edu/vpf/popup-if.cfm?in_spseqno=69&co_list=F","url_text":"\"MIT Sloan Faculty webpage\""},{"url":"http://sloancf.mit.edu/vpf/popup-if.cfm?in_spseqno=69&co_list=F","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Sharp named an Institute Professor\". MIT News Office. March 10, 1999. Retrieved 2007-03-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1999/sharp-0310.html","url_text":"\"Sharp named an Institute Professor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Former Secretary of Air Force named Institute Professor by MIT\". MIT News Office. December 1, 1998. Retrieved 2007-03-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1998/widnall.html","url_text":"\"Former Secretary of Air Force named Institute Professor by MIT\""}]},{"reference":"\"MIT Physics Faculty\". Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/physics/facultyandstaff/faculty/millie_dresselhaus.html","url_text":"\"MIT Physics Faculty\""}]},{"reference":"Casanova, Stephanie (2020-08-18). \"Murray Eden, a biomedical engineer with a love of singing, dies in Tucson at 99\". Arizona Daily Star. Retrieved 2021-01-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://tucson.com/news/local/murray-eden-a-biomedical-engineer-with-a-love-of-singing-dies-in-tucson-at-99/article_30e24a8e-7b61-56e7-9b32-bc521fb11707.html","url_text":"\"Murray Eden, a biomedical engineer with a love of singing, dies in Tucson at 99\""}]},{"reference":"\"Manson Benedict, 98, chemist on Manhattan Project, dies\". September 27, 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2006/obit-benedict-0927.html","url_text":"\"Manson Benedict, 98, chemist on Manhattan Project, dies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Joel Moses, Institute Professor Emeritus and computer science trailblazer, dies at 80\". MIT News Office. May 31, 2022. Retrieved 2023-11-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.mit.edu/2022/joel-moses-institute-professor-emeritus-dies-0531","url_text":"\"Joel Moses, Institute Professor Emeritus and computer science trailblazer, dies at 80\""}]},{"reference":"\"Guide to the Papers of Norbert Wiener, dies at 69\". March 18, 1964. Retrieved 2014-11-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://libraries.mit.edu/archives/research/collections/collections-mc/mc22.html","url_text":"\"Guide to the Papers of Norbert Wiener, dies at 69\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gordon Brown, pioneer electrical engineer, educator at MIT, dies at 88\". MIT News Office. August 26, 1996. Retrieved 2007-04-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1996/brown-obit.html","url_text":"\"Gordon Brown, pioneer electrical engineer, educator at MIT, dies at 88\""}]},{"reference":"Sarah H. Wright (May 31, 2005). \"Institute Professor Morris Cohen dies\". MIT News Office. Retrieved 2007-03-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/obit-cohen.html","url_text":"\"Institute Professor Morris Cohen dies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dr. Draper & His Lab\". Draper Labs. Archived from the original on October 17, 2006. 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Retrieved 2007-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2003/modigliani.html","url_text":"\"Nobel laureate Franco Modigliani dies at 85\""}]},{"reference":"\"Institute Professor Philip Morrison dies at 89\". MIT News Office. April 25, 2005. Retrieved 2007-03-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2005/morrison.html","url_text":"\"Institute Professor Philip Morrison dies at 89\""}]},{"reference":"\"Institute Professor Walle J.H. Nauta dies\". MIT News Office. March 30, 1994. Retrieved 2007-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1994/nauta-0330.html","url_text":"\"Institute Professor Walle J.H. Nauta dies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Retired MIT Professor Rosenblith dies at 88; Pioneered use of computers to study brain\". MIT News Office. May 3, 2002. Retrieved 2007-03-23.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/rosenblith.html","url_text":"\"Retired MIT Professor Rosenblith dies at 88; Pioneered use of computers to study brain\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dec. 15 memorial planned for Bruno Rossi\". MIT News Office. December 1, 1993. Retrieved 2007-04-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1993/rossi-1201.html","url_text":"\"Dec. 15 memorial planned for Bruno Rossi\""}]},{"reference":"\"Economist Paul Samuelson of MIT to Receive National Medal of Science\". June 11, 1996. Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1996/samuelson.html","url_text":"\"Economist Paul Samuelson of MIT to Receive National Medal of Science\""}]},{"reference":"\"Institute Professor Francis O. Schmitt dies at 91\". MIT News Office. October 4, 1995. Retrieved 2007-03-24.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1995/schmitt-1004.html","url_text":"\"Institute Professor Francis O. Schmitt dies at 91\""}]},{"reference":"\"Scrimshaw to Receive Food Prize\". August 28, 1991. Archived from the original on September 11, 2004. Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20040911052842/http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1991/aug28/25277.html","url_text":"\"Scrimshaw to Receive Food Prize\""},{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/tt/1991/aug28/25277.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Bruno B. Rossi\". MIT The Tech. November 23, 1993. Retrieved 2007-04-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://tech.mit.edu/V113/N60/rossi.60n.html","url_text":"\"Bruno B. Rossi\""}]},{"reference":"\"MIT biography on Singer\". Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://math.mit.edu/people/profile?pid=249","url_text":"\"MIT biography on Singer\""}]},{"reference":"\"John C. Slater papers\" (PDF). American Philosophical Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-26. 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Retrieved 2007-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/facts/faculty.html","url_text":"\"MIT Facts 2007: Faculty\""}]},{"reference":"\"MIT Department of Linguistics faculty homepage\". Retrieved 2007-03-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/halle/index.html","url_text":"\"MIT Department of Linguistics faculty homepage\""}]},{"reference":"\"Students Persuade Solow to Teach One Last Course\". November 7, 1995. Retrieved 2007-04-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1995/solow.html","url_text":"\"Students Persuade Solow to Teach One Last Course\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_International_Education
Institute of International Education
["1 History","2 IIE Global Network","3 Current programs and services","4 Research and publications","5 Revenue","6 Governance","7 Ratings","8 Notes","9 References","10 External links"]
Non-profit organisation in the USA This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Institute of International Education" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Institute of International EducationFounded1919; 105 years ago (1919)Founder Nicholas Murray Butler Elihu Root Stephen Duggan, Sr. TypeCharitable organization501(c)(3) non profitFocus International Student Exchange and Aid Foreign Affairs International Peace and Security LocationNew York, NY, United StatesArea served WorldwideMethod Endowment fund Financial services Fundraising Key peopleDr. Allan E. GoodmanRevenue $592,227,753 USD (2016)$141,678,650 USD (assets as of 2016)Expenses$593,244,786 USD (2016)-$1,017,033 USD (2016)Websitewww.iie.org The Institute of International Education (IIE) is an American 501(c) non-profit organization that focuses on international student exchange and aid, foreign affairs, and international peace and security. IIE creates programs of study and training for students, educators, and professionals from various sectors. The organization says its mission is to "build more peaceful and equitable societies by advancing scholarship, building economies, and promoting access to opportunity". History The institute was established in 1919 at the cessation of World War I. Nobel Peace Prize winners Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, Elihu Root, former secretary of state, and Stephen Duggan, Sr., professor of political science at the College of the City of New York (and IIE's first president) formed the Institute of International Education with the idea that educational exchange would incite understanding between nations. IIE president Stephen Duggan influenced the U.S. government to create a new category of non-immigrant student visas, bypassing post-war quotas set by the Immigration Act of 1921. In the 1930s, IIE began expanding its activities beyond Europe, opening the first exchanges with the Soviet Union and Latin America. Edna Duge was director of the IIE's Latin America department in the 1940s. After World War II, the institute facilitated the establishment of what is now NAFSA and the CIEE. In the 1940s, IIE aided more than 4,000 U.S. students to study and work on reconstruction projects at European universities devastated by the war. By the 1950s the number of foreign students to the United States nearly doubled. As a result, the institute formed a network of U.S. offices to serve the growing number of students under its administration. IIE began producing an annual statistical analysis of the foreign student population in the United States and named the study, Open Doors. In the 1960s, the institute opened overseas offices in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In 1979, the IIE joined the White House and USIA to develop the innovative Hubert H. Humphrey North-South Fellowships, which brings mid-career professionals in public service fields from developing countries and East Central Europe to the U.S. for a year of academic study and practical professional experience. The International Education Information Center opened at IIE's New York headquarters in the 1980s and new offices in Budapest and Hanoi were established in the 90s. In 2008, IIE president Allan Goodman led the institute's first U.S. higher education delegation. Eleven delegates representing seven U.S. colleges and universities traveled to Southeast Asia to enhance and expand linkages with institutions in Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. IIE has since led U.S. higher education delegations to countries such as Brazil, China, Indonesia, India, Myanmar, and Russia with the aim of expanding educational ties with the United States. In the 2010s, the institute established the IIE Centers of Excellence and launched the Emergency Student Fund (ESF). In 2011, IIE hosted the first in a series of conferences in Iraq designed to engage key stakeholders in advancing higher education discussions and development efforts in Iraq. In 2012, IIE began administering the government of Brazil's Scientific Mobility Program, which provides scholarships to Brazilian undergraduate students primarily in the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields. IIE brought together delegates from 15 countries and the EU in Washington, DC, for the 2012 International Education Summit on the Occasion of the G8, to discuss national priorities and educational cooperation among nations. In 2024, it was designated as an "undesirable organization" by the Russian authorities. IIE Global Network The Institute of International Education's Global Network is composed of 18 offices and affiliates, 600+ staff, and 1,600 higher education partners worldwide. Each office networks local colleges, universities, and NGOs to administer regional programs as well as ensure the goals of sponsors are fulfilled. The IIE Headquarters are located in New York City; regional offices are located in Washington D.C., Chicago, Denver, Houston, and San Francisco in the United States. IIE also administers 14 Regional Educational Advising Coordinators who provide training, resources, and mentoring to support the U.S. Department of State's network of EducationUSA advisers. Current REACs are located in the following cities around the world: Lima, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Budapest, Kyiv, Bratislava, Amman, Accra, Johannesburg, Lahore, Delhi, Beijing, Tokyo, and Kuala Lumpur. Current programs and services The institute (IIE) governs more than 200+ programs serving more than 27,000 people from 185 nations each year. The focal point of the programs includes Fellowship and Scholarship Management, Higher Education Institutional Development, Emergency Student and Scholar Assistance, Leadership Development, and International Development. The programs involve participation in the US and abroad. Research and publications IIE conducts applied research and policy analysis in the field of international student mobility. Through research and program evaluations, IIE provides advising and counseling on international education and opportunities abroad. IIE's publications, reports, and policy papers also provide resources for students and advisers, domestic and international governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, and foundations. Some of IIE's research projects include Open Doors, Project Atlas, and the Global Education Research Reports. Revenue In the year 2016, the institute's revenue totaled $592,227,753, with assets of US$141,678,650 (2016). Governance IIE is governed by a board of trustees with input from advisory bodies and executive staff. The current president and CEO is Allan E. Goodman. Ratings In 2017, Charity Navigator gave the organization a score of 89.86. Notes ^ a b CEO Dr. Allen E. Goodman is a professor at the School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University. During the Presidency of Jimmy Carter, Goodman served as liaison to CIA's briefing function to the President. Founding member of World Innovation Summit for Education, serves on Partner University Fund Grant Review Committee as co-chairperson, Jefferson Scholarship selection committee as well as Council for Higher Education International quality group. References ^ a b c d "Charity Navigator - America's Largest Charity Evaluator". charitynavigator.org. 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014. ^ Yidan Prize 2019. sfn error: no target: CITEREFYidan_Prize2019 (help) ^ "Mission". iie.org. Archived from the original on 2014-02-09. Retrieved 2014-02-12. ^ a b c d e f g "History". Institute of International Education. Iie.org. Archived from the original on 2014-02-05. Retrieved 2019-05-01. ^ "Publications". nxtbook.com. Retrieved 2014-02-10. ^ "Минюст включил три образовательные организации США в список нежелательных". RBK Group (in Russian). 2024-03-18. Archived from the original on 2024-03-19. Retrieved 2024-03-19. ^ "Study Abroad Funding". Study Abroad Funding. Retrieved 2013-03-08. ^ "Fulbright Online". Us.fulbrightonline.org. 2013-02-05. Retrieved 2013-03-08. ^ "About IIE". scholarrescuefund.org. Archived from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2014-02-10. ^ "Publications". nxtbook.com. Retrieved 2014-02-10. ^ a b "Institute of International Education: Rating Profile". Charity Navigator. 2017-12-27. Retrieved 2018-02-06. ^ "Governance". Institute of International Education. Archived from the original on 2014-02-09. Retrieved 2014-02-10. External links Official website Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF National Israel United States Greece Academics CiNii People Trove Other SNAC
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The organization says its mission is to \"build more peaceful and equitable societies by advancing scholarship, building economies, and promoting access to opportunity\".[3]","title":"Institute of International Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Nobel Peace Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize"},{"link_name":"Nicholas Murray Butler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Murray_Butler"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Elihu Root","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elihu_Root"},{"link_name":"Stephen Duggan, Sr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_P._Duggan"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-5"},{"link_name":"Immigration Act of 1921","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1921"},{"link_name":"Edna Duge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edna_Duge"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"NAFSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAFSA"},{"link_name":"CIEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIEE"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-5"},{"link_name":"USIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USIA"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Publications-6"},{"link_name":"undesirable organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_undesirable_organizations_law"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The institute was established in 1919 at the cessation of World War I. Nobel Peace Prize winners Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University, Elihu Root, former secretary of state, and Stephen Duggan, Sr., professor of political science at the College of the City of New York (and IIE's first president) formed the Institute of International Education with the idea that educational exchange would incite understanding between nations.[4]IIE president Stephen Duggan influenced the U.S. government to create a new category of non-immigrant student visas, bypassing post-war quotas set by the Immigration Act of 1921. In the 1930s, IIE began expanding its activities beyond Europe, opening the first exchanges with the Soviet Union and Latin America. Edna Duge was director of the IIE's Latin America department in the 1940s. After World War II, the institute facilitated the establishment of what is now NAFSA and the CIEE. In the 1940s, IIE aided more than 4,000 U.S. students to study and work on reconstruction projects at European universities devastated by the war.[4]By the 1950s the number of foreign students to the United States nearly doubled. As a result, the institute formed a network of U.S. offices to serve the growing number of students under its administration. IIE began producing an annual statistical analysis of the foreign student population in the United States and named the study, Open Doors. In the 1960s, the institute opened overseas offices in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.[4]In 1979, the IIE joined the White House and USIA to develop the innovative Hubert H. Humphrey North-South Fellowships, which brings mid-career professionals in public service fields from developing countries and East Central Europe to the U.S. for a year of academic study and practical professional experience. The International Education Information Center opened at IIE's New York headquarters in the 1980s and new offices in Budapest and Hanoi were established in the 90s.[4]In 2008, IIE president Allan Goodman led the institute's first U.S. higher education delegation. Eleven delegates representing seven U.S. colleges and universities traveled to Southeast Asia to enhance and expand linkages with institutions in Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. IIE has since led U.S. higher education delegations to countries such as Brazil, China, Indonesia, India, Myanmar, and Russia with the aim of expanding educational ties with the United States.[4] In the 2010s, the institute established the IIE Centers of Excellence and launched the Emergency Student Fund (ESF). In 2011, IIE hosted the first in a series of conferences in Iraq designed to engage key stakeholders in advancing higher education discussions and development efforts in Iraq.[4]In 2012, IIE began administering the government of Brazil's Scientific Mobility Program, which provides scholarships to Brazilian undergraduate students primarily in the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields.[4] IIE brought together delegates from 15 countries and the EU in Washington, DC, for the 2012 International Education Summit on the Occasion of the G8, to discuss national priorities and educational cooperation among nations.[5]In 2024, it was designated as an \"undesirable organization\" by the Russian authorities.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"U.S. Department of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"EducationUSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EducationUSA"},{"link_name":"Lima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lima"},{"link_name":"Mexico City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico_City"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budapest"},{"link_name":"Kyiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyiv"},{"link_name":"Bratislava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bratislava"},{"link_name":"Amman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amman"},{"link_name":"Accra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accra"},{"link_name":"Johannesburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg"},{"link_name":"Lahore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahore"},{"link_name":"Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"Beijing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing"},{"link_name":"Tokyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo"},{"link_name":"Kuala Lumpur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur"}],"text":"The Institute of International Education's Global Network is composed of 18 offices and affiliates, 600+ staff, and 1,600 higher education partners worldwide. \nEach office networks local colleges, universities, and NGOs to administer regional programs as well as ensure the goals of sponsors are fulfilled.\nThe IIE Headquarters are located in New York City; regional offices are located in Washington D.C., Chicago, Denver, Houston, and San Francisco in the \nUnited States.IIE also administers 14 Regional Educational Advising Coordinators who provide training, resources, and mentoring to support the U.S. Department of State's \nnetwork of EducationUSA advisers. Current REACs are located in the following cities around the world: Lima, Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, \nBudapest, Kyiv, Bratislava, Amman, Accra, Johannesburg, Lahore, Delhi, Beijing, Tokyo, and Kuala Lumpur.","title":"IIE Global Network"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The institute (IIE) governs more than 200+ programs serving more than 27,000 people from 185 nations each year. The focal point of the programs includes Fellowship and Scholarship Management, Higher Education Institutional Development, Emergency Student and Scholar Assistance, Leadership Development, and International Development.The programs involve participation in the US and abroad.[7][8]","title":"Current programs and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-About_IIE-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"IIE conducts applied research and policy analysis in the field of international student mobility. Through research and program evaluations, IIE provides advising and counseling on international education and opportunities abroad.[9] IIE's publications, reports, and policy papers also provide resources for students and advisers, domestic and international governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, and foundations. Some of IIE's research projects include Open Doors, Project Atlas, and the Global Education Research Reports.[10]","title":"Research and publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CharityNavigator-12"}],"text":"In the year 2016, the institute's revenue totaled $592,227,753, with assets of US$141,678,650 (2016).[11]","title":"Revenue"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Governance-13"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-goodman-3"}],"text":"IIE is governed by a board of trustees with input from advisory bodies and executive staff. The current president and CEO is Allan E. Goodman.[12][a]","title":"Governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charity Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_Navigator"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CharityNavigator-12"}],"text":"In 2017, Charity Navigator gave the organization a score of 89.86.[11]","title":"Ratings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-goodman_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-goodman_3-1"},{"link_name":"Georgetown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University"},{"link_name":"Presidency of Jimmy Carter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter"},{"link_name":"CIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA"},{"link_name":"World Innovation Summit for Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Innovation_Summit_for_Education"},{"link_name":"Jefferson Scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_Scholarship"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYidan_Prize2019-2"}],"text":"^ a b CEO Dr. Allen E. Goodman is a professor at the School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University. During the Presidency of Jimmy Carter, Goodman served as liaison to CIA's briefing function to the President. Founding member of World Innovation Summit for Education, serves on Partner University Fund Grant Review Committee as co-chairperson, Jefferson Scholarship selection committee as well as Council for Higher Education International quality group.[2]","title":"Notes"}]
[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation
Instrumentation
["1 Measurement parameters","2 History","2.1 Pre-industrial","2.2 Early industrial","2.3 Automatic process control","2.4 Large integrated computer-based systems","3 Application","3.1 Household","3.2 Automotive","3.3 Aircraft","3.4 Laboratory instrumentation","4 Instrumentation engineering","4.1 Typical industrial transmitter signal types","5 Impact of modern development","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]
Measuring instruments which monitor and control a process For other uses, see Instrumentation (disambiguation). Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities. It is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related areas of metrology, automation, and control theory. The term has its origins in the art and science of scientific instrument-making. Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-reading thermometers, or as complex as multi-sensor components of industrial control systems. Instruments can be found in laboratories, refineries, factories and vehicles, as well as in everyday household use (e.g., smoke detectors and thermostats) Measurement parameters Further information: List of measuring instruments Control valve Instrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values), including: Pressure, either differential or static Flow Temperature Levels of liquids, etc. Moisture or humidity Density Viscosity ionising radiation Frequency Current Voltage Inductance Capacitance Resistivity Chemical composition Chemical properties Toxic gases Position Vibration Weight History See also: History of measurement and History of technology A local instrumentation panel on a steam turbine The history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases. Pre-industrial Elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldest water clocks was found in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I, buried around 1500 BCE. Improvements were incorporated in the clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device. In 1663 Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a design for a "weather clock". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries. The concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart recorders, where a pressurized bellows displaces a pen. Integrating sensors, displays, recorders, and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality. Early industrial The evolution of analogue control loop signalling from the pneumatic era to the electronic era Early systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatic transmitters and automatic 3-term (PID) controllers. The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves. Transistor electronics enabled wiring to replace pipes, initially with a range of 20 to 100mA at up to 90V for loop powered devices, reducing to 4 to 20mA at 12 to 24V in more modern systems. A transmitter is a device that produces an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20 mA electrical current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, pressure, or ethernet are possible. The transistor was commercialized by the mid-1950s. Instruments attached to a control system provided signals used to operate solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, relays and other devices. Such devices could control a desired output variable, and provide either remote monitoring or automated control capabilities. Each instrument company introduced their own standard instrumentation signal, causing confusion until the 4–20 mA range was used as the standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves. This signal was eventually standardized as ANSI/ISA S50, "Compatibility of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial Process Instruments", in the 1970s. The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics enjoyed some advantages, being favored in corrosive and explosive atmospheres. Automatic process control Example of a single industrial control loop, showing continuously modulated control of process flow In the early years of process control, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators needed to monitor the process. Latter years, the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring the process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The most standard pneumatic signal level used during these years was 3–15 psig. Large integrated computer-based systems Pneumatic "three term" pneumatic PID controller, widely used before electronics became reliable and cheaper and safe to use in hazardous areas (Siemens Telepneu Example) A pre-DCS/SCADA era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system. A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated and can view and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a plant overview. Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However, this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of the process. The next logical development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently staffed central control room. Effectively this was the centralization of all the localized panels, with the advantages of lower manning levels and easy overview of the process. Often the controllers were behind the control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were transmitted back to plant. However, whilst providing a central control focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware, and continual operator movement within the control room was required to view different parts of the process. With coming of electronic processors and graphic displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed around plant, and communicate with the graphic display in the control room or rooms. The distributed control concept was born. The introduction of DCSs and SCADA allowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart recorders, allowed the control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high level overviews of plant status and production levels. Application In some cases, the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and/or display sensed information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to measure the elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called instrumentation. Household A very simple example of an instrumentation system is a mechanical thermostat, used to control a household furnace and thus to control room temperature. A typical unit senses temperature with a bi-metallic strip. It displays temperature by a needle on the free end of the strip. It activates the furnace by a mercury switch. As the switch is rotated by the strip, the mercury makes physical (and thus electrical) contact between electrodes. Another example of an instrumentation system is a home security system. Such a system consists of sensors (motion detection, switches to detect door openings), simple algorithms to detect intrusion, local control (arm/disarm) and remote monitoring of the system so that the police can be summoned. Communication is an inherent part of the design. Kitchen appliances use sensors for control. A refrigerator maintains a constant temperature by actuating the cooling system when the temperature becomes too high. An automatic ice machine makes ice until a limit switch is thrown. Pop-up bread toasters allow the time to be set. Non-electronic gas ovens will regulate the temperature with a thermostat controlling the flow of gas to the gas burner. These may feature a sensor bulb sited within the main chamber of the oven. In addition, there may be a safety cut-off flame supervision device: after ignition, the burner's control knob must be held for a short time in order for a sensor to become hot, and permit the flow of gas to the burner. If the safety sensor becomes cold, this may indicate the flame on the burner has become extinguished, and to prevent a continuous leak of gas the flow is stopped. Electric ovens use a temperature sensor and will turn on heating elements when the temperature is too low. More advanced ovens will actuate fans in response to temperature sensors, to distribute heat or to cool. A common toilet refills the water tank until a float closes the valve. The float is acting as a water level sensor. Automotive Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation. In addition to displays of engine rotational speed and vehicle linear speed, there are also displays of battery voltage and current, fluid levels, fluid temperatures, distance traveled, and feedback of various controls (turn signals, parking brake, headlights, transmission position). Cautions may be displayed for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported to diagnostic equipment. Navigation systems can provide voice commands to reach a destination. Automotive instrumentation must be cheap and reliable over long periods in harsh environments. There may be independent airbag systems that contain sensors, logic and actuators. Anti-skid braking systems use sensors to control the brakes, while cruise control affects throttle position. A wide variety of services can be provided via communication links on the OnStar system. Autonomous cars (with exotic instrumentation) have been shown. Aircraft Early aircraft had a few sensors. "Steam gauges" converted air pressures into needle deflections that could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass provided a sense of direction. The displays to the pilot were as critical as the measurements. A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded into avionics systems. The aircraft may contain inertial navigation systems, global positioning systems, weather radar, autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of the information may be transferred to a crash recorder to aid mishap investigations. Modern pilot displays now include computer displays including head-up displays. Air traffic control radar is a distributed instrumentation system. The ground part sends an electromagnetic pulse and receives an echo (at least). Aircraft carry transponders that transmit codes on reception of the pulse. The system displays an aircraft map location, an identifier and optionally altitude. The map location is based on sensed antenna direction and sensed time delay. The other information is embedded in the transponder transmission. Laboratory instrumentation Among the possible uses of the term is a collection of laboratory test equipment controlled by a computer through an IEEE-488 bus (also known as GPIB for General Purpose Instrument Bus or HPIB for Hewlitt Packard Instrument Bus). Laboratory equipment is available to measure many electrical and chemical quantities. Such a collection of equipment might be used to automate the testing of drinking water for pollutants. Instrumentation engineering The instrumentation part of a piping and instrumentation diagram will be developed by an instrumentation engineer. Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in areas such as electrical and pneumatic domains, and the control of quantities being measured. They typically work for industries with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of improving system productivity, reliability, safety, optimization and stability. To control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system. Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in the biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors based on size, weight, cost, reliability, accuracy, longevity, environmental robustness, and frequency response. Some sensors are literally fired in artillery shells. Others sense thermonuclear explosions until destroyed. Invariably sensor data must be recorded, transmitted or displayed. Recording rates and capacities vary enormously. Transmission can be trivial or can be clandestine, encrypted and low power in the presence of jamming. Displays can be trivially simple or can require consultation with human factors experts. Control system design varies from trivial to a separate specialty. Instrumentation engineers are responsible for integrating the sensors with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems, and producing the Piping and instrumentation diagram for the process. They may design or specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for commissioning, calibration, testing and maintenance of the system. In a research environment it is common for subject matter experts to have substantial instrumentation system expertise. An astronomer knows the structure of the universe and a great deal about telescopes – optics, pointing and cameras (or other sensing elements). That often includes the hard-won knowledge of the operational procedures that provide the best results. For example, an astronomer is often knowledgeable of techniques to minimize temperature gradients that cause air turbulence within the telescope. Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting, repairing and maintaining instruments and instrumentation systems. Typical industrial transmitter signal types Pneumatic loop (20-100KPa/3-15PSI) – Pneumatic Current loop (4-20mA) – Electrical HART – Data signalling, often overlaid on a current loop Foundation Fieldbus – Data signalling Profibus – Data signalling Impact of modern development Ralph Müller (1940) stated, "That the history of physical science is largely the history of instruments and their intelligent use is well known. The broad generalizations and theories which have arisen from time to time have stood or fallen on the basis of accurate measurement, and in several instances new instruments have had to be devised for the purpose. There is little evidence to show that the mind of modern man is superior to that of the ancients. His tools are incomparably better.": 290  Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated with Floris Cohen's identification of a "fourth big scientific revolution" after World War II is the development of scientific instrumentation, not only in chemistry but across the sciences. In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was "nothing less than a scientific and technological revolution": 28–29  in which classical wet-and-dry methods of structural organic chemistry were discarded, and new areas of research opened up.: 38  As early as 1954, W. A. Wildhack discussed both the productive and destructive potential inherent in process control. The ability to make precise, verifiable and reproducible measurements of the natural world, at levels that were not previously observable, using scientific instrumentation, has "provided a different texture of the world". This instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities to monitor and respond, as is illustrated in the examples of DDT monitoring and the use of UV spectrophotometry and gas chromatography to monitor water pollutants. See also Industrial control system Instrumentation and control engineering Instrumentation in petrochemical industries Institute of Measurement and Control International Society of Automation List of sensors Measurement Medical instrumentation Metrology Piping and instrumentation diagram – a diagram in the process industry which shows the piping of the process flow together with the installed equipment and instrumentation. Programmable logic controller Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology References ^ "Early Clocks". NIST. 2009-08-12. Retrieved 1 March 2012. ^ "Building automation history page". Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2012. ^ Multhauf, Robert P. (1961), The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments, Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 95–116 United States National Museum, Bulletin 228. Contributions from The Museum of History and Technology: Paper 23. Available from Project Gutenberg. ^ Lynn, L.H. (1998). "The commercialization of the transistor radio in Japan: The functioning of an innovation community". IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. 45 (3): 220–229. doi:10.1109/17.704244. ^ Anderson, Norman A. (1998). Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control (3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 254–255. ISBN 978-0-8493-9871-1. ^ Anderson, Norman A. (1998). Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control (3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-0-8493-9871-1. ^ Aircraft Instrumentation – Leroy R. Grumman Cadet Squadron ^ Katz, Eric; Light, Andrew; Thompson, William (2002). Controlling technology : contemporary issues (2nd ed.). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1573929837. Retrieved 9 March 2016. ^ a b Baird, D. (1993). "Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution". Annals of Science. 50 (3): 267–290. doi:10.1080/00033799300200221. Download the pdf to read the full article. ^ a b Baird, D. (2002). "Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution". In Morris, Peter J. T. (ed.). From classical to modern chemistry : the instrumental revolution; from a conference on the history of chemical instrumentation: "From the Test-tube to the Autoanalyzer: the Development of Chemical Instrumentation in the Twentieth Century", London, in August 2000. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry in assoc. with the Science Museum. pp. 29–56. ISBN 9780854044795. ^ a b Reinhardt, Carsten, ed. (2001). Chemical sciences in twentieth century (1st ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3527302710. ^ Wildhack, W. A. (22 October 1954). "Instrumentation—Revolution in Industry, Science, and Warfare". Science. 120 (3121): 15A. Bibcode:1954Sci...120A..15W. doi:10.1126/science.120.3121.15A. PMID 17816144. ^ a b Hentschel, Klaus (2003). "The Instrumental Revolution in Chemistry (Review Essay)". Foundations of Chemistry. 5 (2): 179–183. doi:10.1023/A:1023691917565. S2CID 102255170. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Instrumentation. Look up instrumentation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. vteElectronicsBranches Analogue electronics Digital electronics Electronic engineering Instrumentation Microelectronics Optoelectronics Power electronics Printed electronics Semiconductor Schematic capture Thermal management Advancedtopics 2020s in computing Atomtronics Bioelectronics List of emerging electronics Failure of electronic components Flexible electronics Low-power electronics Molecular electronics Nanoelectronics Organic electronics Photonics Piezotronics Quantum electronics Spintronics Electronicequipment Air conditioner Central heating Clothes dryer Computer/Notebook Camera Dishwasher Freezer Home robot Home cinema Home theater PC Information technology Cooker Microwave oven Mobile phone Networking hardware Portable media player Radio Refrigerator Robotic vacuum cleaner Tablet Telephone Television Water heater Video game console Washing machine Applications Audio equipment Automotive electronics Avionics Control system Data acquisition e-book e-health Electromagnetic warfare Electronics industry Embedded system Home appliance Home automation Integrated circuit Home appliance Consumer electronics Major appliance Small appliance Marine electronics Microwave technology Military electronics Multimedia Nuclear electronics Open-source hardware Radar and Radio navigation Radio electronics Terahertz technology Wired and Wireless Communications
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Instrumentation (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"physical quantities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_quantities"},{"link_name":"measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement"},{"link_name":"metrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrology"},{"link_name":"automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation"},{"link_name":"control theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory"},{"link_name":"scientific instrument-making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_instrument"},{"link_name":"thermometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermometer"},{"link_name":"industrial control systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_control_system"},{"link_name":"smoke detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_detector"},{"link_name":"thermostats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermostat"}],"text":"For other uses, see Instrumentation (disambiguation).Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments, used for indicating, measuring, and recording physical quantities. It is also a field of study about the art and science about making measurement instruments, involving the related areas of metrology, automation, and control theory.\nThe term has its origins in the art and science of scientific instrument-making.Instrumentation can refer to devices as simple as direct-reading thermometers, or as complex as multi-sensor components of industrial control systems. Instruments can be found in laboratories, refineries, factories and vehicles, as well as in everyday household use (e.g., smoke detectors and thermostats)","title":"Instrumentation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of measuring instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pl_control_valve.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"differential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_pressure_transducer"},{"link_name":"static","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_pressure"},{"link_name":"Flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_fluid_flow"},{"link_name":"Temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature_measurement"},{"link_name":"Levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Level_Measurement"},{"link_name":"Moisture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moisture"},{"link_name":"humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity"},{"link_name":"Density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density"},{"link_name":"Viscosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity"},{"link_name":"ionising radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation"},{"link_name":"Frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"Current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(electricity)"},{"link_name":"Voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"Inductance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductance"},{"link_name":"Capacitance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitance"},{"link_name":"Resistivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistivity"},{"link_name":"Toxic gases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_gas"}],"text":"Further information: List of measuring instrumentsControl valveInstrumentation is used to measure many parameters (physical values), including:Pressure, either differential or static\nFlow\nTemperature\nLevels of liquids, etc.\nMoisture or humidity\nDensity\nViscosity\nionising radiation\nFrequency\nCurrent\nVoltage\nInductance\nCapacitance\nResistivity\nChemical composition\nChemical properties\nToxic gases\nPosition\nVibration\nWeight","title":"Measurement parameters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_measurement"},{"link_name":"History of technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steuerstand01.jpg"}],"text":"See also: History of measurement and History of technologyA local instrumentation panel on a steam turbineThe history of instrumentation can be divided into several phases.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"water clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock"},{"link_name":"ancient Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Amenhotep I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amenhotep_I"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Christopher Wren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Wren"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Pre-industrial","text":"Elements of industrial instrumentation have long histories. Scales for comparing weights and simple pointers to indicate position are ancient technologies. Some of the earliest measurements were of time. One of the oldest water clocks was found in the tomb of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep I, buried around 1500 BCE.[1] Improvements were incorporated in the clocks. By 270 BCE they had the rudiments of an automatic control system device.[2]In 1663 Christopher Wren presented the Royal Society with a design for a \"weather clock\". A drawing shows meteorological sensors moving pens over paper driven by clockwork. Such devices did not become standard in meteorology for two centuries.[3] The concept has remained virtually unchanged as evidenced by pneumatic chart recorders, where a pressurized bellows displaces a pen. Integrating sensors, displays, recorders, and controls was uncommon until the industrial revolution, limited by both need and practicality.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png"},{"link_name":"transmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitters"},{"link_name":"3-term (PID) controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportional%E2%80%93integral%E2%80%93derivative_controller"},{"link_name":"transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"mA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere"},{"link_name":"current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_(electrical)"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor#History"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"solenoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoid"},{"link_name":"valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valve"},{"link_name":"regulators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulator_(automatic_control)"},{"link_name":"circuit breakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circuit_breaker"},{"link_name":"relays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Anderson2-5"}],"sub_title":"Early industrial","text":"The evolution of analogue control loop signalling from the pneumatic era to the electronic eraEarly systems used direct process connections to local control panels for control and indication, which from the early 1930s saw the introduction of pneumatic transmitters and automatic 3-term (PID) controllers.The ranges of pneumatic transmitters were defined by the need to control valves and actuators in the field. Typically, a signal ranged from 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100kPa or 0.2 to 1.0 kg/cm2) as a standard, was standardized with 6 to 30 psi occasionally being used for larger valves. \nTransistor electronics enabled wiring to replace pipes, initially with a range of 20 to 100mA at up to 90V for loop powered devices, reducing to 4 to 20mA at 12 to 24V in more modern systems. A transmitter is a device that produces an output signal, often in the form of a 4–20 mA electrical current signal, although many other options using voltage, frequency, pressure, or ethernet are possible. The transistor was commercialized by the mid-1950s.[4]Instruments attached to a control system provided signals used to operate solenoids, valves, regulators, circuit breakers, relays and other devices. Such devices could control a desired output variable, and provide either remote monitoring or automated control capabilities.Each instrument company introduced their own standard instrumentation signal, causing confusion until the 4–20 mA range was used as the standard electronic instrument signal for transmitters and valves. This signal was eventually standardized as ANSI/ISA S50, \"Compatibility of Analog Signals for Electronic Industrial Process Instruments\", in the 1970s. The transformation of instrumentation from mechanical pneumatic transmitters, controllers, and valves to electronic instruments reduced maintenance costs as electronic instruments were more dependable than mechanical instruments. This also increased efficiency and production due to their increase in accuracy. Pneumatics enjoyed some advantages, being favored in corrosive and explosive atmospheres.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Industrial_control_loop.jpg"},{"link_name":"process control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_control"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Anderson-6"}],"sub_title":"Automatic process control","text":"Example of a single industrial control loop, showing continuously modulated control of process flowIn the early years of process control, process indicators and control elements such as valves were monitored by an operator, that walked around the unit adjusting the valves to obtain the desired temperatures, pressures, and flows. As technology evolved pneumatic controllers were invented and mounted in the field that monitored the process and controlled the valves. This reduced the amount of time process operators needed to monitor the process. Latter years, the actual controllers were moved to a central room and signals were sent into the control room to monitor the process and outputs signals were sent to the final control element such as a valve to adjust the process as needed. These controllers and indicators were mounted on a wall called a control board. The operators stood in front of this board walking back and forth monitoring the process indicators. This again reduced the number and amount of time process operators were needed to walk around the units. The most standard pneumatic signal level used during these years was 3–15 psig.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg"},{"link_name":"PID controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PID_controller"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leitstand_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"SCADA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCADA"}],"sub_title":"Large integrated computer-based systems","text":"Pneumatic \"three term\" pneumatic PID controller, widely used before electronics became reliable and cheaper and safe to use in hazardous areas (Siemens Telepneu Example)A pre-DCS/SCADA era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system.A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated and can view and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a plant overview.Process control of large industrial plants has evolved through many stages. Initially, control would be from panels local to the process plant. However, this required a large manpower resource to attend to these dispersed panels, and there was no overall view of the process. The next logical development was the transmission of all plant measurements to a permanently staffed central control room. Effectively this was the centralization of all the localized panels, with the advantages of lower manning levels and easy overview of the process. Often the controllers were behind the control room panels, and all automatic and manual control outputs were transmitted back to plant.However, whilst providing a central control focus, this arrangement was inflexible as each control loop had its own controller hardware, and continual operator movement within the control room was required to view different parts of the process. With coming of electronic processors and graphic displays it became possible to replace these discrete controllers with computer-based algorithms, hosted on a network of input/output racks with their own control processors. These could be distributed around plant, and communicate with the graphic display in the control room or rooms. The distributed control concept was born.The introduction of DCSs and SCADA allowed easy interconnection and re-configuration of plant controls such as cascaded loops and interlocks, and easy interfacing with other production computer systems. It enabled sophisticated alarm handling, introduced automatic event logging, removed the need for physical records such as chart recorders, allowed the control racks to be networked and thereby located locally to plant to reduce cabling runs, and provided high level overviews of plant status and production levels.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In some cases, the sensor is a very minor element of the mechanism. Digital cameras and wristwatches might technically meet the loose definition of instrumentation because they record and/or display sensed information. Under most circumstances neither would be called instrumentation, but when used to measure the elapsed time of a race and to document the winner at the finish line, both would be called instrumentation.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"thermostat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermostat"},{"link_name":"bi-metallic strip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi-metallic_strip"},{"link_name":"mercury switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_switch"},{"link_name":"home security system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burglar_alarm"},{"link_name":"limit switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_snap-action_switch"},{"link_name":"toasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toaster"},{"link_name":"thermostat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermostat"},{"link_name":"gas burner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_burner"},{"link_name":"flame supervision device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_supervision_device"},{"link_name":"toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet"}],"sub_title":"Household","text":"A very simple example of an instrumentation system is a mechanical thermostat, used to control a household furnace and thus to control room temperature. A typical unit senses temperature with a bi-metallic strip. It displays temperature by a needle on the free end of the strip. It activates the furnace by a mercury switch. As the switch is rotated by the strip, the mercury makes physical (and thus electrical) contact between electrodes.Another example of an instrumentation system is a home security system. Such a system consists of \nsensors (motion detection, switches to detect door openings), simple algorithms to detect intrusion, local control (arm/disarm) and remote monitoring of the system so that the police can be summoned. Communication is an inherent part of the design.Kitchen appliances use sensors for control.A refrigerator maintains a constant temperature by actuating the cooling system when the temperature becomes too high.\nAn automatic ice machine makes ice until a limit switch is thrown.\nPop-up bread toasters allow the time to be set.\nNon-electronic gas ovens will regulate the temperature with a thermostat controlling the flow of gas to the gas burner. These may feature a sensor bulb sited within the main chamber of the oven. In addition, there may be a safety cut-off flame supervision device: after ignition, the burner's control knob must be held for a short time in order for a sensor to become hot, and permit the flow of gas to the burner. If the safety sensor becomes cold, this may indicate the flame on the burner has become extinguished, and to prevent a continuous leak of gas the flow is stopped.\nElectric ovens use a temperature sensor and will turn on heating elements when the temperature is too low. More advanced ovens will actuate fans in response to temperature sensors, to distribute heat or to cool.\nA common toilet refills the water tank until a float closes the valve. The float is acting as a water level sensor.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diagnostic equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_bus"},{"link_name":"airbag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbag"},{"link_name":"Anti-skid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-lock_braking_system"},{"link_name":"cruise control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_control"},{"link_name":"OnStar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OnStar"},{"link_name":"Autonomous cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_car"}],"sub_title":"Automotive","text":"Modern automobiles have complex instrumentation. In addition to displays of engine rotational speed and vehicle linear speed, there are also displays of battery voltage and current, fluid levels, fluid temperatures, distance traveled, and feedback of various controls (turn signals, parking brake, headlights, transmission position). Cautions may be displayed for special problems (fuel low, check engine, tire pressure low, door ajar, seat belt unfastened). Problems are recorded so they can be reported to diagnostic equipment. Navigation systems can provide voice commands to reach a destination. Automotive instrumentation must be cheap and reliable over long periods in harsh environments. There may be independent airbag systems that contain sensors, logic and actuators. Anti-skid braking systems use sensors to control the brakes, while cruise control affects throttle position. A wide variety of services can be provided via communication links on the OnStar system. Autonomous cars (with exotic instrumentation) have been shown.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"avionics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics"},{"link_name":"inertial navigation systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system"},{"link_name":"global positioning systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_positioning_system"},{"link_name":"weather radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_radar"},{"link_name":"crash recorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_data_recorder"},{"link_name":"head-up displays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-up_display"},{"link_name":"Air traffic control radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control_radar_beacon_system"}],"sub_title":"Aircraft","text":"Early aircraft had a few sensors.[7] \"Steam gauges\" converted air pressures into needle deflections that could be interpreted as altitude and airspeed. A magnetic compass provided a sense of direction. The displays to the pilot were as critical as the measurements.A modern aircraft has a far more sophisticated suite of sensors and displays, which are embedded into avionics systems. The aircraft may contain inertial navigation systems, global positioning systems, weather radar, autopilots, and aircraft stabilization systems. Redundant sensors are used for reliability. A subset of the information may be transferred to a crash recorder to aid mishap investigations. Modern pilot displays now include computer displays including head-up displays.Air traffic control radar is a distributed instrumentation system. The ground part sends an electromagnetic pulse and receives an echo (at least). Aircraft carry transponders that transmit codes on reception of the pulse. The system displays an aircraft map location, an identifier and optionally altitude. The map location is based on sensed antenna direction and sensed time delay. The other information is embedded in the transponder transmission.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Laboratory instrumentation","text":"Among the possible uses of the term is a collection of laboratory test equipment controlled by a computer through an IEEE-488 bus (also known as GPIB for General Purpose Instrument Bus or HPIB for Hewlitt Packard Instrument Bus). Laboratory equipment is available to measure many electrical and chemical quantities. Such a collection of equipment might be used to automate the testing of drinking water for pollutants.","title":"Application"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg"},{"link_name":"piping and instrumentation diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram"},{"link_name":"automated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated"},{"link_name":"chemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_plant"},{"link_name":"manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"productivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity"},{"link_name":"human factors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_factors"},{"link_name":"Piping and instrumentation diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram"}],"text":"The instrumentation part of a piping and instrumentation diagram will be developed by an instrumentation engineer.Instrumentation engineering is the engineering specialization focused on the principle and operation of measuring instruments that are used in design and configuration of automated systems in areas such as electrical and pneumatic domains, and the control of quantities being measured.\nThey typically work for industries with automated processes, such as chemical or manufacturing plants, with the goal of improving system productivity, reliability, safety, optimization and stability.\nTo control the parameters in a process or in a particular system, devices such as microprocessors, microcontrollers or PLCs are used, but their ultimate aim is to control the parameters of a system.Instrumentation engineering is loosely defined because the required tasks are very domain dependent. An expert in the biomedical instrumentation of laboratory rats has very different concerns than the expert in rocket instrumentation. Common concerns of both are the selection of appropriate sensors based on size, weight, cost, reliability, accuracy, longevity, environmental robustness, and frequency response. Some sensors are literally fired in artillery shells. Others sense thermonuclear explosions until destroyed. Invariably sensor data must be recorded, transmitted or displayed. Recording rates and capacities vary enormously. Transmission can be trivial or can be clandestine, encrypted and low power in the presence of jamming. Displays can be trivially simple or can require consultation with human factors experts. Control system design varies from trivial to a separate specialty.Instrumentation engineers are responsible for integrating the sensors with the recorders, transmitters, displays or control systems, and producing the Piping and instrumentation diagram for the process. They may design or specify installation, wiring and signal conditioning. They may be responsible for commissioning, calibration, testing and maintenance of the system.In a research environment it is common for subject matter experts to have substantial instrumentation system expertise. An astronomer knows the structure of the universe and a great deal about telescopes – optics, pointing and cameras (or other sensing elements). That often includes the hard-won knowledge of the operational procedures that provide the best results. For example, an astronomer is often knowledgeable of techniques to minimize temperature gradients that cause air turbulence within the telescope.Instrumentation technologists, technicians and mechanics specialize in troubleshooting, repairing and maintaining instruments and instrumentation systems.","title":"Instrumentation engineering "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pneumatic loop (20-100KPa/3-15PSI)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pneumatic_loop&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Current loop (4-20mA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_loop"},{"link_name":"HART","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hart_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Foundation Fieldbus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOUNDATION_Fieldbus"},{"link_name":"Profibus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profibus"}],"sub_title":"Typical industrial transmitter signal types","text":"Pneumatic loop (20-100KPa/3-15PSI) – Pneumatic\nCurrent loop (4-20mA) – Electrical\nHART – Data signalling, often overlaid on a current loop\nFoundation Fieldbus – Data signalling\nProfibus – Data signalling","title":"Instrumentation engineering "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Katz-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baird-9"},{"link_name":"Floris Cohen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floris_Cohen"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baird-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morris-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reinhardt-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Reinhardt-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wildhack-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hentschel-13"},{"link_name":"DDT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT"},{"link_name":"UV spectrophotometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"gas chromatography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_chromatography"},{"link_name":"water pollutants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutants"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Morris-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hentschel-13"}],"text":"Ralph Müller (1940) stated, \"That the history of physical science is largely the history of instruments and their intelligent use is well known. The broad generalizations and theories which have arisen from time to time have stood or fallen on the basis of accurate measurement, and in several instances new instruments have had to be devised for the purpose. There is little evidence to show that the mind of modern man is superior to that of the ancients. His tools are incomparably better.\"[8][9]: 290Davis Baird has argued that the major change associated with Floris Cohen's identification of a \"fourth big scientific revolution\" after World War II is the development of scientific instrumentation, not only in chemistry but across the sciences.[9][10] In chemistry, the introduction of new instrumentation in the 1940s was \"nothing less than a scientific and technological revolution\"[11]: 28–29  in which classical wet-and-dry methods of structural organic chemistry were discarded, and new areas of research opened up.[11]: 38As early as 1954, W. A. Wildhack discussed both the productive and destructive potential inherent in process control.[12]\nThe ability to make precise, verifiable and reproducible measurements of the natural world, at levels that were not previously observable, using scientific instrumentation, has \"provided a different texture of the world\".[13] This instrumentation revolution fundamentally changes human abilities to monitor and respond, as is illustrated in the examples of DDT monitoring and the use of UV spectrophotometry and gas chromatography to monitor water pollutants.[10][13]","title":"Impact of modern development"}]
[{"image_text":"Control valve","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pl_control_valve.jpg/220px-Pl_control_valve.jpg"},{"image_text":"A local instrumentation panel on a steam turbine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Steuerstand01.jpg/220px-Steuerstand01.jpg"},{"image_text":"The evolution of analogue control loop signalling from the pneumatic era to the electronic era","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png/220px-Analogue_control_loop_evolution.png"},{"image_text":"Example of a single industrial control loop, showing continuously modulated control of process flow","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Industrial_control_loop.jpg/220px-Industrial_control_loop.jpg"},{"image_text":"Pneumatic \"three term\" pneumatic PID controller, widely used before electronics became reliable and cheaper and safe to use in hazardous areas (Siemens Telepneu Example)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg/220px-Pneumatische_regelaar.jpg"},{"image_text":"A pre-DCS/SCADA era central control room. Whilst the controls are centralised in one place, they are still discrete and not integrated into one system.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg/220px-Kontrollrom_Tyssedal.jpg"},{"image_text":"A DCS control room where plant information and controls are displayed on computer graphics screens. The operators are seated and can view and control any part of the process from their screens, whilst retaining a plant overview.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Leitstand_2.jpg/220px-Leitstand_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"The instrumentation part of a piping and instrumentation diagram will be developed by an instrumentation engineer.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg/220px-Pump_with_tank_pid_en.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"Industrial control system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_control_system"},{"title":"Instrumentation and control engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_and_control_engineering"},{"title":"Instrumentation in petrochemical industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrumentation_in_petrochemical_industries"},{"title":"Institute of Measurement and Control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Measurement_and_Control"},{"title":"International Society of Automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_of_Automation"},{"title":"List of sensors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sensors"},{"title":"Measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement"},{"title":"Medical instrumentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_instrumentation"},{"title":"Metrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metrology"},{"title":"Piping and instrumentation diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piping_and_instrumentation_diagram"},{"title":"Programmable logic controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller"},{"title":"Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_temperature_and_pressure_measurement_technology"}]
[{"reference":"\"Early Clocks\". NIST. 2009-08-12. Retrieved 1 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nist.gov/pml/general/time/early.cfm","url_text":"\"Early Clocks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Building automation history page\". Archived from the original on 8 July 2011. Retrieved 1 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110708104028/http://www.building-automation-consultants.com/building-automation-history.html","url_text":"\"Building automation history page\""},{"url":"http://www.building-automation-consultants.com/building-automation-history.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Multhauf, Robert P. (1961), The Introduction of Self-Registering Meteorological Instruments, Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 95–116","urls":[]},{"reference":"Lynn, L.H. (1998). \"The commercialization of the transistor radio in Japan: The functioning of an innovation community\". IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management. 45 (3): 220–229. doi:10.1109/17.704244.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2F17.704244","url_text":"10.1109/17.704244"}]},{"reference":"Anderson, Norman A. (1998). Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control (3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 254–255. ISBN 978-0-8493-9871-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9871-1","url_text":"978-0-8493-9871-1"}]},{"reference":"Anderson, Norman A. (1998). Instrumentation for Process Measurement and Control (3 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 8–10. ISBN 978-0-8493-9871-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-9871-1","url_text":"978-0-8493-9871-1"}]},{"reference":"Katz, Eric; Light, Andrew; Thompson, William (2002). Controlling technology : contemporary issues (2nd ed.). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1573929837. Retrieved 9 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=nny8OoQCZCoC&pg=PA88","url_text":"Controlling technology : contemporary issues"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1573929837","url_text":"978-1573929837"}]},{"reference":"Baird, D. (1993). \"Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution\". Annals of Science. 50 (3): 267–290. doi:10.1080/00033799300200221. Download the pdf to read the full article.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033799300200221","url_text":"10.1080/00033799300200221"}]},{"reference":"Baird, D. (2002). \"Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution\". In Morris, Peter J. T. (ed.). From classical to modern chemistry : the instrumental revolution; from a conference on the history of chemical instrumentation: \"From the Test-tube to the Autoanalyzer: the Development of Chemical Instrumentation in the Twentieth Century\", London, in August 2000. Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry in assoc. with the Science Museum. pp. 29–56. ISBN 9780854044795.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=AAf8sk_v2SEC&pg=PA52","url_text":"\"Analytical chemistry and the 'big' scientific instrumentation revolution\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780854044795","url_text":"9780854044795"}]},{"reference":"Reinhardt, Carsten, ed. (2001). Chemical sciences in twentieth century (1st ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. ISBN 978-3527302710.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=gIOK5EUm5ysC&pg=PA28","url_text":"Chemical sciences in twentieth century"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3527302710","url_text":"978-3527302710"}]},{"reference":"Wildhack, W. A. (22 October 1954). \"Instrumentation—Revolution in Industry, Science, and Warfare\". Science. 120 (3121): 15A. Bibcode:1954Sci...120A..15W. doi:10.1126/science.120.3121.15A. PMID 17816144.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1954Sci...120A..15W","url_text":"1954Sci...120A..15W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.120.3121.15A","url_text":"10.1126/science.120.3121.15A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17816144","url_text":"17816144"}]},{"reference":"Hentschel, Klaus (2003). \"The Instrumental Revolution in Chemistry (Review Essay)\". Foundations of Chemistry. 5 (2): 179–183. doi:10.1023/A:1023691917565. S2CID 102255170.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1023691917565","url_text":"10.1023/A:1023691917565"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:102255170","url_text":"102255170"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLAGS_register
FLAGS register
["1 FLAGS","2 Usage","2.1 Example","3 See also","4 References"]
Status register of x86 architecture The FLAGS register is the status register that contains the current state of an x86 CPU. The size and meanings of the flag bits are architecture dependent. It usually reflects the result of arithmetic operations as well as information about restrictions placed on the CPU operation at the current time. Some of those restrictions may include preventing some interrupts from triggering, prohibition of execution of a class of "privileged" instructions. Additional status flags may bypass memory mapping and define what action the CPU should take on arithmetic overflow. The carry, parity, auxiliary carry (or half carry), zero and sign flags are included in many architectures (many modern (RISC) architectures do not have flags, such as carry, and even if they do use flags, then half carry is rare, since BCD math no longer common, and it even has limited support on long mode on x86-64). In the i286 architecture, the register is 16 bits wide. Its successors, the EFLAGS and RFLAGS registers (in modern x86-64), are 32 bits and 64 bits wide, respectively. The wider registers retain compatibility with their smaller predecessors. FLAGS Intel x86 FLAGS register Bit # Mask Abbreviation Description Category =1 =0 FLAGS 0 0x0001 CF Carry flag Status CY (Carry) NC (No Carry) 1 0x0002 — Reserved, always 1 in EFLAGS — 2 0x0004 PF Parity flag Status PE (Parity Even) PO (Parity Odd) 3 0x0008 — Reserved — 4 0x0010 AF Auxiliary Carry flag Status AC (Auxiliary Carry) NA (No Auxiliary Carry) 5 0x0020 — Reserved — 6 0x0040 ZF Zero flag Status ZR (Zero) NZ (Not Zero) 7 0x0080 SF Sign flag Status NG (Negative) PL (Positive) 8 0x0100 TF Trap flag (single step) Control 9 0x0200 IF Interrupt enable flag Control EI (Enable Interrupt) DI (Disable Interrupt) 10 0x0400 DF Direction flag Control DN (Down) UP (Up) 11 0x0800 OF Overflow flag Status OV (Overflow) NV (Not Overflow) 12–13 0x3000 IOPL I/O privilege level (286+ only), always all-1s on 8086 and 186 System 14 0x4000 NT Nested task flag (286+ only), always 1 on 8086 and 186 System 15 0x8000 MD Mode flag (NEC V-series only),reserved on all Intel CPUs.Always 1 on 8086/186, 0 on 286 and later. Control (NEC only)Native Mode(186 compatible) (NEC only)Emulation Mode(8080 compatible) EFLAGS 16 0x0001 0000 RF Resume flag (386+ only) System 17 0x0002 0000 VM Virtual 8086 mode flag (386+ only) System 18 0x0004 0000 AC Alignment Check (486+, ring 3),SMAP Access Check (Broadwell+, ring 0-2) System 19 0x0008 0000 VIF Virtual interrupt flag (Pentium+) System 20 0x0010 0000 VIP Virtual interrupt pending (Pentium+) System 21 0x0020 0000 ID Able to use CPUID instruction (Pentium+) System 22–29 0x3FC0 0000 — Reserved — 30 0x4000 0000 (none) AES key schedule loaded flag(CPUs with VIA PadLock only) System 31 0x8000 0000 AI Alternate Instruction Set enabled(VIA C5XL processors only) System RFLAGS 32‑63 0xFFFF FFFF… …0000 0000 — Reserved — Note: The mask column in the table is the AND bitmask (as hexadecimal value) to query the flag(s) within FLAGS register value. Usage All FLAGS registers contain the condition codes, flag bits that let the results of one machine-language instruction affect another instruction. Arithmetic and logical instructions set some or all of the flags, and conditional jump instructions take variable action based on the value of certain flags. For example, jz (Jump if Zero), jc (Jump if Carry), and jo (Jump if Overflow) depend on specific flags. Other conditional jumps test combinations of several flags. FLAGS registers can be moved from or to the stack. This is part of the job of saving and restoring CPU context, against a routine such as an interrupt service routine whose changes to registers should not be seen by the calling code. Here are the relevant instructions: The PUSHF and POPF instructions transfer the 16-bit FLAGS register. PUSHFD/POPFD (introduced with the i386 architecture) transfer the 32-bit double register EFLAGS. PUSHFQ/POPFQ (introduced with the x86-64 architecture) transfer the 64-bit quadword register RFLAGS. In 64-bit mode, PUSHF/POPF and PUSHFQ/POPFQ are available but PUSHFD/POPFD are not.: 4–349, 4–432  The lower 8 bits of the FLAGS register is also open to direct load/store manipulation by SAHF and LAHF (load/store AH into flags). Example The ability to push and pop FLAGS registers lets a program manipulate information in the FLAGS in ways for which machine-language instructions do not exist. For example, the cld and std instructions clear and set the direction flag (DF), respectively; but there is no instruction to complement DF. This can be achieved with the following assembly code: ; This is 8086 code, with 16-bit registers pushed onto the stack, ; and the flags register is only 16 bits with this CPU. pushf ; Use the stack to transfer the FLAGS pop ax ; … into the AX register push ax ; and copy them back onto the stack for storage xor ax, 400h ; Toggle (invert, ‘complement’) the DF only; other bits are unchanged push ax ; Use the stack again to move the modified value popf ; … into the FLAGS register ; Insert here the code that required the DF flag to be complemented popf ; Restore the original value of the FLAGS By manipulating the FLAGS register, a program can determine the model of the installed processor. For example, the alignment flag can only be changed on the 486 and above. If the program tries to modify this flag and senses that the modification did not persist, the processor is earlier than the 486. Starting with the Intel Pentium, the CPUID instruction reports the processor model. However, the above method remains useful to distinguish between earlier models. See also Bit field Control register CPU flag (x86) Program status word Status register x86 assembly language x86 instruction listings References ^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer's Manual (PDF). Vol. 1. May 2012. pp. 3–21. ^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual (PDF). Vol. 1. Dec 2016. p. 78. ^ a b c "Silicon reverse engineering: The 8085's undocumented flags". www.righto.com. Retrieved 2018-10-21. ^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual, Vol. 1. Dec 2022. pp. 3–16. ^ NEC, 16-bit V-Series User's Manual, document no. U11301E, sep 2000, p. 186 ^ VIA, PadLock Programming Guide, v1.66, Aug 4, 2005, pp. 7-8. Archived from the original on May 26, 2010. ^ VIA, VIA C3 Processor Alternate Instruction Set Application Note, version 0.24, 2002 - see figure 2 on page 12 and chapter 4 on page 21 for details on the EFLAGS.AI flag. ^ Intel 64 and IA-32 Architectures Software Developer’s Manual (PDF). Vol. 2B. May 2012.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_register"},{"link_name":"status register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Status_register"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"half carry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-carry_flag"},{"link_name":"long mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_mode"},{"link_name":"x86-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"i286","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I286"},{"link_name":"16 bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit"},{"link_name":"x86-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"32 bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit"},{"link_name":"64 bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64-bit"}],"text":"The FLAGS register is the status register that contains the current state of an x86 CPU. The size and meanings of the flag bits are architecture dependent. It usually reflects the result of arithmetic operations as well as information about restrictions placed on the CPU operation at the current time. Some of those restrictions may include preventing some interrupts from triggering, prohibition of execution of a class of \"privileged\" instructions. Additional status flags may bypass memory mapping and define what action the CPU should take on arithmetic overflow.The carry, parity, auxiliary carry (or half carry), zero and sign flags are included in many architectures (many modern (RISC) architectures do not have flags, such as carry, and even if they do use flags, then half carry is rare, since BCD math no longer common, and it even has limited support on long mode on x86-64).In the i286 architecture, the register is 16 bits wide. Its successors, the EFLAGS and RFLAGS registers (in modern x86-64), are 32 bits and 64 bits wide, respectively. The wider registers retain compatibility with their smaller predecessors.","title":"FLAGS register"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bitmask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitmask"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"}],"text":"Note: The mask column in the table is the AND bitmask (as hexadecimal value) to query the flag(s) within FLAGS register value.","title":"FLAGS"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"condition codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condition_code_register"},{"link_name":"machine-language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_language"},{"link_name":"i386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I386"},{"link_name":"x86-64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"All FLAGS registers contain the condition codes, flag bits that let the results of one machine-language instruction affect another instruction. Arithmetic and logical instructions set some or all of the flags, and conditional jump instructions take variable action based on the value of certain flags. For example, jz (Jump if Zero), jc (Jump if Carry), and jo (Jump if Overflow) depend on specific flags. Other conditional jumps test combinations of several flags.FLAGS registers can be moved from or to the stack. This is part of the job of saving and restoring CPU context, against a routine such as an interrupt service routine whose changes to registers should not be seen by the calling code. Here are the relevant instructions:The PUSHF and POPF instructions transfer the 16-bit FLAGS register.\nPUSHFD/POPFD (introduced with the i386 architecture) transfer the 32-bit double register EFLAGS.\nPUSHFQ/POPFQ (introduced with the x86-64 architecture) transfer the 64-bit quadword register RFLAGS.In 64-bit mode, PUSHF/POPF and PUSHFQ/POPFQ are available but PUSHFD/POPFD are not.[8]: 4–349, 4–432The lower 8 bits of the FLAGS register is also open to direct load/store manipulation by SAHF and LAHF (load/store AH into flags).","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"assembly code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_code"},{"link_name":"486","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80486"},{"link_name":"Intel Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P5_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"CPUID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPUID"}],"sub_title":"Example","text":"The ability to push and pop FLAGS registers lets a program manipulate information in the FLAGS in ways for which machine-language instructions do not exist. For example, the cld and std instructions clear and set the direction flag (DF), respectively; but there is no instruction to complement DF. This can be achieved with the following assembly code:; This is 8086 code, with 16-bit registers pushed onto the stack,\n ; and the flags register is only 16 bits with this CPU.\npushf ; Use the stack to transfer the FLAGS\npop ax ; … into the AX register\npush ax ; and copy them back onto the stack for storage\nxor ax, 400h ; Toggle (invert, ‘complement’) the DF only; other bits are unchanged\npush ax ; Use the stack again to move the modified value\npopf ; … into the FLAGS register\n; Insert here the code that required the DF flag to be complemented\npopf ; Restore the original value of the FLAGSBy manipulating the FLAGS register, a program can determine the model of the installed processor. For example, the alignment flag can only be changed on the 486 and above. If the program tries to modify this flag and senses that the modification did not persist, the processor is earlier than the 486.Starting with the Intel Pentium, the CPUID instruction reports the processor model. However, the above method remains useful to distinguish between earlier models.","title":"Usage"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOTA_(technology)
Over-the-air update
["1 Terminology","2 Purpose","3 Implementation","4 Industries","4.1 Smartphones","4.2 Automotive","4.3 Internet of things (IoT)","4.4 Internet routers","4.5 Cellular networks","5 OTA standards","6 See also","7 References"]
Wireless delivery of software updates An over-the-air update (or OTA update), also known as over-the-air programming (or OTA programming), is an update to an embedded system that is delivered through a wireless network, such as Wi-Fi or a cellular network. These embedded systems include mobile phones, tablets, set-top boxes, cars and telecommunications equipment. OTA updates for cars and internet of things devices can also be called firmware over-the-air (FOTA). Various components may be updated OTA, including the device's operating system, applications, configuration settings, or parameters like encryption keys. Terminology The term over-the-air update applies specifically to embedded systems, rather than non-embedded systems like computers. Before OTA updates, embedded devices could only be flashed through direct physical access (with a JTAG) or wired connections (usually through USB or a serial port). Purpose Over-the-air delivery may allow updates to be distributed at larger scales, reduce the cost of delivering updates, or increase the rate of adoption of these updates. Implementation The distributor of these updates can decide whether users are allowed to decline these updates, and may choose to disable certain features on end-user devices until an update is applied. Users may be unable to revert an update after it is installed. OTA updates are designed to be as small as possible in order to minimize energy consumption, network usage, and storage space. This is achieved by only transferring the differences between the old firmware and the new firmware, rather than transmitting the entire firmware. A delta of the old and new firmware is produced through a process called diffing; then, the delta file is distributed to the end-device, which uses the delta file to update itself. Industries Smartphones On smartphones, tablets, and other devices, an over-the-air update is a firmware or operating system update that is downloaded by the device over the internet. Previously, users had to connect these devices to a computer over USB to perform an update. These updates may add features, patch security vulnerabilities, or fix software bugs. The two main mobile operating systems are iOS and Android. iOS gained support for over-the-air updates in iOS 5. iOS updates are distributed exclusively by Apple, resulting in wide availability and relatively high adoption rates. Major iOS releases are usually installed on 60%-70% of iPhones within a few months of the update's release. Android OTA updates are not distributed directly by Google, but by OEMs (like Samsung) and wireless carriers. This has led to inconsistent availability of updates, and to Android fragmentation. In the past, fragmentation increased the complexity of developing third-party apps for Android (due to inconsistent availability of the latest software frameworks on users' phones), and led to security concerns due to delays in the distribution of security updates. Google has reduced Android fragmentation through the 2017 Project Treble, which allows OEMs to release OS updates without needing to re-test hardware drivers for each version, and the 2019 Project Mainline, which allows Google to update Android components and deliver security patches through its Play Store, without requiring a full OS update. Project Mainline significantly lowers the role of middlemen in delivering OTA updates. Since Android 8.0, Android OTA updates follow an A/B partition scheme, in which an update is installed to a second ("B") partition in the background, and the phone switches to that partition the next time it is rebooted; this reduces the time taken to install updates. Automotive Cars can support OTA updates to their in-car entertainment system, navigation map, telematic control unit, or their electronic control units (the onboard computers responsible for most of the car's operation). In cars, the telematic control unit is in charge of downloading and installing updates, and OTA updates are downloaded through cellular networks, like smartphones. Cars cannot be driven while an OTA update is being installed. Before an update, the car checks that the update is genuine, and after the update completes, it verifies the integrity of all affected systems. OTA updates provide several benefits. In the past, Volkswagen had to recall 11 million vehicles to fix an issue with its cars' emissions control software, and other manufacturers have instituted recalls due to software bugs affecting the brakes, or the airbags, requiring all affected customers to travel to dealership to receive updates. OTA updates would have removed the need to go through dealerships, leading to lower warranty costs for manufacturers and lower downtime for customers. OTA updates also allow manufacturers to deploy potential new features and bug fixes more quickly, making their cars more competitive in the market, and resulting in an increased pace of product improvements for consumers. For example, OTA updates can deliver improvements to a car's driver assistance systems and improve the car's safety.: 138–139  However, OTA updates can also present a new attack vector for hackers, since security vulnerabilities in the update process could be used by hackers to remotely take control of cars. Hackers have discovered such vulnerabilities in the past, and many car manufacturers have responded by instituting vulnerability disclosure programs (a.k.a. bug bounty programs). Attack vectors specific to OTA updates include "spoofing, tampering, repudiation , information leakage, denial-of-service," replay attacks, and privilege escalation attacks. Example scenarios include a hacker successfully interrupting an ongoing update (deemed a "flashing fail"), which may corrupt the car's computer systems and make the car malfunction later on; another scenario is "arbitrary flashings", in which hackers trick the car into installing a malicious OTA update.: 141–142  Internet of things (IoT) More recently, with the new concepts of Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things (IoT), where the networks consist of hundreds or thousands of nodes, OTA is taken to a new direction: for the first time OTA is applied using unlicensed frequency bands (868 MHz, 900 MHz, 2400 MHz) and with low consumption and low data rate transmission using protocols such as 802.15.4 and Zigbee. Sensor nodes are often located in places that are either remote or difficult to access. As an example, Libelium has implemented an OTA programming system for Zigbee WSN devices. This system enables firmware upgrades without the need of physical access, saving time and money if the nodes must be re-programmed. Internet routers OTA is similar to firmware distribution methods used by other mass-produced consumer electronics, such as cable modems, which use TFTP as a way to remotely receive new programming, thus reducing the amount of time spent by both the owner and the user of the device on maintenance. Over-the-air provisioning (OTAP) is also available in wireless environments (though it is disabled by default for security reasons). It allows an access point (AP) to discover the IP address of its controller. When enabled, the controller tells the other APs to include additional information in the Radio Resource Management Packets (RRM) that would assist a new access point in learning of the controller. It is sent in plain text however, which would make it vulnerable to sniffing. That is why it is disabled by default. Cellular networks Over-the-air provisioning (OTAP) is a form of OTA update by which cellular network operators can remotely provision a mobile phone (termed a client or mobile station in industry parlance) and update the cellular network settings stored on its SIM card. This can occur at any time while a phone is turned on. The term over-the-air parameter administration (OTAPA) is synonymous. OTA provisioning allows mobile phones to remain properly configured when cellular network operators make changes to their networks. It also configures phones with the settings required to access certain features, like WAP (an early incarnation of the mobile web), MMS messaging, and cellular data (which requires the configuration of an Access Point Name). The similar term over-the-air service provisioning (OTASP) specifically refers to the wireless initial provisioning ("activation") of a phone. During activation, a mobile phone is provisioned with parameters like its phone number, mobile identification number, and system ID, granting it initial access to the cellular network. OTASP is sometimes called over-the-air activation or over-the-air bootstrapping. The alternative to OTA bootstrapping is SIM bootstrapping, where the phone reads the network settings stored on a SIM card. SIM bootstrapping has limitations: settings stored on a SIM card may become stale between the time the SIM is manufactured and the time it is used; also, some phones (and other cellular client equipment) do not use SIM cards. Various standards bodies have issued OTA provisioning standards. In 2001, the WAP Forum published the WAP Client Provisioning standard. After the Open Mobile Alliance subsumed the WAP Forum, this standard became known as OMA Client Provisioning (OMA CP). In OMA CP, phones are provisioned by "invisible" SMS messages sent by the cellular network, which contain the requisite settings. OMA CP was followed by a newer standard, OMA Device Management (OMA DM), which use a different form of SMS-based provisioning (called "OMA Push"). OMA DM sessions are always client-initiated. The "invisible" SMS does not contain configuration settings; instead, it tells the phone (the "DM Client") to connect to a DM Server (operated by the cellular network provider); once connected, the DM Server sends configuration commands to the client. OTA standards There are a number of standards that describe OTA functions. One of the first was the GSM 03.48 series. The Zigbee suite of standards includes the Zigbee Over-the-Air Upgrading Cluster which is part of the Zigbee Smart Energy Profile and provides an interoperable (vendor-independent) way of updating device firmware. See also Software portal Phone-as-Modem (PAM) Access Point Name (APN) References ^ White, Elecia (November 2011). Making Embedded Systems: Design Patterns for Great Software. "O'Reilly Media, Inc.". p. 197. ISBN 978-1-4493-0214-6. ^ "Definition of OTA". PCMag. Retrieved 2023-04-01. ^ "Definition of Over The Air". Gartner. Retrieved 2023-04-01. ^ a b c Kathiresh, M.; Neelaveni, R. (2021-04-24). Automotive Embedded Systems: Key Technologies, Innovations, and Applications. Springer Nature. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-3-030-59897-6. ^ a b c Maglaras, Leandros; Kantzavelou, Ioanna (2021-10-14). Cybersecurity Issues in Emerging Technologies. CRC Press (Taylor & Francis). doi:10.1201/9781003109952. ISBN 9780367626174. ^ Rayes, Ammar; Salam, Samer (2019). Internet of Things From Hype to Reality: The Road to Digitization. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99516-8. ISBN 978-3-319-99515-1. ^ "What are OTA Updates?". Mobility Connected. Retrieved 16 January 2024. ^ Kachman, Ondrej; Balaz, Marcel (2016). "Effective Over-the-Air Reprogramming for Low-Power Devices in Cyber-Physical Systems". In Camarinha-Matos, Luis M.; Falcão, António J.; Vafaei, Nazanin; Najdi, Shirin (eds.). Technological Innovation for Cyber-Physical Systems. Springer Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-31165-4. ISBN 978-3-319-31164-7. ^ Savov, Vlad (June 6, 2011). "Apple's iOS 5: all the details". Engadget. Retrieved 2023-04-02. ^ Rossignol, Joe. "Apple Reveals How Many iPhones and iPads Are Running iOS 16 and iPadOS 16". MacRumors. Retrieved 2 April 2023. ^ a b Mearian, Lucas (21 January 2022). "Apple: iOS 15 now installed on more than 60% of all iPhones". Computerworld. Retrieved 2 April 2023. ^ a b Evans, Jonny (31 May 2013). "Fragmented Android drives big dev to Apple". Computerworld. Retrieved 2 April 2023. ^ a b Amadeo, Ron (2017-05-12). "Google's "Project Treble" solves one of Android's many update roadblocks". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2023-04-02. ^ "What is Android fragmentation, and can Google fix it?". Android Authority. 5 September 2016. ^ Nguyen-Vu, Long; Ahn, Jinung; Jung, Souhwan (1 November 2019). "Android Fragmentation in Malware Detection". Computers & Security. 87: 101573. doi:10.1016/j.cose.2019.101573. ^ a b c Amadeo, Ron (2019-05-22). "Android at I/O 2019: The Project Mainline update system and other highlights". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2023-04-02. ^ a b Siddiqui, Aamir (2020-10-10). "Everything you need to know about Android's Project Mainline". XDA Developers. Retrieved 2023-04-02. ^ Amadeo, Ron (2020-09-23). "Android 11—The Ars Technica Review". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2023-04-02. ^ Amadeo, Ron (2017-08-07). "Android 8.0's "streaming OS updates" will work even if your phone is full". Ars Technica. Retrieved 2023-04-02. ^ a b c d Halder, Subir; Ghosal, Amrita; Conti, Mauro (2020-09-04). "Secure over-the-air software updates in connected vehicles: A survey". Computer Networks. 178: 107343. doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2020.107343. ISSN 1389-1286. ^ Gitlin, Jonathan M. (11 January 2023). "Hackers discover that vulnerabilities are rife in the auto industry". Ars Technica. ^ Gascón, David; Alberto Bielsa; Félix Genicio; Marcos Yarza (9 May 2011). "Over the Air programming with 802.15.4 and ZigBee - OTA". www.Libelium.com. Libelium. Retrieved 28 May 2012. ^ "Libelium.com 50 Sensor applications for a smarter world. Get inspired!". www.Libelium.com. Libelium. 2 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012. ^ Raghunandan, Krishnamurthy (April 1, 2022). Introduction to Wireless Communications and Networks: A Practical Perspective. Textbooks in Telecommunication Engineering (1st ed.). Springer Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92188-0. ISBN 978-3-030-92187-3. ^ a b Snyder, Randall A.; Gallagher, Michael D. (2001-04-05). Wireless Telecommunications Networking with ANSI-41. McGraw Hill Professional. pp. 374–376. ISBN 978-0-07-138358-5. ^ a b Brenner, Michael; Unmehopa, Musa (2008-02-28). The Open Mobile Alliance: Delivering Service Enablers for Next-Generation Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 273–279. ISBN 978-0-470-51918-9. vteDigital distribution of software App store Cloud gaming Content delivery network Digital library Digital distribution of video games List of mobile app distribution platforms Over-the-air update Package manager Software distribution ActivePersonal computers Amazon Digital Game Store Battle.net Big Fish Games Chrome Web Store Digital River Direct2Drive Discord DLsite Discover DMM Games Epic Games Store Flathub GameHouse GamersGate Gamesplanet Game Jolt GNOME Software GOG.com Humble Store itch.io MacGameStore MacUpdate Mac App Store Microsoft Store MSN Games Origin Pogo.com Pokki PureOS Software Center Robot Cache Snap Store Steam Ubisoft Connect WeGame WildTangent Consoles Microsoft Store Nintendo eShop PlayStation Store Xbox Games Store Mobile devices & Smart TVs Amazon Appstore Apple App Store Appland Aptoide Cafe Bazaar Cydia F-Droid Galaxy Store GetJar Google Play Huawei AppGallery Meta Horizon Store MiKandi OpenStore PureOS Software Center SlideME Arcade ALL.Net E-Amusement NESiCAxLive Defunct Allmyapps BlackBerry World Club Nokia Desura Download! GameAgent GameShadow GameTap Games for Windows Marketplace Handango Impulse Intel AppUp Kartridge Kazaa N-Gage Nokia Store Opera Mobile Store PlayNow Arena Stardock Central Triton Ubuntu App Store Ubuntu Software Center Vodafone live! Wii Shop Channel Windows Marketplace Windows Marketplace for Mobile Windows Phone Store Xbox Live Arcade Yahoo! Games Zune Marketplace  Category  Portal
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Before OTA updates, embedded devices could only be flashed through direct physical access (with a JTAG) or wired connections (usually through USB or a serial port).","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"rate of adoption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rate_of_adoption"}],"text":"Over-the-air delivery may allow updates to be distributed at larger scales, reduce the cost of delivering updates,[7] or increase the rate of adoption of these updates.","title":"Purpose"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_encoding"},{"link_name":"diffing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_differencing"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The distributor of these updates can decide whether users are allowed to decline these updates, and may choose to disable certain features on end-user devices until an update is applied. Users may be unable to revert an update after it is installed.OTA updates are designed to be as small as possible in order to minimize energy consumption, network usage, and storage space. This is achieved by only transferring the differences between the old firmware and the new firmware, rather than transmitting the entire firmware. A delta of the old and new firmware is produced through a process called diffing; then, the delta file is distributed to the end-device, which uses the delta file to update itself.[8]","title":"Implementation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Industries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"smartphones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"security vulnerabilities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerability_(computing)"},{"link_name":"software bugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_bug"},{"link_name":"iOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS"},{"link_name":"Android","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"iOS 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IOS_5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mearian2022-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans2013-12"},{"link_name":"OEMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"wireless carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_network_operator"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"},{"link_name":"Android fragmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_fragmentation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mearian2022-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans2013-12"},{"link_name":"software frameworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_framework"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Project Treble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Treble"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-13"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-17"},{"link_name":"Play Store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_Store"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-16"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-17"},{"link_name":"Android 8.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_Oreo"},{"link_name":"partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_partitioning"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Smartphones","text":"On smartphones, tablets, and other devices, an over-the-air update is a firmware or operating system update that is downloaded by the device over the internet. Previously, users had to connect these devices to a computer over USB to perform an update. These updates may add features, patch security vulnerabilities, or fix software bugs. The two main mobile operating systems are iOS and Android.iOS gained support for over-the-air updates in iOS 5.[9] iOS updates are distributed exclusively by Apple, resulting in wide availability and relatively high adoption rates. Major iOS releases are usually installed on 60%-70% of iPhones within a few months of the update's release.[10][11][12]Android OTA updates are not distributed directly by Google, but by OEMs (like Samsung) and wireless carriers.[13] This has led to inconsistent availability of updates, and to Android fragmentation.[11][12] In the past, fragmentation increased the complexity of developing third-party apps for Android (due to inconsistent availability of the latest software frameworks on users' phones),[14] and led to security concerns due to delays in the distribution of security updates.[15] Google has reduced Android fragmentation through the 2017 Project Treble, which allows OEMs to release OS updates without needing to re-test hardware drivers for each version, [13][16] and the 2019 Project Mainline, which allows Google to update Android components[16] and deliver security patches[17] through its Play Store, without requiring a full OS update.[16] Project Mainline significantly lowers the role of middlemen in delivering OTA updates.[18][17] Since Android 8.0, Android OTA updates follow an A/B partition scheme, in which an update is installed to a second (\"B\") partition in the background, and the phone switches to that partition the next time it is rebooted; this reduces the time taken to install updates.[19]","title":"Industries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in-car entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In-car_entertainment"},{"link_name":"telematic control unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telematic_control_unit"},{"link_name":"electronic control units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_control_unit"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halder2020-20"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halder2020-20"},{"link_name":"deploy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_deployment"},{"link_name":"driver assistance systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_driver-assistance_system"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halder2020-20"},{"link_name":"attack vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_vector"},{"link_name":"bug bounty programs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bug_bounty_program"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Halder2020-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"spoofing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spoofing_attack"},{"link_name":"information leakage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_leakage"},{"link_name":"denial-of-service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack"},{"link_name":"replay attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replay_attack"},{"link_name":"privilege escalation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privilege_escalation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-5"}],"sub_title":"Automotive","text":"Cars can support OTA updates to their in-car entertainment system, navigation map, telematic control unit, or their electronic control units (the onboard computers responsible for most of the car's operation).[20] In cars, the telematic control unit is in charge of downloading and installing updates,[4] and OTA updates are downloaded through cellular networks, like smartphones. Cars cannot be driven while an OTA update is being installed. Before an update, the car checks that the update is genuine, and after the update completes, it verifies the integrity of all affected systems.[20]OTA updates provide several benefits. In the past, Volkswagen had to recall 11 million vehicles to fix an issue with its cars' emissions control software, and other manufacturers have instituted recalls due to software bugs affecting the brakes, or the airbags, requiring all affected customers to travel to dealership to receive updates. OTA updates would have removed the need to go through dealerships, leading to lower warranty costs for manufacturers and lower downtime for customers. OTA updates also allow manufacturers to deploy potential new features and bug fixes more quickly, making their cars more competitive in the market, and resulting in an increased pace of product improvements for consumers. For example, OTA updates can deliver improvements to a car's driver assistance systems and improve the car's safety.[5]: 138–139 [20]However, OTA updates can also present a new attack vector for hackers, since security vulnerabilities in the update process could be used by hackers to remotely take control of cars. Hackers have discovered such vulnerabilities in the past, and many car manufacturers have responded by instituting vulnerability disclosure programs (a.k.a. bug bounty programs).[20][21] Attack vectors specific to OTA updates include \"spoofing, tampering, repudiation [attacks], information leakage, denial-of-service,\" replay attacks, and privilege escalation attacks. Example scenarios include a hacker successfully interrupting an ongoing update (deemed a \"flashing fail\"), which may corrupt the car's computer systems and make the car malfunction later on; another scenario is \"arbitrary flashings\", in which hackers trick the car into installing a malicious OTA update.[5]: 141–142","title":"Industries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wireless Sensor Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_Sensor_Networks"},{"link_name":"Internet of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_Things"},{"link_name":"802.15.4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.15.4"},{"link_name":"Zigbee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zigbee"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Sensor nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor_node"},{"link_name":"Libelium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libelium&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"firmware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Internet of things (IoT)","text":"More recently, with the new concepts of Wireless Sensor Networks and the Internet of Things (IoT), where the networks consist of hundreds or thousands of nodes, OTA is taken to a new direction: for the first time OTA is applied using unlicensed frequency bands (868 MHz, 900 MHz, 2400 MHz) and with low consumption and low data rate transmission using protocols such as 802.15.4 and Zigbee.[22]Sensor nodes are often located in places that are either remote or difficult to access. As an example, Libelium has implemented an OTA programming system for Zigbee WSN devices. This system enables firmware upgrades without the need of physical access, saving time and money if the nodes must be re-programmed.[23]","title":"Industries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"consumer electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics"},{"link_name":"cable modems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cable_modem"},{"link_name":"TFTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TFTP"},{"link_name":"IP address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"}],"sub_title":"Internet routers","text":"OTA is similar to firmware distribution methods used by other mass-produced consumer electronics, such as cable modems, which use TFTP as a way to remotely receive new programming, thus reducing the amount of time spent by both the owner and the user of the device on maintenance.Over-the-air provisioning (OTAP) is also available in wireless environments (though it is disabled by default for security reasons). It allows an access point (AP) to discover the IP address of its controller. When enabled, the controller tells the other APs to include additional information in the Radio Resource Management Packets (RRM) that would assist a new access point in learning of the controller. It is sent in plain text however, which would make it vulnerable to sniffing. That is why it is disabled by default.","title":"Industries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cellular network operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_network_operator"},{"link_name":"provision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisioning_(telecommunications)#Mobile_subscriber_provisioning"},{"link_name":"mobile station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_station"},{"link_name":"SIM card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIM_card"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Raghunandan2022-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Snyder2001-25"},{"link_name":"WAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_Application_Protocol"},{"link_name":"mobile web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_web"},{"link_name":"MMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_Messaging_Service"},{"link_name":"cellular data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_data_network"},{"link_name":"Access Point Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_Point_Name"},{"link_name":"mobile identification number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_identification_number"},{"link_name":"system ID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_identification_number"},{"link_name":"SIM card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIM_card"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Snyder2001-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brenner2008-26"},{"link_name":"WAP Forum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAP_Forum"},{"link_name":"Open Mobile Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Mobile_Alliance"},{"link_name":"OMA Client Provisioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMA_Client_Provisioning"},{"link_name":"OMA Device Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OMA_Device_Management"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brenner2008-26"}],"sub_title":"Cellular networks","text":"Over-the-air provisioning (OTAP) is a form of OTA update by which cellular network operators can remotely provision a mobile phone (termed a client or mobile station in industry parlance) and update the cellular network settings stored on its SIM card. This can occur at any time while a phone is turned on. The term over-the-air parameter administration (OTAPA) is synonymous.[24][25] OTA provisioning allows mobile phones to remain properly configured when cellular network operators make changes to their networks. It also configures phones with the settings required to access certain features, like WAP (an early incarnation of the mobile web), MMS messaging, and cellular data (which requires the configuration of an Access Point Name).The similar term over-the-air service provisioning (OTASP) specifically refers to the wireless initial provisioning (\"activation\") of a phone. During activation, a mobile phone is provisioned with parameters like its phone number, mobile identification number, and system ID, granting it initial access to the cellular network. OTASP is sometimes called over-the-air activation or over-the-air bootstrapping. The alternative to OTA bootstrapping is SIM bootstrapping, where the phone reads the network settings stored on a SIM card. SIM bootstrapping has limitations: settings stored on a SIM card may become stale between the time the SIM is manufactured and the time it is used; also, some phones (and other cellular client equipment) do not use SIM cards.[25][26]Various standards bodies have issued OTA provisioning standards. In 2001, the WAP Forum published the WAP Client Provisioning standard. After the Open Mobile Alliance subsumed the WAP Forum, this standard became known as OMA Client Provisioning (OMA CP). In OMA CP, phones are provisioned by \"invisible\" SMS messages sent by the cellular network, which contain the requisite settings. OMA CP was followed by a newer standard, OMA Device Management (OMA DM), which use a different form of SMS-based provisioning (called \"OMA Push\"). OMA DM sessions are always client-initiated. The \"invisible\" SMS does not contain configuration settings; instead, it tells the phone (the \"DM Client\") to connect to a DM Server (operated by the cellular network provider); once connected, the DM Server sends configuration commands to the client.[26]","title":"Industries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GSM 03.48","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM_03.48"}],"text":"There are a number of standards that describe OTA functions. One of the first was the GSM 03.48 series. The Zigbee suite of standards includes the Zigbee Over-the-Air Upgrading Cluster which is part of the Zigbee Smart Energy Profile and provides an interoperable (vendor-independent) way of updating device firmware.","title":"OTA standards"}]
[]
[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal_Clear_device_cdrom_unmount.png"},{"title":"Software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Software"},{"title":"Phone-as-Modem (PAM)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethering"},{"title":"Access Point Name (APN)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_Point_Name"}]
[{"reference":"White, Elecia (November 2011). Making Embedded Systems: Design Patterns for Great Software. \"O'Reilly Media, Inc.\". p. 197. ISBN 978-1-4493-0214-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bI8w17SyNdYC","url_text":"Making Embedded Systems: Design Patterns for Great Software"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4493-0214-6","url_text":"978-1-4493-0214-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of OTA\". PCMag. Retrieved 2023-04-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/ota","url_text":"\"Definition of OTA\""}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of Over The Air\". Gartner. Retrieved 2023-04-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gartner.com/en/information-technology/glossary/ota-over-the-air","url_text":"\"Definition of Over The Air\""}]},{"reference":"Kathiresh, M.; Neelaveni, R. (2021-04-24). Automotive Embedded Systems: Key Technologies, Innovations, and Applications. Springer Nature. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-3-030-59897-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PyMrEAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Automotive Embedded Systems: Key Technologies, Innovations, and Applications"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-59897-6","url_text":"978-3-030-59897-6"}]},{"reference":"Maglaras, Leandros; Kantzavelou, Ioanna (2021-10-14). Cybersecurity Issues in Emerging Technologies. CRC Press (Taylor & Francis). doi:10.1201/9781003109952. ISBN 9780367626174.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QiRAEAAAQBAJ","url_text":"Cybersecurity Issues in Emerging Technologies"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1201%2F9781003109952","url_text":"10.1201/9781003109952"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780367626174","url_text":"9780367626174"}]},{"reference":"Rayes, Ammar; Salam, Samer (2019). Internet of Things From Hype to Reality: The Road to Digitization. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-99516-8. ISBN 978-3-319-99515-1.","urls":[{"url":"http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-99516-8","url_text":"Internet of Things From Hype to Reality: The Road to Digitization"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-99516-8","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-319-99516-8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-99515-1","url_text":"978-3-319-99515-1"}]},{"reference":"\"What are OTA Updates?\". Mobility Connected. Retrieved 16 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://connectedmobility.co/what-are-ota-updates/","url_text":"\"What are OTA Updates?\""}]},{"reference":"Kachman, Ondrej; Balaz, Marcel (2016). \"Effective Over-the-Air Reprogramming for Low-Power Devices in Cyber-Physical Systems\". In Camarinha-Matos, Luis M.; Falcão, António J.; Vafaei, Nazanin; Najdi, Shirin (eds.). 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Ars Technica. Retrieved 2023-04-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/05/google-hopes-to-fix-android-updates-no-really-with-project-treble/","url_text":"\"Google's \"Project Treble\" solves one of Android's many update roadblocks\""}]},{"reference":"\"What is Android fragmentation, and can Google fix it?\". Android Authority. 5 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.androidauthority.com/android-fragmentation-google-fix-it-713210/","url_text":"\"What is Android fragmentation, and can Google fix it?\""}]},{"reference":"Nguyen-Vu, Long; Ahn, Jinung; Jung, Souhwan (1 November 2019). \"Android Fragmentation in Malware Detection\". 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Computer Networks. 178: 107343. doi:10.1016/j.comnet.2020.107343. ISSN 1389-1286.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1389128619314963","url_text":"\"Secure over-the-air software updates in connected vehicles: A survey\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.comnet.2020.107343","url_text":"10.1016/j.comnet.2020.107343"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1389-1286","url_text":"1389-1286"}]},{"reference":"Gitlin, Jonathan M. (11 January 2023). \"Hackers discover that vulnerabilities are rife in the auto industry\". Ars Technica.","urls":[{"url":"https://arstechnica.com/cars/2023/01/hackers-discover-that-vulnerabilities-are-rife-in-the-auto-industry/","url_text":"\"Hackers discover that vulnerabilities are rife in the auto industry\""}]},{"reference":"Gascón, David; Alberto Bielsa; Félix Genicio; Marcos Yarza (9 May 2011). \"Over the Air programming with 802.15.4 and ZigBee - OTA\". www.Libelium.com. Libelium. Retrieved 28 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.libelium.com/over_the_air_programming_OTA_802.15.4_ZigBee/","url_text":"\"Over the Air programming with 802.15.4 and ZigBee - OTA\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libelium&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Libelium"}]},{"reference":"\"Libelium.com 50 Sensor applications for a smarter world. Get inspired!\". www.Libelium.com. Libelium. 2 May 2012. Retrieved 28 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.libelium.com/50_sensor_applications","url_text":"\"Libelium.com 50 Sensor applications for a smarter world. Get inspired!\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Libelium&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Libelium"}]},{"reference":"Raghunandan, Krishnamurthy (April 1, 2022). Introduction to Wireless Communications and Networks: A Practical Perspective. Textbooks in Telecommunication Engineering (1st ed.). Springer Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92188-0. ISBN 978-3-030-92187-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-92188-0","url_text":"Introduction to Wireless Communications and Networks: A Practical Perspective"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-92188-0","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-030-92188-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-92187-3","url_text":"978-3-030-92187-3"}]},{"reference":"Snyder, Randall A.; Gallagher, Michael D. (2001-04-05). Wireless Telecommunications Networking with ANSI-41. McGraw Hill Professional. pp. 374–376. ISBN 978-0-07-138358-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CBENX_edL0MC","url_text":"Wireless Telecommunications Networking with ANSI-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-138358-5","url_text":"978-0-07-138358-5"}]},{"reference":"Brenner, Michael; Unmehopa, Musa (2008-02-28). The Open Mobile Alliance: Delivering Service Enablers for Next-Generation Applications. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 273–279. ISBN 978-0-470-51918-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-51918-9","url_text":"978-0-470-51918-9"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FR-4
FR-4
["1 Properties","2 Applications","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]
NEMA grade designation for glass-reinforced epoxy laminate material This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "FR-4" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) FR-4 (or FR4) is a NEMA grade designation for glass-reinforced epoxy laminate material. FR-4 is a composite material composed of woven fiberglass cloth with an epoxy resin binder that is flame resistant (self-extinguishing). "FR" stands for "flame retardant", and does not denote that the material complies with the standard UL94V-0 unless testing is performed to UL 94, Vertical Flame testing in Section 8 at a compliant lab. The designation FR-4 was created by NEMA in 1968. FR-4 glass epoxy is a popular and versatile high-pressure thermoset plastic laminate grade with good strength to weight ratios. With near zero water absorption, FR-4 is most commonly used as an electrical insulator possessing considerable mechanical strength. The material is known to retain its high mechanical values and electrical insulating qualities in both dry and humid conditions. These attributes, along with good fabrication characteristics, lend utility to this grade for a wide variety of electrical and mechanical applications. Grade designations for glass epoxy laminates are: G-10, G-11, FR-4, FR-5 and FR-6. Of these, FR-4 is the grade most widely in use today. G-10, the predecessor to FR-4, lacks FR-4's self-extinguishing flammability characteristics. Hence, FR-4 has since replaced G-10 in most applications. FR-4 epoxy resin systems typically employ bromine, a halogen, to facilitate flame-resistant properties in FR-4 glass epoxy laminates. Some applications where thermal destruction of the material is a desirable trait will still use G-10 non flame resistant. Properties Which materials fall into the "FR-4" category is defined in the NEMA LI 1-1998 standard. Typical physical and electrical properties of FR-4 are as follows. The abbreviations LW (lengthwise, warp yarn direction) and CW (crosswise, fill yarn direction) refer to the conventional perpendicular fiber orientations in the XY plane of the board (in-plane). In terms of Cartesian coordinates, lengthwise is along the x-axis, crosswise is along the y-axis, and the z-axis is referred to as the through-plane direction. The values shown below are an example of a certain manufacturer's material. Another manufacturer's material will usually have slightly different values. Checking the actual values, for any particular material, from the manufacturer's datasheet, can be very important, for example in high frequency applications. Parameter Value Specific gravity/density 1.850 g/cm3 (0.0668 lb/cu in) Water absorption −0.125 in < 0.10% Temperature index 140 °C (284 °F) Thermal conductivity, through-plane 0.29 W/(m·K), 0.343 W/(m·K) Thermal conductivity, in-plane 0.81 W/(m·K), 1.059 W/(m·K) Rockwell hardness 110 M scale Bond strength > 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) Flexural strength (A; 0.125 in) – LW > 415 MPa (60,200 psi) Flexural strength (A; 0.125 in) – CW > 345 MPa (50,000 psi) Dielectric breakdown (A) > 50 kV Dielectric breakdown (D48/50) > 50 kV Dielectric strength 20 MV/m Relative permittivity (A) 4.4 Relative permittivity (D24/23) 4.4 Dissipation factor (A) 0.017 Dissipation factor (D24/23) 0.018 Dielectric Constant (εr) 3.9 – 4.7, 4.4 @ 1 GHz (Supplier Isola) Loss Tangent (tanδ) 0.02 – 0.03, 0.030 @ 1 GHz Glass transition temperature Can vary, but is over 120 °C Young's modulus – LW 3.5×10^6 psi (24 GPa) Young's modulus – CW 3.0×10^6 psi (21 GPa) Coefficient of thermal expansion – x-axis 1.4×10−5 K−1 Coefficient of thermal expansion – y-axis 1.2×10−5 K−1 Coefficient of thermal expansion – z-axis 7.0×10−5 K−1 Poisson's ratio – LW 0.136 Poisson's ratio – CW 0.118 LW sound speed 3602 m/s CW sound speed 3369 m/s LW acoustic impedance 6.64 MRayl where: LW Lengthwise CW Crosswise PF Perpendicular to laminate face Applications FR-4 is a common material for printed circuit boards (PCBs). A thin layer of copper foil is typically laminated to one or both sides of an FR-4 glass epoxy panel. These are commonly referred to as copper clad laminates. The copper thickness or copper weight can vary and so is specified separately. FR-4 is also used in the construction of relays, switches, standoffs, busbars, washers, arc shields, transformers and screw terminal strips. See also FR-2 Polyimide G-10 (material) References ^ a b Azar, Kaveh; Graebner, John E. (1996). "Experimental determination of thermal conductivity of printed wiring boards". Twelfth Annual IEEE Semiconductor Thermal Measurement and Management Symposium. Proceedings. pp. 169–182. doi:10.1109/STHERM.1996.545107. ISBN 0-7803-3139-7. S2CID 110285100. ^ a b Sarvar, F.; Poole, N. J.; Witting, P. A. (1990). "PCB glass-fibre laminates: Thermal conductivity measurements and their effect on simulation". Journal of Electronic Materials. 19 (12): 1345–1350. Bibcode:1990JEMat..19.1345S. doi:10.1007/bf02662823. S2CID 95273262. ^ a b "Using Pre-Emphasis and Equalization with Stratix GX" (PDF). ALTERA Datasheet. Altera Corporation: 3. 2003. ^ a b "HF Transmission" (PDF). Atmel Corporation: 7. 2003. ^ "PCB Layout Guidelines for Designing with Avago SFP+Transceivers" (PDF). Avago Technologies: 2. 2005. Further reading Industrial Laminated Thermosetting Products. National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). 2012-02-01 . NEMA LI 1-1998 (R2011).
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NEMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Electrical_Manufacturers_Association"},{"link_name":"composite material","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material"},{"link_name":"fiberglass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiberglass"},{"link_name":"epoxy resin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxy_resin"},{"link_name":"flame resistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_resistant"},{"link_name":"UL94V-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UL_94"},{"link_name":"G-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G10_(material)"},{"link_name":"FR-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FR-5&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"FR-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FR-6&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"bromine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"FR-4 (or FR4) is a NEMA grade designation for glass-reinforced epoxy laminate material. FR-4 is a composite material composed of woven fiberglass cloth with an epoxy resin binder that is flame resistant (self-extinguishing).\"FR\" stands for \"flame retardant\", and does not denote that the material complies with the standard UL94V-0 unless testing is performed to UL 94, Vertical Flame testing in Section 8 at a compliant lab. The designation FR-4 was created by NEMA in 1968.FR-4 glass epoxy is a popular and versatile high-pressure thermoset plastic laminate grade with good strength to weight ratios. With near zero water absorption, FR-4 is most commonly used as an electrical insulator possessing considerable mechanical strength. The material is known to retain its high mechanical values and electrical insulating qualities in both dry and humid conditions. These attributes, along with good fabrication characteristics, lend utility to this grade for a wide variety of electrical and mechanical applications.Grade designations for glass epoxy laminates are: G-10, G-11, FR-4, FR-5 and FR-6. Of these, FR-4 is the grade most widely in use today. G-10, the predecessor to FR-4, lacks FR-4's self-extinguishing flammability characteristics. Hence, FR-4 has since[when?] replaced G-10 in most applications.FR-4 epoxy resin systems typically employ bromine, a halogen, to facilitate flame-resistant properties in FR-4 glass epoxy laminates. Some applications where thermal destruction of the material is a desirable trait[citation needed] will still use G-10 non flame resistant.","title":"FR-4"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cartesian coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_coordinates"},{"link_name":"high frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_frequency"}],"text":"Which materials fall into the \"FR-4\" category is defined in the NEMA LI 1-1998 standard. Typical physical and electrical properties of FR-4 are as follows. The abbreviations LW (lengthwise, warp yarn direction) and CW (crosswise, fill yarn direction) refer to the conventional perpendicular fiber orientations in the XY plane of the board (in-plane). In terms of Cartesian coordinates, lengthwise is along the x-axis, crosswise is along the y-axis, and the z-axis is referred to as the through-plane direction. The values shown below are an example of a certain manufacturer's material. Another manufacturer's material will usually have slightly different values. Checking the actual values, for any particular material, from the manufacturer's datasheet, can be very important, for example in high frequency applications.where:LW\nLengthwise\nCW\nCrosswise\nPF\nPerpendicular to laminate face","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"printed circuit boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board"},{"link_name":"copper foil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_foil"},{"link_name":"copper thickness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_thickness"},{"link_name":"copper weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_weight"},{"link_name":"relays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relay"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switch"},{"link_name":"standoffs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standoff_(separator)"},{"link_name":"busbars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busbar"},{"link_name":"washers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washer_(hardware)"},{"link_name":"arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_arc"},{"link_name":"transformers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer"},{"link_name":"screw terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screw_terminal"}],"text":"FR-4 is a common material for printed circuit boards (PCBs). A thin layer of copper foil is typically laminated to one or both sides of an FR-4 glass epoxy panel. These are commonly referred to as copper clad laminates. The copper thickness or copper weight can vary and so is specified separately.FR-4 is also used in the construction of relays, switches, standoffs, busbars, washers, arc shields, transformers and screw terminal strips.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Industrial Laminated Thermosetting Products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nema.org/Standards/Pages/Industrial-Laminated-Thermosetting-Products.aspx"},{"link_name":"National Electrical Manufacturers Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Electrical_Manufacturers_Association"}],"text":"Industrial Laminated Thermosetting Products. National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). 2012-02-01 [2011, 1998]. NEMA LI 1-1998 (R2011).","title":"Further reading"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Center_Virtual_Machine_Manager
System Center Virtual Machine Manager
["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]
System Center Virtual Machine ManagerDeveloper(s)MicrosoftStable release2022 UR2 (10.22.1711.0) / November 2023 Operating systemWindows Server 2016 and laterTypeHardware virtualizationLicenseTrialwareWebsitehttps://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/system-center/vmm/?view=sc-vmm-2022 Not to be confused with System Center Configuration Manager. System Center Virtual Machine Manager (SCVMM) forms part of Microsoft's System Center line of virtual machine management and reporting tools, alongside previously established tools such as System Center Operations Manager and System Center Configuration Manager. SCVMM is designed for management of large numbers of Virtual Servers based on Microsoft Virtual Server and Hyper-V, and was released for enterprise customers in October 2007. A standalone version for small and medium business customers is available. System Center Virtual Machine Manager enables increased physical server utilization by making possible simple and fast consolidation on virtual infrastructure. This is supported by consolidation candidate identification, fast Physical-to-Virtual (P2V) migration and intelligent workload placement based on performance data and user defined business policies (NOTE: P2V Migration capability was removed in SCVMM 2012r2). VMM enables rapid provisioning of new virtual machines by the administrator and end users using a self-service provisioning tool. Finally, VMM provides the central management console to manage all the building blocks of a virtualized data center. Microsoft System Center 2016 Virtual Machine Manager was released in September 2016. This product enables the deployment and management of a virtualized, software-defined datacenter with a comprehensive solution for networking, storage, computing, and security. Microsoft System Center 2019 Virtual Machine Manager was released in March 2019. It added features in the areas of Azure integration, computing, networking, security and storage. Microsoft System Center 2022 Virtual Machine Manager RTM was released in March 2022. It can manage hosts with Windows Server 2022, Windows 11, Azure Stack HCI clusters 21H2, and supports dual stack SDN deployment. Microsoft System Center 2022 Virtual Machine Manager UR1 was released on November 15, 2022. It added features in the areas of support for Azure Stack HCI clusters 22H2, SQL Server 2022, VMware ESXI 7.0, and 8.0. The latest release is Microsoft System Center 2022 Virtual Machine Manager UR2, which was released on November, 2023. It added features in the areas of support for VMware VMs with disk size greater than 2TB, Linux guest operating systems - Ubuntu Linux 22.04, Debian 11, Oracle Linux 8 and 9. See also Microsoft Servers Microsoft System Center System Center Data Protection Manager System Center Advisor References ^ Virtual Machine Manager FAQ External links Documentation for System Center Virtual Machine Manager 2008/2008 R2 (TechNet Library) Documentation for System Center Virtual Machine Manager 2012 (TechNet Library) Microsoft's Virtualization Strategy, circa February 2007 Blogs on System Center Virtual Machine Manager 2012 TechNet wiki articles on System Center Virtual Machine Manager 2012 vteVirtualization softwareComparison of platform virtualization softwareHardware(hypervisors)Native Adeos CP/CMS Hyper-V KVM oVirt KubeVirt LDoms / Oracle VM Server for SPARC Logical partition (LPAR) LynxSecure PikeOS Proxmox VE QNX SIMMON VMware ESXi VMware vSphere vCloud VMware Infrastructure Xen XenServer XCP-ng XtratuM z/VM HostedSpecialized Basilisk II Bochs Cooperative Linux DOSBox DOSEMU PCem 86Box PikeOS SheepShaver SIMH Windows on Windows Virtual DOS machine Win4Lin Independent bhyve Microsoft Virtual Server Parallels Workstation (Extreme) Parallels Desktop for Mac Parallels Server for Mac PearPC QEMU VirtualBox Virtual Iron Virtual PC VMware Fusion VMware Server VMware Workstation (Player) Tools Ganeti System Center Virtual Machine Manager Virt-manager OperatingsystemOS containers FreeBSD jail iCore Virtual Accounts Linux-VServer Linux Containers OpenVZ Solaris Containers Virtuozzo Workload Partitions Application containers Docker Podman lmctfy rkt Virtual kernel architectures Rump kernel User-mode Linux vkernel Related kernel features BrandZ cgroups chroot namespaces eBPF seccomp Orchestration Amazon ECS Kubernetes OpenShift Desktop Citrix Virtual Apps Citrix Virtual Desktops Remote Desktop Services VMware Horizon Application Ceedo Citrix Virtual Apps Dalvik InstallFree Microsoft App-V Remote Desktop Services Symantec Workspace Virtualization Turbo VMware ThinApp ZeroVM Network Distributed Overlay Virtual Ethernet (DOVE) Ethernet VPN (EVPN) NVGRE Open vSwitch Virtual security switch Virtual Extensible LAN (VXLAN) Generic Network Virtualization Encapsulation (GENEVE) See also BlueStacks See also: List of emulators, List of computer system emulators This article about software created, produced or developed by Microsoft is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Locked_Preinstallation
System Locked Pre-installation
["1 Details","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "System Locked Pre-installation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "System Locked Pre-installation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) System Locked Pre-installation, often abbreviated as SLP, also referred to as OEM Activation, is a procedure used by major OEM computer-manufacturers in order to pre-activate Microsoft Windows before mass distribution. Details SLP comes in eight different version which roughly coincide with versions of Windows NT. Operating systems that use SLP 1.0 check for a particular text-string in a computer's BIOS upon booting. If the text string does not match the information stored in the particular installation's OEM BIOS files, the system prompts the user to activate their copy as normal. SLP 2.0 to SLP 2.5 work in a similar manner. This effectively "locks" the operating system to the qualified motherboard. In addition, if an end-user feels the need to perform a "clean install" of Windows and if the manufacturer supplies the user with an installation disc (not a "System Recovery" disc that is a hard-drive image), the user will not be prompted to activate the copy, given that the installation is performed on the same motherboard. Furthermore, because the check only involves the BIOS and not hardware, a user is allowed to change virtually all hardware components within the machine except motherboard, a procedure that would normally trigger re-activation in retail copies of Windows. If the replacement board is the same brand and of the same broad vintage as the original, it will often be accepted by the OEM software. Manufacturers are generally only given a few SLP keys by Microsoft. A royalty has been paid by the manufacturer if the board has an SLP key. Each manufacturer is issued with their own modified copy of Windows XP or Windows 7 that recognizes their own unique keys. Windows 8 will install on any UEFI motherboard containing a valid encrypted Microsoft product key since a royalty has been prepaid. It is most probable that an individual OEM royalty is much less than the retail price of the same version of Windows. The product key sticker attached to OEM computers, prior to Windows 8, will not activate the copy of windows supplied with the machine. Only the SLP key can do that and the product key is never requested during activation. The purpose of the external sticker with a key is not known with certainty, but it is most likely a way for Microsoft to check that items for retail sale have had a full royalty paid by the OEM. SLP Versions Version Windows SLP (1.0) Windows XP, Windows Server 2003 SLP 2.0 Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008 SLP 2.1 Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2 SLP 2.2 Windows Server 2012 SLP 2.3 Windows Server 2012 R2 SLP 2.4 Windows Server 2016 SLP 2.5 Windows Server 2019 SLP 2.6 Windows Server 2022 SLP 3.0 Windows 8, Windows 8.1, Windows 10 SLP installations require a master product key issued by each OEM maker, which is unique to the specific edition of Windows, such as Home (XP), Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Ultimate, etc. This SLP key is different from the product key printed on the Certificate of Authenticity affixed to an OEM assembled PC; COA product key is used in cases when Windows license stored is invalidated for some reason and re-activation is required. On February 28, 2005, Microsoft attempted to reduce software piracy by invalidating COA keys for normal online activation and requiring phone activation, but this does not apply to SLP keys which can still be used for offline activation. If the product key used for activation is lost, then product key finders, readily available on the Internet, can decrypt the key from a local installation, however only SLP keys allow the user to avoid activation upon re-installation. In the SLP 2.x implementations, BIOS report the ACPI SLIC table to the operating system. However, since SLP 2.0 was introduced, hackers have been able to create modified bootloaders based on the bootloader GRUB4DOS; these are capable of emulating an SLP text string (such as one for Dell, Acer, and so on), so it appears to be present in the BIOS. This combined with an OEM certificate and OEM product key can instantly activate a Windows Vista/7 installation illegally but also be very hard to notice. This method can also be integrated into a Windows installation disk to activate on initial boot. Another method consists of modding the BIOS to insert the SLP 2.1-2.5 table, which can be used to replace blacklisted keys, or to add the SLP table to motherboards that do not have it (such as Gigabyte). Some brand-name computers such as Dell, already have the SLP table in their BIOS, which means that using software readily available on the Internet, a pirated retail installation can be converted to OEM, and the appropriate certificate installed into the OS, which results in Windows becoming genuine. Pirates refer to copies of Windows activated in this way as Pirated Genuine Microsoft Software. With SLP 3.0, OEM SLP keys are no longer used at all. Instead, a tool is used by the OEM to embed a unique key in each computer's BIOS, making consumer versions of Windows 8 and later very difficult to pirate using the SLP insertion technique. In the SLP 3.0 implementations, BIOS report the ACPI MSDM table to the operating system. Microsoft released the following generic product keys that users can enter to avoid product activation on any SLP-enabled computer using the corresponding version of Windows XP: (Please note that the following keys are not volume license keys (VLK). The installation source must also be SLP-enabled by the manufacturer. Microsoft has not publicly released an SLP key for Windows XP Home Edition, but the actual key from any SLP-activated installation of XP Home can be used on any other, regardless of brand. SLP-enabled installation CDs usually supply the needed key automatically, without the user having to enter one.) Generic product keys Product Name Product Key Windows XP Professional (32-bit) MVF4D-W774K-MC4VM-QY6XY-R38TB Windows XP Professional (64-bit) FM634-HJ3QK-6QVTY-RJY4R-XCR9J Windows XP Tablet PC Edition XT67V-GY7FW-GR6FR-WDK2C-8T97J Windows Server 2003 R2 Standard Edition x86 PWBJC-22697-D4CVH-FCJWW-DTF9J Windows Server 2003 R2 Standard Edition x64 XCP6P-7WVXP-F8FQ4-JV6CD-6XV28 Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition x86 XHPV3-PTCWJ-7Y94F-Q6BVH-J849J Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition x64 WQ3GW-Y8GQW-8VJYB-JYM43-D24C8 Windows Server 2003 R2 Datacenter Edition x86 FXYF6-VTXGX-3JPX9-HJ9K4-6TKTW Windows Server 2003 R2 Datacenter Edition x64 KDX8X-FYW4T-C6D9J-BKM6M-M89TW Windows Server 2003 R2 Web Edition x86 GM8KD-GB7JY-QGQYP-XRV74-RT728 Windows 8 46V6N-VCBYR-KT9KT-6Y4YF-QGJYH Windows 8 Professional V7C3N-3W6CM-PDKR2-KW8DQ-RJMRD Windows 8 N 7QNT4-HJDDR-T672J-FBFP4-2J8X9 Windows 8 Professional N 4NX4X-C98R3-KBR22-MGBWC-D667X Windows 8 Single Language (Emerging Markets) NH7GX-2BPDT-FDPBD-WD893-RJMQ4 Windows 10 Home 46J3N-RY6B3-BJFDY-VBFT9-V22HG Windows 10 Home N PGGM7-N77TC-KVR98-D82KJ-DGPHV Windows 10 Pro RHGJR-N7FVY-Q3B8F-KBQ6V-46YP4 Windows 10 Pro N RHGJR-N7FVY-Q3B8F-KBQ6V-46YP4 Windows 10 SL GH37Y-TNG7X-PP2TK-CMRMT-D3WV4 Windows 10 CHN SL 68WP7-N2JMW-B676K-WR24Q-9D7YC Note that generic keys for versions of Windows later than XP will install the operating system in trial mode, and will request a new key after the trial period is up. See also Windows Preinstallation Environment Windows 8.1 References ^ "Microsoft Closes Activation Loophole". www.betanews.com. 25 February 2005. ^ "Transferring Windows 7 OEM license to a new hard drive - Hacker's ramblings". blog.hqcodeshop.fi. ^ "Windows 8 to Feature New OEM Activation Method". 4 August 2012. External links http://support.microsoft.com/kb/899356/en-us https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd727762.aspx https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb457078.aspx https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/dd941645.aspx https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ff793421.aspx https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/jj612867.aspx
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OEM"},{"link_name":"pre-activate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_activation"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"}],"text":"System Locked Pre-installation, often abbreviated as SLP, also referred to as OEM Activation, is a procedure used by major OEM computer-manufacturers in order to pre-activate Microsoft Windows before mass distribution.","title":"System Locked Pre-installation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows NT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"booting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booting"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"software piracy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_infringement_of_software"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"BIOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS"},{"link_name":"GRUB4DOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRUB4DOS"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"volume license keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_license_key"}],"text":"SLP comes in eight different version which roughly coincide with versions of Windows NT.Operating systems that use SLP 1.0 check for a particular text-string in a computer's BIOS upon booting. If the text string does not match the information stored in the particular installation's OEM BIOS files, the system prompts the user to activate their copy as normal. SLP 2.0 to SLP 2.5 work in a similar manner. This effectively \"locks\" the operating system to the qualified motherboard. In addition, if an end-user feels the need to perform a \"clean install\" of Windows and if the manufacturer supplies the user with an installation disc (not a \"System Recovery\" disc that is a hard-drive image), the user will not be prompted to activate the copy, given that the installation is performed on the same motherboard. Furthermore, because the check only involves the BIOS and not hardware, a user is allowed to change virtually all hardware components within the machine except motherboard, a procedure that would normally trigger re-activation in retail copies of Windows. If the replacement board is the same brand and of the same broad vintage as the original, it will often be accepted by the OEM software. Manufacturers are generally only given a few SLP keys by Microsoft. A royalty has been paid by the manufacturer if the board has an SLP key. Each manufacturer is issued with their own modified copy of Windows XP or Windows 7 that recognizes their own unique keys. Windows 8 will install on any UEFI motherboard containing a valid encrypted Microsoft product key since a royalty has been prepaid. It is most probable that an individual OEM royalty is much less than the retail price of the same version of Windows.The product key sticker attached to OEM computers, prior to Windows 8, will not activate the copy of windows supplied with the machine. Only the SLP key can do that and the product key is never requested during activation. The purpose of the external sticker with a key is not known with certainty, but it is most likely a way for Microsoft to check that items for retail sale have had a full royalty paid by the OEM.SLP installations require a master product key issued by each OEM maker, which is unique to the specific edition of Windows, such as Home (XP), Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, Ultimate, etc. This SLP key is different from the product key printed on the Certificate of Authenticity affixed to an OEM assembled PC; COA product key is used in cases when Windows license stored is invalidated for some reason and re-activation is required. On February 28, 2005,[1] Microsoft attempted to reduce software piracy by invalidating COA keys for normal online activation and requiring phone activation, but this does not apply to SLP keys which can still be used for offline activation. If the product key used for activation is lost, then product key finders, readily available on the Internet, can decrypt the key from a local installation, however only SLP keys allow the user to avoid activation upon re-installation. [2]In the SLP 2.x implementations, BIOS report the ACPI SLIC table to the operating system.However, since SLP 2.0 was introduced, hackers have been able to create modified bootloaders based on the bootloader GRUB4DOS; these are capable of emulating an SLP text string (such as one for Dell, Acer, and so on), so it appears to be present in the BIOS. This combined with an OEM certificate and OEM product key can instantly activate a Windows Vista/7 installation illegally but also be very hard to notice. This method can also be integrated into a Windows installation disk to activate on initial boot.Another method consists of modding the BIOS to insert the SLP 2.1-2.5 table, which can be used to replace blacklisted keys, or to add the SLP table to motherboards that do not have it (such as Gigabyte). Some brand-name computers such as Dell, already have the SLP table in their BIOS, which means that using software readily available on the Internet, a pirated retail installation can be converted to OEM, and the appropriate certificate installed into the OS, which results in Windows becoming genuine. Pirates refer to copies of Windows activated in this way as Pirated Genuine Microsoft Software.With SLP 3.0, OEM SLP keys are no longer used at all. Instead, a tool is used by the OEM to embed a unique key in each computer's BIOS, making consumer versions of Windows 8 and later very difficult to pirate using the SLP insertion technique. [3] In the SLP 3.0 implementations, BIOS report the ACPI MSDM table to the operating system.Microsoft released the following generic product keys that users can enter to avoid product activation on any SLP-enabled computer using the corresponding version of Windows XP:\n(Please note that the following keys are not volume license keys (VLK). The installation source must also be SLP-enabled by the manufacturer. Microsoft has not publicly released an SLP key for Windows XP Home Edition, but the actual key from any SLP-activated installation of XP Home can be used on any other, regardless of brand. SLP-enabled installation CDs usually supply the needed key automatically, without the user having to enter one.)Note that generic keys for versions of Windows later than XP will install the operating system in trial mode, and will request a new key after the trial period is up.","title":"Details"}]
[]
[{"title":"Windows Preinstallation Environment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Preinstallation_Environment"},{"title":"Windows 8.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_8.1"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_Manager_(HP_LX)
System Manager (HP LX)
["1 Overview","2 Flaws","3 See also","4 References"]
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "System Manager" HP LX – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) HP LX System ManagerThe Application Manager for the HP LX seriesDeveloper(s)Hewlett-PackardOperating systemDOSPlatformHP LX-series Palmtop computersTypeGUILicenseCommercial proprietary software The HP LX System Manager is the application manager and GUI for HP LX-series Palmtop computers. Overview HP LX System Manager running on a HP 200LX. The App Manager page is made up of 2 rows of 8 icons, with an additional shorter row on the next page down by default. (More applications can be added as the user wishes.) The menu bar options that are available can be opened (on a HP 200LX) by using the Menu key or the Alt key. These include task management, booting out of the GUI into DOS and opening help for the palmtop. Flaws One of the major flaws in the System Manager is its limited icon space in Application Manager. You can put only 32 icons there. You can delete some default icons to get space but some are undeletable. Another item of interest that some people have referred to as a flaw is that the HEXCALC built-in application is missing from the System Manager by default. To add the program to the list, it is necessary to manually add an entry with the following fields: Name: He&x Calc Path: D:\BIN\HEXCALC.EXM. See also HP 200LX References ^ Goyvaerts, Jan. "MCbx". Retrieved 1 August 2013. vteHewlett-Packard HP Inc. Hewlett Packard Enterprise Founders Bill Hewlett David Packard Directors Marc Andreessen Mohamed M. Atalla Shumeet Banerji Raj Gupta Raymond J. Lane Ann Livermore Gary M. Reiner Patricia F. Russo (Chairwoman) Jim Skinner Executive officers Meg Whitman Todd Bradley Dave Donatelli Martin Fink Henry Gomez John Hinshaw Marty Homlish George Kadifa Tracy Keogh Cathie Lesjak Mike Nefkens Antonio Neri John F. Schultz Bill Veghte Computer hardware productsHPEServers BladeSystem Integrity Superdome ProLiant NonStop Storage HPE Storage HPE XP HPE 3PAR HP Inc.Business laptops ProBook EliteBook ZBook Business desktops ProDesk EliteDesk Z workstations Consumer PCs OmniBook Pavilion Spectre ENVY OMEN Stream HP Chromebox Essential laptops Consumer electronicsand accessories Aruba Networks Calculators Teradici HyperX Plantronics Photography and printing Deskjet LaserJet Scitex Photosmart Other divisions Colorado Memory Systems Indigo Digital Press Scitex Systems Insight Manager HPE Networking Software HyperSpace OS HP-UX HP Data Protector NonStop OS NonStop SQL DiscontinuedproductsCompaq line HP Compaq HP Compaq Elite TC Presario Evo iPAQ AlphaServer Software Domain/OS LightScribe MPE OpenVMS (sold) HP QuickPlay Tru64 UNIX WebOS (sold) Services HP Cloud HP CloudSystem HPE Helion Hardware Jornada OmniGo iPod+HP VoodooPC TouchPad Internet Advisor Vectra Brio Mini Slate TouchSmart Sprout NetServer Kayak Closed divisions VoodooPC ProCurve Sold: Palm Snapfish HP CEOs List of HP executives Co-founders Bill Hewlett and David Packard John A. Young Lewis E. Platt Carly Fiorina Mark Hurd Léo Apotheker Meg Whitman Assets HP Garage HP Labs HP Atalla See also Acquisitions HP spying scandal HP Inc. assets Products Mission: SPACE Steve Wozniak This microcomputer- or microprocessor-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This operating-system-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_administrator
System administrator
["1 Related fields","2 Training","3 Skills","4 Duties","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
Person who maintains and operates a computer system or computer network For the privileged user account, see Superuser. System administratorTwo system administrators performing a system testOccupationNamesIT administrator, IT professional, System administrator, systems administrator, sysadmin,Occupation typeProfessionActivity sectorsInformation technologyDescriptionCompetenciesSystem administration, network management, analytical skills, thinkingEducation requiredVaries from self study, certifications, and sometimes an Associate or Bachelor's degree in a related field. Business administration Management of a business Accounting Management accounting Financial accounting Audit Business entity (list) Corporate group Corporation sole Conglomerate (company) Holding company Cooperative Corporation Joint-stock company Limited liability company Partnership Privately held company Sole proprietorship State-owned enterprise Corporate governance Annual general meeting Board of directors Supervisory board Advisory board Audit committee Corporate law Commercial law Constitutional documents Contract Corporate crime Corporate liability Insolvency law International trade law Mergers and acquisitions Corporate title Chairman Chief business officer/Chief brand officer Chief executive officer/Chief operating officer Chief financial officer Chief human resources officer Chief information officer/Chief marketing officer Chief product officer/Chief technology officer Economics Commodity Public economics Labour economics Development economics International economics Mixed economy Planned economy Econometrics Environmental economics Open economy Market economy Knowledge economy Microeconomics Macroeconomics Economic development Economic statistics Finance Financial statement Insurance Factoring Cash conversion cycle Insider dealing Capital budgeting Commercial bank Derivative Financial statement analysis Financial risk Public finance Corporate finance Managerial finance International finance Liquidation Stock market Financial market Tax Financial institution Capital management Venture capital Types of management Asset Brand Business intelligence Business development Capacity Capability Change innovation Commercial Marketing Communications Configuration Conflict Content Customer relationship Distributed Earned value Electronic business Enterprise resource planning  management information system Financial Human resource  development Incident Knowledge Legal Materials Network administrator Office Operations  services Performance Power Problem Process Product life-cycle Product Project Property Quality Records Resource Risk  crisis Sales Security Service Strategic Supply chain Systems administrator Talent Technology Organization Architecture Behavior Communication Culture Conflict Development Engineering Hierarchy Patterns Space Structure Trade Business analysis Business ethics Business plan Business judgment rule Consumer behaviour Business operations International business Business model International trade Trade route Business process Business statistics Business and economics portalvte An IT administrator, system administrator, sysadmin, or admin is a person who is responsible for the upkeep, configuration, and reliable operation of computer systems, especially multi-user computers, such as servers. The system administrator seeks to ensure that the uptime, performance, resources, and security of the computers they manage meet the needs of the users, without exceeding a set budget when doing so. To meet these needs, a system administrator may acquire, install, or upgrade computer components and software; provide routine automation; maintain security policies; troubleshoot; train or supervise staff; or offer technical support for projects. Related fields Many organizations staff offer jobs related to system administration. In a larger company, these may all be separate positions within a computer support or Information Services (IS) department. In a smaller group they may be shared by a few sysadmins, or even a single person. A database administrator (DBA) maintains a database system, and is responsible for the integrity of the data and the efficiency and performance of the system. A network administrator maintains network infrastructure such as switches and routers, and diagnoses problems with these or with the behavior of network-attached computers. A security administrator is a specialist in computer and network security, including the administration of security devices such as firewalls, as well as consulting on general security measures. A web administrator maintains web server services (such as Apache or IIS) that allow for internal or external access to web sites. Tasks include managing multiple sites, administering security, and configuring necessary components and software. Responsibilities may also include software change management. A computer operator performs routine maintenance and upkeep, such as changing backup tapes or replacing failed drives in a redundant array of independent disks (RAID). Such tasks usually require physical presence in the room with the computer, and while less skilled than sysadmin tasks, may require a similar level of trust, since the operator has access to possibly sensitive data. An SRE Site Reliability Engineer - takes a software engineering or programmatic approach to managing systems. Training Training at a system administration conference Most employers require a bachelor's degree in a related field, such as computer science, information technology, electronics engineering, or computer engineering. Some schools also offer undergraduate degrees and graduate programs in system administration. In addition, because of the practical nature of system administration and the easy availability of open-source server software, many system administrators enter the field self-taught. Generally, a prospective employee will be required to have experience with the computer systems they are expected to manage. In most cases, candidates are expected to possess industry certifications such as the Microsoft MCSA, MCSE, MCITP, Red Hat RHCE, Novell CNA, CNE, Cisco CCNA or CompTIA's A+ or Network+, Sun Certified SCNA, Linux Professional Institute, Linux Foundation Certified Engineer or Linux Foundation Certified System Administrator, among others. Sometimes, almost exclusively in smaller sites, the role of system administrator may be given to a skilled user in addition to or in replacement of their duties. Skills Some of this section is from the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010–11 Edition, which is in the public domain as a work of the United States government. The subject matter of system administration includes computer systems and the ways people use them in an organization. This entails a knowledge of operating systems and applications, as well as hardware and software troubleshooting, but also knowledge of the purposes for which people in the organization use the computers. Perhaps the most important skill for a system administrator is problem solving—frequently under various sorts of constraints and stress. The sysadmin is on call when a computer system goes down or malfunctions, and must be able to quickly and correctly diagnose what is wrong and how best to fix it. They may also need to have teamwork and communication skills; as well as being able to install and configure hardware and software. Sysadmins must understand the behavior of software in order to deploy it and to troubleshoot problems, and generally know several programming languages used for scripting or automation of routine tasks. A typical sysadmin's role is not to design or write new application software but when they are responsible for automating system or application configuration with various configuration management tools, the lines somewhat blur. Depending on the sysadmin's role and skillset they may be expected to understand equivalent key/core concepts a software engineer understands. That said, system administrators are not software engineers or developers, in the job title sense. Particularly when dealing with Internet-facing or business-critical systems, a sysadmin must have a strong grasp of computer security. This includes not merely deploying software patches, but also preventing break-ins and other security problems with preventive measures. In some organizations, computer security administration is a separate role responsible for overall security and the upkeep of firewalls and intrusion detection systems, but all sysadmins are generally responsible for the security of computer systems. Duties A system administrator's responsibilities might include: Analyzing system logs and identifying potential issues with computer systems. Applying operating system updates, patches, and configuration changes. Installing and configuring new hardware and software. Adding, removing, or updating user account information, resetting passwords, etc. Answering technical queries and assisting users. Responsibility for security. Responsibility for documenting the configuration of the system. Troubleshooting any reported problems. System performance tuning. Ensuring that the network infrastructure is up and running. Configuring, adding, and deleting file systems. Ensuring parity between dev, test and production environments. Training users Plan and manage the machine room environment In larger organizations, some of the tasks above may be divided among different system administrators or members of different organizational groups. For example, a dedicated individual(s) may apply all system upgrades, a Quality Assurance (QA) team may perform testing and validation, and one or more technical writers may be responsible for all technical documentation written for a company. System administrators, in larger organizations, tend not to be systems architects, systems engineers, or systems designers. In smaller organizations, the system administrator might also act as technical support, database administrator, network administrator, storage (SAN) administrator or application analyst. See also Application service management Bastard Operator From Hell (BOFH) DevOps Forum administrator Information technology operations League of Professional System Administrators LISA (organization) Orchestration (computing) Professional certification (computer technology) Superuser Sysop System Administrator Appreciation Day References  This article incorporates public domain material from Occupational Outlook Handbook (2010-11 ed.). Bureau of Labor Statistics. ^ "Network and Computer Systems Administrators: Occupational Outlook Handbook: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics". U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved 12 April 2018. ^ Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine ^ B.S. Information Technology | Computer Science. Cs.unh.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-17. ^ . Nssa.rit.edu (4 January 2013). Retrieved on 2013-07-17. ^ . mtu.edu. Retrieved on 2014-10-21, ^ FSU Computer Science - Masters Degree Computer Network and System Administration. Cs.fsu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-17. ^ "Explore Full Catalog". Further reading Essential Linux Administration: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners, by Chuck Easttom (Cengage Press, 2011) Essential System Administration (O'Reilly), 3rd Edition, 2001, by Æleen Frisch The Practice of System and Network Administration (Addison-Wesley), 2nd Edition 5 Jul. 2007, by Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christine Hogan and Strata R. Chalup The Practice of System and Network Administration Volume 1: DevOps and other Best Practices for Enterprise IT (Addison-Wesley), 3rd Edition. 4 Nov. 2016, by Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christine Hogan, Strata R. Chalup The Practice of Cloud System Administration: Designing and Operating Large Distributed Systems, Volume 2 (Addison-Wesley), 2 Sep. 2014, by Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christine Hogan, Strata R. Chalup Principles of Network and System Administration (J. Wiley & Sons), 2000, 2003 (2nd ed.), by Mark Burgess Time Management for System Administrators (O'Reilly), 2005, by Thomas A. Limoncelli UNIX and Linux System Administration Handbook (Prentice Hall), 5th edition, 8 Aug. 2017, by Trent R. Hein, Ben Whaley, Dan Mackin, Sandeep Negi "The blue collar workers of the 21st century", Minnesota Public Radio, 27 January 2004 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to System administrators. Look up sysadmin in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Communication Workers of America
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The system administrator seeks to ensure that the uptime, performance, resources, and security of the computers they manage meet the needs of the users, without exceeding a set budget when doing so.To meet these needs, a system administrator may acquire, install, or upgrade computer components and software; provide routine automation; maintain security policies; troubleshoot; train or supervise staff; or offer technical support for projects.","title":"System administrator"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"database administrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_administrator"},{"link_name":"database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"network administrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_administrator"},{"link_name":"switches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch"},{"link_name":"routers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_router"},{"link_name":"security administrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"web administrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_administrator"},{"link_name":"Apache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server"},{"link_name":"IIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Information_Services"},{"link_name":"computer operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_operator"},{"link_name":"redundant array of independent disks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAID"},{"link_name":"SRE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Site_Reliability_Engineering"}],"text":"Many organizations staff offer jobs related to system administration. In a larger company, these may all be separate positions within a computer support or Information Services (IS) department. In a smaller group they may be shared by a few sysadmins, or even a single person.A database administrator (DBA) maintains a database system, and is responsible for the integrity of the data and the efficiency and performance of the system.\nA network administrator maintains network infrastructure such as switches and routers, and diagnoses problems with these or with the behavior of network-attached computers.\nA security administrator is a specialist in computer and network security, including the administration of security devices such as firewalls, as well as consulting on general security measures.\nA web administrator maintains web server services (such as Apache or IIS) that allow for internal or external access to web sites. Tasks include managing multiple sites, administering security, and configuring necessary components and software. Responsibilities may also include software change management.\nA computer operator performs routine maintenance and upkeep, such as changing backup tapes or replacing failed drives in a redundant array of independent disks (RAID). Such tasks usually require physical presence in the room with the computer, and while less skilled than sysadmin tasks, may require a similar level of trust, since the operator has access to possibly sensitive data.\nAn SRE Site Reliability Engineer - takes a software engineering or programmatic approach to managing systems.","title":"Related fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:System_Administration_Conference_Training.jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"electronics engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics_engineering"},{"link_name":"computer engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"open-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"MCSA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Certified_Systems_Administrator"},{"link_name":"MCSE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCSE"},{"link_name":"MCITP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MCITP"},{"link_name":"RHCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Certified_Engineer"},{"link_name":"CNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Novell_Administrator"},{"link_name":"CNE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Novell_Engineer"},{"link_name":"CCNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CCNA"},{"link_name":"CompTIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CompTIA"},{"link_name":"A+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%2B_certification"},{"link_name":"Network+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network%2B"},{"link_name":"Sun Certified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Certified"},{"link_name":"SCNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Certified_Network_Administrator"},{"link_name":"Linux Professional Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Professional_Institute"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Training at a system administration conferenceMost employers[1] require a bachelor's degree in a related field, such as computer science, information technology, electronics engineering, or computer engineering. Some schools also offer undergraduate degrees and graduate programs in system administration.[2][3][4][5][6]In addition, because of the practical nature of system administration and the easy availability of open-source server software, many system administrators enter the field self-taught.Generally, a prospective employee will be required to have experience with the computer systems they are expected to manage. In most cases, candidates are expected to possess industry certifications such as the Microsoft MCSA, MCSE, MCITP, Red Hat RHCE, Novell CNA, CNE, Cisco CCNA or CompTIA's A+ or Network+, Sun Certified SCNA, Linux Professional Institute, Linux Foundation Certified Engineer or Linux Foundation Certified System Administrator,[7] among others.Sometimes, almost exclusively in smaller sites, the role of system administrator may be given to a skilled user in addition to or in replacement of their duties.","title":"Training"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Occupational Outlook Handbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/network-and-computer-systems-administrators.htm"},{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"work of the United States government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_of_the_United_States_government"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"applications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_application"},{"link_name":"troubleshooting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubleshooting"},{"link_name":"problem solving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"scripting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_Language"},{"link_name":"software engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineer"},{"link_name":"developers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"computer security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"firewalls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)"},{"link_name":"intrusion detection systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusion_detection_system"}],"text":"Some of this section is from the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010–11 Edition, which is in the public domain as a work of the United States government.The subject matter of system administration includes computer systems and the ways people use them in an organization. This entails a knowledge of operating systems and applications, as well as hardware and software troubleshooting, but also knowledge of the purposes for which people in the organization use the computers.Perhaps the most important skill for a system administrator is problem solving—frequently under various sorts of constraints and stress. The sysadmin is on call when a computer system goes down or malfunctions, and must be able to quickly and correctly diagnose what is wrong and how best to fix it. They may also need to have teamwork and communication skills; as well as being able to install and configure hardware and software.Sysadmins must understand the behavior of software in order to deploy it and to troubleshoot problems, and generally know several programming languages used for scripting or automation of routine tasks. A typical sysadmin's role is not to design or write new application software but when they are responsible for automating system or application configuration with various configuration management tools, the lines somewhat blur. Depending on the sysadmin's role and skillset they may be expected to understand equivalent key/core concepts a software engineer understands. That said, system administrators are not software engineers or developers, in the job title sense.Particularly when dealing with Internet-facing or business-critical systems, a sysadmin must have a strong grasp of computer security. This includes not merely deploying software patches, but also preventing break-ins and other security problems with preventive measures. In some organizations, computer security administration is a separate role responsible for overall security and the upkeep of firewalls and intrusion detection systems, but all sysadmins are generally responsible for the security of computer systems.","title":"Skills"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"system logs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_logging"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_software"},{"link_name":"user account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_account"},{"link_name":"passwords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password"},{"link_name":"security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security"},{"link_name":"documenting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentation"},{"link_name":"Troubleshooting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troubleshooting"},{"link_name":"performance tuning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_tuning"},{"link_name":"Quality Assurance (QA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_control"},{"link_name":"technical writers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_writer"},{"link_name":"systems architects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_architect"},{"link_name":"systems engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_engineering"},{"link_name":"systems designers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_design"},{"link_name":"database administrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_administrator"},{"link_name":"application analyst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_analyst"}],"text":"A system administrator's responsibilities might include:Analyzing system logs and identifying potential issues with computer systems.\nApplying operating system updates, patches, and configuration changes.\nInstalling and configuring new hardware and software.\nAdding, removing, or updating user account information, resetting passwords, etc.\nAnswering technical queries and assisting users.\nResponsibility for security.\nResponsibility for documenting the configuration of the system.\nTroubleshooting any reported problems.\nSystem performance tuning.\nEnsuring that the network infrastructure is up and running.\nConfiguring, adding, and deleting file systems.\nEnsuring parity between dev, test and production environments.\nTraining users\nPlan and manage the machine room environmentIn larger organizations, some of the tasks above may be divided among different system administrators or members of different organizational groups. For example, a dedicated individual(s) may apply all system upgrades, a Quality Assurance (QA) team may perform testing and validation, and one or more technical writers may be responsible for all technical documentation written for a company. System administrators, in larger organizations, tend not to be systems architects, systems engineers, or systems designers.In smaller organizations, the system administrator might also act as technical support, database administrator, network administrator, storage (SAN) administrator or application analyst.","title":"Duties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chuck Easttom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Easttom"},{"link_name":"Æleen Frisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%C3%86leen_Frisch&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Thomas A. Limoncelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Limoncelli"},{"link_name":"Christine Hogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Hogan"},{"link_name":"Strata R. Chalup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strata_R._Chalup&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Thomas A. Limoncelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Limoncelli"},{"link_name":"Christine Hogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Hogan"},{"link_name":"Strata R. Chalup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strata_R._Chalup&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Thomas A. Limoncelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Limoncelli"},{"link_name":"Christine Hogan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Hogan"},{"link_name":"Strata R. Chalup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Strata_R._Chalup&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mark Burgess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Burgess_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Thomas A. Limoncelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Limoncelli"},{"link_name":"Trent R. Hein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trent_R._Hein&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Ben Whaley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Whaley"},{"link_name":"Dan Mackin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dan_Mackin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Sandeep Negi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandeep_Negi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"\"The blue collar workers of the 21st century\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//news.minnesota.publicradio.org/features/2004/01/26_horwichj_unionstechies/"}],"text":"Essential Linux Administration: A Comprehensive Guide for Beginners, by Chuck Easttom (Cengage Press, 2011)\nEssential System Administration (O'Reilly), 3rd Edition, 2001, by Æleen Frisch\nThe Practice of System and Network Administration (Addison-Wesley), 2nd Edition 5 Jul. 2007, by Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christine Hogan and Strata R. Chalup\nThe Practice of System and Network Administration Volume 1: DevOps and other Best Practices for Enterprise IT (Addison-Wesley), 3rd Edition. 4 Nov. 2016, by Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christine Hogan, Strata R. Chalup\nThe Practice of Cloud System Administration: Designing and Operating Large Distributed Systems, Volume 2 (Addison-Wesley), 2 Sep. 2014, by Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christine Hogan, Strata R. Chalup\nPrinciples of Network and System Administration (J. Wiley & Sons), 2000, 2003 (2nd ed.), by Mark Burgess\nTime Management for System Administrators (O'Reilly), 2005, by Thomas A. Limoncelli\nUNIX and Linux System Administration Handbook (Prentice Hall), 5th edition, 8 Aug. 2017, by Trent R. Hein, Ben Whaley, Dan Mackin, Sandeep Negi\n\"The blue collar workers of the 21st century\", Minnesota Public Radio, 27 January 2004","title":"Further reading"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systime_Computers_Ltd
Systime Computers
["1 Origins of company","2 Period of rapidly increasing growth","3 New facility and changes of management","4 Legal actions filed by DEC","5 Charges of violating export control restrictions","6 Further decline and initiatives in software","7 Dissolution of company and legacy","8 References","9 External links"]
British computer manufacturer Systime Computers LtdIndustryComputer hardware, systems integration, computer softwareFoundedOctober 1973; 50 years ago (1973-10)FounderJohn GowDefunctJune 1989; 35 years ago (1989-06)Fateacquired by Control Data Corporation in April 1985;half of subsidiary acquired by Digital Equipment Corporation in February 1986;remaining parts of subsidiary broken up in June 1989HeadquartersLeeds, England, United KingdomKey peopleJohn Gow (managing director)John Parkinson (board chair)Ian Fallows (technical directorIan McNeill (technical director)ProductsSystime 1000, 3000, 5000Systime 8750, 8780SystelSeries 2, 3PC-ConnectRevenue£60 million (ca. 1984)Number of employees1,370 (1983) Systime Computers Ltd was a British computer manufacturer and systems integrator of the 1970s and 1980s. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, Systime became the second-largest British manufacturer of computers, specializing in the minicomputer market. The company was based in Leeds, England, and founded in 1973. Its success was based on selling systems built around OEM components from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), and it grew to have over 1,300 employees with turnover peaking around £60 million. Systime was unusual among systems integrators in that it actually manufactured the hardware it sold to customers. A portion of Systime was purchased in 1983 by Control Data Corporation and the company's founder departed. Systime Computers then went through a period of sharp decline, in part due to lawsuits from DEC for intellectual property infringement, and even more so due to charges of violating Cold War-era U.S. export restrictions regarding indirect sales to Eastern Bloc countries. In 1985, what was left of Systime was fully acquired by Control Data Corporation, and a year later the DEC-related services part of that subsidiary was bought by DEC. Systime then focused on selling products built by its own engineers. The Systime–Control Data arrangement did not prosper, and in 1989 Control Data split Systime into four companies, each sold to a management buyout. Origins of company John Gow was a mechanical engineering graduate of the University of Leeds who had gone into computer programming and then became a software support manager at a Lancashire office of the British subsidiary of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). He also did some hardware sales work and realised that few of the customers to whom he was selling actually understood the capabilities of the computers they were buying. In 1972, Gow, then 27 years old, and three others set up a partnership on their own, labouring in Gow's bungalow workshop. Systime Computers Ltd was created the following year, being incorporated in October 1973. Gow and the three others moved their work into the canteen of an abandoned mill in Leeds. Due to inadequate capitalisation – £2,800, in a field in which the minicomputers they would be selling cost £60,000 each – the new company had a shaky start and came close to going under right away. The key turning point was engaging with Leeds-based jukebox firm Musichire, which had purchased a computer from DEC but were struggling with it. Systime came in on a consulting basis and sold Musichire both software and new hardware. John Parkinson, financial director of Musichire, was sufficiently impressed with Gow's sales abilities that, in 1974, Musichire took a financial stake in Systime. Parkinson subsequently became chair of the board of directors of Systime. Period of rapidly increasing growth The initial Systime facility was in former mills off Dewsbury Road in the Beeston area of Leeds (a couple of blocks further left of what is seen here in 2007) Gow emphasized that Systime would provide not just hardware but also software applications, systems engineering, and support. By 1975, Systime had £2.75 million in turnover and profits of £300,000 and was already opening offices and subsidiaries overseas. Musichire's stake in the company impeded the company's ability to grow. Gow engaged with financiers but did not like them and did not want to accept investment from either the Industrial and Commercial Finance Corporation or from merchant banks, fearing they would demand too much control of the company's direction. However, in 1977 Gow arranged for investment firm Ivory and Sime to buy out Musichire's share. Around the same time, the National Enterprise Board (NEB) convinced Gow to sign up with them; they invested £500,000 in Systime in return for a 26 per cent stake in the young firm (which would in time grow to near 30 per cent.) The NEB also facilitated the participation of Systime in a new marketing effort in an NEB subsidiary known as Insac Data Systems, which would promote exports of British technology products. Systime's business model was selling products centred around computers originally built by DEC in the United States. They would take actual DEC components and put them together with items such as power supplies and storage cables that they built themselves or obtained from other industry sources. To this base of equipment, Systime added peripherals and software from other vendors and then added some of its own application software. This allowed Systime to provide full solutions to growing customers, such as Gordon Spice Cash and Carry, that were first embracing computerised line-of-business systems during the 1970s. Accordingly, the Systime product lines were based around the minicomputers they produced, the most popular of which were the Systime 1000, Systime 3000, and Systime 5000, all based on different models of the DEC 16-bit PDP-11 minicomputer (roughly, the PDP-11/04, /60, and /34 respectively). The PDP-11-based Systime systems would typically run the DEC's RSTS/E operating system. These systems had many kinds of users; for instance, a botany group at the University of Reading used a Systime 5000. Systime's use of the PDP-11 coincided with an upsurge in the popularity of that model within the computer-using community, one that DEC had not fully anticipated, leading to wait times up to three years for systems or components. As a result, Systime began manufacturing its own DEC-compatible memory boards and storage devices. Later, the Systime 8000 series came out, which were based upon the DEC 32-bit VAX-11 supermini. The 8000 series had names that indicated the DEC model they were derived from, so the Systime 8750 was equivalent to the VAX-11/750 and the Systime 8780 was equivalent to the VAX-11/780. The Systime 8000 series systems could run DEC's VMS operating system, but many of them were instead running one variant or another of Unix. This was another successful product; by the mid-1980s around one-third of all VAXen in the United Kingdom were Systime-based systems. A pure software product was Systel, the Systime Teleprocessing System, which acted as a transaction processing system with data dictionary-based programming assist features. As such it was a competitor to products such as TAPS from Informatics General on the PDP-11, but in 1980–81 Systime saw an opening on the VAX-11 where there were no rival teleprocessing monitors yet. Systel development was half-funded by the Insac arrangement and that entity received royalties on Systel sales. Systime had some success with Systel in the United Kingdom and Holland and made a push to sell it in the United States as well. Ian Fallows was technical director of the company during the 1970s. Systime was rapidly hiring not just hardware engineers but also software engineers to work on operating systems, controllers, and telecommunications and networking components. In 1980, Systime had turnover of £24.6 million and a profit of £1.6 million. Those figures increased to £32.1 million and £2.2 million in 1981, respectively. By then, Systime had some 1,150 employees and eleven offices around the United Kingdom. Systime was one of four companies short-listed for the Institute of Directors's annual Business Enterprise Award for 1981. It was an unusual case of a British company succeeding in making minicomputers, a market dominated by American firms. Despite its successes and fast growth, Systime was little known to the general public. New facility and changes of management Princess Anne officially opened Systime's new £20 million facility on 27 June 1983. Founder and managing director John Gow is alongside her. In September 1981, Gow announced an ambitious three-year, £46 million expansion plan for Systime, including the building of a second large facility in Leeds, with some of the funding to come from the European Investment Bank and various government grants. The second facility was to enter the microcomputer business for small businesses and, in a first for Systime, would not rely upon DEC components. This reflected that Systime was in the process of manufacturing not just minicomputers but also desktop systems, as well as terminals and printers, most of which were targeted to the Western European market. Systime also ran a service bureau, that offered the creation of application software and that sold maintenance contracts on a third-party basis. In all, Systime's plans anticipated a doubling of its employee count. By 1983, Systime was considered, as The Times wrote, "one of the largest and fastest-growing British computer companies". It was the second largest computer manufacturer based in Britain, behind only the mainframe-oriented International Computers Limited (ICL). Ian McNeill was technical director of the company during this period. In addition, Systime was considered an exemplar of new industrial potential in Northern England, and the company was often visited by government ministers as a result. However, the switch from the National Enterprise Board to the successor British Technology Group (BTG) left Systime with uncertain funding while it was in the process of its big expansion; as Gow subsequently said, "we were sailing along and suddenly started to get really tight on cash. We'd outgrown our resources." Gow had previously considered organising a flotation but now did not have time to do so, so he sought investments from other British companies, but they all wanted to stage a full acquisition. In particular, there were meetings in January 1983 with two large British technology companies, Ferranti and Standard Telephones and Cables (STC), that did not achieve fruition. Instead, in March 1983, it was announced that Control Data Corporation was buying 38 per cent of Systime for £8 million, with another 25 per cent to be controlled by Ivory and Sime. At the same time, BTG reduced its investment down to 12 per cent. The two companies had had existing business dealings, as Systime bought many Control Data peripheral devices to include in its full systems. The recapitalisation of Systime was completed in June 1983. At this point, Parkinson departed as chair of Systime and retired from the industry altogether for a while. The new facility, built for £20 million in a nearby area of Beeston, Leeds, had begun operations in October 1982, with computer production taking place there. The facility was formally opened on 27 June 1983 by Princess Anne. The large building featured what one newspaper termed "a distinctive reflective glass front"; more popularly it became known as the "Glass Palace". Systime sponsored a Tyrrell 012 racing car during the 1984 Formula One World Championship season (here seen at a 2012 Silverstone Classic event) At its peak, Systime had some 1,370 employees and turnover of £60 million. Systime was growing at a 30 per cent annual rate during the early-mid 1980s and the strain on its finances was considerable. Systime attempted to gain a greater public visibility during this period. They became shirt sponsor for Leeds United F.C. for the 1983–84 season, only the second such sponsor in the club's history, and they sponsored a Tyrrell 012 car during the 1984 Formula One World Championship season, with drivers such as Stefan Bellof, Mike Thackwell, and Stefan Johansson. Relations between Gow and Control Data management did not work out, with the two parties clashing on fundamental decisions. Accordingly, Gow departed Systime in December 1983. He was replaced as managing director by Rod Attwooll, formerly head of the UK division of Texas Instruments. Gow subsequently started his own firm, WGK Electronics, hoping to succeed in largely untapped third-world markets. Legal actions filed by DEC In putting together such PDP-11- and VAX-based systems, Systime was inevitably a rival of DEC UK, Digital's United Kingdom subsidiary, which sought to sell those systems themselves. Indeed, Systime had discovered in 1979 that it could acquire the same components for 25 per cent less in the United States than it could through DEC UK, and it filed anti-trust action in the United States to force DEC to sell it components at American prices. In 1983, DEC UK sued Systime, claiming that Systime was engaging in practices that violated the license for the VAX/VMS operating system. The lawsuit was settled later in 1983 via Systime making a $5.5 million payment to DEC. Then in June 1984, DEC sued Systime in the High Court of Justice, saying it had found evidence that Systime, in its layouts and connection schematics for the manufacture of seven different printed-circuit boards for VAX-associated disk drives and controllers, had infringed upon DEC copyrights. The claimed violations had taken place prior to 1983. The suit asked for £5 million in damages and came after a year of negotiations between the two companies had been unable to arrive at an out-of-court agreement. In July 1985, Systime counterfiled in the European Common Market, claiming that DEC's filing represented an attempted act of unfair competition in trying to limit Systime's ability to compete with DEC in the Western European market. The counterfiling also alleged that DEC had in fact infringed upon Systime's copyrights in the printed circuit board matter. Charges of violating export control restrictions Eastern Bloc countries looked for a way to get Western computers across the Iron Curtain In the early-mid-1980s Systime Computers ran afoul of the Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM), which regulated what goods and technologies Western countries could sell to countries within the Eastern Bloc. British and other European companies protested that many of the computer components prohibited by COCOM were widely available in Asian markets anyway, but the regulations remained in effect. So in order to sell computers outside Britain, Systime not only had to obtain an export license from the Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom), but because American products were involved due to the DEC components in Systime computers, it had to obtain an export license from the United States Department of Commerce. In 1982, Systime voluntarily acknowledged that it had sold some systems to Eastern Bloc countries without that necessary US export license and agreed to pay a fine to the Department of Commerce. However, lawyers for DEC UK pressed further with more serious charges, saying that Systime had not disclosed that it had shipped 400 DEC-based minicomputers, disguised as jukeboxes, to Switzerland that were in fact then headed for the Eastern Bloc. Thus, Systime came under investigation by the United States Department of Commerce for irregularities in the export of computers from the United Kingdom during the 1980–83 period. In particular, while Systime was not accused of directly trading with the Soviet Union, it was said to have traded with non-aligned countries, including Switzerland, Libya, Syria, Zimbabwe, Pakistan, India, and Malaysia, without having the requisite US export license. Systime denied that its actions were in violation of any British law. Some British officials felt that the export regulations were partly an effort to prevent British firms from gaining a foothold in the burgeoning computer market. In particular, Member of Parliament Michael Meadowcroft, representing the Leeds West constituency, tried to get the British government to intercede against the American action. The directors of Systime said that the export accusation was an underhanded way of those envious of the company's successes to target it. Indeed, they alleged, and MP Meadowcroft related in an address to the House of Commons, that DEC had created a "Kill Systime" campaign. Elements of this campaign, by this telling, included hiring of private detectives, surveillance of employees, burglary, bribery, destruction of documents, and spreading of false rumours. In any case, some of these allegations had been made at the time of the January 1983 meeting between Systime and Ferranti and STC, and these claims played a role in preventing a British-based financial rescue of Systime at the time. The US action against Systime would involve a $400,000 fine against it, to be accompanied by a prohibition against the company using American goods. This had a devastating effect upon Systime, in particular as corporate investors were no longer willing to put monies into the company. Some 1,000 jobs were lost at the Leeds factory, leaving around only 200 employees remaining. Systime directors would put the overall cost to capital and profits at £110 million. As author George E. Shambaugh relates, "By 1985, in the aftermath of U.S. sanctions, the company was virtually destroyed." A search by Systime for additional sources of UK funding having failed, in April 1985, Control Data Corporation acquired the balance of Systime that it did not already own. The purchase was also seen as a defensive measure against the still-ongoing U.S. Commerce Department investigation. Then in February 1986, DEC bought 50 per cent of the Systime subsidiary from Control Data (which itself was experiencing financial struggles), taking over the Customer Services Division and all the services contracts for DEC hardware. That division had 250 employees and sales and field service contracts representing some 2,500 user accounts. As part of the deal, DEC dropped its £5 million copyright infringement lawsuit against Systime regarding the printed-circuit memory boards. The DEC deal took away Systime's most lucrative business. MP Meadowcroft protested the action, accusing DEC of having "improperly colonized" Systime. In addition, during 1986 the Systel transaction processing monitor product was split off into the new firm Performance Software Ltd, via a management buyout. As author Kevin Cahill wrote, Systime had become "dismembered". By 21 April 1986, Systime's tale was the lead story on the front page of The Guardian newspaper. The directors of Systime filed an action with the European Commission saying that the US actions were a breach of European Union laws protecting free trade among member nations, but the damage was done. The British government did eventually file a protest against the United States based on the allegation that the latter had used the Central Intelligence Agency to illicitly gain information about British companies. However the British government did not intercede in any way that forestalled the damage done to Systime, and Meadowcroft's efforts had come to naught. The US–UK trade issues were by no means limited to Systime; smaller firms that could not afford the bureaucratic approval process of an export license were affected, as were much larger enterprises such as IBM and Toshiba. An investigation in 1985 conducted by Datamation magazine showed that there was an extensive grey market for computers, especially DEC equipment such as the VAX-11, and that Systime was but one of several sources for such products. Despite COCOM-based efforts to curtail such trade with the Eastern Bloc, it only grew more vigorous. The whole matter generated considerable debate during the second Thatcher ministry and a February 1987 editorial from The Guardian, one that mentioned Systime, emphasized the broader importance of the issue and criticised the prime minister for failing to fully take a stand against the Americans on behalf of British technology interests. A September 1987 account in the New Scientist also mentioned Systime as the worst hit and criticised COCOM as being antiquated. The exports control issue was not the only factor that led to the collapse of Systime. Primary among the other causes was the company engaging in an overly aggressive expansion without having sufficient funding in place for it. Nevertheless, the role of the exports issue was critical. Further decline and initiatives in software During 1986, with business in rapid decline and the company having lost £3.4 million the previous year, Systime moved to a smaller facility in the Leeds Business Park off Bruntcliffe Lane in the Morley area of Leeds. The "glass palace", officially opened just two and half years prior, was put up for sale. (An April 1988 piece in The Times pointed to Systime as a cautionary tale in seeing trends of economic rebirth in the North.) Now, what remained of Systime – "a mere shadow of its former self", as Computergram International described it – decided to focus on Unix-based initiatives among its hardware and software offerings. During 1987, Systime announced its Series 3 computers, based on the Intel 80386 and running flavours of Unix, as well as an OEM agreement with Computer Consoles Inc. to resell that company's Power632S line of Intel-based systems. These joined the Intel-based Series 2 systems that Systime also offered. In addition, Systime forged an OEM agreement with Altos Computer Systems for that company's 80386-based Series 2000 systems, to further complement the Intel product line at different price points and numbers of supported users. Finally, Systime also formed an agreement with Parallel Computers, Inc. to resell that US-based company's fault-tolerant systems. In terms of software offerings, Systime tried to ease migration for DEC PDP-11 users by offering its own Trans-Basic translator, which converted the BASIC programming language from a dialect used on RSTS to one used on Unix. A similar tool allowed users of the COBOL programming language on ICL or Wang Laboratories systems to migrate to Unix-based compilation and deployment. As 1987 became 1988, Systime announced a strategic direction that embraced innovation in software over in-house production of hardware systems. Primary among these was a new product line called Visionware, the first piece of which was PC-Connect, which was in part a terminal emulator for Microsoft Windows that was composed of implementation elements that ran on both Unix and Windows, and supported cut-and-paste between Windows, graphical Unix-based X Window, and Unix character mode applications. PC-Connect was a released product from Systime by 1987, and was further emphasized in 1988. It found early customer use among Systime partners Altos Computer and Computer Consoles, as well as at the UK government's Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency and Manpower Services Commission. Ongoing work on the X Window aspects of it was done in collaboration with Cambridge-based IXI Limited. Several other Windows–Unix connectivity products were also under development as part of the Visionware line. Dissolution of company and legacy White Rose Office Park in Leeds (here seen in 2014) grew out of what once was the Systime Computers facility in the Beeston area of Leeds On 2 June 1989, as Computergram International wrote, "Control Data Corp finally got shot of its troublesome UK Systime Ltd business ... and the solution for the once-substantial Leeds systems integrator is dismemberment by management buy-out." Four separate companies were formed from what had been Systime; the largest of these was Computer Service Technology Ltd, which gained the support and distribution rights for the rebadged Altos Computer Systems and Computer Consoles systems. The other three were Visionware Ltd, which gained the rights to PC-Connect and the Visionware technologies; Manufacturing Solutions Group Ltd, which gained the Sysimp Unix package for manufacturing control; and Streetwise Ltd, which gained Unix-based software for the back-office side for retail point-of-sale systems. Some venture capital monies were involved in support of the management buyouts. In addition, two financial packaged products were sold to other companies within Leeds. Computer Service Technology carried on in Leeds into the mid-1990s, with activities such as becoming a UK distributor for Wyse Technology as well as, under the names CST Distribution and CST Group Ltd, continuing to sell what were now known as Acer Altos systems. After a 1996 merger CST became part of Sphinx CST, which in turn in 2010 became part of Arrow ECS. Visionware succeeded to the point where it was acquired by the Santa Cruz Operation in 1994. It later become part of Tarantella, Inc., which was then acquired by Sun Microsystems and subsequently became part of the Oracle Secure Global Desktop. Noted British entrepreneur Peter Wilkinson, who later co-founded Planet Online and a number of other Internet-related firms, began his career at Systime. Many of his later efforts were based in Leeds and included former Systime employees. Control Data kept the Systime UK name after the breakup, and that name was listed on subsequent company reports although essentially inactive. The last paper vestige of Systime Computers Ltd was not formally removed from the books at Companies House until 2015. However, the Systime name was kept alive in a different venue. Systime had started a branch company in India in 1979 to do outsourcing work; this Indian entity was then acquired as a wholly owned subsidiary by the India-based CMS Group in 1984, during the time of turbulence for Systime UK. Doing business under the name Systime, and with essentially the same logo as Systime UK had had, this firm became substantial in size and a power in the global software projects field with offices around the world. It continued under the name and in the IT services business until it was acquired by KPIT Cummins in 2011; it kept the Systime name for a couple more years as a subsidiary; during 2014, the name effectively went out of use. The Systime "Glass Palace" was bought and refurbished as the Arlington Business Centre, opened in 1988, and eventually became part of the White Rose Office Park. Leeds Industrial Museum (part of Leeds Museums & Galleries) holds examples of Systime computers in its collections, and an example was displayed in its exhibition Leeds to Innovation in 2019. References ^ a b "Investment and Finance: Systime Set for China Deal". The Times. London. 5 April 1983. p. 15 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Fagan, Mary (24 September 1987). "Who will tear the Silicon Curtain?". New Scientist. pp. 28–29. ^ a b c d e f Blakstad, Michael (1979). The Risk Business: Industry and the Designers. Design Council. pp. 134–138. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Burnham, Nigel (14 February 1984). "John Gow comes back with an eye on the third world". The Times. London. p. 25 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b "Systime Computers Limited: Company number 01137518". Companies House. Retrieved 1 May 2020. ^ a b c d e f g h Large, Peter (11 September 1981). "Micro maker doubles up". The Guardian. London. p. 15 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b c Lamb, John (1982). "Design". Design. p. 88. ^ a b "Ex-Chairman of Systime dies in hospital after a short illness". Ian and Margaret McNeill. 28 November 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ Owen, Kenneth (19 October 1977). "Insac export scheme gets underway". The Times. London. p. 20 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b c d e f g h Shambaugh, George E. (1999). States, Firms, and Power: Successful Sanctions in United States Foreign Policy. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 130–131. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Brown, Paul (21 April 1986). "CIA policing British computer firms". The Guardian. London. pp. 1, 32 – via Newspapers.com. ^ K.O. (16 September 1976). "Tailer-made packages open way to much larger market". The Times. London. p. Office Efficiency: Computing: III special section – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b c International Directory of Software. CUYB Publications. 1980. pp. 47, 912, 1102. ISBN 978-0-902908-11-6. ^ "Systime RSTS/E Pocket Guide". Centre for Computing History. Retrieved 4 May 2020. ^ "Vacancies: University of Reading". New Scientist. 12 December 1985. p. 68. ^ a b Kewney, Guy (29 November 2008). "What if computers went back to the '70s too?". The Register. ^ a b "Informatics Annual Report 1984-85". Alvey Programme. Retrieved 4 May 2020. ^ Herries, David G. (1984). "The computerized derivation of steady-state rate equations for enzyme kinetics". Biochemical Journal. 223 (2): 551–553. doi:10.1042/bj2230551. PMC 1144331. PMID 6497862. ^ a b c d Bicknell, David (3 February 1986). "DEC buys into CDC affiliate". Computerworld. p. 13. ^ a b c Manchester, Phil (15 June 1981). "UK OEM Poised to Invade U.S. With First TP Monitor for VAX". Computerworld. pp. 95, 96. See also follow-up letter to the editor about this article, Computerworld 13 July 1981. ^ a b "Mini-micro Systems". Mini-micro Systems. 1981. p. 103. ^ a b "More staff taken on by Systime". Computer Weekly. 15 June 1978. ^ "Systime's analysis". The Times. London. 18 November 1981. p. 17 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b c d e Schroeder, Jim (8 July 1985). "CDC's Systime Ltd. sues DEC in EEC". Electronic News. p. 1 – via Gale General OneFile. ^ a b c Cookson, Clive (1 March 1983). "£8m for a share in Systime". The Times. London. p. 20 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b Hill, George (26 April 1988). "Bacon, eggs and a toast to enterprise". The Times. London. p. 14 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ Large, Peter (16 February 1984). "Workaholic comes back for a fix". The Guardian. London. p. 22 – via Newspapers.com. ^ Jones, Charles (1986). Computer Handbook: Businessman's Guide to Choosing and Using Computer Systems. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan. p. 346. ^ a b c d "30 years at White Rose Park Office Park". White Rose Office Park. January 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2020. ^ "Court Circular". The Times. London. 28 June 1983. p. 12 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b c "A £13 million new role for Systime building". ... 15 January 1988. ^ Sour, John (5 December 2018). "Touring the Outer Ring Road". The Culture Vulture. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "Dr Tony Denson". Centre for Science and Policy, University of Cambridge. Retrieved 27 January 2020. ^ a b c d e "Systime sets 80386 S-series box, 100-user Unix System". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 1 February 1987. ^ a b c d "CDC moves on Systime". The Guardian. London. 13 April 1985. p. 17 – via Newspapers.com. ^ "Leeds United Badges". WAFLL. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ "Tyrrell-Ford 012 "Systime"". Scalemates. Retrieved 3 May 2020. ^ Blunsden, John (1 August 1984). "Thackwell for Tyrrell". The Times. London. p. 21 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b "News in Brief". The Guardian. London. 14 December 1983. p. 15 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b "News in Perspective". Datamation. 1990. p. 55. ^ a b "... Herculean proportion". Hardcopy. 1985. ^ "This year in review: Booked-to-billed blues". Electronic News. 9 December 1985. p. S38ff – via Gale General OneFile. ^ a b c d e f g Cahill, Kevin (1986). Trade Wars: The High-technology Scandal of the 1980's. London: W. H. Allen. pp. 177–178. ^ a b c d "British firms to fight American blacklisting". New Scientist. 24 September 1987. p. 29. ^ a b c "Member of British Parliament Accuses DEC of Improprieties". InfoWorld. 10 March 1986. p. 20. ^ "New release of Systime's Systel VAX transaction monitor from Performance Software". Computergram International. 10 November 1989 – via Gale General OneFile. ^ Brown, Paul (28 November 1986). "Computer protest to US not made public". The Guardian. London. p. 2 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b Hebditch, D.; Anning, N. (15 June 1985). "Soviet Sting Sours". Datamation. pp. 34–36 – via Gale General OneFile. ^ "The long arm of trade law". The Guardian. London. 18 February 1987. p. 10 – via Newspapers.com. Editorial. ^ Key British Enterprises 1992: Britain's Top 50,000 Companies Volume 4 S–Z. B & B. 1992. p. 437. ISBN 9780900625725. ^ "The Times Diary". The Times. London. 26 November 1985. p. 16 – via Gale Primary Sources. ^ a b "Systime woos DEC PDP-11 users with 80386, console boxes". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 23 April 1987. ^ a b "Systime UKP3m OEM Pact with Altos". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 11 October 1987. ^ a b c d e f "CDC's Systime Wins Altos, Computer Consoles for its PC-Connect MS-DOS-to-Unix Link". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 24 July 1988. ^ a b "Practical Computing". Practical Computing. November 1988. pp. 95–96. ^ a b "System spin-out Visionware launches". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 12 June 1989. ^ a b c d e f "CDC's Systime self-destructs into four buy-outs". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 4 June 1989. ^ "Minigrams: CGI06290027". Computergram International. 29 June 1993 – via Gale General OneFile. ^ "CST reports booming sales with its Acer Altos distribution business". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 15 May 1993. ^ Marsh, Ian (20 December 1996). "Lynx combines Sphinx and CST". CRN Channelweb. ^ "Arrow ECS acquires Sphinx Group". MicroScope. Computer Weekly. 21 June 2010. ^ Perez, Steve (13 December 1994). "SCO acquires Visionware". Santa Cruz Sentinel. p. B-4 – via Newspapers.com. ^ a b Cassy, John (22 June 2000). "Entrepreneur with more than ee, bah gum". The Guardian. London. ^ "Form 10-K Control Data Systems Inc". SEC Edgar Filing Tracker. 24 March 1994. Retrieved 2 May 2020. ^ a b "Cost-effective business solutions". Indian Retailer. November 2007. ^ "Systime: Redefining the Business Paradigm". Systime. Archived from the original on 12 February 2002. ^ "KPIT Cummins to acquire Systime Global Solutions". The Economic Times. 15 June 2011. ^ Compare this January 2014 capture from the Internet Archive, where systime.net is an active site identified as for Systime, a KPIT Cummins Company, to this July 2014 capture, where that URL is being redirected to kpit.com and there is no visible mention of the Systime name on that page or its menu-reachable subpages. ^ Hutchinson, Andrew (9 May 2020). "Retro computer from firm which sponsored Leeds United makes exhibition's online reboot easy". Yorkshire Evening Post. ^ "Leeds to innovation online". Leeds City Council. 11 May 2020. External links Grace's Guide entry on Systime Computers Images of Systime Computers Exchange concerning Systime Computers between MP Michael Meadowcroft (Leeds, West) and Minister for Information Technology Geoffrey Pattie in the House of Commons, 25 February 1986 Systime alumni site
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer manufacturer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"systems integrator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_integrator"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-china-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"minicomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"Leeds, England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds,_England"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Control Data Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"U.S. export restrictions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Export_Administration_Regulations"},{"link_name":"Eastern Bloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc"},{"link_name":"management buyout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_buyout"}],"text":"British computer manufacturerSystime Computers Ltd was a British computer manufacturer and systems integrator of the 1970s and 1980s. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, Systime became the second-largest British manufacturer of computers,[1][2] specializing in the minicomputer market.The company was based in Leeds, England, and founded in 1973. Its success was based on selling systems built around OEM components from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), and it grew to have over 1,300 employees with turnover peaking around £60 million. \nSystime was unusual among systems integrators in that it actually manufactured the hardware it sold to customers.A portion of Systime was purchased in 1983 by Control Data Corporation and the company's founder departed. Systime Computers then went through a period of sharp decline, in part due to lawsuits from DEC for intellectual property infringement, and even more so due to charges of violating Cold War-era U.S. export restrictions regarding indirect sales to Eastern Bloc countries.In 1985, what was left of Systime was fully acquired by Control Data Corporation, and a year later the DEC-related services part of that subsidiary was bought by DEC. Systime then focused on selling products built by its own engineers. The Systime–Control Data arrangement did not prosper, and in 1989 Control Data split Systime into four companies, each sold to a management buyout.","title":"Systime Computers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Leeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Leeds"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-risk-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-risk-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ch-listing-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-design-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-risk-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-risk-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcneill-8"}],"text":"John Gow was a mechanical engineering graduate of the University of Leeds who had gone into computer programming and then became a software support manager at a Lancashire office of the British subsidiary of Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC).[3][4] He also did some hardware sales work and realised that few of the customers to whom he was selling actually understood the capabilities of the computers they were buying.[3] In 1972, Gow, then 27 years old, and three others set up a partnership on their own, labouring in Gow's bungalow workshop.[4]Systime Computers Ltd was created the following year,[4] being incorporated in October 1973.[5] Gow and the three others moved their work into the canteen of an abandoned mill in Leeds.[6][4][7]Due to inadequate capitalisation – £2,800, in a field in which the minicomputers they would be selling cost £60,000 each – the new company had a shaky start and came close to going under right away.[3] The key turning point was engaging with Leeds-based jukebox firm Musichire, which had purchased a computer from DEC but were struggling with it. Systime came in on a consulting basis and sold Musichire both software and new hardware.[3] John Parkinson, financial director of Musichire, was sufficiently impressed with Gow's sales abilities that, in 1974, Musichire took a financial stake in Systime.[4] Parkinson subsequently became chair of the board of directors of Systime.[8]","title":"Origins of company"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ring_Road_-_Beeston_Park_-_geograph.org.uk_-_560491.jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"Industrial and Commercial Finance Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_and_Commercial_Finance_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-risk-3"},{"link_name":"Ivory and Sime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_and_Sime"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"National Enterprise Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Enterprise_Board"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-risk-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"Insac Data Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Insac_Data_Systems&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-design-7"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"Gordon Spice Cash and Carry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Spice_Cash_and_Carry"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"PDP-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idir-936-13"},{"link_name":"RSTS/E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSTS/E"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"University of Reading","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Reading"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-systime-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-systime-16"},{"link_name":"VAX-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idir-936-13"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c8750-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"VMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenVMS"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c8750-17"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dec-1986-19"},{"link_name":"transaction processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_processing"},{"link_name":"data dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dictionary"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idir-936-13"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-systel-1981-20"},{"link_name":"TAPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatics_General#TAPS_Division"},{"link_name":"Informatics General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informatics_General"},{"link_name":"PDP-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11"},{"link_name":"VAX-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX-11"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-m-taps-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-systel-1981-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-m-m-taps-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cw-systel-1981-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cweekly-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cweekly-22"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"Institute of Directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Directors"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-design-7"}],"text":"The initial Systime facility was in former mills off Dewsbury Road in the Beeston area of Leeds (a couple of blocks further left of what is seen here in 2007)Gow emphasized that Systime would provide not just hardware but also software applications, systems engineering, and support.[4] By 1975, Systime had £2.75 million in turnover and profits of £300,000 and was already opening offices and subsidiaries overseas.[4]Musichire's stake in the company impeded the company's ability to grow.[4] Gow engaged with financiers but did not like them and did not want to accept investment from either the Industrial and Commercial Finance Corporation or from merchant banks, fearing they would demand too much control of the company's direction.[3]\nHowever, in 1977 Gow arranged for investment firm Ivory and Sime to buy out Musichire's share.[4] Around the same time,\nthe National Enterprise Board (NEB) convinced Gow to sign up with them;[3] they invested £500,000 in Systime in return for a 26 per cent stake in the young firm (which would in time grow to near 30 per cent.)[6] The NEB also facilitated the participation of Systime in a new marketing effort in an NEB subsidiary known as Insac Data Systems, which would promote exports of British technology products.[9]Systime's business model was selling products centred around computers originally built by DEC in the United States.[10] They would take actual DEC components and put them together with items such as power supplies and storage cables that they built themselves or obtained from other industry sources.[7] To this base of equipment, Systime added peripherals and software from other vendors and then added some of its own application software.[11] This allowed Systime to provide full solutions to growing customers, such as Gordon Spice Cash and Carry, that were first embracing computerised line-of-business systems during the 1970s.[12]Accordingly, the Systime product lines were based around the minicomputers they produced, the most popular of which were the Systime 1000, Systime 3000, and Systime 5000, all based on different models of the DEC 16-bit PDP-11 minicomputer (roughly, the PDP-11/04, /60, and /34 respectively).[13] The PDP-11-based Systime systems would typically run the DEC's RSTS/E operating system.[14] These systems had many kinds of users; for instance, a botany group at the University of Reading used a Systime 5000.[15]Systime's use of the PDP-11 coincided with an upsurge in the popularity of that model within the computer-using community, one that DEC had not fully anticipated, leading to wait times up to three years for systems or components.[16] As a result, Systime began manufacturing its own DEC-compatible memory boards and storage devices.[16]Later, the Systime 8000 series came out, which were based upon the DEC 32-bit VAX-11 supermini.[13] The 8000 series had names that indicated the DEC model they were derived from, so the Systime 8750 was equivalent to the VAX-11/750 and the Systime 8780 was equivalent to the VAX-11/780.[17][18] The Systime 8000 series systems could run DEC's VMS operating system, but many of them were instead running one variant or another of Unix.[17] This was another successful product; by the mid-1980s around one-third of all VAXen in the United Kingdom were Systime-based systems.[19]A pure software product was Systel, the Systime Teleprocessing System, which acted as a transaction processing system with data dictionary-based programming assist features.[13][20] As such it was a competitor to products such as TAPS from Informatics General on the PDP-11, but in 1980–81 Systime saw an opening on the VAX-11 where there were no rival teleprocessing monitors yet.[21][20] Systel development was half-funded by the Insac arrangement and that entity received royalties on Systel sales.[21] Systime had some success with Systel in the United Kingdom and Holland and made a push to sell it in the United States as well.[20]Ian Fallows was technical director of the company during the 1970s.[22] Systime was rapidly hiring not just hardware engineers but also software engineers to work on operating systems, controllers, and telecommunications and networking components.[22]In 1980, Systime had turnover of £24.6 million and a profit of £1.6 million.[6] Those figures increased to £32.1 million and £2.2 million in 1981, respectively.[4] By then, Systime had some 1,150 employees and eleven offices around the United Kingdom.[6] Systime was one of four companies short-listed for the Institute of Directors's annual Business Enterprise Award for 1981.[23] It was an unusual case of a British company succeeding in making minicomputers, a market dominated by American firms.[6] Despite its successes and fast growth, Systime was little known to the general public.[7]","title":"Period of rapidly increasing growth"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HRH_Princess_Anne_opens_Systime_Computers_Ltd_new_facility_in_June_1983.jpg"},{"link_name":"European Investment Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Investment_Bank"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"microcomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcomputer"},{"link_name":"small businesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_business"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-en-1985-24"},{"link_name":"service bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_bureau"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-en-1985-24"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1981-6"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1983-25"},{"link_name":"International Computers Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Computers_Limited"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-china-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcneill-8"},{"link_name":"Northern England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_England"},{"link_name":"government ministers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_(government)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-northern-26"},{"link_name":"British Technology Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Technology_Group"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"flotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flotation_(shares)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"Ferranti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti"},{"link_name":"Standard Telephones and Cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Telephones_and_Cables"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"Control Data Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_Data_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1983-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1983-25"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Beeston, Leeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeston,_Leeds"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whrose-hist-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whrose-hist-29"},{"link_name":"Princess Anne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne,_Princess_Royal"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whrose-hist-29"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-somepaper-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tyrrell_at_Silverstone_Classic_2012_(1).jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-csap-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-systime-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1985-a-35"},{"link_name":"shirt sponsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirt_sponsor"},{"link_name":"Leeds United F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C."},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Tyrrell 012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrrell_012"},{"link_name":"1984 Formula One World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Formula_One_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"Stefan Bellof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Bellof"},{"link_name":"Mike Thackwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Thackwell"},{"link_name":"Stefan Johansson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Johansson"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1983-39"},{"link_name":"Texas Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Instruments"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1983-39"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"}],"text":"Princess Anne officially opened Systime's new £20 million facility on 27 June 1983. Founder and managing director John Gow is alongside her.In September 1981, Gow announced an ambitious three-year, £46 million expansion plan for Systime, including the building of a second large facility in Leeds, with some of the funding to come from the European Investment Bank and various government grants.[6] The second facility was to enter the microcomputer business for small businesses and, in a first for Systime, would not rely upon DEC components.[6] This reflected that Systime was in the process of manufacturing not just minicomputers but also desktop systems, as well as terminals and printers, most of which were targeted to the Western European market.[24] Systime also ran a service bureau, that offered the creation of application software and that sold maintenance contracts on a third-party basis.[24] In all, Systime's plans anticipated a doubling of its employee count.[6]By 1983, Systime was considered, as The Times wrote, \"one of the largest and fastest-growing British computer companies\".[25] It was the second largest computer manufacturer based in Britain, behind only the mainframe-oriented International Computers Limited (ICL).[1] Ian McNeill was technical director of the company during this period.[8] In addition, Systime was considered an exemplar of new industrial potential in Northern England, and the company was often visited by government ministers as a result.[26]However, the switch from the National Enterprise Board to the successor British Technology Group (BTG) left Systime with uncertain funding while it was in the process of its big expansion; as Gow subsequently said, \"we were sailing along and suddenly started to get really tight on cash. We'd outgrown our resources.\"[4] Gow had previously considered organising a flotation but now did not have time to do so, so he sought investments from other British companies, but they all wanted to stage a full acquisition.[4] In particular, there were meetings in January 1983 with two large British technology companies, Ferranti and Standard Telephones and Cables (STC), that did not achieve fruition.[11]Instead, in March 1983, it was announced that Control Data Corporation was buying 38 per cent of Systime for £8 million, with another 25 per cent to be controlled by Ivory and Sime.[25] At the same time, BTG reduced its investment down to 12 per cent.[25] The two companies had had existing business dealings, as Systime bought many Control Data peripheral devices to include in its full systems.[4] The recapitalisation of Systime was completed in June 1983.[4] At this point, Parkinson departed as chair of Systime and retired from the industry altogether for a while.[27]The new facility, built for £20 million in a nearby area of Beeston, Leeds,[28]\nhad begun operations in October 1982,[29] with computer production taking place there.[29] The facility was formally opened on 27 June 1983 by Princess Anne.[30][29] The large building featured what one newspaper termed \"a distinctive reflective glass front\";[31] more popularly it became known as the \"Glass Palace\".[32]Systime sponsored a Tyrrell 012 racing car during the 1984 Formula One World Championship season (here seen at a 2012 Silverstone Classic event)At its peak, Systime had some 1,370 employees[4][33] and turnover of £60 million.[34]\nSystime was growing at a 30 per cent annual rate during the early-mid 1980s and the strain on its finances was considerable.[35]Systime attempted to gain a greater public visibility during this period. They became shirt sponsor for Leeds United F.C. for the 1983–84 season, only the second such sponsor in the club's history,[36] and they sponsored a Tyrrell 012 car during the 1984 Formula One World Championship season, with drivers such as Stefan Bellof, Mike Thackwell, and Stefan Johansson.[37][38]Relations between Gow and Control Data management did not work out, with the two parties clashing on fundamental decisions.[4] Accordingly, Gow departed Systime in December 1983.[39] He was replaced as managing director by Rod Attwooll, formerly head of the UK division of Texas Instruments.[39] Gow subsequently started his own firm, WGK Electronics, hoping to succeed in largely untapped third-world markets.[4]","title":"New facility and changes of management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-datamation-1990-40"},{"link_name":"High Court of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-datamation-1990-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hc-1985-41"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-en-1985-24"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hc-1985-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-en-1985-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-en-1985-24"}],"text":"In putting together such PDP-11- and VAX-based systems, Systime was inevitably a rival of DEC UK, Digital's United Kingdom subsidiary, which sought to sell those systems themselves.[11] Indeed, Systime had discovered in 1979 that it could acquire the same components for 25 per cent less in the United States than it could through DEC UK, and it filed anti-trust action in the United States to force DEC to sell it components at American prices.[11]In 1983, DEC UK sued Systime, claiming that Systime was engaging in practices that violated the license for the VAX/VMS operating system. The lawsuit was settled later in 1983 via Systime making a $5.5 million payment to DEC.[40]Then in June 1984, DEC sued Systime in the High Court of Justice, saying it had found evidence that Systime, in its layouts and connection schematics for the manufacture of seven different printed-circuit boards for VAX-associated disk drives and controllers, had infringed upon DEC copyrights.[40][41] The claimed violations had taken place prior to 1983.[24] The suit asked for £5 million in damages and came after a year of negotiations between the two companies had been unable to arrive at an out-of-court agreement.[41][42] In July 1985, Systime counterfiled in the European Common Market, claiming that DEC's filing represented an attempted act of unfair competition in trying to limit Systime's ability to compete with DEC in the Western European market.[24] The counterfiling also alleged that DEC had in fact infringed upon Systime's copyrights in the printed circuit board matter.[24]","title":"Legal actions filed by DEC"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Border_Fence_Cizov_CzechRep.JPG"},{"link_name":"Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinating_Committee_for_Multilateral_Export_Controls"},{"link_name":"Eastern Bloc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Trade_and_Industry_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cahill-43"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cahill-43"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Commerce"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1985-a-35"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"Michael Meadowcroft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Meadowcroft"},{"link_name":"Leeds West constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_West_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"House of Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cahill-43"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-sidebar-44"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-sidebar-44"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-sidebar-44"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1985-a-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-1985-a-35"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dec-1986-19"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iw-1986-45"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dec-1986-19"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iw-1986-45"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dec-1986-19"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-systime-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-systime-34"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iw-1986-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cahill-43"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-mp-11"},{"link_name":"European Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Commission"},{"link_name":"European Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-sidebar-44"},{"link_name":"Central Intelligence Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Toshiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toshiba"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"Datamation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datamation"},{"link_name":"grey market","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey_market"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-datam-inv-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-datam-inv-48"},{"link_name":"second Thatcher ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Thatcher_ministry"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-ed-49"},{"link_name":"New Scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Scientist"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ns-systime-2"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cahill-43"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-1984-4"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cahill-43"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shambaugh-10"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cahill-43"}],"text":"Eastern Bloc countries looked for a way to get Western computers across the Iron CurtainIn the early-mid-1980s Systime Computers \nran afoul of the Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls (COCOM), which regulated what goods and technologies Western countries could sell to countries within the Eastern Bloc.[2] British and other European companies protested that many of the computer components prohibited by COCOM were widely available in Asian markets anyway, but the regulations remained in effect.[2] So in order to sell computers outside Britain, Systime not only had to obtain an export license from the Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom), but because American products were involved due to the DEC components in Systime computers, it had to obtain an export license from the United States Department of Commerce.[10]In 1982, Systime voluntarily acknowledged that it had sold some systems to Eastern Bloc countries without that necessary US export license and agreed to pay a fine to the Department of Commerce.[10][43] \nHowever, lawyers for DEC UK pressed further with more serious charges, saying that Systime had not disclosed that it had shipped 400 DEC-based minicomputers, disguised as jukeboxes, to Switzerland that were in fact then headed for the Eastern Bloc.[10][43][11]Thus, Systime came under investigation by the United States Department of Commerce for irregularities in the export of computers from the United Kingdom during the 1980–83 period.[35] In particular, while Systime was not accused of directly trading with the Soviet Union, it was said to have traded with non-aligned countries, including Switzerland, Libya, Syria, Zimbabwe, Pakistan, India, and Malaysia, without having the requisite US export license.[2]Systime denied that its actions were in violation of any British law.[2] Some British officials felt that the export regulations were partly an effort to prevent British firms from gaining a foothold in the burgeoning computer market.[11] \nIn particular, Member of Parliament Michael Meadowcroft, representing the Leeds West constituency, tried to get the British government to intercede against the American action.[2] \nThe directors of Systime said that the export accusation was an underhanded way of those envious of the company's successes to target it.[2] Indeed, they alleged, and MP Meadowcroft related in an address to the House of Commons, that DEC had created a \"Kill Systime\" campaign.[11] Elements of this campaign, by this telling, included hiring of private detectives, surveillance of employees, burglary, bribery, destruction of documents, and spreading of false rumours.[11] In any case, some of these allegations had been made at the time of the January 1983 meeting between Systime and Ferranti and STC, and these claims played a role in preventing a British-based financial rescue of Systime at the time.[43][11]The US action against Systime would involve a $400,000 fine against it, to be accompanied by a prohibition against the company using American goods.[44] \nThis had a devastating effect upon Systime, in particular as corporate investors were no longer willing to put monies into the company.[10] \nSome 1,000 jobs were lost at the Leeds factory,[44] leaving around only 200 employees remaining.[10] Systime directors would put the overall cost to capital and profits at £110 million.[44] \nAs author George E. Shambaugh relates, \"By 1985, in the aftermath of U.S. sanctions, the company was virtually destroyed.\"[10]A search by Systime for additional sources of UK funding having failed, \nin April 1985, Control Data Corporation acquired the balance of Systime that it did not already own.[35]\nThe purchase was also seen as a defensive measure against the still-ongoing U.S. Commerce Department investigation.[35]Then in February 1986, DEC bought 50 per cent of the Systime subsidiary from Control Data (which itself was experiencing financial struggles), taking over the Customer Services Division and all the services contracts for DEC hardware.[19][45] That division had 250 employees and sales and field service contracts representing some 2,500 user accounts.[19][45] As part of the deal, DEC dropped its £5 million copyright infringement lawsuit against Systime regarding the printed-circuit memory boards.[19][34]The DEC deal took away Systime's most lucrative business.[34] MP Meadowcroft protested the action, accusing DEC of having \"improperly colonized\" Systime.[45] In addition, during 1986 the Systel transaction processing monitor product was split off into the new firm Performance Software Ltd, via a management buyout.[46] As author Kevin Cahill wrote, Systime had become \"dismembered\".[43]By 21 April 1986, Systime's tale was the lead story on the front page of The Guardian newspaper.[11] \nThe directors of Systime filed an action with the European Commission saying that the US actions were a breach of European Union laws protecting free trade among member nations, but the damage was done.[44] \nThe British government did eventually file a protest against the United States based on the allegation that the latter had used the Central Intelligence Agency to illicitly gain information about British companies.[47] However the British government did not intercede in any way that forestalled the damage done to Systime, and Meadowcroft's efforts had come to naught.[2]The US–UK trade issues were by no means limited to Systime; smaller firms that could not afford the bureaucratic approval process of an export license were affected, as were much larger enterprises such as IBM and Toshiba.[2] An investigation in 1985 conducted by Datamation magazine showed that there was an extensive grey market for computers, especially DEC equipment such as the VAX-11, and that Systime was but one of several sources for such products.[48] Despite COCOM-based efforts to curtail such trade with the Eastern Bloc, it only grew more vigorous.[48] The whole matter generated considerable debate during the second Thatcher ministry and a February 1987 editorial from The Guardian, one that mentioned Systime, emphasized the broader importance of the issue and criticised the prime minister for failing to fully take a stand against the Americans on behalf of British technology interests.[49] A September 1987 account in the New Scientist also mentioned Systime as the worst hit and criticised COCOM as being antiquated.[2]The exports control issue was not the only factor that led to the collapse of Systime.[43] Primary among the other causes was the company engaging in an overly aggressive expansion without having sufficient funding in place for it.[4][43] Nevertheless, the role of the exports issue was critical.[10][43]","title":"Charges of violating export control restrictions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Morley area of Leeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morley,_West_Yorkshire"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-somepaper-31"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-sale-51"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-times-northern-26"},{"link_name":"Computergram International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computergram_International"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-systime-34"},{"link_name":"Intel 80386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386"},{"link_name":"Computer Consoles Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Consoles_Inc."},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1987-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1987-a-53"},{"link_name":"Altos Computer Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altos_Computer_Systems"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1987-a-53"},{"link_name":"Parallel Computers, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Computers,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-systime-34"},{"link_name":"BASIC programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_programming_language"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1987-52"},{"link_name":"COBOL programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBOL_programming_language"},{"link_name":"ICL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Computers_Limited"},{"link_name":"Wang Laboratories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wang_Laboratories"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1988-a-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1988-a-54"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1988-a-54"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"X Window","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Window_System"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prac-1988-55"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1988-a-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-prac-1988-55"},{"link_name":"Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Computer_and_Telecommunications_Agency"},{"link_name":"Manpower Services Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manpower_Services_Commission"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1988-a-54"},{"link_name":"IXI Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IXI_Limited"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-1988-a-54"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-spin-56"}],"text":"During 1986, with business in rapid decline and the company having lost £3.4 million the previous year, Systime moved to a smaller facility in the Leeds Business Park off Bruntcliffe Lane in the Morley area of Leeds.[31][50] The \"glass palace\", officially opened just two and half years prior, was put up for sale.[51] (An April 1988 piece in The Times pointed to Systime as a cautionary tale in seeing trends of economic rebirth in the North.[26])Now, what remained of Systime – \"a mere shadow of its former self\", as Computergram International described it – decided to focus on Unix-based initiatives among its hardware and software offerings.[34]\nDuring\n1987, Systime announced its Series 3 computers, based on the Intel 80386 and running flavours of Unix, as well as an OEM agreement with Computer Consoles Inc. to resell that company's Power632S line of Intel-based systems.[52] \nThese joined the Intel-based Series 2 systems that Systime also offered.[53]\nIn addition, Systime forged an OEM agreement with Altos Computer Systems for that company's 80386-based Series 2000 systems, to further complement the Intel product line at different price points and numbers of supported users.[53]\nFinally, Systime also formed an agreement with Parallel Computers, Inc. to resell that US-based company's fault-tolerant systems.[34]In terms of software offerings, Systime\ntried to ease migration for DEC PDP-11 users by offering its own Trans-Basic translator, which converted the BASIC programming language from a dialect used on RSTS to one used on Unix.[52] A similar tool allowed users of the COBOL programming language on ICL or Wang Laboratories systems to migrate to Unix-based compilation and deployment.[54]As 1987 became 1988, Systime announced a strategic direction that embraced innovation in software over in-house production of hardware systems.[54] \nPrimary among these was a new product line called Visionware,[54] the first piece of which was PC-Connect, which was in part a terminal emulator for Microsoft Windows that was composed of implementation elements that ran on both Unix and Windows, and supported cut-and-paste between Windows, graphical Unix-based X Window, and Unix character mode applications.[55] PC-Connect was a released product from Systime by 1987, and was further emphasized in 1988.[54][55] It found early customer use among Systime partners Altos Computer and Computer Consoles, as well as at the UK government's Central Computer and Telecommunications Agency and Manpower Services Commission.[54] Ongoing work on the X Window aspects of it was done in collaboration with Cambridge-based IXI Limited.[54] Several other Windows–Unix connectivity products were also under development as part of the Visionware line.[56]","title":"Further decline and initiatives in software"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:White_Rose_Office_Park,_Leeds,_2014.jpg"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-destruct-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-destruct-57"},{"link_name":"Visionware Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visionware_Ltd"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-destruct-57"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ci-spin-56"},{"link_name":"management buyouts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_buyout"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-destruct-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-destruct-57"},{"link_name":"Wyse Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyse_Technology"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Acer Altos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acer,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Santa Cruz Operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Operation"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Tarantella, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarantella,_Inc."},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"Oracle Secure Global Desktop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Secure_Global_Desktop"},{"link_name":"Planet Online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet_Online"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-wilk-63"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guard-wilk-63"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbr-destruct-57"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"Companies House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companies_House"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ch-listing-5"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inret-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inret-65"},{"link_name":"KPIT Cummins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPIT_Cummins"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-somepaper-31"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-whrose-hist-29"},{"link_name":"Leeds Industrial Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_Industrial_Museum_at_Armley_Mills"},{"link_name":"Leeds Museums & Galleries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_Museums_%26_Galleries"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"text":"White Rose Office Park in Leeds (here seen in 2014) grew out of what once was the Systime Computers facility in the Beeston area of LeedsOn 2 June 1989, as Computergram International wrote, \"Control Data Corp finally got shot of its troublesome UK Systime Ltd business ... and the solution for the once-substantial Leeds systems integrator is dismemberment by management buy-out.\"[57] Four separate companies were formed from what had been Systime; the largest of these was Computer Service Technology Ltd, which gained the support and distribution rights for the rebadged Altos Computer Systems and Computer Consoles systems.[57] The other three were Visionware Ltd, which gained the rights to PC-Connect and the Visionware technologies; Manufacturing Solutions Group Ltd, which gained the Sysimp Unix package for manufacturing control; and Streetwise Ltd, which gained Unix-based software for the back-office side for retail point-of-sale systems.[57][56] Some venture capital monies were involved in support of the management buyouts.[57] In addition, two financial packaged products were sold to other companies within Leeds.[57]Computer Service Technology carried on in Leeds into the mid-1990s, with activities such as becoming a UK distributor for Wyse Technology[58] as well as, under the names CST Distribution and CST Group Ltd, continuing to sell what were now known as Acer Altos systems.[59] After a 1996 merger CST became part of Sphinx CST,[60] which in turn in 2010 became part of Arrow ECS.[61]Visionware succeeded to the point where it was acquired by the Santa Cruz Operation in 1994.[62] It later become part of Tarantella, Inc., which was then acquired by Sun Microsystems and subsequently became part of the Oracle Secure Global Desktop. Noted British entrepreneur Peter Wilkinson, who later co-founded Planet Online and a number of other Internet-related firms, began his career at Systime.[63] Many of his later efforts were based in Leeds and included former Systime employees.[63]Control Data kept the Systime UK name after the breakup,[57] and that name was listed on subsequent company reports although essentially inactive.[64] The last paper vestige of Systime Computers Ltd was not formally removed from the books at Companies House until 2015.[5]However, the Systime name was kept alive in a different venue. Systime had started a branch company in India in 1979 to do outsourcing work; this Indian entity was then acquired as a wholly owned subsidiary by the India-based CMS Group in 1984, during the time of turbulence for Systime UK.[65] Doing business under the name Systime, and with essentially the same logo as Systime UK had had,[66] this firm became substantial in size and a power in the global software projects field with offices around the world.[65] It continued under the name and in the IT services business until it was acquired by KPIT Cummins in 2011;[67] it kept the Systime name for a couple more years as a subsidiary; during 2014, the name effectively went out of use.[68]The Systime \"Glass Palace\" was bought and refurbished as the Arlington Business Centre, opened in 1988,[31] and eventually became part of the White Rose Office Park.[29]\nLeeds Industrial Museum (part of Leeds Museums & Galleries) holds examples of Systime computers in its collections, and an example was displayed in its exhibition Leeds to Innovation in 2019.[69][70]","title":"Dissolution of company and legacy"}]
[{"image_text":"The initial Systime facility was in former mills off Dewsbury Road in the Beeston area of Leeds (a couple of blocks further left of what is seen here in 2007)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ring_Road_-_Beeston_Park_-_geograph.org.uk_-_560491.jpg/220px-Ring_Road_-_Beeston_Park_-_geograph.org.uk_-_560491.jpg"},{"image_text":"Princess Anne officially opened Systime's new £20 million facility on 27 June 1983. Founder and managing director John Gow is alongside her.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/81/HRH_Princess_Anne_opens_Systime_Computers_Ltd_new_facility_in_June_1983.jpg/180px-HRH_Princess_Anne_opens_Systime_Computers_Ltd_new_facility_in_June_1983.jpg"},{"image_text":"Systime sponsored a Tyrrell 012 racing car during the 1984 Formula One World Championship season (here seen at a 2012 Silverstone Classic event)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Tyrrell_at_Silverstone_Classic_2012_%281%29.jpg/220px-Tyrrell_at_Silverstone_Classic_2012_%281%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Eastern Bloc countries looked for a way to get Western computers across the Iron Curtain","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Border_Fence_Cizov_CzechRep.JPG/220px-Border_Fence_Cizov_CzechRep.JPG"},{"image_text":"White Rose Office Park in Leeds (here seen in 2014) grew out of what once was the Systime Computers facility in the Beeston area of Leeds","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/White_Rose_Office_Park%2C_Leeds%2C_2014.jpg/220px-White_Rose_Office_Park%2C_Leeds%2C_2014.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"Investment and Finance: Systime Set for China Deal\". The Times. London. 5 April 1983. p. 15 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS251890821/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=60a59b66","url_text":"\"Investment and Finance: Systime Set for China Deal\""}]},{"reference":"Fagan, Mary (24 September 1987). \"Who will tear the Silicon Curtain?\". New Scientist. pp. 28–29.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzni1LqxEEsC&pg=PA29","url_text":"\"Who will tear the Silicon Curtain?\""}]},{"reference":"Blakstad, Michael (1979). The Risk Business: Industry and the Designers. Design Council. pp. 134–138.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Burnham, Nigel (14 February 1984). \"John Gow comes back with an eye on the third world\". The Times. London. p. 25 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS419663438/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=66bf1072","url_text":"\"John Gow comes back with an eye on the third world\""}]},{"reference":"\"Systime Computers Limited: Company number 01137518\". Companies House. Retrieved 1 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://beta.companieshouse.gov.uk/company/01137518","url_text":"\"Systime Computers Limited: Company number 01137518\""}]},{"reference":"Large, Peter (11 September 1981). \"Micro maker doubles up\". The Guardian. London. p. 15 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/260267183/?terms=systime%2Bleeds%2B%22john%2Bgow%22","url_text":"\"Micro maker doubles up\""}]},{"reference":"Lamb, John (1982). \"Design\". Design. p. 88.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zdxUAAAAMAAJ&q=canteen+systime","url_text":"\"Design\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ex-Chairman of Systime dies in hospital after a short illness\". Ian and Margaret McNeill. 28 November 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://mcneill.org.uk/news/view/4/john-parkinson-1944-2010","url_text":"\"Ex-Chairman of Systime dies in hospital after a short illness\""}]},{"reference":"Owen, Kenneth (19 October 1977). \"Insac export scheme gets underway\". The Times. London. p. 20 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS336298323/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=2345c080","url_text":"\"Insac export scheme gets underway\""}]},{"reference":"Shambaugh, George E. (1999). States, Firms, and Power: Successful Sanctions in United States Foreign Policy. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 130–131.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Brown, Paul (21 April 1986). \"CIA policing British computer firms\". The Guardian. London. pp. 1, 32 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/260161112/","url_text":"\"CIA policing British computer firms\""}]},{"reference":"K.O. (16 September 1976). \"Tailer-made packages open way to much larger market\". The Times. London. p. Office Efficiency: Computing: III special section – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS486768432/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=4dadb15b","url_text":"\"Tailer-made packages open way to much larger market\""}]},{"reference":"International Directory of Software. CUYB Publications. 1980. pp. 47, 912, 1102. ISBN 978-0-902908-11-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=eEgUAQAAMAAJ&q=%22Systel+systime+%22","url_text":"International Directory of Software"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-902908-11-6","url_text":"978-0-902908-11-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Systime RSTS/E Pocket Guide\". Centre for Computing History. Retrieved 4 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.computinghistory.org.uk/det/19218/Systime-RSTS-E-Pocket-Guide/","url_text":"\"Systime RSTS/E Pocket Guide\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vacancies: University of Reading\". New Scientist. 12 December 1985. p. 68.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UkrqUG2LlykC&q=systime+computers+leeds&pg=PA68","url_text":"\"Vacancies: University of Reading\""}]},{"reference":"Kewney, Guy (29 November 2008). \"What if computers went back to the '70s too?\". The Register.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/11/29/personal_computing/?page=2","url_text":"\"What if computers went back to the '70s too?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Informatics Annual Report 1984-85\". Alvey Programme. Retrieved 4 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/inf/literature/inf_reports/p001.htm","url_text":"\"Informatics Annual Report 1984-85\""}]},{"reference":"Herries, David G. (1984). \"The computerized derivation of steady-state rate equations for enzyme kinetics\". Biochemical Journal. 223 (2): 551–553. doi:10.1042/bj2230551. PMC 1144331. PMID 6497862.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1144331","url_text":"\"The computerized derivation of steady-state rate equations for enzyme kinetics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1042%2Fbj2230551","url_text":"10.1042/bj2230551"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1144331","url_text":"1144331"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6497862","url_text":"6497862"}]},{"reference":"Bicknell, David (3 February 1986). \"DEC buys into CDC affiliate\". Computerworld. p. 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UE1HODexHKoC&pg=PA13","url_text":"\"DEC buys into CDC affiliate\""}]},{"reference":"Manchester, Phil (15 June 1981). \"UK OEM Poised to Invade U.S. With First TP Monitor for VAX\". Computerworld. pp. 95, 96.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dPLZ7QidjbEC&pg=RA1-PA95","url_text":"\"UK OEM Poised to Invade U.S. With First TP Monitor for VAX\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mini-micro Systems\". Mini-micro Systems. 1981. p. 103.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=CJ1PAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Systel+systime+%22","url_text":"\"Mini-micro Systems\""}]},{"reference":"\"More staff taken on by Systime\". Computer Weekly. 15 June 1978.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/stream/ComputerWeeklySupplement1978UKEnglish/Jun%2015%201978%2C%20Computer%20Weekly%20Supplement%2C%20%23605%2C%20UK%20%28en%29_djvu.txt","url_text":"\"More staff taken on by Systime\""}]},{"reference":"\"Systime's analysis\". The Times. London. 18 November 1981. p. 17 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS285575538/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=2c58d226","url_text":"\"Systime's analysis\""}]},{"reference":"Schroeder, Jim (8 July 1985). \"CDC's Systime Ltd. sues DEC in EEC\". Electronic News. p. 1 – via Gale General OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A3850559/ITOF?u=wikipedia&sid=ITOF&xid=b80a046c","url_text":"\"CDC's Systime Ltd. sues DEC in EEC\""}]},{"reference":"Cookson, Clive (1 March 1983). \"£8m for a share in Systime\". The Times. London. p. 20 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS336563297/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=1062d571","url_text":"\"£8m for a share in Systime\""}]},{"reference":"Hill, George (26 April 1988). \"Bacon, eggs and a toast to enterprise\". The Times. London. p. 14 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/IF0503166636/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=58a09db9","url_text":"\"Bacon, eggs and a toast to enterprise\""}]},{"reference":"Large, Peter (16 February 1984). \"Workaholic comes back for a fix\". The Guardian. London. p. 22 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/259566829/?terms=systime%2BDEC%2Bcopyright","url_text":"\"Workaholic comes back for a fix\""}]},{"reference":"Jones, Charles (1986). Computer Handbook: Businessman's Guide to Choosing and Using Computer Systems. Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan. p. 346.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"30 years at White Rose Park Office Park\". White Rose Office Park. January 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whiteroseofficepark.co.uk/2018/01/15/30-years-white-rose-park-office-park/","url_text":"\"30 years at White Rose Park Office Park\""}]},{"reference":"\"Court Circular\". The Times. London. 28 June 1983. p. 12 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS201559260/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=d8534c28","url_text":"\"Court Circular\""}]},{"reference":"\"A £13 million new role for Systime building\". ... 15 January 1988.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.whiteroseofficepark.co.uk/2018/01/15/30-years-white-rose-park-office-park/","url_text":"\"A £13 million new role for Systime building\""}]},{"reference":"Sour, John (5 December 2018). \"Touring the Outer Ring Road\". The Culture Vulture. Retrieved 3 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://theculturevulture.co.uk/travel/outer-ring-road/","url_text":"\"Touring the Outer Ring Road\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dr Tony Denson\". Centre for Science and Policy, University of Cambridge. Retrieved 27 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.csap.cam.ac.uk/network/tony-denson/","url_text":"\"Dr Tony Denson\""}]},{"reference":"\"Systime sets 80386 S-series box, 100-user Unix System\". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 1 February 1987.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"CDC moves on Systime\". The Guardian. London. 13 April 1985. p. 17 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/260121503/?terms=%22control%2Bdata%22%2B%22systime%22","url_text":"\"CDC moves on Systime\""}]},{"reference":"\"Leeds United Badges\". WAFLL. Retrieved 3 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wafll.com/leeds-united-badges.html","url_text":"\"Leeds United Badges\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tyrrell-Ford 012 \"Systime\"\". Scalemates. Retrieved 3 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scalemates.com/kits/silverline-slk038-tyrrell-ford-012-systime--998171","url_text":"\"Tyrrell-Ford 012 \"Systime\"\""}]},{"reference":"Blunsden, John (1 August 1984). \"Thackwell for Tyrrell\". The Times. London. p. 21 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS352816897/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=1d80c74e","url_text":"\"Thackwell for Tyrrell\""}]},{"reference":"\"News in Brief\". The Guardian. London. 14 December 1983. p. 15 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/259611251/?terms=systime%2Bleeds%2B%22john%2Bgow%22","url_text":"\"News in Brief\""}]},{"reference":"\"News in Perspective\". Datamation. 1990. p. 55.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22DEC%22+%22systime%22+%22palliser%22","url_text":"\"News in Perspective\""}]},{"reference":"\"... Herculean proportion\". Hardcopy. 1985.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3F0qAAAAMAAJ&q=%22out%20of%20court%20settlement%22","url_text":"\"... Herculean proportion\""}]},{"reference":"\"This year in review: Booked-to-billed blues\". Electronic News. 9 December 1985. p. S38ff – via Gale General OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A4055800/ITOF?u=wikipedia&sid=ITOF&xid=6ffbeba6","url_text":"\"This year in review: Booked-to-billed blues\""}]},{"reference":"Cahill, Kevin (1986). Trade Wars: The High-technology Scandal of the 1980's. London: W. H. Allen. pp. 177–178.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"British firms to fight American blacklisting\". New Scientist. 24 September 1987. p. 29.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Vzni1LqxEEsC&pg=PA29","url_text":"\"British firms to fight American blacklisting\""}]},{"reference":"\"Member of British Parliament Accuses DEC of Improprieties\". InfoWorld. 10 March 1986. p. 20.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=qy8EAAAAMBAJ&q=systime+%22digital+equipment%22+logo&pg=PA20","url_text":"\"Member of British Parliament Accuses DEC of Improprieties\""}]},{"reference":"\"New release of Systime's Systel VAX transaction monitor from Performance Software\". Computergram International. 10 November 1989 – via Gale General OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A7869276/ITOF?u=wikipedia&sid=ITOF&xid=bea54cd8","url_text":"\"New release of Systime's Systel VAX transaction monitor from Performance Software\""}]},{"reference":"Brown, Paul (28 November 1986). \"Computer protest to US not made public\". The Guardian. London. p. 2 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/260290418/?terms=%22systime%22%2B%22%24400%2C000%22","url_text":"\"Computer protest to US not made public\""}]},{"reference":"Hebditch, D.; Anning, N. (15 June 1985). \"Soviet Sting Sours\". Datamation. pp. 34–36 – via Gale General OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A622018/ITOF?u=wikipedia&sid=ITOF&xid=afb27132","url_text":"\"Soviet Sting Sours\""}]},{"reference":"\"The long arm of trade law\". The Guardian. London. 18 February 1987. p. 10 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/259946623/?terms=systime","url_text":"\"The long arm of trade law\""}]},{"reference":"Key British Enterprises 1992: Britain's Top 50,000 Companies Volume 4 S–Z. B & B. 1992. p. 437. ISBN 9780900625725.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TJAcAQAAMAAJ&q=systime+bruntcliffe","url_text":"Key British Enterprises 1992: Britain's Top 50,000 Companies Volume 4 S–Z"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780900625725","url_text":"9780900625725"}]},{"reference":"\"The Times Diary\". The Times. London. 26 November 1985. p. 16 – via Gale Primary Sources.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS268669306/TTDA?u=wikipedia&sid=TTDA&xid=052f36cc","url_text":"\"The Times Diary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Systime woos DEC PDP-11 users with 80386, console boxes\". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 23 April 1987.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Systime UKP3m OEM Pact with Altos\". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 11 October 1987.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"CDC's Systime Wins Altos, Computer Consoles for its PC-Connect MS-DOS-to-Unix Link\". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 24 July 1988.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Practical Computing\". Practical Computing. November 1988. pp. 95–96.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vaVPAAAAYAAJ&q=systime+%22pc+connect%22","url_text":"\"Practical Computing\""}]},{"reference":"\"System spin-out Visionware launches\". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 12 June 1989.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"CDC's Systime self-destructs into four buy-outs\". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 4 June 1989.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Minigrams: CGI06290027\". Computergram International. 29 June 1993 – via Gale General OneFile.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A14047657/ITOF?u=wikipedia&sid=ITOF&xid=5d6c42fd","url_text":"\"Minigrams: CGI06290027\""}]},{"reference":"\"CST reports booming sales with its Acer Altos distribution business\". Computergram International. Computer Business Review. 15 May 1993.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Marsh, Ian (20 December 1996). \"Lynx combines Sphinx and CST\". CRN Channelweb.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.channelweb.co.uk/news/1882770/lynx-combines-sphinx-cst","url_text":"\"Lynx combines Sphinx and CST\""}]},{"reference":"\"Arrow ECS acquires Sphinx Group\". MicroScope. Computer Weekly. 21 June 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerweekly.com/microscope/news/2240152754/Arrow-ECS-acquires-Sphinx-Group","url_text":"\"Arrow ECS acquires Sphinx Group\""}]},{"reference":"Perez, Steve (13 December 1994). \"SCO acquires Visionware\". Santa Cruz Sentinel. p. B-4 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/72451795/?terms=visionware%2Bleeds","url_text":"\"SCO acquires Visionware\""}]},{"reference":"Cassy, John (22 June 2000). \"Entrepreneur with more than ee, bah gum\". The Guardian. London.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2000/jun/22/efinance.business2","url_text":"\"Entrepreneur with more than ee, bah gum\""}]},{"reference":"\"Form 10-K Control Data Systems Inc\". SEC Edgar Filing Tracker. 24 March 1994. Retrieved 2 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://sec.report/Document/0000912057-94-001024/","url_text":"\"Form 10-K Control Data Systems Inc\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cost-effective business solutions\". Indian Retailer. November 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.indianretailer.com/magazine/2007/november/Cost-effective-business-solutions.m12-2-12/","url_text":"\"Cost-effective business solutions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Systime: Redefining the Business Paradigm\". Systime. Archived from the original on 12 February 2002.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20020212121932/http://www.systime.net/","url_text":"\"Systime: Redefining the Business Paradigm\""},{"url":"http://www.systime.net/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"KPIT Cummins to acquire Systime Global Solutions\". The Economic Times. 15 June 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/ites/kpit-cummins-to-acquire-systime-global-solutions/articleshow/8866692.cms","url_text":"\"KPIT Cummins to acquire Systime Global Solutions\""}]},{"reference":"Hutchinson, Andrew (9 May 2020). \"Retro computer from firm which sponsored Leeds United makes exhibition's online reboot easy\". Yorkshire Evening Post.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.yorkshireeveningpost.co.uk/news/people/retro-computer-firm-which-sponsored-leeds-united-makes-exhibitions-online-reboot-easy-2846361","url_text":"\"Retro computer from firm which sponsored Leeds United makes exhibition's online reboot easy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Leeds to innovation online\". Leeds City Council. 11 May 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.leeds.gov.uk/resources/systime-1","url_text":"\"Leeds to innovation online\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-top
T-top
["1 Examples of traditional T-Top","2 T-Top variations","3 See also","4 References"]
Automobile roof with removable panels This article is about the automotive T-Top. For the boat, see T-top (boat). Not to be confused with Targa top. T-top on a Corvette Stingray C3 Corvette with body-colored T‑top roof panels A T-top (UK: T-bar) is an automobile roof with a removable panel on each side of a rigid bar running from the center of one structural bar between pillars to the center of the next structural bar. The panels of a traditional T-top are usually made of auto grade safety glass (tempered or laminated), or acrylic – but they can also be black or body-colored and made of other (often light-weight) materials. The removable panel roof was patented by Gordon Buehrig on June 5, 1951. It was first used in a 1948 prototype by The American Sportscar Company or “Tasco.” The 1968 Chevrolet Corvette coupe was the first U.S.-built production automobile to feature a T-top roof. This increased the popularity of the coupe, such that it outsold the convertible and later led to the discontinuation of the Corvette convertible after 1975 until it was revived in 1986. Post-C3 models were built with a targa top instead of a T-top. Examples of traditional T-Top Buick Regal (1978-1987) Chevrolet Corvette (1968–1982) Chevrolet Camaro (1978–2002) Chevrolet Monte Carlo Chrysler Cordoba Datsun 280ZX Dodge Daytona Dodge Magnum Dodge Mirada Ford Mustang (second and third generation) Ford Thunderbird (seventh generation) Mercury Capri Nissan NX Nissan 300ZX Nissan EXA Nissan URGE (concept) Pontiac Fiero Pontiac Firebird, incl. Trans Am (1976–2002) Pontiac Formula 350 Pontiac Grand Prix Rover 200 Coupe (1992-1999) Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme Suzuki X-90 Subaru BRAT Subaru Vivio Toyota MR2 (AW11/SW20/SW21/SW22) T-Top variations Jeep Wranglers including 'JK' and 'JL' offer removable roof-panel designs that build upon the T-top construction concept Suzuki Cappuccino - has an optional solid roof which can be converted into a T-top Triumph Stag - has the underlying T-Top structure, but has a one piece, non-glass, roof panel which passes over the central front-to-back bar when in place See also Cabrio coach Sunroof Targa top References ^ "Vehicle top construction". ^ "Gordon Buehrig 1904–1990". Coachbuilt. Retrieved 2011-11-20. ^ Muscle Car Club: Chevrolet Corvette - History, Third Generation, 1968–1982 Archived 2007-12-18 at the Wayback Machine. vteCar designClassificationBy size Micro Kei Subcompact Supermini Family Compact Mid-size Full-size Custom Hot rod Lead sled Lowrider Street rod T-bucket Luxury Compact executive Executive Personal Minivan / MPV Compact Leisure Mini SUV Compact Crossover (CUV) Mini Coupe SUV Sports Grand tourer Hot hatch Muscle Pony Sport compact Super Go-kart Other Antique Classic Economy Ute Van Vintage car EU A-segment B-segment C-segment D-segment E-segment F-segment J-segment M-segment S-segment Body styles 2+2 Baquet Barchetta Berlinetta Brougham Cabrio coach Cab over Cabriolet / Convertible / Drophead coupe Coupe Coupé de Ville / Sedanca de Ville Coupé utility Fastback Hardtop Hatchback Kammback Landaulet Liftback Limousine Microvan Minibus Multi-stop truck Notchback Panel van Phaeton Pickup truck Quad coupé Retractable hardtop Roadster / Spider / Spyder Runabout Saloon / Sedan Sedan delivery/Panel van Shooting brake Station wagon Targa top Torpedo Touring Town (Coupé de Ville) T-top Vis-à-vis Specialized vehicles All-terrain vehicle Amphibious Connected Driverless (autonomous) Go-kart Gyrocar Pedal car Personal rapid transit Police car Flying car Taxicab Tow truck Voiturette Propulsion Alternative fuel Autogas Biodiesel Biofuel Biogasoline Biogas Compressed natural gas Diesel Electric (battery NEV) Ethanol (E85) Fossil fuel Fuel cell Fuel gas Natural gas Gasoline / petrol (direct injection) Homogeneous charge compression ignition Hybrid (plug-in) Hydrogen Internal combustion Liquid nitrogen Liquified petroleum gas Steam Drive wheels Front-wheel Rear-wheel Two-wheel Four-wheel Six-wheel Eight-wheel Ten-wheel Twelve-wheel Engine position Front Mid Rear Layout (engine / drive) Front-front   Front mid-front   Rear-front   Front-rear   Rear mid-rear   Rear-rear   Front-four-wheel   Mid-four-wheel   Rear-four-wheel   Dual motor-four-wheel  Engine configuration(internal combustion) Boxer Flat Four-stroke H-block Reciprocating Single-cylinder Straight Two-stroke V (Vee) W engine Wankel Portal Category Template:EC car classification
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T-top (boat)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-top_(boat)"},{"link_name":"Targa top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targa_top"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Red_Corvette_Stingray_pic1a.JPG"},{"link_name":"Corvette Stingray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_(C3)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chevrolet_Corvette_C3_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"pillars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillar_(car)"},{"link_name":"tempered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempered_glass"},{"link_name":"laminated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminated_glass"},{"link_name":"acrylic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylate_polymer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CoachbuiltBuehrig-2"},{"link_name":"1968 Chevrolet Corvette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette_C3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"targa top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targa_top"}],"text":"This article is about the automotive T-Top. For the boat, see T-top (boat).Not to be confused with Targa top.T-top on a Corvette StingrayC3 Corvette with body-colored T‑top roof panelsA T-top (UK: T-bar) is an automobile roof with a removable panel on each side of a rigid bar running from the center of one structural bar between pillars to the center of the next structural bar. The panels of a traditional T-top are usually made of auto grade safety glass (tempered or laminated), or acrylic – but they can also be black or body-colored and made of other (often light-weight) materials.The removable panel roof was patented by Gordon Buehrig on June 5, 1951.[1] It was first used in a 1948 prototype by The American Sportscar Company or “Tasco.”[2]The 1968 Chevrolet Corvette coupe was the first U.S.-built production automobile to feature a T-top roof.[3] This increased the popularity of the coupe, such that it outsold the convertible and later led to the discontinuation of the Corvette convertible after 1975 until it was revived in 1986.[citation needed] Post-C3 models were built with a targa top instead of a T-top.","title":"T-top"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buick Regal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buick_Regal"},{"link_name":"Chevrolet Corvette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Corvette"},{"link_name":"Chevrolet Camaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Camaro"},{"link_name":"Chevrolet Monte Carlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Monte_Carlo"},{"link_name":"Chrysler Cordoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Cordoba"},{"link_name":"Datsun 280ZX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datsun_280ZX"},{"link_name":"Dodge Daytona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Daytona"},{"link_name":"Dodge Magnum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Magnum"},{"link_name":"Dodge Mirada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_Mirada"},{"link_name":"Ford Mustang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Mustang"},{"link_name":"Ford Thunderbird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Thunderbird"},{"link_name":"Mercury Capri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_Capri"},{"link_name":"Nissan NX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_NX"},{"link_name":"Nissan 300ZX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_300ZX"},{"link_name":"Nissan EXA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_EXA"},{"link_name":"Nissan URGE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nissan_URGE"},{"link_name":"Pontiac Fiero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac_Fiero"},{"link_name":"Pontiac Firebird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac_Firebird"},{"link_name":"Trans Am","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac_Trans_Am"},{"link_name":"Pontiac Grand Prix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontiac_Grand_Prix"},{"link_name":"Rover 200 Coupe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rover_200_Coupe"},{"link_name":"Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldsmobile_Cutlass_Supreme"},{"link_name":"Suzuki X-90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_X-90"},{"link_name":"Subaru BRAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_BRAT"},{"link_name":"Subaru Vivio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subaru_Vivio"},{"link_name":"Toyota MR2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_MR2"}],"text":"Buick Regal (1978-1987)\nChevrolet Corvette (1968–1982)\nChevrolet Camaro (1978–2002)\nChevrolet Monte Carlo\nChrysler Cordoba\nDatsun 280ZX\nDodge Daytona\nDodge Magnum\nDodge Mirada\nFord Mustang (second and third generation)\nFord Thunderbird (seventh generation)\nMercury Capri\nNissan NX\nNissan 300ZX\nNissan EXA\nNissan URGE (concept)\nPontiac Fiero\nPontiac Firebird, incl. Trans Am (1976–2002)\nPontiac Formula 350\n\nPontiac Grand Prix\nRover 200 Coupe (1992-1999)\nOldsmobile Cutlass Supreme\nSuzuki X-90\nSubaru BRAT\nSubaru Vivio\nToyota MR2 (AW11/SW20/SW21/SW22)","title":"Examples of traditional T-Top"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jeep Wranglers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeep_Wrangler"},{"link_name":"Suzuki Cappuccino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzuki_Cappuccino"},{"link_name":"Triumph Stag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triumph_Stag"}],"text":"Jeep Wranglers including 'JK' and 'JL' offer removable roof-panel designs that build upon the T-top construction concept\nSuzuki Cappuccino - has an optional solid roof which can be converted into a T-top\nTriumph Stag - has the underlying T-Top structure, but has a one piece, non-glass, roof panel which passes over the central front-to-back bar when in place","title":"T-Top variations"}]
[{"image_text":"T-top on a Corvette Stingray","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Red_Corvette_Stingray_pic1a.JPG/300px-Red_Corvette_Stingray_pic1a.JPG"},{"image_text":"C3 Corvette with body-colored T‑top roof panels","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Chevrolet_Corvette_C3_01.jpg/220px-Chevrolet_Corvette_C3_01.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Cabrio coach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabrio_coach"},{"title":"Sunroof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunroof"},{"title":"Targa top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targa_top"}]
[{"reference":"\"Vehicle top construction\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.google.com.na/patents/US2556062","url_text":"\"Vehicle top construction\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gordon Buehrig 1904–1990\". Coachbuilt. Retrieved 2011-11-20.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.coachbuilt.com/des/b/buehrig/buehrig.htm","url_text":"\"Gordon Buehrig 1904–1990\""}]}]
[{"Link":"http://www.google.com.na/patents/US2556062","external_links_name":"\"Vehicle top construction\""},{"Link":"http://www.coachbuilt.com/des/b/buehrig/buehrig.htm","external_links_name":"\"Gordon Buehrig 1904–1990\""},{"Link":"http://www.musclecarclub.com/musclecars/chevrolet-corvette/chevrolet-corvette-history-3.shtml","external_links_name":"Muscle Car Club: Chevrolet Corvette - History, Third Generation, 1968–1982"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071218142210/http://musclecarclub.com/musclecars/chevrolet-corvette/chevrolet-corvette-history-3.shtml","external_links_name":"Archived"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T10_subcommittee
International Committee for Information Technology Standards
["1 Governance","2 Mission","3 Standards development","4 History","5 References","6 External links","6.1 Technical Committees, Task Groups, Study Groups","7 Others"]
ANSI-accredited standards development organization InterNational Committee for Information Technology StandardsAbbreviationINCITSEstablished1961 (63 years ago) (1961)TypeStandards Development OrganizationPurposeU.S. forum dedicated to creating technology standards for the next generation of innovation.HeadquartersWashington, D.C., U.S.Websitewww.incits.org The InterNational Committee for Information Technology Standards (INCITS), (pronounced "insights"), is an ANSI-accredited standards development organization composed of Information technology developers. It was formerly known as the X3 and NCITS. INCITS is the central U.S. forum dedicated to creating technology standards. INCITS is accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and is affiliated with the Information Technology Industry Council, a global policy advocacy organization that represents U.S. and global innovation companies. INCITS coordinates technical standards activity between ANSI in the US and joint ISO/IEC committees worldwide. This provides a mechanism to create standards that will be implemented in many nations. As such, INCITS' Executive Board also serves as ANSI's Technical Advisory Group for ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1. JTC 1 is responsible for International standardization in the field of information technology. INCITS operates through consensus. Governance INCITS is guided by its Executive Board. The INCITS Executive Board established more than 50 Technical Committees, Task Groups and Study Groups that are constantly developing standards for new technologies and updating standards for older products. Mission An open, collaborative community that enhances the competitiveness of U.S. organizations and brings technological advancement to society through the development and promotion of consensus-driven U.S. and global Information Technology standards. Standards development More than 1200 standards have been created and approved through the INCITS process, with many more in development. American National Standards are voluntary and serve U.S. interests well because all materially affected stakeholders have the opportunity to work together to create them. INCITS-approved standards only become mandatory when, and if, they are adopted or referenced by the government or when market forces make them imperative. Given the responsibilities and the expenditures associated with U.S. participation in international standards activities, INCITS considers participation as a "P" member of ISO/IEC JTC 1, as a declaration of support for the international committee's technical work. INCITS policy is to adopt as "Identical" American National Standards all ISO/IEC or ISO standards that fall within its program of work, with exceptions as outlined in our procedures. Accordingly, INCITS will adopt as "Identical" American National Standards all ISO/IEC or ISO standards that fall within its program of work. Similarly, INCITS will withdraw any such adopted American National Standard that has been withdrawn as an ISO/IEC or ISO International Standards. History INCITS was established in 1961 as the Accredited Standards Committee X3, Information Technology and is sponsored by Information Technology Industry Council (ITI), a trade association representing providers of information technology products and services then known as the Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (BEMA) and later renamed the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers' Association (CBEMA). The first organizational meeting was in February 1961 with ITI (CBEMA then) taking Secretariat responsibility. X3 was established under American National Standards Institute (ANSI) procedures. The forum was renamed Accredited Standards Committee NCITS, National Committee for Information Technology Standards in 1997, and the current name was approved in 2001. References ^ "About INCITS". External links Technical Committees, Task Groups, Study Groups INCITS/Artificial Intelligence INCITS/ATA Storage Interfaces (formerly known as INCITS/T13) INCITS/Biometrics (formerly known as INCITS/M1) INCITS/Biometrics Data Interchange (formerly known as INCITS/M1.7) INCITS/Biometric Performance Testing (formerly known as INCITS/M1.5) INCITS/Blockchain INCITS/Brain Computer Interfaces INCITS/Character Sets and Internationalization (formerly known as INCITS/L2) INCITS/Cloud Computing (formerly known as INCITS/Cloud38) INCITS/Cybersecurity and Privacy (formerly known as INCITS/CS1) INCITS/Data Management (formerly known as INCITS/DM32) INCITS/Fibre Channel (formerly known as INCITS/T11) INCITS/Fibre Channel Physical Variants (formerly known as INCITS/T11.2) INCITS/Fibre Channel Interconnection Schemes (formerly known as INCITS/T11.3) INCITS/Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (formerly known as INCITS/L1) INCITS/Graphics & Imaging (formerly known as INCITS/H3) INCITS/ID-Cards (formerly known as INCITS/B10) INCITS/Secure Identification Proximity Devices (formerly known as INCITS/B10.5) INCITS/Driver’s License/ID Cards (formerly known as INCITS/B10.8) INCITS/ID-Cards Test Methods (formerly known as INCITS/B10.11) INCITS/Inclusive Terminology INCITS/Internet of Things (IoT) INCITS/IT and Data Center Sustainability (formerly known as INCITS/ITS39) INCITS/Multimedia Coding (formerly known as INCITS/L3) INCITS/MPEG (formerly known as INCITS/L3.1) INCITS/JPEG (formerly known as INCITS/L3.2) INCITS/Programming Languages (formerly known as INCITS/PL22) INCITS/Fortran (formerly known as INCITS/PL22.3) INCITS/C Language (formerly known as INCITS/PL22.11) INCITS/C++ (formerly known as INCITS/PL22.16) INCITS/Networks (formerly known as INCITS/T3) INCITS/Office Equipment (formerly known as INCITS/W1) INCITS/Quantum Computing INCITS/SCSI (formerly known as INCITS/T10) INCITS/Smart Cities INCITS/Software and Systems Engineering Others Homepage of INCITS, includes a list of INCITS standards Contact INCITS ANSI Accredited Standards Developers (ANSI Accredited SDO ) JTC 1 Homepage Charles A. Phillips Papers, 1959-1985 (Historical reference to BEMA) Authority control databases VIAF
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"ANSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANSI"},{"link_name":"Information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"ISO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization"},{"link_name":"IEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission"}],"text":"The InterNational Committee for Information Technology Standards (INCITS), (pronounced \"insights\"),[1] is an ANSI-accredited standards development organization composed of Information technology developers. It was formerly known as the X3 and NCITS.INCITS is the central U.S. forum dedicated to creating technology standards. INCITS is accredited by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and is affiliated with the Information Technology Industry Council, a global policy advocacy organization that represents U.S. and global innovation companies.INCITS coordinates technical standards activity between ANSI in the US and joint ISO/IEC committees worldwide. This provides a mechanism to create standards that will be implemented in many nations. As such, INCITS' Executive Board also serves as ANSI's Technical Advisory Group for ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1. JTC 1 is responsible for International standardization in the field of information technology.\nINCITS operates through consensus.","title":"International Committee for Information Technology Standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Executive Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.incits.org/about/leadership"}],"text":"INCITS is guided by its Executive Board. \nThe INCITS Executive Board established more than 50 Technical Committees, Task Groups and Study Groups that are constantly developing standards for new technologies and updating standards for older products.","title":"Governance"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"An open, collaborative community that enhances the competitiveness of U.S. organizations and brings technological advancement to society through the development and promotion of consensus-driven U.S. and global Information Technology standards.","title":"Mission"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"More than 1200 standards have been created and approved through the INCITS process, with many more in development. American National Standards are voluntary and serve U.S. interests well because all materially affected stakeholders have the opportunity to work together to create them. INCITS-approved standards only become mandatory when, and if, they are adopted or referenced by the government or when market forces make them imperative.Given the responsibilities and the expenditures associated with U.S. participation in international standards activities, INCITS considers participation as a \"P\" member of ISO/IEC JTC 1, as a declaration of support for the international committee's technical work. INCITS policy is to adopt as \"Identical\" American National Standards all ISO/IEC or ISO standards that fall within its program of work, with exceptions as outlined in our procedures. Accordingly, INCITS will adopt as \"Identical\" American National Standards all ISO/IEC or ISO standards that fall within its program of work. Similarly, INCITS will withdraw any such adopted American National Standard that has been withdrawn as an ISO/IEC or ISO International Standards.","title":"Standards development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Information Technology Industry Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technology_Industry_Council"},{"link_name":"American National Standards Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute"}],"text":"INCITS was established in 1961 as the Accredited Standards Committee X3, Information Technology and is sponsored by Information Technology Industry Council (ITI), a trade association representing providers of information technology products and services then known as the Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (BEMA) and later renamed the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers' Association (CBEMA). The first organizational meeting was in February 1961 with ITI (CBEMA then) taking Secretariat responsibility. X3 was established under American National Standards Institute (ANSI) procedures. The forum was renamed Accredited Standards Committee NCITS, National Committee for Information Technology Standards in 1997, and the current name was approved in 2001.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Homepage of INCITS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.incits.org"},{"link_name":"list of INCITS standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.incits.org/standards-information/"},{"link_name":"Contact INCITS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.incits.org/about/contactsstaff"},{"link_name":"ANSI Accredited Standards Developers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.ansi.org/standards_activities/domestic_programs/accreditation_as_developer/asd.aspx?menuid=3"},{"link_name":"SDO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standards_organization"},{"link_name":"JTC 1 Homepage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.iso.org/iso/jtc1_home.html"},{"link_name":"Charles A. Phillips Papers, 1959-1985","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/cbi00039.xml"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1426611#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/9718149489185393810003"}],"text":"Homepage of INCITS, includes a list of INCITS standards\nContact INCITS\nANSI Accredited Standards Developers (ANSI Accredited SDO )\nJTC 1 Homepage\nCharles A. Phillips Papers, 1959-1985 (Historical reference to BEMA)Authority control databases \nVIAF","title":"Others"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"\"About INCITS\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.incits.org/","url_text":"\"About INCITS\""}]}]
[{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/","external_links_name":"www.incits.org"},{"Link":"https://www.incits.org/about/leadership","external_links_name":"Executive Board"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/","external_links_name":"\"About INCITS\""},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/ai","external_links_name":"INCITS/Artificial Intelligence"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/t13","external_links_name":"INCITS/ATA Storage Interfaces (formerly known as INCITS/T13)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/m1","external_links_name":"INCITS/Biometrics (formerly known as INCITS/M1)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/m1.7","external_links_name":"INCITS/Biometrics Data Interchange (formerly known as INCITS/M1.7)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/m1.5","external_links_name":"INCITS/Biometric Performance Testing (formerly known as INCITS/M1.5)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/blockchain","external_links_name":"INCITS/Blockchain"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/braincomputer","external_links_name":"INCITS/Brain Computer Interfaces"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/l2","external_links_name":"INCITS/Character Sets and Internationalization (formerly known as INCITS/L2)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/cloud38","external_links_name":"INCITS/Cloud Computing (formerly known as INCITS/Cloud38)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/cs1","external_links_name":"INCITS/Cybersecurity and Privacy (formerly known as INCITS/CS1)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/dm32","external_links_name":"INCITS/Data Management (formerly known as INCITS/DM32)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/t11","external_links_name":"INCITS/Fibre Channel (formerly known as INCITS/T11)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/t11.2","external_links_name":"INCITS/Fibre Channel Physical Variants (formerly known as INCITS/T11.2)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/t11.3","external_links_name":"INCITS/Fibre Channel Interconnection Schemes (formerly known as INCITS/T11.3)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/l1","external_links_name":"INCITS/Geographic Information Systems (GIS) (formerly known as INCITS/L1)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/h3","external_links_name":"INCITS/Graphics & Imaging (formerly known as INCITS/H3)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/b10","external_links_name":"INCITS/ID-Cards (formerly known as INCITS/B10)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/b10.5","external_links_name":"INCITS/Secure Identification Proximity Devices (formerly known as INCITS/B10.5)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/b10.8","external_links_name":"INCITS/Driver’s License/ID Cards (formerly known as INCITS/B10.8)"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/committees/b10.11","external_links_name":"INCITS/ID-Cards Test Methods (formerly known 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Engineering"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/","external_links_name":"Homepage of INCITS"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/standards-information/","external_links_name":"list of INCITS standards"},{"Link":"http://www.incits.org/about/contactsstaff","external_links_name":"Contact INCITS"},{"Link":"http://www.ansi.org/standards_activities/domestic_programs/accreditation_as_developer/asd.aspx?menuid=3","external_links_name":"ANSI Accredited Standards Developers"},{"Link":"http://www.iso.org/iso/jtc1_home.html","external_links_name":"JTC 1 Homepage"},{"Link":"http://special.lib.umn.edu/findaid/xml/cbi00039.xml","external_links_name":"Charles A. Phillips Papers, 1959-1985"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/9718149489185393810003","external_links_name":"VIAF"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LMMS
LMMS
["1 System requirements","2 Program features","3 Editors","4 Audio plug-ins","5 Standards","6 Audio output examples","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]
Free software digital audio workstation LMMSScreenshot of a project in LMMS 1.2.1Original author(s)Paul GiblockTobias JunghansDeveloper(s)LMMS developersInitial release2004; 20 years ago (2004); as Linux MultiMedia StudioStable release1.2.2 / 4 July 2020; 9 November 2020 Repositorygithub.com/LMMS/lmms Written inC++ with QtOperating systemCross-platform: Windows, macOS, Linux, HaikuPlatformx86 and x86-64 (Linux, macOS, Windows), only Linux: arm64, armel, armhf, mips, mips64el, mipsel, ppc64el, s390xAvailable in20 languagesTypeDigital audio workstationLicenseGPL-2.0-or-laterWebsitelmms.io LMMS (formerly Linux MultiMedia Studio) is a digital audio workstation application program. It allows music to be produced by arranging samples, synthesizing sounds, entering notes via computer keyboard or mouse (or other pointing device) or by playing on a MIDI keyboard, and combining the features of trackers and sequencers. It is free and open source software, written in Qt and released under GPL-2.0-or-later. System requirements LMMS is available for multiple operating systems, including Linux, OpenBSD, macOS, and Windows. It requires a 1.5 GHz CPU, 1 GB of RAM and a two-channel sound card. Program features LMMS accepts soundfonts and GUS patches, and it supports the Linux Audio Developer's Simple Plugin API (LADSPA) and LV2 (only master branch, since 24.05.2020). It can use VST plug-ins on Win32, Win64, or Wine32. The nightly versions support LinuxVST. Currently the macOS port doesn't support them. It can import Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and Hydrogen files and can read and write customized presets and themes. Audio can be exported in the Ogg, FLAC, MP3, and WAV file formats. Projects can be saved in the compressed MMPZ file format or the uncompressed MMP file format. Editors Song Editor – for arranging instruments, samples, groups of notes, automation, and more Beat+Bassline Editor – for quickly sequencing rhythms FX Mixer – for sending multiple audio inputs through groups of effects and sending them to other mixer channels, infinite channels are supported Piano Roll – edit patterns and melodies Automation Editor – move almost any knob or widget over the course of the song Song Editor Beat+Bassline Editor FX mixer Piano Roll Automation Editor Audio plug-ins LMMS includes a variety of audio plug-ins that can be drag-and-dropped onto instrument tracks in the Song Editor and Beat+Bassline Editor. Synthesizer plugins: BitInvader – wavetable-lookup synthesis FreeBoy – emulator of Game Boy audio processing unit (APU) Kicker – bass drum synthesizer LB302 – imitation of the Roland TB-303 Mallets – tuneful percussion synthesizer Monstro – 3-oscillator synthesizer with modulation matrix Nescaline – NES-like synthesizer OpulenZ – 2-operator FM synthesizer Organic – organ-like synthesizer Sf2 Player – a Fluidsynth-based Soundfont player SID – emulator of the Commodore 64 chips TripleOscillator - 3-oscillator synthesizer with 5 modulation modes: MIX, SYNC, PM, FM, and AM Vibed – vibrating string modeler Watsyn – 4-oscillator wavetable synthesizer Xpressive - mathematical expression parser synthesizer (only in alpha) ZynAddSubFX Other plugins AudioFileProcessor (AFP) – basic sampler with trimming and looping capabilities SlicerT – slicer with tempo detection (only in nightly) VeSTige - interface for VST plugins Standards Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) SoundFont (SF2) Virtual Studio Technology (VST) Linux Audio Developer's Simple Plugin API (LADSPA) LV2 (only master branch, since 24.05.2020) Gravis Ultrasound (GUS) patches (PatMan) JACK Audio Connection Kit (JACK) ZynAddSubFX Audio output examples Skiessi – C64 A short chiptune-style music sample created with LMMS, demonstrating the abilities of the program's MOS Technology SID emulator Problems playing this file? See media help. WzWoop A short example created with LMMS Problems playing this file? See media help. Hoofa A progressive electronic song created with LMMS Problems playing this file? See media help. See also List of music software List of Linux audio software Comparison of free software for audio Multitrack recording Comparison of multitrack recording software Free and open-source software portalMusic portal References ^ "LMMS Alternatives and Similar Software - AlternativeTo.net". AlternativeTo. ^ "1.2.2 Latest". 4 July 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2023. ^ a b "Debian -- Details of package lmms in buster". Debian. Retrieved 24 November 2019. ^ "LMMS – Currently supported languages". GitHub. Retrieved 21 June 2017. ^ "LMMS License". lmms.io. Retrieved 2 June 2021. ^ "7.1 Glossary". LMMS User manual. 2020. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 28 April 2023. ^ "Installation". LMMS • Documentation. 7 May 2024. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2024. ^ "VeSTige - LMMS Wiki". lmms.io. ^ "LMMS – Linux MultiMedia Studio". SourceForge. Retrieved 17 May 2011. ^ Dave Phillips (17 August 2009). "LMMS: The Linux MultiMedia Studio". Linux Journal. Retrieved 31 March 2016. ^ "LMMS Sound Editing Software". Software Insider. Retrieved 31 March 2011. ^ "lmms.io/utils.php function read_project". Github. Retrieved 3 August 2017. Tobias Doerffel (December 2005). "Making Music with Linux Multimedia Studio". Linux Magazine (61): 58–60. Retrieved 30 March 2009. Dave Phillips (1 October 2008). "State of the Art: Linux Audio 2008, Part II". Linux Journal. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 30 March 2009. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to LMMS. LMMS website vteDigital audio workstationsFree and Open-Source Ardour BespokeSynth LMMS MusE Qtractor Rosegarden Traverso Proprietary Ableton Live ACID Pro Adobe Audition Anvil Studio Bitwig Studio Cakewalk by BandLab Digital Performer FL Studio FL Studio Mobile GarageBand Harrison Mixbus Logic Pro MAGIX Samplitude MAGIX Sequoia Making Waves Mixcraft MuLab MultitrackStudio n-Track Studio Pro Tools REAPER Reason Renoise SAWStudio Steinberg Cubase Steinberg Nuendo Steinberg WaveLab Studio One Tracktion Z-Maestro Zynewave Podium vteAudio editing softwareFree and open-source Ardour Audacity Ecasound Gnome Wave Cleaner Jokosher LMMS MusE Qtractor Rosegarden SoX Sweep Traverso WaveSurfer Proprietary Ableton Live Acid Pro Acoustica Adobe Audition Anvil Studio AudioDesk Bitwig Studio Cakewalk by BandLab DC-Art Digital Performer FL Studio FL Studio Mobile GarageBand GoldWave Harrison Mixbus KRISTAL Audio Engine Logic Pro Magix Samplitude Making Waves Mixcraft MuLab MultitrackStudio n-Track Studio Pro Tools REAPER Reason ReCycle Renoise SAWStudio Sound Forge SpectraLayers Steinberg Cubase Steinberg Nuendo Steinberg WaveLab Studio One Synapse Orion Total Recorder Tracktion Waveform Vegas Pro WavePad Z-Maestro Zynewave Podium Defunct Adobe Soundbooth BIAS Peak Ensoniq Paris Logic Express Logic Studio Record SoundDroid SoundEdit Soundscape Digital Technology Soundscape R.Ed Soundtrack Pro TC Works Spark See also Comparison of digital audio editors Comparison of free software for audio List of music software List of Linux audio software Comparison of MIDI editors and sequencers Comparison Category This music software article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"digital audio workstation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_workstation"},{"link_name":"application program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software"},{"link_name":"computer keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_keyboard"},{"link_name":"mouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse"},{"link_name":"MIDI keyboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI_keyboard"},{"link_name":"trackers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracker_(music_software)"},{"link_name":"sequencers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_sequencer"},{"link_name":"free and open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software"},{"link_name":"Qt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qt_(software)"},{"link_name":"GPL-2.0-or-later","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"}],"text":"LMMS (formerly Linux MultiMedia Studio[6]) is a digital audio workstation application program. It allows music to be produced by arranging samples, synthesizing sounds, entering notes via computer keyboard or mouse (or other pointing device) or by playing on a MIDI keyboard, and combining the features of trackers and sequencers. It is free and open source software, written in Qt and released under GPL-2.0-or-later.","title":"LMMS"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM"},{"link_name":"sound card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"LMMS is available for multiple operating systems, including Linux, OpenBSD, macOS, and Windows. It requires a 1.5 GHz CPU, 1 GB of RAM and a two-channel sound card.[7]","title":"System requirements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"soundfonts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundfont"},{"link_name":"GUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravis_Ultrasound"},{"link_name":"LADSPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LADSPA"},{"link_name":"LV2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LV2"},{"link_name":"since 24.05.2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/LMMS/lmms/commit/2a66e83f536ed71984054392ed469991de67874e"},{"link_name":"VST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Studio_Technology"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sourceforge-9"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"Hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_(software)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-linuxjournal-10"},{"link_name":"Ogg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogg"},{"link_name":"FLAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLAC"},{"link_name":"MP3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MP3"},{"link_name":"WAV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAV"},{"link_name":"file formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_format"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"LMMS accepts soundfonts and GUS patches, and it supports the Linux Audio Developer's Simple Plugin API (LADSPA) and LV2 (only master branch, since 24.05.2020). It can use VST plug-ins on Win32, Win64, or Wine32. The nightly versions support LinuxVST. Currently the macOS port doesn't support them.[8][9]It can import Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) and Hydrogen files and can read and write customized presets and themes.[10]Audio can be exported in the Ogg, FLAC, MP3, and WAV file formats.[11]Projects can be saved in the compressed MMPZ file format or the uncompressed MMP file format.[12]","title":"Program features"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LMMS_Song_Editor.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LMMS_Beat_Bassline_Editor.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FX-Mixer.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LMMS_Piano_Roll.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LMMS_Automation_Editor.png"}],"text":"Song Editor – for arranging instruments, samples, groups of notes, automation, and more\nBeat+Bassline Editor – for quickly sequencing rhythms\nFX Mixer – for sending multiple audio inputs through groups of effects and sending them to other mixer channels, infinite channels are supported\nPiano Roll – edit patterns and melodies\nAutomation Editor – move almost any knob or widget over the course of the songSong Editor\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBeat+Bassline Editor\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFX mixer\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPiano Roll\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAutomation Editor","title":"Editors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"audio plug-ins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_plug-in"},{"link_name":"Synthesizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthesizer"},{"link_name":"wavetable-lookup synthesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavetable_synthesis"},{"link_name":"emulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulator"},{"link_name":"Game Boy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Boy"},{"link_name":"audio processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_card"},{"link_name":"Roland TB-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TB-303"},{"link_name":"FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation"},{"link_name":"Fluidsynth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FluidSynth"},{"link_name":"SID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_SID"},{"link_name":"Commodore 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64"},{"link_name":"SYNC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscillator_sync"},{"link_name":"PM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_modulation_methods"},{"link_name":"FM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation"},{"link_name":"AM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation"},{"link_name":"alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_release_cycle"},{"link_name":"ZynAddSubFX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZynAddSubFX"},{"link_name":"sampler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampler_(musical_instrument)"},{"link_name":"slicer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beat_slicing"},{"link_name":"VST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Studio_Technology"}],"text":"LMMS includes a variety of audio plug-ins that can be drag-and-dropped onto instrument tracks in the Song Editor and Beat+Bassline Editor.Synthesizer plugins:BitInvader – wavetable-lookup synthesis\nFreeBoy – emulator of Game Boy audio processing unit (APU)\nKicker – bass drum synthesizer\nLB302 – imitation of the Roland TB-303\nMallets – tuneful percussion synthesizer\nMonstro – 3-oscillator synthesizer with modulation matrix\nNescaline – NES-like synthesizer\nOpulenZ – 2-operator FM synthesizer\nOrganic – organ-like synthesizer\nSf2 Player – a Fluidsynth-based Soundfont player\nSID – emulator of the Commodore 64 chips\nTripleOscillator - 3-oscillator synthesizer with 5 modulation modes: MIX, SYNC, PM, FM, and AM\nVibed – vibrating string modeler\nWatsyn – 4-oscillator wavetable synthesizer\nXpressive - mathematical expression parser synthesizer (only in alpha)\nZynAddSubFXOther pluginsAudioFileProcessor (AFP) – basic sampler with trimming and looping capabilities\nSlicerT – slicer with tempo detection (only in nightly)\nVeSTige - interface for VST plugins","title":"Audio plug-ins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"SoundFont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoundFont"},{"link_name":"Virtual Studio Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_Studio_Technology"},{"link_name":"LADSPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LADSPA"},{"link_name":"LV2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LV2"},{"link_name":"since 24.05.2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//github.com/LMMS/lmms/commit/2a66e83f536ed71984054392ed469991de67874e"},{"link_name":"Gravis Ultrasound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravis_Ultrasound"},{"link_name":"JACK Audio Connection Kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JACK_Audio_Connection_Kit"},{"link_name":"ZynAddSubFX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZynAddSubFX"}],"text":"Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI)\nSoundFont (SF2)\nVirtual Studio Technology (VST)\nLinux Audio Developer's Simple Plugin API (LADSPA)\nLV2 (only master branch, since 24.05.2020)\nGravis Ultrasound (GUS) patches (PatMan)\nJACK Audio Connection Kit (JACK)\nZynAddSubFX","title":"Standards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Skiessi – C64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Skiessi_-_C64.ogg"},{"link_name":"chiptune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiptune"},{"link_name":"MOS Technology SID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_SID"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"WzWoop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WzWoop,_July_2020.ogg"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"Hoofa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hoofa.mp3"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"}],"text":"Skiessi – C64\n\nA short chiptune-style music sample created with LMMS, demonstrating the abilities of the program's MOS Technology SID emulator\nProblems playing this file? See media help.WzWoop\n\nA short example created with LMMS\nProblems playing this file? See media help.Hoofa\n\nA progressive electronic song created with LMMS\nProblems playing this file? See media help.","title":"Audio output examples"}]
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[{"title":"List of music software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_music_software"},{"title":"List of Linux audio software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_audio_software"},{"title":"Comparison of free software for audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_free_software_for_audio"},{"title":"Multitrack recording","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multitrack_recording"},{"title":"Comparison of multitrack recording software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_multitrack_recording_software"},{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"Music portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Music"}]
[{"reference":"\"LMMS Alternatives and Similar Software - AlternativeTo.net\". AlternativeTo.","urls":[{"url":"http://alternativeto.net/software/lmms---linux-multimedia-studio/","url_text":"\"LMMS Alternatives and Similar Software - AlternativeTo.net\""}]},{"reference":"\"1.2.2 Latest\". 4 July 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/LMMS/lmms/releases/tag/v1.2.2","url_text":"\"1.2.2 Latest\""}]},{"reference":"\"Debian -- Details of package lmms in buster\". Debian. Retrieved 24 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://packages.debian.org/buster/lmms","url_text":"\"Debian -- Details of package lmms in buster\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian","url_text":"Debian"}]},{"reference":"\"LMMS – Currently supported languages\". GitHub. Retrieved 21 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/LMMS/lmms/wiki/Creating-a-localization#currently-supported-languages","url_text":"\"LMMS – Currently supported languages\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"LMMS License\". lmms.io. Retrieved 2 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.lmms.io/user-manual/8-legal/8.1-license","url_text":"\"LMMS License\""}]},{"reference":"\"7.1 Glossary\". LMMS User manual. 2020. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 28 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.lmms.io/user-manual/7-resources/7.1-glossary#7.1.7.3-lmms","url_text":"\"7.1 Glossary\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220618235238/https://docs.lmms.io/user-manual/7-resources/7.1-glossary","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Installation\". LMMS • Documentation. 7 May 2024. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 7 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.lmms.io/user-manual/getting-started/installation","url_text":"\"Installation\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240429003908/https://docs.lmms.io/user-manual/getting-started/installation","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"VeSTige - LMMS Wiki\". lmms.io.","urls":[{"url":"https://lmms.io/wiki/index.php?title=VeSTige","url_text":"\"VeSTige - LMMS Wiki\""}]},{"reference":"\"LMMS – Linux MultiMedia Studio\". SourceForge. Retrieved 17 May 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://lmms.sourceforge.net/","url_text":"\"LMMS – Linux MultiMedia Studio\""}]},{"reference":"Dave Phillips (17 August 2009). \"LMMS: The Linux MultiMedia Studio\". Linux Journal. Retrieved 31 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.linuxjournal.com/content/introducing-lmms-linux-multimedia-studio","url_text":"\"LMMS: The Linux MultiMedia Studio\""}]},{"reference":"\"LMMS Sound Editing Software\". Software Insider. Retrieved 31 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://sound-editing.softwareinsider.com/l/33/LMMS","url_text":"\"LMMS Sound Editing Software\""}]},{"reference":"\"lmms.io/utils.php function read_project\". Github. Retrieved 3 August 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/LMMS/lmms.io/blob/1051cf33402d8543890557970b06b57b839bf89c/public/lsp/utils.php#L475","url_text":"\"lmms.io/utils.php function read_project\""}]},{"reference":"Tobias Doerffel (December 2005). \"Making Music with Linux Multimedia Studio\". Linux Magazine (61): 58–60. Retrieved 30 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.linux-magazine.com/issues/2005/61/music_builder/(kategorie)/0","url_text":"\"Making Music with Linux Multimedia Studio\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Magazine","url_text":"Linux Magazine"}]},{"reference":"Dave Phillips (1 October 2008). \"State of the Art: Linux Audio 2008, Part II\". Linux Journal. Archived from the original on 7 February 2009. Retrieved 30 March 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090207073421/http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/10201","url_text":"\"State of the Art: Linux Audio 2008, Part II\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_Journal","url_text":"Linux Journal"},{"url":"http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/10201","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_and_Eulerian_specification_of_the_flow_field
Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field
[]
Computational fluid dynamics tools This article is about continuum mechanics. For the use of generalized coordinates in classical mechanics, see generalized coordinates, Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics File:Lagrangian vs EulerianEulerian perspective of fluid velocity versus Lagrangian depiction of strain. In classical field theories, the Lagrangian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion where the observer follows an individual fluid parcel as it moves through space and time. Plotting the position of an individual parcel through time gives the pathline of the parcel. This can be visualized as sitting in a boat and drifting down a river. The Eulerian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion that focuses on specific locations in the space through which the fluid flows as time passes. This can be visualized by sitting on the bank of a river and watching the water pass the fixed location. The Lagrangian and Eulerian specifications of the flow field are sometimes loosely denoted as the Lagrangian and Eulerian frame of reference. However, in general both the Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field can be applied in any observer's frame of reference, and in any coordinate system used within the chosen frame of reference. These specifications are reflected in computational fluid dynamics, where "Eulerian" simulations employ a fixed mesh while "Lagrangian" ones (such as meshfree simulations) feature simulation nodes that may move following the velocity field. Description In the Eulerian specification of a field, the field is represented as a function of position x and time t. For example, the flow velocity is represented by a function u ( x , t ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} \left(\mathbf {x} ,t\right).} On the other hand, in the Lagrangian specification, individual fluid parcels are followed through time. The fluid parcels are labelled by some (time-independent) vector field x0. (Often, x0 is chosen to be the position of the center of mass of the parcels at some initial time t0. It is chosen in this particular manner to account for the possible changes of the shape over time. Therefore the center of mass is a good parameterization of the flow velocity u of the parcel.) In the Lagrangian description, the flow is described by a function X ( x 0 , t ) , {\displaystyle \mathbf {X} \left(\mathbf {x} _{0},t\right),} giving the position of the particle labeled x0 at time t. The two specifications are related as follows: u ( X ( x 0 , t ) , t ) = ∂ X ∂ t ( x 0 , t ) , {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} \left(\mathbf {X} (\mathbf {x} _{0},t),t\right)={\frac {\partial \mathbf {X} }{\partial t}}\left(\mathbf {x} _{0},t\right),} because both sides describe the velocity of the particle labeled x0 at time t. Within a chosen coordinate system, x0 and x are referred to as the Lagrangian coordinates and Eulerian coordinates of the flow respectively. Material derivative Main article: Material derivative The Lagrangian and Eulerian specifications of the kinematics and dynamics of the flow field are related by the material derivative (also called the Lagrangian derivative, convective derivative, substantial derivative, or particle derivative). Suppose we have a flow field u, and we are also given a generic field with Eulerian specification F(x, t). Now one might ask about the total rate of change of F experienced by a specific flow parcel. This can be computed as D F D t = ∂ F ∂ t + ( u ⋅ ∇ ) F , {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {D} \mathbf {F} }{\mathrm {D} t}}={\frac {\partial \mathbf {F} }{\partial t}}+\left(\mathbf {u} \cdot \nabla \right)\mathbf {F} ,} where ∇ denotes the nabla operator with respect to x, and the operator u⋅∇ is to be applied to each component of F. This tells us that the total rate of change of the function F as the fluid parcels moves through a flow field described by its Eulerian specification u is equal to the sum of the local rate of change and the convective rate of change of F. This is a consequence of the chain rule since we are differentiating the function F(X(x0, t), t) with respect to t. Conservation laws for a unit mass have a Lagrangian form, which together with mass conservation produce Eulerian conservation; on the contrary, when fluid particles can exchange a quantity (like energy or momentum), only Eulerian conservation laws exist. See also Brewer-Dobson Circulation Conservation form Contour advection Displacement field (mechanics) Equivalent latitude Generalized Lagrangian mean Lagrangian particle tracking Rolling Semi-Lagrangian scheme Streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines Trajectory (fluid mechanics) Stochastic Eulerian Lagrangian method Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian) Notes ^ a b c d Batchelor, G. K. (1973). An Introduction to Fluid dynamics. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–73. ISBN 978-0-521-09817-5. OCLC 847527173. ^ a b c Lamb, H. (1994) . Hydrodynamics (6th ed.). Cambridge University Press. §3–§7 and §13–§16. ISBN 978-0-521-45868-9. ^ Falkovich, Gregory (2011). Fluid Mechanics (A short course for physicists). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00575-4. References Badin, G.; Crisciani, F. (2018). Variational Formulation of Fluid and Geophysical Fluid Dynamics - Mechanics, Symmetries and Conservation Laws. Springer. p. 218. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-59695-2. ISBN 978-3-319-59694-5. S2CID 125902566. Landau, Lev; Lifshitz, E.M. (1987). Fluid Mechanics. Course of Theoretical Physics, Volume 6 (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0750627672. External links Objectivity in classical continuum mechanics: Motions, Eulerian and Lagrangian functions; Deformation gradient; Lie derivatives; Velocity-addition formula, Coriolis; Objectivity.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"generalized coordinates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_coordinates"},{"link_name":"Lagrangian mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_mechanics"},{"link_name":"Hamiltonian mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian_mechanics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eulerian_versus_Lagrangian_perspectives_illustrated.svg"},{"link_name":"fluid velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_velocity"},{"link_name":"strain.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_strain_theory"},{"link_name":"classical field theories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_field_theory"},{"link_name":"fluid parcel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluid_parcel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Batchelor-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lamb-2"},{"link_name":"pathline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamlines,_streaklines,_and_pathlines"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Batchelor-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lamb-2"},{"link_name":"frame of reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"coordinate system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_system"},{"link_name":"computational fluid dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_fluid_dynamics"},{"link_name":"mesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_mesh"},{"link_name":"meshfree simulations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshfree_methods"},{"link_name":"velocity field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity_field"}],"text":"This article is about continuum mechanics. For the use of generalized coordinates in classical mechanics, see generalized coordinates, Lagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanicsFile:Lagrangian vs EulerianEulerian perspective of fluid velocity versus Lagrangian depiction of strain.In classical field theories, the Lagrangian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion where the observer follows an individual fluid parcel as it moves through space and time.[1][2] Plotting the position of an individual parcel through time gives the pathline of the parcel. This can be visualized as sitting in a boat and drifting down a river.The Eulerian specification of the flow field is a way of looking at fluid motion that focuses on specific locations in the space through which the fluid flows as time passes.[1][2] This can be visualized by sitting on the bank of a river and watching the water pass the fixed location.The Lagrangian and Eulerian specifications of the flow field are sometimes loosely denoted as the Lagrangian and Eulerian frame of reference. However, in general both the Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field can be applied in any observer's frame of reference, and in any coordinate system used within the chosen frame of reference.These specifications are reflected in computational fluid dynamics, where \"Eulerian\" simulations employ a fixed mesh while \"Lagrangian\" ones (such as meshfree simulations) feature simulation nodes that may move following the velocity field.","title":"Lagrangian and Eulerian specification of the flow field"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(physics)"},{"link_name":"flow velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_velocity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Batchelor-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lamb-2"}],"text":"In the Eulerian specification of a field, the field is represented as a function of position x and time t. For example, the flow velocity is represented by a functionu\n \n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n ,\n t\n \n )\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} \\left(\\mathbf {x} ,t\\right).}On the other hand, in the Lagrangian specification, individual fluid parcels are followed through time. The fluid parcels are labelled by some (time-independent) vector field x0. (Often, x0 is chosen to be the position of the center of mass of the parcels at some initial time t0. It is chosen in this particular manner to account for the possible changes of the shape over time. Therefore the center of mass is a good parameterization of the flow velocity u of the parcel.)[1] In the Lagrangian description, the flow is described by a functionX\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n t\n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {X} \\left(\\mathbf {x} _{0},t\\right),}x0tThe two specifications are related as follows:[2]u\n \n \n (\n \n \n X\n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n t\n )\n ,\n t\n \n )\n \n =\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n X\n \n \n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n x\n \n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n t\n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} \\left(\\mathbf {X} (\\mathbf {x} _{0},t),t\\right)={\\frac {\\partial \\mathbf {X} }{\\partial t}}\\left(\\mathbf {x} _{0},t\\right),}x0tWithin a chosen coordinate system, x0 and x are referred to as the Lagrangian coordinates and Eulerian coordinates of the flow respectively.","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"kinematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematics"},{"link_name":"dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamics_(physics)"},{"link_name":"material derivative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_derivative"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Batchelor-1"},{"link_name":"Conservation laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_law"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Falkovich-3"}],"text":"The Lagrangian and Eulerian specifications of the kinematics and dynamics of the flow field are related by the material derivative (also called the Lagrangian derivative, convective derivative, substantial derivative, or particle derivative).[1]Suppose we have a flow field u, and we are also given a generic field with Eulerian specification F(x, t). Now one might ask about the total rate of change of F experienced by a specific flow parcel. This can be computed asD\n \n \n F\n \n \n \n \n D\n \n t\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ∂\n \n F\n \n \n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n +\n \n (\n \n \n u\n \n ⋅\n ∇\n \n )\n \n \n F\n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {\\mathrm {D} \\mathbf {F} }{\\mathrm {D} t}}={\\frac {\\partial \\mathbf {F} }{\\partial t}}+\\left(\\mathbf {u} \\cdot \\nabla \\right)\\mathbf {F} ,}nablaxuFFuFchain ruleFXx0tttConservation laws for a unit mass have a Lagrangian form, which together with mass conservation produce Eulerian conservation; on the contrary, when fluid particles can exchange a quantity (like energy or momentum), only Eulerian conservation laws exist.[3]","title":"Material derivative"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Batchelor_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Batchelor_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Batchelor_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Batchelor_1-3"},{"link_name":"Batchelor, G. K.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Batchelor"},{"link_name":"An Introduction to Fluid dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/847527173"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-09817-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-09817-5"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"847527173","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/847527173"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lamb_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lamb_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Lamb_2-2"},{"link_name":"Lamb, H.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Lamb"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-45868-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45868-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Falkovich_3-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-107-00575-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-00575-4"}],"text":"^ a b c d Batchelor, G. K. (1973). An Introduction to Fluid dynamics. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 71–73. ISBN 978-0-521-09817-5. OCLC 847527173.\n\n^ a b c Lamb, H. (1994) [1932]. Hydrodynamics (6th ed.). Cambridge University Press. §3–§7 and §13–§16. ISBN 978-0-521-45868-9.\n\n^ Falkovich, Gregory (2011). Fluid Mechanics (A short course for physicists). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-00575-4.","title":"Notes"}]
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[{"title":"Brewer-Dobson Circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewer%E2%80%93Dobson_circulation"},{"title":"Conservation form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_form"},{"title":"Contour advection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contour_advection"},{"title":"Displacement field (mechanics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_field_(mechanics)"},{"title":"Equivalent latitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalent_latitude"},{"title":"Generalized Lagrangian mean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_Lagrangian_mean"},{"title":"Lagrangian particle tracking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian_particle_tracking"},{"title":"Rolling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling#Deformable_bodies"},{"title":"Semi-Lagrangian scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-Lagrangian_scheme"},{"title":"Streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamlines,_streaklines,_and_pathlines"},{"title":"Trajectory (fluid mechanics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajectory_(fluid_mechanics)"},{"title":"Stochastic Eulerian Lagrangian method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_Eulerian_Lagrangian_method"},{"title":"Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liouville%27s_theorem_(Hamiltonian)"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammolite
Ammolite
["1 Properties","2 Origin","3 Occurrence","4 Extraction","5 Gemstone quality","6 Treatments","7 Imitations","8 Use in jewelry","9 Footnotes","10 References","11 External links"]
Opal-like organic gemstone This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) AmmoliteUnprocessed sample of ammolite; a "dragon skin" pattern is apparentGeneralCategoryfossilized, mineralized Ammonite shellFormula(repeating unit)CaCO3 aragonite polymorph, with minor amounts of calcite, pyrite, silica, and other impuritiesIdentificationColorGray to brown, can be radiant blue, with primarily red to green iridescence.Cleavageno true cleavageFractureuneven to granularMohs scale hardness3.5 - 4.5Lustergreasy to dullSpecific gravityusually about 2.70 (varies with mineral content)Polish lustervitreousOptical propertiesanomalous aggregate reactionRefractive indexusually 1.52 - 1.68 (varies with mineral content)Birefringence0.135 - 0.145PleochroismnoneUltraviolet fluorescencevariable Ammolite is an opal-like organic gemstone found primarily along the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains of North America. It is made of the fossilized shells of ammonites, which in turn are composed primarily of aragonite, the same mineral contained in nacre, with a microstructure inherited from the shell. It is one of few biogenic gemstones; others include amber and pearl. In 1981, ammolite was given official gemstone status by the World Jewellery Confederation (CIBJO), the same year commercial mining of ammolite began. It was designated the official gemstone of the City of Lethbridge, Alberta in 2007. Ammolite is also known as aapoak (Kainah for "small, crawling stone"), gem ammonite, calcentine, and korite. The latter is a trade name given to the gemstone by the Alberta-based mining company Korite. Marcel Charbonneau and his business partner Mike Berisoff were the first to create commercial doublets of the gem in 1967. They went on to form Ammolite Minerals Ltd. Properties The chemical composition of ammolite is variable, and aside from aragonite may include calcite, silica, pyrite, or other minerals. The shell itself may contain a number of trace elements, including: Aluminium, barium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, strontium, titanium, and vanadium. Its crystal structure is orthorhombic. Its hardness is 3.5–4.5 . Its specific gravity is 2.60–2.85 g/cm³. The refractive index of Canadian material (as measured via sodium light, 589.3 nm) is biaxial negative, with α = 1.522 ; β = 1.672–1.673 ; γ = 1.676–1.679 . Under ultraviolet light, ammolite may fluoresce a mustard yellow. An iridescent opal-like play of color is shown in fine specimens, mostly in shades of green and red; all the spectral colors are possible, however. The iridescence is due to the microstructure of the aragonite: Unlike most other gems, whose colors come from light absorption, the iridescent color of ammolite comes from interference with the light that rebounds from stacked layers of thin platelets that make up the aragonite. The thicker the layers, the more reds and greens are produced; the thinner the layers, the more blues and violets predominate. Reds and greens are the most commonly seen colors, owing to the greater fragility of the finer layers responsible for the blues. When freshly quarried, these colors are not especially dramatic; the material requires polishing and possibly other treatments in order to reveal the colors' full potential. The ammolite itself is actually a very thin sheet, c. 0.5–0.8 mm (0.02–0.03 inches) in thickness. Rarely is ammolite without its matrix, which is typically a grey to brown shale, chalky clay, or limestone. So-called "frost shattering" is common; exposed to the elements and compressed by sediments, the thin ammolite tends to crack and flake; prolonged exposure to sunlight can also lead to bleaching. The cracking results in a tessellated appearance, sometimes described as a "dragon skin" or "stained glass window" pattern. Ammolite mined from deeper deposits may be entirely smooth or with a rippled surface. Occasionally a complete ammonite shell is recovered with its structure well-preserved: fine, convoluted lines delineate the shell chambers, and the overall shape is suggestive of a nautilus. While these shells may be as large as 90 cm (35.5 inches) in diameter, the iridescent ammonites (as opposed to the pyritized variety) are typically much smaller. Most fossilized shells have had their aragonite pseudomorphously replaced by calcite or pyrite, making the presence of ammolite particularly uncommon. Origin An iridescent ammonite from Madagascar Map of North America highlighting the shallow inland sea present during the mid-Cretaceous period. Ammolite comes from the fossil shells of the Upper Cretaceous disk-shaped ammonites Placenticeras meeki and Placenticeras intercalare, and (to a lesser degree) the cylindrical baculite, Baculites compressus. Ammonites were cephalopods, that thrived in tropical seas until becoming extinct along with the dinosaurs at the end of the Mesozoic era. The ammonites that form ammolite inhabited a prehistoric, inland subtropical sea that bordered the Rocky Mountains—this area is known today as the Cretaceous or Western Interior Seaway. As the ammonites died, they sank to the bottom and were buried by layers of bentonitic mud that eventually became shale. Many gem-quality ammonites are found within siderite concretions. These sediments preserved the aragonite of the shells, preventing it from converting to calcite. Occurrence Korite's mechanized mining operations are fairly basic, involving the excavation of shallow pits with backhoes. Significant deposits of gem-quality ammolite have only been found in the Bearpaw Formation that extends from Alberta to Saskatchewan in Canada and south to Montana in the USA. However, small deposits have been found as far south as Central Utah which also contains gem-quality ammolite. The best grade of gem quality ammolite is along high energy river systems on the eastern slopes of the Rockies in southern Alberta. Most commercial mining operations have been conducted along the banks of the St. Mary River, in an area south of and between the town of Magrath and the city of Lethbridge. Roughly half of all ammolite deposits are contained within the Kainah (Kainaiwa) reserve, and its inhabitants play a major role in ammolite mining. Since its founding in 1979, Korite has operated primarily within the reservation. The company had an agreement with the Kainah (Blood) tribe, with Korite paying the tribe royalties based on how much land the company has mined. This agreement has expired. It prohibited the Blood Tribe members from surface mining along the banks and cliffs of the St. Mary River. There were about 35 licensed Blood surface miners in 2018. The surface miners are self employed mining in all kinds of weather. Some miners also restore the fossils they find or resell their finds to other fabricators. Extraction Another view of Korite's open-pit mining operations in Alberta, Canada. Commercial extraction is mechanized but fairly basic: shallow open pits are dug with an excavator and the excavated material is screened for its potential gem contents. The pits are further examined by hand, and commercial production is supplemented by individuals who sell their surface-picked findings to Korite and several other producers. Approximately 50% of the ammolite mined is suitable for jewelry. Korite, the largest miner of ammolite, produces over 90% of the world's supply. The ammolite deposits are stratified into several layers: the shallowest of these layers, named the "K zone", lies some 15 meters below the surface and extends 30 meters down. The ammolite within this layer is covered by siderite concretions and is usually cracked — this is the crush material. It is the most common and (generally speaking) the least valuable form of ammolite. Beginning twenty meters below the crush material is the "blue zone"; ammolite from this zone, which extends 65 meters, is usually compressed with a thin layer of pyrite rather than siderite concretions. This is the sheet material; due to its depth it is rarely mined. It is also much less fractured, and therefore a more valuable form of ammolite. As of 2015, Korite has mined over 100 acres of ammolite deposits. The company employs over 280 people and accounts for approximately 90 percent of world gem ammolite production. Prospectors who wish to mine ammolite deposits on Crown land must apply to the Alberta Department of Energy for a lease. These leases are not regularly offered; as of 2004, there was a CAD $625 application fee, with an annual rental fee of CAD$3.50 per hectare. Gemstone quality Placenticeras ammolite specimen, from Bearpaw Formation, Campanian Stage, upper Upper Cretaceous, ~70-75 Ma. The quality of gem ammolite is communicated via a letter grade system, from most desirable to least desirable: AA; A+; A; and A−. However, this system is not yet standardized and some vendors may use their own systems. The grade and therefore the value of an ammolite gemstone is determined by the following criteria: The number of primary colors A large array of color is displayed in ammolite, including all the spectral colors found in nature. Red and green are far more common than blue or purple due to the latter's fragility (see properties). There are also certain hues, like crimson or violet or gold, which are derived from a combination of the primary colors, that are the rarest and in highest demand. The most valuable grades have three or more primary colors or 1–2 bright and even colors, with the lowest grades having one comparatively dull color predominant. The way the colors "play" (chromatic shift and rotational range) Chromatic shift is how the colors vary with the angle of viewing and the angle of light striking the gemstone. In higher grades this variation is almost prismatic in its scope, while lower grades show very little variation. Rotational range is how far the specimen can be turned while maintaining its play of color; the best rotate 360° uncompromised, while lesser stones may exhibit highly directional colors that are only visible within a narrow rotational range, down to 90° or less. Intermediate grades have ranges of 240°–180°. Brightness of colors and iridescence The brightness of colors and their iridescence is essentially dependent on how well-preserved the nacreous shell is, and how fine and orderly the layers of aragonite are. The quality of the polish is also a factor. The "dragon skin" cracking usually hinders its value ; the most prized ammolite is the sheet type (see formation) that has broad, uninterrupted swathes of color similar to the "broad flash" category of opal. The matrix is not visible in finer grades, and there should be no foreign minerals breaking up or diminishing the iridescence. The thickness of the ammolite layer is also an important factor: after polishing, the ammolite is only 0.1–0.3 millimeters thick. The rarest and most valuable are thick enough to stand alone, with only a thin portion of its original matrix (not exceeding 1.5 mm); but the vast majority require some sort of supportive backing. Other treatments are also commonly undertaken; all other factors being equal, the less treatment an ammolite gem has received, the more valuable it is. Calibrated stones—that is, stones fashioned into standard dimensions that will fit most jewelry settings—may also command a higher price. Treatments Ammolite is often damaged due to environmental exposure, even though it is fully mineralized and contains no water — therefore it is not subject to dehydration and subsequent crazing seen in opals. The thin, delicate sheets in which ammolite occurs are also problematic; for these reasons, most material is impregnated with a clear epoxy or other synthetic resin to stabilize the flake-prone ammolite prior to cutting. Although the tessellated cracking cannot be repaired, the epoxy prevents further flaking and helps protect the relatively soft surface from scratching. The impregnation process was developed over a number of years by Korite in partnership with the Alberta Research Council. Impregnated and epoxy-coated ammolite first entered the market in 1989 and the treatment significantly increased the availability and durability of the gem. Because the ammolite layer is usually mere fractions of a millimeter in thickness, most ammolite gems are in fact composite stones: These usually take the form of two-part doublets, with the ammolite layer adhered to a dark backing material. This is usually the matrix or mother rock from which the ammolite was quarried; black onyx or glass could also be used as backing. In composites where the ammolite layer is exceptionally thin, a third component is used: This constitutes a triplet, with a durable and transparent convex topping piece. This cap may be either synthetic spinel, synthetic corundum, synthetic quartz, or in lower-end productions, glass. The convex cap acts as a lens and has the effect of enhancing the ammolite's iridescent display. The detection of these treated and composite stones is relatively simple via inspection with a loupe; however, certain jewelry setting styles—such as those with closed backs—can complicate things. A triplet can be identified by inspecting the stone in profile; the top of the stone can then be seen to be domed and transparent, with no play of color. If the dome is made of glass, bubbles, swirl marks, and scratches may be present; the harder synthetic materials are optically flawless. Although the vast majority of commercial-grade ammolite has been treated in some way, a small fraction of production requires no treatment other than cutting and polishing. Ideally, any treatments should be disclosed at the time of sale. Imitations The iridescent flashes (labradorescence) of labradorite may lead to its confusion with ammolite by the unfamiliar, but the overall appearance is unconvincing as an imitation. Ammolite is neither easily nor often imitated; however, a few materials have a passing resemblance that may deceive the unfamiliar. These include: labradorite (also known as spectrolite), an iridescent feldspar that may also be of Canadian origin; and broad-flash black opal. Neither are convincing substitutes, and the latter is actually of greater value than ammolite. Indeed, ammolite is often used as an imitation of black opal. An even less convincing possibility is Slocum stone, a common glass-based imitation of opal. Blues and purples are much more pervasive in labradorite, and in both it and opal the play of color is seen to roll across the stone unlike the comparatively restricted play of color in ammolite. In Slocum stone, the play of color takes the form of tinsel-like patches. The visible structure is also considerably different; in the imitations, the body of the stone is transparent to translucent from certain angles, whereas ammolite is entirely opaque. Gemologically speaking, ammolite can be grouped with the shell-based marbles. This group includes lumachella or "fire marble", a similarly iridescent marble composed of fossilized clam and snail shells. Found in Italy and Austria, lumachella is rarely if ever used in jewelry; rather, it is used as a decorative facing stone or in mosaics. The iridescence of lumachella is fragmentary and not nearly as brilliant as that of ammolite. Despite these differences, lumachella may be considered synonymous with ammolite in some circles. The predominantly blue-green iridescent shell of abalone (or paua; genus Haliotis) is one last possible imitation. Abalone shell is inexpensive and plentiful owing to the commercial mariculture of these gastropods for their meat. The shell's structure is distinctive: sinuous bands of blue, green, and rose iridescence are delineated by dark brown lines of conchiolin, a proteinaceous material that holds the shell together. The luster of abalone shell is silky rather than the near vitreous luster of polished ammolite, and the colors of the two materials do not closely approximate. However, some abalone shell has been dyed and given a transparent cap of synthetic quartz, forming a doublet in the same fashion as ammolite. These doublets are perhaps the most deceptive, and have also been used to imitate opal. Under magnification most abalone doublets will show dye concentrated along certain areas and air bubbles trapped at the shell-quartz interface. Use in jewelry Ammolite jewelry by Korite. The ammolite gems are triplets, as evidenced by their convex profiles. Ammolite is best used in pendants, earrings, and brooches due to its fragility. Compared to most other gems, ammolite has a rather scant history of use; it did not begin to garner interest in Western society until the 1970s after entering the market (to a limited degree) in 1969. The Blackfeet tribe know ammolite as iniskim, meaning "buffalo stone", and have long believed it to possess amuletic powers; specifically, the gem is believed to aid in the buffalo hunt, and to draw the buffalo within tracking distance. The Blackfeet also believe ammolite to possess healing powers and incorporate the gem into their medicine bundles for use in ceremonies. In the late 1990s, practitioners of feng shui began to promote ammolite as an "influential" stone with what they believe is the power to enhance well-being and detoxify the body by improving its flow of energy or "chi". Named the "seven color prosperity stone", each color is believed by feng shui practitioners to influence the wearer in different and positive ways; a combination of ruby red, emerald green, and amber yellow is most sought after for this purpose, the colors being said to enhance growth, wisdom, and wealth, respectively. Ammolite is usually fashioned into freeform cabochons and mounted in gold, with diamonds as accents. Due to its delicacy, ammolite is best reserved for use in pendants, earrings, and brooches; if used as a ring stone, ammolite should be given a hard protective cap, namely one of synthetic spinel as used in triplets. Whole polished ammonites of appropriately small size may also be mounted in jewelry. Nothing harsher than mild soap and warm water should be used to clean ammolite jewelry; ultrasonic cleaning should be avoided. Japan is the largest market for ammolite; this may be due to its use as an imitation of increasingly scarce black opal, or its aforementioned use in feng shui. Secondary markets include Canada, where it is used both by artisans and fine jewelry producers who sell their creations to tourists of Banff National Park and Jasper National Park. It is also crafted in the Southwest United States, where it is used by Zuni and other Native American craftspeople. Footnotes Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ammolite. ^ Ammolite gemstones are distinguished from other organically produced, precious ornamental materials, such as ivory, mother of pearl, tortoiseshell, etc., primarily by the ways in which they are used. Pearls, amber, and ammolite are considered to be jewels, while the others are treated more as textural objects. References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gem Reference Guide. Gemological Institute of America. 1988. ISBN 978-0-87311-019-8. ^ "Ammolite". Jewellery Business Magazine. June 2007. Archived from the original on July 3, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007. ^ "Minutes of City Council Meeting" (PDF). City of Lethbridge, Alberta. April 30, 2007. Retrieved December 5, 2007. ^ a b Musick, Glenn (August 2008). "Utah Ammolite". Rock & Gem. Vol. 38, no. 8. pp. 34–38. ISSN 0048-8453. ^ a b c Mychaluk, K.A.; Levinson, A.A. & Hall, R.H. (Spring 2001). "Ammolite: Iridescent fossil ammonite from southern Alberta, Canada" (PDF). Gems & Gemology. Vol. 37, no. 1. pp. 4–25. doi:10.5741/GEMS.37.1.4. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 5, 2016. Retrieved January 11, 2015. ^ "Alberta Energy: Error - Page can not be found". www.energy.gov.ab.ca. Archived from the original on December 27, 2013. External links Research and development at the Alberta Research Council (Report). Edmonton, AB: Alberta Research Council. Summer 2004. p. 7. Pedersen, Maggie Campbell (2004). Gem and Ornamental Materials of Organic Origin. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7506-5852-2. Hoggan, Kyra (December 23, 2003). "Blood Tribe building economic growth for future generations". Aboriginal Times (aboriginaltimes.com). Archived from the original on March 24, 2005. Retrieved February 18, 2005. "Ammolite jewelry and gemstone information". gemsociety.org. International Gem Society. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2013. Li, Edward Kui Ming. "The Most Influential Stone of the Millenium". Korite. Archived from the original on November 14, 2012. Retrieved December 23, 2013. O'Donoghue, Michael (1997). Synthetic, Imitation, and Treated Gemstones. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7506-3173-0. Gemstones of the World. Sterling Publishing Company Incorporated. 1997. ISBN 978-0-8069-9461-1. Susan Ward Aber. "Gems in Brief (A-C)". Emporia State University. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2013. Webster, Robert (1994). Gems Their Sources, Descriptions, and Identification. Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-7506-1674-4. vteJewelleryForms Anklet Barrette Belly chain Belt buckle Bindi Bolo tie Bracelet Brooch Chatelaine Collar pin Crown Cufflink Earring Ferronnière Genital Lapel pin Necklace Neck ring Pectoral Pendant Ring Tiara Tie chain Tie clip Tie pin Toe ring Watch pocket strap MakingPeople Bench jeweler Clockmaker Goldsmith Jewellery designer Lapidarist Silversmith Watchmaker Processes Carving Casting centrifugal lost-wax vacuum Enameling Engraving Filigree Kazaziye Metal clay Plating Polishing Repoussé and chasing Soldering Stonesetting Wire sculpture Wire wrapped jewelry Tools Draw plate File Hammer Mandrel Pliers MaterialsPrecious metals Gold Palladium Platinum Rhodium Silver Precious metal alloys Britannia silver Colored gold Crown gold Electrum Shakudō Shibuichi Sterling silver Argentium Tumbaga Base metals Brass Bronze Copper Mokume-gane Nickel silver (alpacca) Pewter Pinchbeck Stainless steel Titanium Tungsten Mineral gemstones Agate Amazonite Amethyst Aventurine Beryl (red) Carnelian Chrysoberyl Chrysocolla Diamond Diopside Emerald Fluorite Garnet Howlite Jade Jasper Kyanite Labradorite Lapis lazuli Larimar Malachite Marcasite Moonstone Obsidian Onyx Opal Peridot Prasiolite Quartz (smoky) Ruby Sapphire Sodalite Spinel Sunstone Tanzanite Tiger's eye Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Zircon Organic gemstones Abalone Amber Ammolite Copal Coral Black Precious Ivory Jet Nacre Operculum Pearl Tortoiseshell Other natural objects Bezoar Bog-wood Ebonite (vulcanite) Gutta-percha Hair Shell Spondylus shell Toadstone Terms Art jewelry Carat (mass) Carat (purity) Finding Fineness Related topics Body piercing Fashion Gemology Metalworking Phaleristics Wearable art
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"opal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opal"},{"link_name":"organic gemstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_gemstone"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"fossilized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil"},{"link_name":"ammonites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonite"},{"link_name":"aragonite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aragonite"},{"link_name":"mineral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral"},{"link_name":"nacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacre"},{"link_name":"biogenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogenic_substance"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"World Jewellery Confederation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Jewellery_Confederation"},{"link_name":"City of Lethbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethbridge"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Kainah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainah"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"doublets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doublet_(lapidary)"}],"text":"Ammolite is an opal-like organic gemstone found primarily along the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains of North America. It is made of the fossilized shells of ammonites, which in turn are composed primarily of aragonite, the same mineral contained in nacre, with a microstructure inherited from the shell. It is one of few biogenic gemstones; others include amber and pearl.[a]\nIn 1981, ammolite was given official gemstone status by the World Jewellery Confederation (CIBJO), the same year commercial mining of ammolite began. It was designated the official gemstone of the City of Lethbridge, Alberta in 2007.[2][3]Ammolite is also known as aapoak (Kainah for \"small, crawling stone\"), gem ammonite, calcentine, and korite. The latter is a trade name given to the gemstone by the Alberta-based mining company Korite. Marcel Charbonneau and his business partner Mike Berisoff were the first to create commercial doublets of the gem in 1967. They went on to form Ammolite Minerals Ltd.","title":"Ammolite"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chemical composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_chemistry"},{"link_name":"calcite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite"},{"link_name":"silica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silica"},{"link_name":"pyrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite"},{"link_name":"Aluminium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium"},{"link_name":"barium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barium"},{"link_name":"chromium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromium"},{"link_name":"copper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"manganese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese"},{"link_name":"strontium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium"},{"link_name":"titanium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium"},{"link_name":"vanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium"},{"link_name":"crystal structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallography"},{"link_name":"orthorhombic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthorhombic"},{"link_name":"hardness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness"},{"link_name":"specific gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity"},{"link_name":"refractive index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index"},{"link_name":"sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"fluoresce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescence"},{"link_name":"iridescent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridescence"},{"link_name":"spectral colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_color"},{"link_name":"interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interference_(wave_propagation)"},{"link_name":"treatments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Treatments"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(geology)"},{"link_name":"shale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale"},{"link_name":"clay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"dragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragon"},{"link_name":"stained glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stained_glass"},{"link_name":"nautilus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nautilus"},{"link_name":"pseudomorphously","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomorph"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rock&Gem-5"}],"text":"The chemical composition of ammolite is variable, and aside from aragonite may include calcite, silica, pyrite, or other minerals. The shell itself may contain a number of trace elements, including: Aluminium, barium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, strontium, titanium, and vanadium.Its crystal structure is orthorhombic.\nIts hardness is 3.5–4.5 .\nIts specific gravity is 2.60–2.85 g/cm³.\nThe refractive index of Canadian material (as measured via sodium light, 589.3 nm) is biaxial negative, with α = 1.522 ; β = 1.672–1.673 ; γ = 1.676–1.679 .\nUnder ultraviolet light, ammolite may fluoresce a mustard yellow.An iridescent opal-like play of color is shown in fine specimens, mostly in shades of green and red; all the spectral colors are possible, however. The iridescence is due to the microstructure of the aragonite: Unlike most other gems, whose colors come from light absorption, the iridescent color of ammolite comes from interference with the light that rebounds from stacked layers of thin platelets that make up the aragonite. The thicker the layers, the more reds and greens are produced; the thinner the layers, the more blues and violets predominate. Reds and greens are the most commonly seen colors, owing to the greater fragility of the finer layers responsible for the blues. When freshly quarried, these colors are not especially dramatic; the material requires polishing and possibly other treatments in order to reveal the colors' full potential.The ammolite itself is actually a very thin sheet, c. 0.5–0.8 mm (0.02–0.03 inches) in thickness. Rarely is ammolite without its matrix, which is typically a grey to brown shale, chalky clay, or limestone. So-called \"frost shattering\" is common; exposed to the elements and compressed by sediments, the thin ammolite tends to crack and flake; prolonged exposure to sunlight can also lead to bleaching. The cracking results in a tessellated appearance, sometimes described as a \"dragon skin\" or \"stained glass window\" pattern. Ammolite mined from deeper deposits may be entirely smooth or with a rippled surface.Occasionally a complete ammonite shell is recovered with its structure well-preserved: fine, convoluted lines delineate the shell chambers, and the overall shape is suggestive of a nautilus. While these shells may be as large as 90 cm (35.5 inches) in diameter, the iridescent ammonites (as opposed to the pyritized variety) are typically much smaller. Most fossilized shells have had their aragonite pseudomorphously replaced by calcite or pyrite, making the presence of ammolite particularly uncommon.[4]","title":"Properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IridescentAmmonite.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cretaceous_seaway.png"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"mid-Cretaceous period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous"},{"link_name":"Cretaceous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous"},{"link_name":"Placenticeras meeki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenticeras_meeki"},{"link_name":"baculite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baculite"},{"link_name":"cephalopods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephalopod"},{"link_name":"extinct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction"},{"link_name":"dinosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur"},{"link_name":"Mesozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic"},{"link_name":"Western Interior Seaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway"},{"link_name":"bentonitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentonite"},{"link_name":"mud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mud"},{"link_name":"shale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shale"},{"link_name":"siderite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderite"},{"link_name":"concretions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretion"},{"link_name":"sediments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sediment"},{"link_name":"calcite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcite"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mychaluk-6"}],"text":"An iridescent ammonite from MadagascarMap of North America highlighting the shallow inland sea present during the mid-Cretaceous period.Ammolite comes from the fossil shells of the Upper Cretaceous disk-shaped ammonites Placenticeras meeki and Placenticeras intercalare, and (to a lesser degree) the cylindrical baculite, Baculites compressus. Ammonites were cephalopods, that thrived in tropical seas until becoming extinct along with the dinosaurs at the end of the Mesozoic era.The ammonites that form ammolite inhabited a prehistoric, inland subtropical sea that bordered the Rocky Mountains—this area is known today as the Cretaceous or Western Interior Seaway. As the ammonites died, they sank to the bottom and were buried by layers of bentonitic mud that eventually became shale. Many gem-quality ammonites are found within siderite concretions. These sediments preserved the aragonite of the shells, preventing it from converting to calcite.[5]","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ammolite_mining.jpg"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"Bearpaw Formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearpaw_Formation"},{"link_name":"Saskatchewan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan"},{"link_name":"Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rock&Gem-5"},{"link_name":"St. Mary River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Mary_River_(Montana-Alberta)"},{"link_name":"Magrath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magrath,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Lethbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethbridge,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Kainah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainah"},{"link_name":"reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_reserve"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"Kainah (Blood) tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kainai_Nation"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"}],"text":"Korite's mechanized mining operations are fairly basic, involving the excavation of shallow pits with backhoes.Significant deposits of gem-quality ammolite have only been found in the Bearpaw Formation that extends from Alberta to Saskatchewan in Canada and south to Montana in the USA. However, small deposits have been found as far south as Central Utah which also contains gem-quality ammolite.[4]The best grade of gem quality ammolite is along high energy river systems on the eastern slopes of the Rockies in southern Alberta. Most commercial mining operations have been conducted along the banks of the St. Mary River, in an area south of and between the town of Magrath and the city of Lethbridge. Roughly half of all ammolite deposits are contained within the Kainah (Kainaiwa) reserve, and its inhabitants play a major role in ammolite mining.Since its founding in 1979, Korite has operated primarily within the reservation. The company had an agreement with the Kainah (Blood) tribe, with Korite paying the tribe royalties based on how much land the company has mined. This agreement has expired. It prohibited the Blood Tribe members from surface mining along the banks and cliffs of the St. Mary River. There were about 35 licensed Blood surface miners in 2018. The surface miners are self employed mining in all kinds of weather. Some miners also restore the fossils they find or resell their finds to other fabricators.","title":"Occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ammolite_mining2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"open pits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-pit_mining"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"siderite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderite"},{"link_name":"concretions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretion"},{"link_name":"pyrite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrite"},{"link_name":"siderite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siderite"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mychaluk-6"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ammolite&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"Prospectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospecting"},{"link_name":"Crown land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_land"},{"link_name":"Alberta Department of Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta_Department_of_Energy"},{"link_name":"hectare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hectare"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Another view of Korite's open-pit mining operations in Alberta, Canada.Commercial extraction is mechanized but fairly basic: shallow open pits are dug with an excavator and the excavated material is screened for its potential gem contents. The pits are further examined by hand, and commercial production is supplemented by individuals who sell their surface-picked findings to Korite and several other producers. Approximately 50% of the ammolite mined is suitable for jewelry. Korite, the largest miner of ammolite, produces over 90% of the world's supply.The ammolite deposits are stratified into several layers: the shallowest of these layers, named the \"K zone\", lies some 15 meters below the surface and extends 30 meters down. The ammolite within this layer is covered by siderite concretions and is usually cracked — this is the crush material. It is the most common and (generally speaking) the least valuable form of ammolite. Beginning twenty meters below the crush material is the \"blue zone\"; ammolite from this zone, which extends 65 meters, is usually compressed with a thin layer of pyrite rather than siderite concretions. This is the sheet material; due to its depth it is rarely mined. It is also much less fractured, and therefore a more valuable form of ammolite.[5]As of 2015[update], Korite has mined over 100 acres of ammolite deposits. The company employs over 280 people and accounts for approximately 90 percent of world gem ammolite production. Prospectors who wish to mine ammolite deposits on Crown land must apply to the Alberta Department of Energy for a lease. These leases are not regularly offered; as of 2004, there was a CAD $625 application fee, with an annual rental fee of CAD$3.50 per hectare.[6]","title":"Extraction"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ammolite_from_Placenticeras_fossil_ammonite,_Alberta.jpg"},{"link_name":"Placenticeras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placenticeras"},{"link_name":"Campanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanian"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mychaluk-6"},{"link_name":"properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Properties"},{"link_name":"primary colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_color"},{"link_name":"Chromatic shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_shift"},{"link_name":"angle of light striking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_of_incidence_(optics)"},{"link_name":"prismatic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prism_(optics)"},{"link_name":"iridescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridescence"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"formation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Formation_and_occurrence"},{"link_name":"treatments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Treatments_and_imitations"}],"text":"Placenticeras ammolite specimen, from Bearpaw Formation, Campanian Stage, upper Upper Cretaceous, ~70-75 Ma.The quality of gem ammolite is communicated via a letter grade system, from most desirable to least desirable: AA; A+; A; and A−. However, this system is not yet standardized and some vendors may use their own systems. The grade and therefore the value of an ammolite gemstone is determined by the following criteria:[5]The number of primary colors\nA large array of color is displayed in ammolite, including all the spectral colors found in nature. Red and green are far more common than blue or purple due to the latter's fragility (see properties). There are also certain hues, like crimson or violet or gold, which are derived from a combination of the primary colors, that are the rarest and in highest demand. The most valuable grades have three or more primary colors or 1–2 bright and even colors, with the lowest grades having one comparatively dull color predominant.The way the colors \"play\" (chromatic shift and rotational range)\nChromatic shift is how the colors vary with the angle of viewing and the angle of light striking the gemstone. In higher grades this variation is almost prismatic in its scope, while lower grades show very little variation. Rotational range is how far the specimen can be turned while maintaining its play of color; the best rotate 360° uncompromised, while lesser stones may exhibit highly directional colors that are only visible within a narrow rotational range, down to 90° or less. Intermediate grades have ranges of 240°–180°.Brightness of colors and iridescence\nThe brightness of colors and their iridescence is essentially dependent on how well-preserved the nacreous shell is, and how fine and orderly the layers of aragonite are. The quality of the polish is also a factor. The \"dragon skin\" cracking usually hinders its value [citation needed]; the most prized ammolite is the sheet type [citation needed] (see formation) that has broad, uninterrupted swathes of color similar to the \"broad flash\" category of opal. The matrix is not visible in finer grades, and there should be no foreign minerals breaking up or diminishing the iridescence.The thickness of the ammolite layer is also an important factor: after polishing, the ammolite is only 0.1–0.3 millimeters thick. The rarest and most valuable are thick enough to stand alone, with only a thin portion of its original matrix (not exceeding 1.5 mm); but the vast majority require some sort of supportive backing. Other treatments are also commonly undertaken; all other factors being equal, the less treatment an ammolite gem has received, the more valuable it is. Calibrated stones—that is, stones fashioned into standard dimensions that will fit most jewelry settings—may also command a higher price.","title":"Gemstone quality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"epoxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxy"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"onyx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onyx"},{"link_name":"glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"spinel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinel"},{"link_name":"corundum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corundum"},{"link_name":"quartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz"},{"link_name":"lens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lens_(optics)"},{"link_name":"loupe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loupe"}],"text":"Ammolite is often damaged due to environmental exposure, even though it is fully mineralized and contains no water — therefore it is not subject to dehydration and subsequent crazing seen in opals. The thin, delicate sheets in which ammolite occurs are also problematic; for these reasons, most material is impregnated with a clear epoxy or other synthetic resin to stabilize the flake-prone ammolite prior to cutting. Although the tessellated cracking cannot be repaired, the epoxy prevents further flaking and helps protect the relatively soft surface from scratching.The impregnation process was developed over a number of years by Korite in partnership with the Alberta Research Council. Impregnated and epoxy-coated ammolite first entered the market in 1989 and the treatment significantly increased the availability and durability of the gem.Because the ammolite layer is usually mere fractions of a millimeter in thickness, most ammolite gems are in fact composite stones: These usually take the form of two-part doublets, with the ammolite layer adhered to a dark backing material. This is usually the matrix or mother rock from which the ammolite was quarried; black onyx or glass could also be used as backing. In composites where the ammolite layer is exceptionally thin, a third component is used: This constitutes a triplet, with a durable and transparent convex topping piece. This cap may be either synthetic spinel, synthetic corundum, synthetic quartz, or in lower-end productions, glass. The convex cap acts as a lens and has the effect of enhancing the ammolite's iridescent display.The detection of these treated and composite stones is relatively simple via inspection with a loupe; however, certain jewelry setting styles—such as those with closed backs—can complicate things. A triplet can be identified by inspecting the stone in profile; the top of the stone can then be seen to be domed and transparent, with no play of color. If the dome is made of glass, bubbles, swirl marks, and scratches may be present; the harder synthetic materials are optically flawless.Although the vast majority of commercial-grade ammolite has been treated in some way, a small fraction of production requires no treatment other than cutting and polishing. Ideally, any treatments should be disclosed at the time of sale.","title":"Treatments"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Labradorite_detail.jpg"},{"link_name":"labradorite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labradorite"},{"link_name":"spectrolite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrolite"},{"link_name":"feldspar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar"},{"link_name":"black opal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_opal"},{"link_name":"Slocum stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slocum_stone"},{"link_name":"Gemologically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemology"},{"link_name":"marbles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marble"},{"link_name":"clam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clam"},{"link_name":"snail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snail"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"mosaics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosaic"},{"link_name":"abalone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abalone"},{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"Haliotis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haliotis"},{"link_name":"mariculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariculture"},{"link_name":"gastropods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropod"},{"link_name":"conchiolin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conchiolin"},{"link_name":"proteinaceous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"luster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)"},{"link_name":"dyed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye"}],"text":"The iridescent flashes (labradorescence) of labradorite may lead to its confusion with ammolite by the unfamiliar, but the overall appearance is unconvincing as an imitation.Ammolite is neither easily nor often imitated; however, a few materials have a passing resemblance that may deceive the unfamiliar. These include: labradorite (also known as spectrolite), an iridescent feldspar that may also be of Canadian origin; and broad-flash black opal. Neither are convincing substitutes, and the latter is actually of greater value than ammolite. Indeed, ammolite is often used as an imitation of black opal. An even less convincing possibility is Slocum stone, a common glass-based imitation of opal. Blues and purples are much more pervasive in labradorite, and in both it and opal the play of color is seen to roll across the stone unlike the comparatively restricted play of color in ammolite. In Slocum stone, the play of color takes the form of tinsel-like patches. The visible structure is also considerably different; in the imitations, the body of the stone is transparent to translucent from certain angles, whereas ammolite is entirely opaque.Gemologically speaking, ammolite can be grouped with the shell-based marbles. This group includes lumachella or \"fire marble\", a similarly iridescent marble composed of fossilized clam and snail shells. Found in Italy and Austria, lumachella is rarely if ever used in jewelry; rather, it is used as a decorative facing stone or in mosaics. The iridescence of lumachella is fragmentary and not nearly as brilliant as that of ammolite. Despite these differences, lumachella may be considered synonymous with ammolite in some circles.The predominantly blue-green iridescent shell of abalone (or paua; genus Haliotis) is one last possible imitation. Abalone shell is inexpensive and plentiful owing to the commercial mariculture of these gastropods for their meat. The shell's structure is distinctive: sinuous bands of blue, green, and rose iridescence are delineated by dark brown lines of conchiolin, a proteinaceous material that holds the shell together. The luster of abalone shell is silky rather than the near vitreous luster of polished ammolite, and the colors of the two materials do not closely approximate. However, some abalone shell has been dyed and given a transparent cap of synthetic quartz, forming a doublet in the same fashion as ammolite. These doublets are perhaps the most deceptive, and have also been used to imitate opal. Under magnification most abalone doublets will show dye concentrated along certain areas and air bubbles trapped at the shell-quartz interface.","title":"Imitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ammolite_jewellery.jpg"},{"link_name":"Korite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite"},{"link_name":"Blackfeet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackfeet"},{"link_name":"buffalo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_bison"},{"link_name":"amuletic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amulet"},{"link_name":"medicine bundles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_bundle"},{"link_name":"feng shui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feng_Shui"},{"link_name":"chi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qi"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"ruby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby"},{"link_name":"emerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"cabochons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabochon"},{"link_name":"gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold"},{"link_name":"diamonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond"},{"link_name":"pendants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendant"},{"link_name":"earrings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earring"},{"link_name":"brooches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooch"},{"link_name":"ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewellery"},{"link_name":"ultrasonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"black opal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_opal"},{"link_name":"artisans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artisan"},{"link_name":"Banff National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banff_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Jasper National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasper_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Southwest United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_United_States"},{"link_name":"Zuni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuni_people"},{"link_name":"Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"}],"text":"Ammolite jewelry by Korite. The ammolite gems are triplets, as evidenced by their convex profiles. Ammolite is best used in pendants, earrings, and brooches due to its fragility.Compared to most other gems, ammolite has a rather scant history of use; it did not begin to garner interest in Western society until the 1970s after entering the market (to a limited degree) in 1969. The Blackfeet tribe know ammolite as iniskim, meaning \"buffalo stone\", and have long believed it to possess amuletic powers; specifically, the gem is believed to aid in the buffalo hunt, and to draw the buffalo within tracking distance. The Blackfeet also believe ammolite to possess healing powers and incorporate the gem into their medicine bundles for use in ceremonies.In the late 1990s, practitioners of feng shui began to promote ammolite as an \"influential\" stone with what they believe is the power to enhance well-being and detoxify the body by improving its flow of energy or \"chi\".[citation needed] Named the \"seven color prosperity stone\", each color is believed by feng shui practitioners to influence the wearer in different and positive ways; a combination of ruby red, emerald green, and amber yellow is most sought after for this purpose, the colors being said to enhance growth, wisdom, and wealth, respectively.[citation needed]Ammolite is usually fashioned into freeform cabochons and mounted in gold, with diamonds as accents. Due to its delicacy, ammolite is best reserved for use in pendants, earrings, and brooches; if used as a ring stone, ammolite should be given a hard protective cap, namely one of synthetic spinel as used in triplets. Whole polished ammonites of appropriately small size may also be mounted in jewelry. Nothing harsher than mild soap and warm water should be used to clean ammolite jewelry; ultrasonic cleaning should be avoided.Japan is the largest market for ammolite; this may be due to its use as an imitation of increasingly scarce black opal, or its aforementioned use in feng shui. Secondary markets include Canada, where it is used both by artisans and fine jewelry producers who sell their creations to tourists of Banff National Park and Jasper National Park. It is also crafted in the Southwest United States, where it is used by Zuni and other Native American craftspeople.","title":"Use in jewelry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ammolite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ammolite"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"ivory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory"},{"link_name":"mother of pearl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_of_pearl"},{"link_name":"tortoiseshell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tortoiseshell_material"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ammolite.^ \nAmmolite gemstones are distinguished from other organically produced, precious ornamental materials, such as ivory, mother of pearl, tortoiseshell, etc., primarily by the ways in which they are used. Pearls, amber, and ammolite are considered to be jewels,[citation needed] while the others are treated more as textural objects.","title":"Footnotes"}]
[{"image_text":"An iridescent ammonite from Madagascar","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/IridescentAmmonite.jpg/250px-IridescentAmmonite.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of North America highlighting the shallow inland sea present during the mid-Cretaceous period.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Cretaceous_seaway.png/150px-Cretaceous_seaway.png"},{"image_text":"Korite's mechanized mining operations are fairly basic, involving the excavation of shallow pits with backhoes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ammolite_mining.jpg/250px-Ammolite_mining.jpg"},{"image_text":"Another view of Korite's open-pit mining operations in Alberta, Canada.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Ammolite_mining2.jpg/250px-Ammolite_mining2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Placenticeras ammolite specimen, from Bearpaw Formation, Campanian Stage, upper Upper Cretaceous, ~70-75 Ma.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Ammolite_from_Placenticeras_fossil_ammonite%2C_Alberta.jpg/220px-Ammolite_from_Placenticeras_fossil_ammonite%2C_Alberta.jpg"},{"image_text":"The iridescent flashes (labradorescence) of labradorite may lead to its confusion with ammolite by the unfamiliar, but the overall appearance is unconvincing as an imitation.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Labradorite_detail.jpg/220px-Labradorite_detail.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ammolite jewelry by Korite. The ammolite gems are triplets, as evidenced by their convex profiles. Ammolite is best used in pendants, earrings, and brooches due to its fragility.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Ammolite_jewellery.jpg/250px-Ammolite_jewellery.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"Gem Reference Guide. Gemological Institute of America. 1988. ISBN 978-0-87311-019-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemological_Institute_of_America","url_text":"Gemological Institute of America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87311-019-8","url_text":"978-0-87311-019-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Ammolite\". Jewellery Business Magazine. June 2007. Archived from the original on July 3, 2007. Retrieved July 20, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070703024836/http://www.jewellerybusiness.com/1/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=497&Itemid=44","url_text":"\"Ammolite\""},{"url":"http://www.jewellerybusiness.com/1/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=497&Itemid=44","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Minutes of City Council Meeting\" (PDF). City of Lethbridge, Alberta. April 30, 2007. Retrieved December 5, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lethbridge.ca/NR/rdonlyres/F6D58AD2-962D-4AA9-B246-6A3400A6D0D4/7923/April302007.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of City Council Meeting\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethbridge","url_text":"City of Lethbridge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta","url_text":"Alberta"}]},{"reference":"Musick, Glenn (August 2008). \"Utah Ammolite\". Rock & Gem. Vol. 38, no. 8. pp. 34–38. ISSN 0048-8453.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0048-8453","url_text":"0048-8453"}]},{"reference":"Mychaluk, K.A.; Levinson, A.A. & Hall, R.H. (Spring 2001). \"Ammolite: Iridescent fossil ammonite from southern Alberta, Canada\" (PDF). Gems & Gemology. Vol. 37, no. 1. pp. 4–25. doi:10.5741/GEMS.37.1.4. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 5, 2016. Retrieved January 11, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161005004044/http://freeshipping.www.canadianammolite.com/SP01.pdf#page=5","url_text":"\"Ammolite: Iridescent fossil ammonite from southern Alberta, Canada\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5741%2FGEMS.37.1.4","url_text":"10.5741/GEMS.37.1.4"},{"url":"http://freeshipping.www.canadianammolite.com/SP01.pdf#page=5","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Alberta Energy: Error - Page can not be found\". www.energy.gov.ab.ca. Archived from the original on December 27, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131227010628/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/2803.asp","url_text":"\"Alberta Energy: Error - Page can not be found\""},{"url":"http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/2803.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Research and development at the Alberta Research Council (Report). Edmonton, AB: Alberta Research Council. Summer 2004. p. 7.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pedersen, Maggie Campbell (2004). Gem and Ornamental Materials of Organic Origin. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7506-5852-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-5852-2","url_text":"978-0-7506-5852-2"}]},{"reference":"Hoggan, Kyra (December 23, 2003). \"Blood Tribe building economic growth for future generations\". Aboriginal Times (aboriginaltimes.com). Archived from the original on March 24, 2005. Retrieved February 18, 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050324073106/http://www.aboriginaltimes.com/business/blood%20tribe%202003/view","url_text":"\"Blood Tribe building economic growth for future generations\""},{"url":"http://www.aboriginaltimes.com/business/blood%20tribe%202003/view","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Ammolite jewelry and gemstone information\". gemsociety.org. International Gem Society. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105624/http://www.gemsociety.org/article/ammolites-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/","url_text":"\"Ammolite jewelry and gemstone information\""},{"url":"http://www.gemsociety.org/article/ammolites-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Li, Edward Kui Ming. \"The Most Influential Stone of the Millenium\". Korite. Archived from the original on November 14, 2012. Retrieved December 23, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121114035341/http://www.korite.com/feng_shui.htm","url_text":"\"The Most Influential Stone of the Millenium\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korite","url_text":"Korite"},{"url":"http://www.korite.com/feng_shui.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"O'Donoghue, Michael (1997). Synthetic, Imitation, and Treated Gemstones. Gulf Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7506-3173-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-3173-0","url_text":"978-0-7506-3173-0"}]},{"reference":"Gemstones of the World. Sterling Publishing Company Incorporated. 1997. ISBN 978-0-8069-9461-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/gemstonesofworld00schu","url_text":"Gemstones of the World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8069-9461-1","url_text":"978-0-8069-9461-1"}]},{"reference":"Susan Ward Aber. \"Gems in Brief (A-C)\". Emporia State University. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131224115722/http://academic.emporia.edu/abersusa/go340/gembrief.htm","url_text":"\"Gems in Brief (A-C)\""},{"url":"http://academic.emporia.edu/abersusa/go340/gembrief.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Webster, Robert (1994). Gems Their Sources, Descriptions, and Identification. Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-7506-1674-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-1674-4","url_text":"978-0-7506-1674-4"}]}]
[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ammolite&action=edit","external_links_name":"[update]"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070703024836/http://www.jewellerybusiness.com/1/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=497&Itemid=44","external_links_name":"\"Ammolite\""},{"Link":"http://www.jewellerybusiness.com/1/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=497&Itemid=44","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.lethbridge.ca/NR/rdonlyres/F6D58AD2-962D-4AA9-B246-6A3400A6D0D4/7923/April302007.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes of City Council Meeting\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0048-8453","external_links_name":"0048-8453"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161005004044/http://freeshipping.www.canadianammolite.com/SP01.pdf#page=5","external_links_name":"\"Ammolite: Iridescent fossil ammonite from southern Alberta, Canada\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.5741%2FGEMS.37.1.4","external_links_name":"10.5741/GEMS.37.1.4"},{"Link":"http://freeshipping.www.canadianammolite.com/SP01.pdf#page=5","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131227010628/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/2803.asp","external_links_name":"\"Alberta Energy: Error - Page can not be found\""},{"Link":"http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/2803.asp","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050324073106/http://www.aboriginaltimes.com/business/blood%20tribe%202003/view","external_links_name":"\"Blood Tribe building economic growth for future generations\""},{"Link":"http://www.aboriginaltimes.com/business/blood%20tribe%202003/view","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131224105624/http://www.gemsociety.org/article/ammolites-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/","external_links_name":"\"Ammolite jewelry and gemstone information\""},{"Link":"http://www.gemsociety.org/article/ammolites-jewelry-and-gemstone-information/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121114035341/http://www.korite.com/feng_shui.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Most Influential Stone of the Millenium\""},{"Link":"http://www.korite.com/feng_shui.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/gemstonesofworld00schu","external_links_name":"Gemstones of the World"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131224115722/http://academic.emporia.edu/abersusa/go340/gembrief.htm","external_links_name":"\"Gems in Brief (A-C)\""},{"Link":"http://academic.emporia.edu/abersusa/go340/gembrief.htm","external_links_name":"the original"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Voulismeni
Lake Voulismeni
["1 Urban legends","2 References","3 External links"]
Coordinates: 35°11′26″N 25°43′2″E / 35.19056°N 25.71722°E / 35.19056; 25.71722 Lake VoulismeniLake VoulismeniLocationCreteCoordinates35°11′26″N 25°43′2″E / 35.19056°N 25.71722°E / 35.19056; 25.71722Basin countriesGreeceMax. width137 m (449 ft)Max. depth48.8 m (160 ft)Surface elevation0 m (0 ft)SettlementsAgios Nikolaos Lake Voulismeni (Greek: Λίμνη Βουλισμένη, Límni Voulisméni) is a small, formerly freshwater lake, later connected to the sea, located at the centre of the town of Agios Nikolaos on the Greek island of Crete. It has a circular shape with a diameter of 137 m and a depth of 48.8 m. The locals refer to it as simply "The Lake". The lake is connected to the harbour of the town by a channel dug by soldiers of the French Army in 1907. A panoramic view of the lake can be seen from a small park situated above it. According to legend, the goddess Athena bathed in it. Every year at midnight turning to Orthodox Christian Easter day, the majority of the population of the town gathers around the lake to celebrate with fireworks, and firecrackers thrown by the people attending the event. The rocks at the lake are limestone breccias, the result of undersea landslides coming down from the mountains to the north-west of the town. A normal fault which cuts right through the town in a roughly NNE to SSW direction passes directly through the north-western side of the lake, the cliff at the lake is the scarp slope of this fault. Elsewhere in the town the fault was later buried by subsequent underwater landslides. An underground stream that was cut by this fault created a solution sinkhole and a small cave following the disappearance of the overlying sea during the Messinian Salinity Crisis. After only a few hundred thousand years the small cave, dissolved out of the unstable and structurally weak breccia, collapsed creating a deep hole. The destabilised breccia at the top of this hole subsided into the hole creating a deep funnel-shaped sinkhole which was subsequently filled with freshwater by the still running spring. The creation of the Mediterranean Sea during the Zanclean Flood left a deep, spring-fed, freshwater lake that overflowed via a small stream into the nearby sea. In 1852 Captain Thomas Spratt surveyed eastern Crete on behalf of the Royal Navy and recorded the lake as being ...a small circular pool of brackish water and ....having a small stream opening out of it into the sea, clear evidence that the spring was still flowing at that time. He also measured the depth of the lake as 64 m (210 ft) and it is this figure that is used in almost all publications and writings about the lake today. In September 2000 the geology department of the University of Athens conducted a detailed underwater survey of the lake, finding its maximum depth to be only 48.8 m. On 12 October 1856 a massive earthquake occurred in the sea off Crete with an epicentre only 40 km from the lake. Although its magnitude was not recorded, it was listed as grade XI on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, one grade down from the maximum possible. This earthquake was most likely responsible for the blocking or diversion of the freshwater spring leading to the later stagnation of the lake and the collapse of the western corner of the lake which reduced the lake depth from the 64m measured by Thomas Spratt to the 48.8 m today. Once the spring had stopped flowing, the lake soon became stagnant. It became known locally as Vromolimni; 'the stinky lake'. The obvious solution was to dig a channel to the nearby sea to allow the denser seawater to flush away the stagnant freshwater and remove the source of the smell. The first channel connecting the lake to the sea was dug by Kostas Adosides Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Lasithi at the time, between 1867 and 1871. This canal was dredged and widened several times between 1883 and 1890, and a simple wooden footbridge was built. The wider canal we see today was constructed by the French Army between 1905 and 1907. A lifting footbridge allowed boats to pass and be loaded and unloaded in the relative safety of the lake. The modern concrete road bridge was opened in 1954. Urban legends A local urban myth is that the lake is bottomless and the crater of an extinct volcano. That notion is most likely based on its impressive depth compared to its width (48.8 m depth and only 134 m width) or/and on locals noticing disturbances at the surface or also the level of the water during the 1956 Amorgos earthquake (which was wrongly attributed to an eruption of Santorini). Because of the latter, many incorrectly assume a geological relationship between the two locations. The complete absence of igneous rocks anywhere near the lake precludes its being a volcano crater, the supposed connection with Santorini can also be dismissed for this reason. References ^ a b "Municipality of Aghios Nikolaos – On Agios Nikolaos". Archived from the original on 14 January 2007. Retrieved 5 May 2007. ^ "CRETEgazette – Coming Events in Crete". Retrieved 5 May 2007. ^ "Photo from Easter at explorecrete.com". Retrieved 5 May 2007. ^ Spratt T.A.B. John Van Horst, 1865, p. 144. (Incomplete: Missing title) ^ "NOAA Significant Earthquake Database (search terms 1815-1900, Southern Europe, Greece, Crete)". Retrieved 9 October 2019. ^ "Stigmes Cretan Magazine (also in print)". Retrieved 5 May 2007. External links Homepage of the Municipality of Agios Nikolaos
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-municipality-1"},{"link_name":"Agios Nikolaos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agios_Nikolaos,_Crete"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-municipality-1"},{"link_name":"Orthodox Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy"},{"link_name":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"link_name":"fireworks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fireworks"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gazette1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-photo1-3"},{"link_name":"Messinian Salinity Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messinian_Salinity_Crisis"},{"link_name":"Zanclean Flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanclean_Flood"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"massive earthquake occurred in the sea off Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1856_Heraklion_earthquake"},{"link_name":"Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified_Mercalli_Intensity_Scale"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-noaa1-5"}],"text":"Lake Voulismeni (Greek: Λίμνη Βουλισμένη, Límni Voulisméni) is a small, formerly freshwater lake, later connected to the sea,[1] located at the centre of the town of Agios Nikolaos on the Greek island of Crete. It has a circular shape with a diameter of 137 m and a depth of 48.8 m. The locals refer to it as simply \"The Lake\". The lake is connected to the harbour of the town by a channel dug by soldiers of the French Army in 1907. A panoramic view of the lake can be seen from a small park situated above it.According to legend, the goddess Athena bathed in it.[1] Every year at midnight turning to Orthodox Christian Easter day, the majority of the population of the town gathers around the lake to celebrate with fireworks, and firecrackers thrown by the people attending the event.[2][3]The rocks at the lake are limestone breccias, the result of undersea landslides coming down from the mountains to the north-west of the town.A normal fault which cuts right through the town in a roughly NNE to SSW direction passes directly through the north-western side of the lake, the cliff at the lake is the scarp slope of this fault. Elsewhere in the town the fault was later buried by subsequent underwater landslides. An underground stream that was cut by this fault created a solution sinkhole and a small cave following the disappearance of the overlying sea during the Messinian Salinity Crisis. After only a few hundred thousand years the small cave, dissolved out of the unstable and structurally weak breccia, collapsed creating a deep hole. The destabilised breccia at the top of this hole subsided into the hole creating a deep funnel-shaped sinkhole which was subsequently filled with freshwater by the still running spring. The creation of the Mediterranean Sea during the Zanclean Flood left a deep, spring-fed, freshwater lake that overflowed via a small stream into the nearby sea.In 1852 Captain Thomas Spratt surveyed eastern Crete on behalf of the Royal Navy and recorded the lake as being ...a small circular pool of brackish water and ....having a small stream opening out of it into the sea,[4] clear evidence that the spring was still flowing at that time. He also measured the depth of the lake as 64 m (210 ft) and it is this figure that is used in almost all publications and writings about the lake today. In September 2000 the geology department of the University of Athens conducted a detailed underwater survey of the lake, finding its maximum depth to be only 48.8 m.On 12 October 1856 a massive earthquake occurred in the sea off Crete with an epicentre only 40 km from the lake. Although its magnitude was not recorded, it was listed as grade XI on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale, one grade down from the maximum possible.[5] This earthquake was most likely responsible for the blocking or diversion of the freshwater spring leading to the later stagnation of the lake and the collapse of the western corner of the lake which reduced the lake depth from the 64m measured by Thomas Spratt to the 48.8 m today.Once the spring had stopped flowing, the lake soon became stagnant. It became known locally as Vromolimni; 'the stinky lake'. The obvious solution was to dig a channel to the nearby sea to allow the denser seawater to flush away the stagnant freshwater and remove the source of the smell.The first channel connecting the lake to the sea was dug by Kostas Adosides Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Lasithi at the time, between 1867 and 1871. This canal was dredged and widened several times between 1883 and 1890, and a simple wooden footbridge was built. The wider canal we see today was constructed by the French Army between 1905 and 1907. A lifting footbridge allowed boats to pass and be loaded and unloaded in the relative safety of the lake. The modern concrete road bridge was opened in 1954.","title":"Lake Voulismeni"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stigmes1-6"},{"link_name":"1956 Amorgos earthquake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956_Amorgos_earthquake"},{"link_name":"Santorini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santorini"}],"text":"A local urban myth is that the lake is bottomless[6] and the crater of an extinct volcano. That notion is most likely based on its impressive depth compared to its width (48.8 m depth and only 134 m width) or/and on locals noticing disturbances at the surface or also the level of the water during the 1956 Amorgos earthquake (which was wrongly attributed to an eruption of Santorini). Because of the latter, many incorrectly assume a geological relationship between the two locations.The complete absence of igneous rocks anywhere near the lake precludes its being a volcano crater, the supposed connection with Santorini can also be dismissed for this reason.","title":"Urban legends"}]
[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron-on-helium_qubit
Electron-on-helium qubit
["1 History of electrons on helium","2 Proposed quantum computing schemes – Rydberg, spin and orbital states","3 Decoherence","4 Current developments","5 References"]
Quantum bit An electron-on-helium qubit is a quantum bit for which the orthonormal basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ are defined by quantized motional states or alternatively the spin states of an electron trapped above the surface of liquid helium. The electron-on-helium qubit was proposed as the basic element for building quantum computers with electrons on helium by Platzman and Dykman in 1999.  Schematic illustration of electron-on-helium qubits. The Rydberg (left), spin (centre) and orbital (right) degrees of freedom have been proposed as basis states for quantum computing. History of electrons on helium The electrostrictive binding of electrons to the surface of liquid helium was first demonstrated experimentally by Bruschi and co-workers in 1966. A theoretical treatment of the electron-helium interaction was developed by Cole and Cohen in 1969 and, independently, by Shikin in 1970. An electron close to the surface of liquid helium experiences an attractive force due to the formation of a weak (~0.01e) image charge in the dielectric liquid. However, the electron is prevented from entering the liquid by a high (~1 eV) barrier formed at the surface due to the hard-core repulsion of the electron by the helium atoms. As a result, the electron remains trapped outside the liquid. The energy of the electron in this potential well is quantised in a Hydrogen-like series with the modified Rydberg constant RHe ≈ {\displaystyle \approx } 10−4 RH. The binding energies of the ground (n = 1) and first excited (n = 2) states are -7.6 K and -1.9 K respectively and, as the energy required for excitation is higher than the typical experimental temperature ( ≲ {\displaystyle \lesssim } 1 K), the electron remains in the ground state, trapped several nanometres above the liquid surface. The first spectroscopic evidence for these surface states was presented by Grimes and co-workers in 1976.   The electron motion parallel to the helium surface is free and, as the surface is free of impurities, the electron can move across the helium with record-high mobility. The liquid surface can support electron densities up to an electrohydrodynamic limit of 2.4×109 cm−2, much lower than those typically achieved in semiconductor two-dimensional electron gases. For such low densities the electron system is described by nondegenerate statistics and, because the Coulomb interaction between electrons is only weakly screened by the helium, the spatial position of an electron in the 2D layer is strongly correlated with that of its neighbours. At low temperatures (typically below 1 K) the Coulomb interaction energy overcomes the electron thermal energy and the electrons form a 2D triangular lattice, the classical Wigner solid. The surface density can be increased towards the degenerate Fermi regime on thin helium films covering solid substrates, or on other cryogenic substrates that exhibit a negative electron affinity such as solid hydrogen or neon, although measurements on these substrates are typically hindered by surface roughness.   a) Split-gate device for electrons on helium used to measure single electron transport. Surface electrons move from the left microchannel reservoir to the right microchannel reservoir through a constriction formed by a split-gate electrode. (b) At low temperatures, classical electron ordering effects give rise to current plateaus corresponding to 1, 2... electrons passing side-by-side through the constriction.   Since the 1970’s, electrons on helium have been used to study the properties of 2D electron liquids and solids, as well as the liquid helium (4He or 3He) substrate. Notable areas of research include collective electron excitations and edge magnetoplasmon effects, many-body transport phenomena and Kosterlitz-Thouless melting in 2D, polaronic effects at the helium interface, the observation of microwave-induced zero-resistance states and incompressible states in the nondegenerate electron gas, and the mapping of the texture of superfluid 3He via interactions between the electron solid and quasiparticle excitations in the superfluid. In recent years, micron-scale helium channels with sub-surface gate electrodes have been used to create devices in which single surface-state electrons can be manipulated, facilitating the integration of electrons on helium with semiconductor device architectures and superconducting circuits. Proposed quantum computing schemes – Rydberg, spin and orbital states In the Platzman and Dykman proposal, the ground and first excited Rydberg energy levels of electrons, trapped above electrodes submerged under the helium surface, were proposed as the qubit basis states. The intrinsic low temperature of the system allowed the straightforward preparation of the qubit in the ground state. Qubit operations were performed via the excitation of the Rydberg transition with resonant microwave fields at frequencies ~120 GHz. Qubit interactions were facilitated by the long-range Coulomb interaction between electrons. Qubit read-out was achieved by the selective ionisation of excited electrons from the helium surface. In 2000, Lea and co-authors proposed that the qubit read-out could be achieved using a single electron transistor (SET) device positioned beneath the helium. In 2006, Lyon proposed that the spin state of an electron on helium could also be used as a qubit. A CCD-like architecture was proposed for the control of the many-qubit system with dipole-dipole interaction allowing two-qubit gate operations for adjacent spins. A global magnetic field parallel to the helium surface provided the axis for spin excitation, with local magnetic fields applied by submerged conductors used to bring the spins into resonance with microwave fields for qubit excitation. Exchange interaction for adjacent qubits was proposed as a read-out scheme, as demonstrated in semiconductor double-quantum-dot devices.   In 2010 Schuster and co-workers proposed that for an electron in a lateral trapping potential the orbital states for motion parallel to the helium surface could be used as qubit basis states. The electron trap was integrated into a superconducting coplanar cavity device. It was shown that, as in many superconducting qubit systems, the resonant exchange of microwave photons between the trapped electron and the cavity could be described by the Jaynes-Cummings Hamiltonian. Distant qubits could be coupled via a cavity bus. It was also shown that local magnetic field gradients could allow coupling between the electron spin state and the lateral motion, facilitating the read-out of the spin state via microwave spectroscopy of the cavity. Decoherence In any quantum computer the decoherence of the qubit wavefunction, due to energy relaxation or dephasing effects, must be limited to a suitably low rate. For electron-on-helium qubits, deformations of the helium surface due to surface or bulk excitations (ripplons or phonons) modify the image charge potential and distort the electron wavefunction. Therefore, for Rydberg and orbital states, the primary source of decoherence is expected to be the emission of ripplons or phonons in the helium substrate. However, the decay rate due to these processes is expected to be slow (~100 μs) compared with the rate at which qubit operations can be performed (~10 ns). For the spin state, the inherent purity of the qubit environment and the weak spin orbit interaction for an electron moving above the helium surface results in predicted coherence times > {\displaystyle >} 1 s. Current developments The first trapping and detection of single electrons on helium was demonstrated by Lea and co-workers in 2005, using a micron-scale helium-filled trap and a single electron transistor beneath the surface to count the electrons. This experiment also demonstrated the first coupling between an electron on helium and a superconducting quantum circuit. Subsequently, other experiments have demonstrated progress towards the coherent control of single electrons on helium. These include ultra-efficient electron clocking in microchannel CCD devices, controlled single electron transport measurements, and the trapping and manipulation of 1D electron arrays, In 2019, Koolstra and co-workers at the University of Chicago demonstrated the coupling of a single electron on helium to a superconducting microwave cavity, with a coupling strength g/2π ~ 5 MHz much larger than the resonator linewidth ~0.5 MHz. In 2020, researchers from Michigan State University and EeroQ presented new results and fabrication progress on an electron-on-helium chip design using the lateral motional state of the electron, in frequencies in the 5–10 GHz range, using a Single-electron transistor readout device. References ^ Andrei, Eva Y. (1997). Two-Dimensional Electron Systems : on Helium and other Cryogenic Substrates. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-015-1286-2. OCLC 840311770. ^ Monarkha, I︠U︡. P. (2004). Two-Dimensional Coulomb Liquids and Solids. Kimitoshi Kono. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3-662-10639-6. OCLC 851377154. ^ Platzman, P. M. (1999-06-18). "Quantum Computing with Electrons Floating on Liquid Helium". Science. 284 (5422): 1967–1969. doi:10.1126/science.284.5422.1967. PMID 10373109. ^ Bruschi, L.; Maraviglia, B.; Moss, F. E. (1966-09-26). "Measurement of a Barrier for the Extraction of Excess Electrons from Liquid Helium". Physical Review Letters. 17 (13): 682–684. Bibcode:1966PhRvL..17..682B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.17.682. ISSN 0031-9007. ^ Cole, Milton W.; Cohen, Morrel H. (1969-11-24). "Image-Potential-Induced Surface Bands in Insulators". Physical Review Letters. 23 (21): 1238–1241. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23.1238C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1238. ISSN 0031-9007. ^ Shikin, V. (1970). "Motion of helium ions near a vapor-liquid interface". Sov. Phys. JETP. 31: 936. ^ Grimes, C. C.; Brown, T. R.; Burns, Michael L.; Zipfel, C. L. (1976-01-01). "Spectroscopy of electrons in image-potential-induced surface states outside liquid helium". Physical Review B. 13 (1): 140–147. Bibcode:1976PhRvB..13..140G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.13.140. ISSN 0556-2805. ^ Iye, Yasuhiro (September 1980). "Mobility of electrons in the surface state of liquid helium". Journal of Low Temperature Physics. 40 (5–6): 441–451. Bibcode:1980JLTP...40..441I. doi:10.1007/BF00119515. ISSN 0022-2291. S2CID 122316199. ^ Grimes, C. C.; Adams, G. (1979-03-19). "Evidence for a Liquid-to-Crystal Phase Transition in a Classical, Two-Dimensional Sheet of Electrons". Physical Review Letters. 42 (12): 795–798. Bibcode:1979PhRvL..42..795G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.42.795. ISSN 0031-9007. ^ Günzler, T.; Bitnar, B.; Mistura, G.; Neser, S.; Leiderer, P. (July 1996). "Evidence for quantum melting in the two-dimensional electron system on a thin helium film". Surface Science. 361–362: 831–834. Bibcode:1996SurSc.361..831G. doi:10.1016/0039-6028(96)00544-4. ^ Grimes, C. C.; Adams, Gregory (1976-01-19). "Observation of Two-Dimensional Plasmons and Electron-Ripplon Scattering in a Sheet of Electrons on Liquid Helium". Physical Review Letters. 36 (3): 145–148. Bibcode:1976PhRvL..36..145G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.36.145. ISSN 0031-9007. ^ Mast, D. B.; Dahm, A. J.; Fetter, A. L. (1985-04-15). "Observation of Bulk and Edge Magnetoplasmons in a Two-Dimensional Electron Fluid". Physical Review Letters. 54 (15): 1706–1709. Bibcode:1985PhRvL..54.1706M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.54.1706. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10031113. ^ Dykman, M. I.; Fang-Yen, C.; Lea, M. J. (1997-06-15). "Many-electron transport in strongly correlated nondegenerate two-dimensional electron systems". Physical Review B. 55 (24): 16249–16271. Bibcode:1997PhRvB..5516249D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.55.16249. ISSN 0163-1829. ^ Shirahama, Keiya; Kono, Kimitoshi (1995-01-30). "Dynamical Transition in the Wigner Solid on a Liquid Helium Surface". Physical Review Letters. 74 (5): 781–784. Bibcode:1995PhRvL..74..781S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.781. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 10058846. ^ Konstantinov, Denis; Kono, Kimitoshi (2010-11-22). "Photon-Induced Vanishing of Magnetoconductance in 2D Electrons on Liquid Helium". Physical Review Letters. 105 (22): 226801. arXiv:1006.0349. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105v6801K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.226801. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 21231410. S2CID 5034302. ^ Chepelianskii, Alexei D.; Watanabe, Masamitsu; Nasyedkin, Kostyantyn; Kono, Kimitoshi; Konstantinov, Denis (November 2015). "An incompressible state of a photo-excited electron gas". Nature Communications. 6 (1): 7210. arXiv:1504.04295. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.7210C. doi:10.1038/ncomms8210. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 4455090. PMID 26007282. ^ Ikegami, Hiroki; Kono, Kimitoshi (2006-10-20). "Texture of Superfluid He 3 Probed by a Wigner Solid". Physical Review Letters. 97 (16): 165303. Bibcode:2006PhRvL..97p5303I. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.97.165303. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 17155408. ^ Glasson, P.; Dotsenko, V.; Fozooni, P.; Lea, M. J.; Bailey, W.; Papageorgiou, G.; Andresen, S. E.; Kristensen, A. (2001-10-05). "Observation of Dynamical Ordering in a Confined Wigner Crystal". Physical Review Letters. 87 (17): 176802. Bibcode:2001PhRvL..87q6802G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.176802. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 11690292. ^ Rees, D. G.; Kuroda, I.; Marrache-Kikuchi, C. A.; Höfer, M.; Leiderer, P.; Kono, K. (2011-01-14). "Point-Contact Transport Properties of Strongly Correlated Electrons on Liquid Helium". Physical Review Letters. 106 (2): 026803. Bibcode:2011PhRvL.106b6803R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.026803. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 21405245. ^ Lea, M. J.; Frayne, P. G.; Mukharsky, Yu (2000). "Could we Quantum Compute with Electrons on Helium?". Fortschritte der Physik. 48 (9–11): 1109–1124. Bibcode:2000ForPh..48.1109L. doi:10.1002/1521-3978(200009)48:9/11<1109::AID-PROP1109>3.0.CO;2-I. ISSN 1521-3978. ^ Lyon, S. A. (2006-11-30). "Spin-based quantum computing using electrons on liquid helium". Physical Review A. 74 (5): 052338. arXiv:cond-mat/0301581. Bibcode:2006PhRvA..74e2338L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.74.052338. ISSN 1050-2947. S2CID 119506755. ^ Schuster, D. I.; Fragner, A.; Dykman, M. I.; Lyon, S. A.; Schoelkopf, R. J. (2010-07-23). "Proposal for Manipulating and Detecting Spin and Orbital States of Trapped Electrons on Helium Using Cavity Quantum Electrodynamics". Physical Review Letters. 105 (4): 040503. arXiv:0912.1406. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105d0503S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.040503. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 20867827. S2CID 6533048. ^ Papageorgiou, G.; Glasson, P.; Harrabi, K.; Antonov, V.; Collin, E.; Fozooni, P.; Frayne, P.G.; Lea, M.J.; Mukharsky, Y.; Rees, D.G. (2005-04-05). "Counting Individual Trapped Electrons on Liquid Helium". Applied Physics Letters. 86 (15): 153106. arXiv:cond-mat/0405084. Bibcode:2005ApPhL..86o3106P. doi:10.1063/1.1900301. ISSN 0003-6951. S2CID 118375967. ^ Bradbury, F. R.; Takita, Maika; Gurrieri, T. M.; Wilkel, K. J.; Eng, Kevin; Carroll, M. S.; Lyon, S. A. (2011-12-19). "Efficient Clocked Electron Transfer on Superfluid Helium". Physical Review Letters. 107 (26): 266803. arXiv:1107.4040. Bibcode:2011PhRvL.107z6803B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.107.266803. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 22243176. S2CID 40591865. ^ Rees, D. G.; Totsuji, H.; Kono, K. (2012-04-25). "Commensurability-Dependent Transport of a Wigner Crystal in a Nanoconstriction". Physical Review Letters. 108 (17): 176801. Bibcode:2012PhRvL.108q6801R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.108.176801. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 22680890. ^ Ikegami, Hiroki; Akimoto, Hikota; Rees, David G.; Kono, Kimitoshi (2012-12-05). "Evidence for Reentrant Melting in a Quasi-One-Dimensional Wigner Crystal". Physical Review Letters. 109 (23): 236802. Bibcode:2012PhRvL.109w6802I. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.109.236802. ISSN 0031-9007. PMID 23368238. ^ Koolstra, Gerwin; Yang, Ge; Schuster, David I. (December 2019). "Coupling a single electron on superfluid helium to a superconducting resonator". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 5323. arXiv:1902.04190. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.5323K. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-13335-7. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6874564. PMID 31757947. ^ "B17.00009. Resonant phenomena in a microchannel-confined Wigner solid". Virtual APS March Meeting. 2020-03-07. Retrieved 2021-03-10.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quantum bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qubit"},{"link_name":"liquid helium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_helium"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"quantum computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electron-on-helium_qubits.jpg"}],"text":"An electron-on-helium qubit is a quantum bit for which the orthonormal basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ are defined by quantized motional states or alternatively the spin states of an electron trapped above the surface of liquid helium.[1][2] The electron-on-helium qubit was proposed as the basic element for building quantum computers with electrons on helium by Platzman and Dykman in 1999.[3]Schematic illustration of electron-on-helium qubits. The Rydberg (left), spin (centre) and orbital (right) degrees of freedom have been proposed as basis states for quantum computing.","title":"Electron-on-helium qubit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Hydrogen-like series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_spectral_series"},{"link_name":"Rydberg constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rydberg_constant"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"mobility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_mobility"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"semiconductor two-dimensional electron gases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-dimensional_electron_gas"},{"link_name":"Coulomb interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law"},{"link_name":"Wigner solid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigner_crystal"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Fermi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_gas"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Single_electron_transport_on_the_surface_of_liquid_helium.jpg"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Kosterlitz-Thouless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosterlitz%E2%80%93Thouless_transition"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"polaronic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polaron"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"The electrostrictive binding of electrons to the surface of liquid helium was first demonstrated experimentally by Bruschi and co-workers in 1966.[4] A theoretical treatment of the electron-helium interaction was developed by Cole and Cohen in 1969[5] and, independently, by Shikin in 1970.[6] An electron close to the surface of liquid helium experiences an attractive force due to the formation of a weak (~0.01e) image charge in the dielectric liquid. However, the electron is prevented from entering the liquid by a high (~1 eV) barrier formed at the surface due to the hard-core repulsion of the electron by the helium atoms. As a result, the electron remains trapped outside the liquid. The energy of the electron in this potential well is quantised in a Hydrogen-like series with the modified Rydberg constant RHe \n \n \n \n ≈\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\approx }\n \n 10−4 RH. The binding energies of the ground (n = 1) and first excited (n = 2) states are -7.6 K and -1.9 K respectively and, as the energy required for excitation is higher than the typical experimental temperature (\n \n \n \n ≲\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lesssim }\n \n1 K), the electron remains in the ground state, trapped several nanometres above the liquid surface. The first spectroscopic evidence for these surface states was presented by Grimes and co-workers in 1976.[7]The electron motion parallel to the helium surface is free and, as the surface is free of impurities, the electron can move across the helium with record-high mobility.[8] The liquid surface can support electron densities up to an electrohydrodynamic limit of 2.4×109 cm−2, much lower than those typically achieved in semiconductor two-dimensional electron gases. For such low densities the electron system is described by nondegenerate statistics and, because the Coulomb interaction between electrons is only weakly screened by the helium, the spatial position of an electron in the 2D layer is strongly correlated with that of its neighbours. At low temperatures (typically below 1 K) the Coulomb interaction energy overcomes the electron thermal energy and the electrons form a 2D triangular lattice, the classical Wigner solid.[9] The surface density can be increased towards the degenerate Fermi regime on thin helium films covering solid substrates, or on other cryogenic substrates that exhibit a negative electron affinity such as solid hydrogen or neon, although measurements on these substrates are typically hindered by surface roughness.[10]a) Split-gate device for electrons on helium used to measure single electron transport. Surface electrons move from the left microchannel reservoir to the right microchannel reservoir through a constriction formed by a split-gate electrode. (b) At low temperatures, classical electron ordering effects give rise to current plateaus corresponding to 1, 2... electrons passing side-by-side through the constriction.Since the 1970’s, electrons on helium have been used to study the properties of 2D electron liquids and solids, as well as the liquid helium (4He or 3He) substrate. Notable areas of research include collective electron excitations[11] and edge magnetoplasmon effects,[12] many-body transport phenomena and Kosterlitz-Thouless melting in 2D,[13] polaronic effects at the helium interface,[14] the observation of microwave-induced zero-resistance states[15] and incompressible states[16] in the nondegenerate electron gas, and the mapping of the texture of superfluid 3He via interactions between the electron solid and quasiparticle excitations in the superfluid.[17] In recent years, micron-scale helium channels with sub-surface gate electrodes have been used to create devices in which single surface-state electrons can be manipulated,[18][19] facilitating the integration of electrons on helium with semiconductor device architectures and superconducting circuits.","title":"History of electrons on helium"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"single electron transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-electron_transistor"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"spin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"CCD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge-coupled_device"},{"link_name":"dipole-dipole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dipole-dipole"},{"link_name":"Exchange interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exchange_interaction"},{"link_name":"double-quantum-dot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_dot"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"superconducting coplanar cavity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconducting_quantum_computing"},{"link_name":"Jaynes-Cummings Hamiltonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaynes%E2%80%93Cummings_model"}],"text":"In the Platzman and Dykman proposal, the ground and first excited Rydberg energy levels of electrons, trapped above electrodes submerged under the helium surface, were proposed as the qubit basis states. The intrinsic low temperature of the system allowed the straightforward preparation of the qubit in the ground state. Qubit operations were performed via the excitation of the Rydberg transition with resonant microwave fields at frequencies ~120 GHz. Qubit interactions were facilitated by the long-range Coulomb interaction between electrons. Qubit read-out was achieved by the selective ionisation of excited electrons from the helium surface. In 2000, Lea and co-authors proposed that the qubit read-out could be achieved using a single electron transistor (SET) device positioned beneath the helium.[20]In 2006, Lyon proposed that the spin state of an electron on helium could also be used as a qubit.[21] A CCD-like architecture was proposed for the control of the many-qubit system with dipole-dipole interaction allowing two-qubit gate operations for adjacent spins. A global magnetic field parallel to the helium surface provided the axis for spin excitation, with local magnetic fields applied by submerged conductors used to bring the spins into resonance with microwave fields for qubit excitation. Exchange interaction for adjacent qubits was proposed as a read-out scheme, as demonstrated in semiconductor double-quantum-dot devices.In 2010 Schuster and co-workers proposed that for an electron in a lateral trapping potential the orbital states for motion parallel to the helium surface could be used as qubit basis states.[22] The electron trap was integrated into a superconducting coplanar cavity device. It was shown that, as in many superconducting qubit systems, the resonant exchange of microwave photons between the trapped electron and the cavity could be described by the Jaynes-Cummings Hamiltonian. Distant qubits could be coupled via a cavity bus. It was also shown that local magnetic field gradients could allow coupling between the electron spin state and the lateral motion, facilitating the read-out of the spin state via microwave spectroscopy of the cavity.","title":"Proposed quantum computing schemes – Rydberg, spin and orbital states"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"decoherence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_decoherence"}],"text":"In any quantum computer the decoherence of the qubit wavefunction, due to energy relaxation or dephasing effects, must be limited to a suitably low rate. For electron-on-helium qubits, deformations of the helium surface due to surface or bulk excitations (ripplons or phonons) modify the image charge potential and distort the electron wavefunction. Therefore, for Rydberg and orbital states, the primary source of decoherence is expected to be the emission of ripplons or phonons in the helium substrate. However, the decay rate due to these processes is expected to be slow (~100 μs) compared with the rate at which qubit operations can be performed (~10 ns). For the spin state, the inherent purity of the qubit environment and the weak spin orbit interaction for an electron moving above the helium surface results in predicted coherence times \n \n \n \n >\n \n \n {\\displaystyle >}\n \n1 s.","title":"Decoherence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Single-electron transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-electron_transistor"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"The first trapping and detection of single electrons on helium was demonstrated by Lea and co-workers in 2005, using a micron-scale helium-filled trap and a single electron transistor beneath the surface to count the electrons.[23] This experiment also demonstrated the first coupling between an electron on helium and a superconducting quantum circuit. Subsequently, other experiments have demonstrated progress towards the coherent control of single electrons on helium. These include ultra-efficient electron clocking in microchannel CCD devices,[24] controlled single electron transport measurements,[25] and the trapping and manipulation of 1D electron arrays,[26] In 2019, Koolstra and co-workers at the University of Chicago demonstrated the coupling of a single electron on helium to a superconducting microwave cavity, with a coupling strength g/2π ~ 5 MHz much larger than the resonator linewidth ~0.5 MHz.[27] In 2020, researchers from Michigan State University and EeroQ presented new results and fabrication progress on an electron-on-helium chip design using the lateral motional state of the electron, in frequencies in the 5–10 GHz range, using a Single-electron transistor readout device.[28]","title":"Current developments"}]
[{"image_text":"Schematic illustration of electron-on-helium qubits. The Rydberg (left), spin (centre) and orbital (right) degrees of freedom have been proposed as basis states for quantum computing.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Electron-on-helium_qubits.jpg/400px-Electron-on-helium_qubits.jpg"},{"image_text":"a) Split-gate device for electrons on helium used to measure single electron transport. Surface electrons move from the left microchannel reservoir to the right microchannel reservoir through a constriction formed by a split-gate electrode. (b) At low temperatures, classical electron ordering effects give rise to current plateaus corresponding to 1, 2... electrons passing side-by-side through the constriction.  ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Single_electron_transport_on_the_surface_of_liquid_helium.jpg/320px-Single_electron_transport_on_the_surface_of_liquid_helium.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"Andrei, Eva Y. (1997). Two-Dimensional Electron Systems : on Helium and other Cryogenic Substrates. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. ISBN 978-94-015-1286-2. OCLC 840311770.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/840311770","url_text":"Two-Dimensional Electron Systems : on Helium and other Cryogenic Substrates"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-015-1286-2","url_text":"978-94-015-1286-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/840311770","url_text":"840311770"}]},{"reference":"Monarkha, I︠U︡. P. (2004). Two-Dimensional Coulomb Liquids and Solids. Kimitoshi Kono. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. ISBN 978-3-662-10639-6. OCLC 851377154.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851377154","url_text":"Two-Dimensional Coulomb Liquids and Solids"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-10639-6","url_text":"978-3-662-10639-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/851377154","url_text":"851377154"}]},{"reference":"Platzman, P. M. (1999-06-18). \"Quantum Computing with Electrons Floating on Liquid Helium\". Science. 284 (5422): 1967–1969. doi:10.1126/science.284.5422.1967. PMID 10373109.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.284.5422.1967","url_text":"\"Quantum Computing with Electrons Floating on Liquid Helium\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.284.5422.1967","url_text":"10.1126/science.284.5422.1967"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10373109","url_text":"10373109"}]},{"reference":"Bruschi, L.; Maraviglia, B.; Moss, F. E. (1966-09-26). \"Measurement of a Barrier for the Extraction of Excess Electrons from Liquid Helium\". Physical Review Letters. 17 (13): 682–684. Bibcode:1966PhRvL..17..682B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.17.682. ISSN 0031-9007.","urls":[{"url":"https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.17.682","url_text":"\"Measurement of a Barrier for the Extraction of Excess Electrons from Liquid Helium\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1966PhRvL..17..682B","url_text":"1966PhRvL..17..682B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.17.682","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.17.682"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007","url_text":"0031-9007"}]},{"reference":"Cole, Milton W.; Cohen, Morrel H. (1969-11-24). \"Image-Potential-Induced Surface Bands in Insulators\". Physical Review Letters. 23 (21): 1238–1241. Bibcode:1969PhRvL..23.1238C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1238. ISSN 0031-9007.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morrel_H._Cohen","url_text":"Cohen, Morrel H."},{"url":"https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1238","url_text":"\"Image-Potential-Induced Surface Bands in Insulators\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PhRvL..23.1238C","url_text":"1969PhRvL..23.1238C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevLett.23.1238","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1238"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9007","url_text":"0031-9007"}]},{"reference":"Shikin, V. (1970). \"Motion of helium ions near a vapor-liquid interface\". Sov. Phys. JETP. 31: 936.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Grimes, C. C.; Brown, T. R.; Burns, Michael L.; Zipfel, C. L. 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Resonant phenomena in a microchannel-confined Wigner solid\". Virtual APS March Meeting. 2020-03-07. Retrieved 2021-03-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://virtualmarchmeeting.com/presentations/resonant-phenomena-in-a-microchannel-confined-wigner-solid/","url_text":"\"B17.00009. Resonant phenomena in a microchannel-confined Wigner solid\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_data_processing
Electronic data processing
["1 History","2 Today","3 See also","4 References"]
Use of automated methods to process commercial data This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Electronic data processing" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Electronic data processing (EDP) or business information processing can refer to the use of automated methods to process commercial data. Typically, this uses relatively simple, repetitive activities to process large volumes of similar information. For example: stock updates applied to an inventory, banking transactions applied to account and customer master files, booking and ticketing transactions to an airline's reservation system, billing for utility services. The modifier "electronic" or "automatic" was used with "data processing" (DP), especially c. 1960, to distinguish human clerical data processing from that done by computer. History A punched card from the mid-twentieth century. Herman Hollerith then at the U.S. Census Bureau devised a tabulating system that included cards (Hollerith card, later Punched card), a punch for holes in them representing data, a tabulator and a sorter. The system was tested in computing mortality statistics for the city of Baltimore. In the first commercial electronic data processing Hollerith machines were used to compile the data accumulated in the 1890 U.S. Census of population. Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company merged with two other firms to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, later renamed IBM. The punch-card and tabulation machine business remained the core of electronic data processing until the advent of electronic computing in the 1950s (which then still rested on punch cards for storing information). 1967 letter by the Midland Bank to a customer, on the introduction of electronic data processing Electronic data processing in the Volkswagen factory Wolfsburg, 1973 The first commercial business computer was developed in the United Kingdom in 1951, by the J. Lyons and Co. catering organization. This was known as the 'Lyons Electronic Office' – or LEO for short. It was developed further and used widely during the 1960s and early 1970s. (Lyons formed a separate company to develop the LEO computers and this subsequently merged to form English Electric Leo Marconi and then International Computers Limited. By the end of the 1950s punched card manufacturers, Hollerith, Powers-Samas, IBM and others, were also marketing an array of computers. Early commercial systems were installed exclusively by large organizations. These could afford to invest the time and capital necessary to purchase hardware, hire specialist staff to develop bespoke software and work through the consequent (and often unexpected) organizational and cultural changes. At first, individual organizations developed their own software, including data management utilities, themselves. Different products might also have 'one-off' bespoke software. This fragmented approach led to duplicated effort and the production of management information needed manual effort. High hardware costs and relatively slow processing speeds forced developers to use resources 'efficiently'. Data storage formats were heavily compacted, for example. A common example is the removal of the century from dates, which eventually led to the 'millennium bug'. Data input required intermediate processing via punched paper tape or punched card and separate input to a repetitive, labor-intensive task, removed from user control and error-prone. Invalid or incorrect data needed correction and resubmission with consequences for data and account reconciliation. Data storage was strictly serial on paper tape, and then later to magnetic tape: the use of data storage within readily accessible memory was not cost-effective until hard disk drives were first invented and began shipping in 1957. Significant developments took place in 1959 with IBM announcing the 1401 computer and in 1962 with ICT (International Computers & Tabulators) making delivery of the ICT 1301. Like all machines during this time the processor together with the peripherals – magnetic tape drives, disks drives, drums, printers and card and paper tape input and output required considerable space in specially constructed air conditioned accommodation. Often parts of the punched card installation, in particular sorters, were retained to present the card input to the computer in a pre-sort form that reduced the processing time involved in sorting large amounts of data. Data processing facilities became available to smaller organizations in the form of the computer services bureau. These offered processing of specific applications e.g. payroll and were often a prelude to the purchase of customers' own computers. Organizations used these facilities for testing programs while awaiting the arrival of their own machine. These initial machines were delivered to customers with limited software. The design staff was divided into two groups. Systems analysts produced a systems specification and programmers translated the specification into machine language. Literature on computers and EDP was sparse and mostly obtained through articles appearing in accountancy publications and material supplied by the equipment manufacturers. The first issue of The Computer Journal published by The British Computer Society appeared in mid 1958. The UK Accountancy Body now named The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants formed an Electronic Data Processing Committee in July 1958 with the purpose of informing its members of the opportunities created by the computer. The Committee produced its first booklet in 1959, An Introduction to Electronic Computers. Also in 1958 The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales produced a paper Accounting by Electronic Methods. The notes show what may be possible and the potential implications of using a computer. Progressive organizations attempted to go beyond the straight systems transfer from punched card equipment and unit accounting machines to the computer, to producing accounts to the trial balance stage and integrated management information systems. New procedures redesigned the way paper flowed, changed organizational structures, called for a rethink of the way information was presented to management and challenged the internal control principles adopted by the designers of accounting systems. But the full realization of these benefits had to await the arrival of the next generation of computers Today As with other industrial processes commercial IT has moved in most cases from a custom-order, craft-based industry where the product was tailored to fit the customer; to multi-use components taken off the shelf to find the best-fit in any situation. Mass-production has greatly reduced costs and IT is available to the smallest organization. LEO was hardware tailored for a single client. Today, Intel Pentium and compatible chips are standard and become parts of other components which are combined as needed. One individual change of note was the freeing of computers and removable storage from protected, air-filtered environments. Microsoft and IBM at various times have been influential enough to impose order on IT and the resultant standardizations allowed specialist software to flourish. Software is available off the shelf. Apart from products such as Microsoft Office and IBM Lotus, there are also specialist packages for payroll and personnel management, account maintenance and customer management, to name a few. These are highly specialized and intricate components of larger environments, but they rely upon common conventions and interfaces. Data storage has also been standardized. Relational databases are developed by different suppliers using common formats and conventions. Common file formats can be shared by large mainframes and desktop personal computers, allowing online, real-time input and validation. In parallel, software development has fragmented. There are still specialist technicians, but these increasingly use standardized methodologies where outcomes are predictable and accessible. At the other end of the scale, any office manager can dabble in spreadsheets or databases and obtain acceptable results (but there are risks, because many do not know what Software testing is). Specialized software is software that is written for a specific task rather for a broad application area. These programs provide facilities specifically for the purpose for which they were designed. At the other end of the scale, any office manager can dabble in spreadsheets or databases and obtain acceptable results. See also Computing Data processing Data processing system Information Technology References ^ Illingworth, Valerie (11 December 1997). Dictionary of Computing. Oxford Paperback Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780192800466. ^ Anthony Ralston. Encyclopedia of Computer Science 4ed. Nature group. p. 502. ^ a b "From Herman Hollerith to IBM". Because of Her Story. Smithsonian. Retrieved 22 August 2021. ^ "Tabulating Equipment, From Herman Hollerith to IBM". Smithsonian, National Museum of American History. Retrieved July 6, 2019. ^ "Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)". Immigrant Entrepreneurship. Retrieved July 6, 2019. ^ World’s First Business Computer, LEO, Turns 60 Archived 2014-02-19 at the Wayback Machine, TechWeek Europe ^ Bird, Peter (2002). "J. Lyons & Co.: LEO Computers". Retrieved 18 May 2009. ^ Goldsmith J A. Choosing your Computer. The Accountant 14 June 1958. ^ a b c d e f g h Goyal, Meera; Mathur, Nishit (2020). Information Technology & Its Implications in Business. SBPD Publications. ISBN 978-93-5167-164-0. Retrieved 22 August 2021. ^ Mitchell R. baba Control with a Computer. The Accountant 3 November 1962.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Electronic data processing (EDP) or business information processing can refer to the use of automated methods to process commercial data. Typically, this uses relatively simple, repetitive activities to process large volumes of similar information. For example: stock updates applied to an inventory, banking transactions applied to account and customer master files, booking and ticketing transactions to an airline's reservation system, billing for utility services. The modifier \"electronic\" or \"automatic\" was used with \"data processing\" (DP), especially c. 1960, to distinguish human clerical data processing from that done by computer.[1][2]","title":"Electronic data processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Used_Punchcard_(5151286161).jpg"},{"link_name":"Herman Hollerith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Hollerith"},{"link_name":"U.S. Census Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Census_Bureau"},{"link_name":"Hollerith card, later Punched card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBM-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1967_Midland_Bank_letter_on_electronic_data_processing.JPG"},{"link_name":"Midland Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Bank"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F038812-0022,_Wolfsburg,_VW_Autowerk,_EDV.jpg"},{"link_name":"Volkswagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkswagen"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"J. Lyons and Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Lyons_and_Co."},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Lyons Electronic Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LEO_(computer)"},{"link_name":"English Electric Leo Marconi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Electric"},{"link_name":"International Computers Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Computers_Limited"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Powers-Samas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powers-Samas"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"bespoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bespoke"},{"link_name":"software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software"},{"link_name":"Data storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_storage"},{"link_name":"millennium bug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_bug"},{"link_name":"punched paper tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_tape"},{"link_name":"punched card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"magnetic tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape"},{"link_name":"hard disk drives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drives"},{"link_name":"began shipping in 1957","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives#IBM_350"},{"link_name":"1401 computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1401"},{"link_name":"ICT (International Computers & Tabulators)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Computers_and_Tabulators"},{"link_name":"ICT 1301","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICT_1301"},{"link_name":"peripherals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"},{"link_name":"computer services bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_bureau"},{"link_name":"Systems analysts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_analyst"},{"link_name":"programmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmer"},{"link_name":"machine language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code"},{"link_name":"The Computer Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Computer_Journal"},{"link_name":"British Computer Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Computer_Society"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"},{"link_name":"Association of Chartered Certified Accountants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Chartered_Certified_Accountants"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"},{"link_name":"Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Chartered_Accountants_in_England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"A punched card from the mid-twentieth century.Herman Hollerith then at the U.S. Census Bureau devised a tabulating system that included cards (Hollerith card, later Punched card), a punch for holes in them representing data, a tabulator and a sorter.[3] The system was tested in computing mortality statistics for the city of Baltimore.[3] In the first commercial electronic data processing Hollerith machines were used to compile the data accumulated in the 1890 U.S. Census of population.[4] Hollerith's Tabulating Machine Company merged with two other firms to form the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company, later renamed IBM. The punch-card and tabulation machine business remained the core of electronic data processing until the advent of electronic computing in the 1950s (which then still rested on punch cards for storing information).[5]1967 letter by the Midland Bank to a customer, on the introduction of electronic data processingElectronic data processing in the Volkswagen factory Wolfsburg, 1973The first commercial business computer was developed in the United Kingdom in 1951, by the J. Lyons and Co. catering organization.[6] This was known as the 'Lyons Electronic Office' – or LEO for short. It was developed further and used widely during the 1960s and early 1970s. (Lyons formed a separate company to develop the LEO computers and this subsequently merged to form English Electric Leo Marconi and then International Computers Limited.[7]\nBy the end of the 1950s punched card manufacturers, Hollerith, Powers-Samas, IBM and others, were also marketing an array of computers.[8]\nEarly commercial systems were installed exclusively by large organizations. These could afford to invest the time and capital necessary to purchase hardware, hire specialist staff to develop bespoke software and work through the consequent (and often unexpected) organizational and cultural changes.At first, individual organizations developed their own software, including data management utilities, themselves. Different products might also have 'one-off' bespoke software. This fragmented approach led to duplicated effort and the production of management information needed manual effort.High hardware costs and relatively slow processing speeds forced developers to use resources 'efficiently'. Data storage formats were heavily compacted, for example. A common example is the removal of the century from dates, which eventually led to the 'millennium bug'.Data input required intermediate processing via punched paper tape or punched card and separate input to a repetitive, labor-intensive task, removed from user control and error-prone. Invalid or incorrect data needed correction and resubmission with consequences for data and account reconciliation.Data storage was strictly serial on paper tape, and then later to magnetic tape: the use of data storage within readily accessible memory was not cost-effective until hard disk drives were first invented and began shipping in 1957. Significant developments took place in 1959 with IBM announcing the 1401 computer and in 1962 with ICT (International Computers & Tabulators) making delivery of the ICT 1301. Like all machines during this time the processor together with the peripherals – magnetic tape drives, disks drives, drums, printers and card and paper tape input and output required considerable space in specially constructed air conditioned accommodation.[9] Often parts of the punched card installation, in particular sorters, were retained to present the card input to the computer in a pre-sort form that reduced the processing time involved in sorting large amounts of data.[9]Data processing facilities became available to smaller organizations in the form of the computer services bureau. These offered processing of specific applications e.g. payroll and were often a prelude to the purchase of customers' own computers. Organizations used these facilities for testing programs while awaiting the arrival of their own machine.These initial machines were delivered to customers with limited software. The design staff was divided into two groups. Systems analysts produced a systems specification and programmers translated the specification into machine language.Literature on computers and EDP was sparse and mostly obtained through articles appearing in accountancy publications and material supplied by the equipment manufacturers. The first issue of The Computer Journal published by The British Computer Society appeared in mid 1958. [9] The UK Accountancy Body now named The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants formed an Electronic Data Processing Committee in July 1958 with the purpose of informing its members of the opportunities created by the computer.[9] The Committee produced its first booklet in 1959, An Introduction to Electronic Computers. Also in 1958 The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales produced a paper Accounting by Electronic Methods.[9] The notes show what may be possible and the potential implications of using a computer.Progressive organizations attempted to go beyond the straight systems transfer from punched card equipment and unit accounting machines to the computer, to producing accounts to the trial balance stage and integrated management information systems.[9] New procedures redesigned the way paper flowed, changed organizational structures, called for a rethink of the way information was presented to management and challenged the internal control principles adopted by the designers of accounting systems.[10] But the full realization of these benefits had to await the arrival of the next generation of computers","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Intel Pentium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Pentium"},{"link_name":"chips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Office"},{"link_name":"IBM Lotus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Software"},{"link_name":"Relational databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_database"},{"link_name":"file formats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_format"},{"link_name":"large mainframes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer"},{"link_name":"personal computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"},{"link_name":"Software testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_testing"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IT-9"}],"text":"As with other industrial processes commercial IT has moved in most cases from a custom-order, craft-based industry where the product was tailored to fit the customer; to multi-use components taken off the shelf to find the best-fit in any situation. Mass-production has greatly reduced costs and IT is available to the smallest organization.LEO was hardware tailored for a single client. Today, Intel Pentium and compatible chips are standard and become parts of other components which are combined as needed. One individual change of note was the freeing of computers and removable storage from protected, air-filtered environments. Microsoft and IBM at various times have been influential enough to impose order on IT and the resultant standardizations allowed specialist software to flourish.Software is available off the shelf. Apart from products such as Microsoft Office and IBM Lotus, there are also specialist packages for payroll and personnel management, account maintenance and customer management, to name a few. These are highly specialized and intricate components of larger environments, but they rely upon common conventions and interfaces.Data storage has also been standardized. Relational databases are developed by different suppliers using common formats and conventions. Common file formats can be shared by large mainframes and desktop personal computers, allowing online, real-time input and validation.In parallel, software development has fragmented. There are still specialist technicians, but these increasingly use standardized methodologies where outcomes are predictable and accessible.[9] At the other end of the scale, any office manager can dabble in spreadsheets or databases and obtain acceptable results (but there are risks, because many do not know what Software testing is). Specialized software is software that is written for a specific task rather for a broad application area. These programs provide facilities specifically for the purpose for which they were designed. At the other end of the scale, any office manager can dabble in spreadsheets or databases and obtain acceptable results.[9]","title":"Today"}]
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[{"title":"Computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing"},{"title":"Data processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_processing"},{"title":"Data processing system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_processing_system"},{"title":"Information Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Technology"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_F.C.
Celtic F.C.
["1 History","2 Crest and colours","3 Stadium","4 Supporters","4.1 Sectarianism","4.2 Irish republicanism","5 Celtic media","6 Influence on other clubs","7 Charity","8 Ownership and finances","8.1 Private company","8.2 McCann takeover and transition to plc","9 Players","9.1 First-team squad","9.2 Out on loan","9.3 Academy squads","9.4 Women's team","9.5 Former players","9.6 Club captains","9.7 Greatest ever team","10 Club officials","10.1 Board of directors","10.2 Management","10.3 Managerial history","11 Halls of Fame","11.1 Scotland Football Hall of Fame","11.2 Scotland Roll of Honour","11.3 Scottish Sports Hall of Fame","12 Honours","12.1 Domestic honours","12.2 Continental honours","12.3 Other awards","12.4 Quadruple","12.5 Trebles","12.6 Doubles","13 Records","13.1 Club records","13.2 Individual records","14 Club partners","15 Footnotes","16 References","17 External links"]
Association football club in Glasgow, Scotland This article is about the Scottish football club. For other football clubs named Celtic, see Celtic (disambiguation) § Sports. Football clubCelticFull nameThe Celtic Football ClubNickname(s)The BhoysThe CeltsThe HoopsFounded6 November 1887; 136 years ago (1887-11-06)GroundCeltic ParkCapacity60,411OwnerCeltic PLC (LSE: CCP)ChairmanPeter LawwellManagerBrendan RodgersLeagueScottish Premiership2023–24Scottish Premiership, 1st of 12 (champions)WebsiteClub website Home colours Away colours Third colours Current season Celtic have been in the Scottish top division since the inaugural Scottish Football League season in 1890. The Celtic Football Club, commonly known as Celtic (/ˈsɛltɪk/), is a professional football club in Glasgow, Scotland. The team competes in the Scottish Premiership, the top division of Scottish football. The club was founded in 1887 with the purpose of alleviating poverty in the Irish–Scots population in the city's East End area. They played their first match in May 1888, a friendly match against Rangers which Celtic won 5–2. Celtic established themselves within Scottish football, winning six successive league titles during the first decade of the 20th century. The club enjoyed their greatest successes during the 1960s and 70s under Jock Stein, when they won nine consecutive league titles and the 1967 European Cup. Celtic have played in green and white throughout their history, adopting in 1903 the hoops that have been used ever since. Celtic are one of only five clubs in the world to have won over 100 trophies. The club has won the Scottish league championship 54 times, most recently in 2023–24, the Scottish Cup 42 times and the Scottish League Cup 21 times. The club's greatest season was 1966–67, when Celtic became the first British team to win the European Cup, also winning the Scottish league championship, the Scottish Cup, the League Cup and the Glasgow Cup. Celtic also reached the 1970 European Cup Final and the 2003 UEFA Cup Final, losing in both. Celtic have a long-standing fierce rivalry with Rangers and, together, the clubs are known as the Old Firm. Their matches against each other are regarded as among the world's biggest football derbies. The club's fanbase was estimated in 2003 as being around 9 million worldwide and there are more than 160 Celtic supporters clubs in over 20 countries. An estimated 80,000 fans travelled to Seville for the 2003 UEFA Cup Final, and their "extraordinarily loyal and sporting behaviour" in spite of defeat earned the club Fair Play awards from FIFA and UEFA, respectively. History Main articles: History of Celtic F.C. (1887–1994) and (1994–present) Brother Walfrid, founder of Celtic FC Celtic Football Club was formally constituted at a meeting in St. Mary's church hall in East Rose Street (now Forbes Street), Calton, Glasgow, by Irish Marist Brother Walfrid on 6 November 1887, with the purpose of alleviating poverty in the East End of Glasgow by raising money for the charity Walfrid had instituted, the Poor Children's Dinner Table. Walfrid's move to establish the club as a means of fund-raising was largely inspired by the example of Hibernian, which was formed out of the immigrant Irish population a few years earlier in Edinburgh. Walfrid's own suggestion of the name Celtic (pronounced Seltik) was intended to reflect the club's Irish and Scottish roots and was adopted at the same meeting. The club has the official nickname, The Bhoys. However, according to the Celtic press office, the newly established club was known to many as "the bold boys". A postcard from the early 20th century that pictured the team and read "The Bould Bhoys" is the first known example of the unique spelling. The extra h imitates the spelling system of Gaelic, wherein the letter b is often accompanied by the letter h. A team photo from the early days of the club (around 1889), before the adoption of the hooped jerseys On 28 May 1888, Celtic played their first official match against Rangers and won 5–2 in what was described as a "friendly encounter". Neil McCallum scored Celtic's first goal. Celtic's first kit consisted of a white shirt with a green collar, black shorts, and emerald green socks. The original club crest was a simple green cross on a red oval background. In 1889 Celtic reached the final of the Scottish Cup in their first season taking part in the competition, but lost 2–1 to Third Lanark. Celtic reached the final again in 1892 and this time were victorious after defeating Queen's Park 5–1, the club's first major honour. Several months later the club moved to its new ground, Celtic Park, and in the following season won the Scottish League Championship for the first time. In 1895, Celtic set the League record for the highest home score when they beat Dundee 11–0. In 1897, the club became a private limited company and Willie Maley was appointed as the first 'secretary-manager'. Between 1905 and 1910, Celtic won the Scottish League Championship six times in a row. They also won the Scottish Cup in both 1907 and 1908, the first times a Scottish club had ever won the double. During World War I, Celtic won the league four times in a row, including 62 matches unbeaten between November 1915 and April 1917. The mid-1920s saw the emergence of Jimmy McGrory as one of the most prolific goalscorers in British football history; over a sixteen-year playing career, he scored 550 goals in 547 games (including 16 goals for Clydebank during a season on loan in 1923–24), a British goal-scoring record to this day. In January 1940, Willie Maley's retirement was announced. He was 71 years old and had served the club in varying roles for nearly 52 years, initially as a player and then as secretary-manager. Jimmy McStay became manager of the club in February 1940. He spent over five years in this role, although due to the Second World War no official competitive league football took place during this time. The Scottish Football League and Scottish Cup were suspended and in their place regional league competitions were set up. Celtic did not do particularly well during the war years, but did win the Victory in Europe Cup held in May 1945 as a one-off football match to celebrate Victory in Europe Day. William Maley (1868–1958) Secretary Celtic Football Club. Ex-player and captain Jimmy McGrory took over as manager in 1945. Under McGrory, Celtic defeated Arsenal, Manchester United and Hibernian to win the Coronation Cup, a one-off tournament held in May 1953 to commemorate the coronation of Elizabeth II. He also led them to a League and Cup double in 1954. On 19 October 1957, Celtic defeated Rangers in the final of the Scottish League Cup at Hampden Park in Glasgow, retaining the trophy they had won for the first time the previous year; the 7–1 scoreline remains a record win in a British domestic cup final. The years that followed, however, saw Celtic struggle and the club won no more trophies under McGrory. Jock Stein in an Amsterdam hotel, ahead of a European Cup quarter-final against AFC Ajax (1971) Former Celtic captain Jock Stein succeeded McGrory in 1965. He won the Scottish Cup in his first few months at the club, and then led them to the League title the following season. 1967 was Celtic's annus mirabilis. The club won every competition they entered: the Scottish League, the Scottish Cup, the Scottish League Cup, the Glasgow Cup, and the European Cup. With this haul, Celtic became the first club to win the European Treble and remains the only club to win the fabled Quadruple. Under the leadership of Stein, the club defeated Inter Milan 2–1 at the Estádio Nacional in Lisbon, on 25 May 1967 to become the first British team, and indeed the first from outside Spain, Portugal and Italy to win the European Cup. They remain the only Scottish team to have reached the final. The players that day, all of whom were born within 30 miles of Glasgow, subsequently became known as the "Lisbon Lions". The following season Celtic lost to Racing Club of Argentina in the Intercontinental Cup. Celtic reached the European Cup Final again in 1970, but were beaten 2–1 by Feyenoord at the San Siro in Milan. The club continued to dominate Scottish football in the early 1970s, and their Scottish Championship win in 1974 was their ninth consecutive league title, equalling the joint world record held at the time by MTK Budapest and CSKA Sofia. Celtic enjoyed further domestic success in the 1980s, and in their Centenary season of 1987–88 won a Scottish Premier Division and Scottish Cup double. The club endured a slump in the early 1990s, culminating in the Bank of Scotland informing directors on 3 March 1994 that it was calling in the receivers as a result of the club exceeding a £5 million overdraft. However, expatriate businessman Fergus McCann wrested control of the club, and ousted the family dynasties which had controlled Celtic since its foundation. According to media reports, McCann took over the club minutes before it was to be declared bankrupt. McCann reconstituted the club business as a public limited company – Celtic PLC – and oversaw the redevelopment of Celtic Park into a 60,832 all-seater stadium. In 1998 Celtic won the title again under Dutchman Wim Jansen and prevented Rangers from beating their nine-in-a-row record. Martin O'Neill took charge of the club in June 2000. Under his leadership, Celtic won three SPL championships out of five (losing the others by very small margins) and in his first season in charge the club also won the domestic treble, making O'Neill only the second Celtic manager to do so after Jock Stein. In 2003, around 80,000 Celtic fans travelled to watch the club compete in the UEFA Cup Final in Seville. Celtic lost 3–2 to Porto after extra time, despite two goals from Henrik Larsson during normal time. The conduct of the thousands of travelling Celtic supporters received widespread praise from the people of Seville and the fans were awarded Fair Play Awards from both FIFA and UEFA "for their extraordinarily loyal and sporting behaviour". Gordon Strachan was announced as O'Neill's replacement in June 2005 and after winning the SPL title in his first year in charge, he became only the third Celtic manager to win three titles in a row. He also guided Celtic to their first UEFA Champions League knockout stage in 2006–07 and repeated the feat in 2007–08 before departing the club in May 2009, after failing to win the SPL title. Tony Mowbray took charge of the club in June 2009, and he was succeeded a year later by Neil Lennon. In November 2010, Celtic set an SPL record for the biggest win in SPL history, defeating Aberdeen 9–0 at Celtic Park. Celtic celebrated their 125th anniversary in November 2012, the same week as a Champions League match against Barcelona. They won 2–1 on the night to complete a memorable week, and eventually qualified from the group stages for the round of 16. Celtic finished the season with the SPL and Scottish Cup double. The club clinched their third consecutive league title in March 2014, with goalkeeper Fraser Forster setting a new record during the campaign of 1,256 minutes without conceding a goal in a league match. At the end of the season, manager Neil Lennon announced his departure from the club after four years in the role. Norwegian Ronny Deila was appointed manager of Celtic on 6 June 2014. He went on to lead the team to two consecutive league titles and a League Cup, but the team's performances in European competition were poor. After being eliminated from the Scottish Cup by Rangers in April 2016, Deila announced he would leave the club at the end of the season. On 20 May 2016, Brendan Rodgers was announced as Deila's successor. His first season saw the team go on a long unbeaten run in domestic competitions, during which time the club won their 100th major trophy, defeating Aberdeen 3–0 in the League Cup Final in November 2016. Celtic also clinched their sixth successive league title in April 2017 with a record eight league games to spare, and eventually finished with a record 106 points, becoming the first Scottish side to complete a top-flight league season undefeated since Rangers in 1899. Celtic clinched their fourth treble by defeating Aberdeen 2–1 in the 2017 Scottish Cup Final, the result of which saw the club go through the entire domestic season unbeaten. Celtic continued their unbeaten domestic run into the following season, eventually extending it to 69 games, surpassing their own 100-year-old British record of 62 games, before finally losing to Hearts in November 2017. Celtic retained the League Cup that same month by defeating Motherwell in the final, and went on to clinch their seventh consecutive league title in April 2018. They went on to defeat Motherwell again in the 2018 Scottish Cup Final to clinch a second consecutive domestic treble (the "double treble"), the first club in Scotland to do so. Rodgers left the club midway through following season to join Leicester City; Neil Lennon returned as caretaker manager for the rest of the season and helped Celtic secure an unprecedented third consecutive domestic treble (the "treble treble"), defeating Hearts 2–1 in the 2019 Scottish Cup Final. Later that month, he was confirmed as the club's new manager. In December 2019, Lennon led Celtic to a 1–0 win over Rangers in the 2019 Scottish League Cup Final, the club's tenth consecutive domestic trophy. By March 2020, Celtic were 13 points ahead in the league when professional football in Scotland was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom. they were confirmed as champions in May 2020 following a SPFL board meeting where it was agreed that completing the full league campaign was infeasible. The completion of the 2019–20 Scottish Cup was delayed, with the semi-finals and final – between Celtic and Hearts as in the previous year – not taking place until late autumn/winter of 2020. Celtic won on penalty-kicks after the sides tied at 3–3 after extra time, clinching a fourth successive treble. However, Celtic struggled throughout the 2020–21 season with poor performances in Europe, knocked out of the League Cup by Ross County, and by February 2021 were trailing 18 points behind Rangers in the league – effectively ending their hopes of winning "ten in a row" league titles. Lennon resigned on 24 February 2021, with assistant manager John Kennedy taking interim charge of the team. In the closing weeks of the season, Celtic were knocked out of the Scottish Cup by Rangers which condemned them to their first trophy-less season since 2010, and finished the league campaign 25 points behind their Glasgow rivals. Crest and colours Wikimedia Commons has media related to Celtic F.C. kits. The club crest adopted on the team's football shirts in 1977, based on a badge originating from the 1930s The special crest that was adopted in seasons 1987–88 & 1988–89 to celebrate the club's centenary Special commemorative crest used in season 2017–18 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the club's European Cup Final win in 1967 For most of Celtic's history their home strip has featured green and white horizontal hoops, but their original strip consisted of a white top with black shorts and black and green hooped socks. The top also featured the Marist Brothers' badge on the right hand side, consisting of a green Celtic cross inside a red circle. In 1889, the club changed to a green and white vertically striped top and for the next fourteen years this remained unchanged although the colour of the shorts alternated between white and black several times over this period. The top did not feature a crest. In 1903, Celtic adopted their now famous green and white hooped tops. The new design was worn for the first time on 15 August 1903 in a match against Partick Thistle. Black socks continued to be worn until the early 1930s, at which point the team switched to green socks. Plain white socks came into use in the mid-1960s, and white has been the predominant colour worn since then. History of Celtic football strips 1888 1889–1903 1903–1932 1932–1965 1965 onwards The club began using a badge in the 1930s, featuring a four leaf clover logo surrounded by the club's formal title, "The Celtic Football and Athletic Coy. Ltd". However, it was not until 1977 that Celtic finally adopted the club crest on their shirts. The outer segment was reversed out, with white lettering on a green background on the team shirts. The text around the clover logo on the shirts was also shortened from the official club crest to "The Celtic Football Club". For their centenary year in 1988, a commemorative crest was worn, featuring the Celtic cross that appeared on their first shirts. The 1977 version was reinstated for season 1989–90. From 1945 onwards numbered shirts slowly came into use throughout Scotland, before becoming compulsory in 1960. By this time Celtic were the last club in Britain to adopt the use of numbers on the team strip to identify players. The traditionalist and idealistic Celtic chairman, Robert Kelly, baulked at the prospect of the famous green and white hoops being disfigured, and as such Celtic wore their numbers on the players' shorts. This unusual tradition survived until 1994, although numbered shirts were worn in European competition from 1975 onwards. Celtic's tradition of wearing numbers on their shorts rather than on the back of their shirts was brought to an end when the Scottish Football League instructed Celtic to wear numbers on their shirts from the start of the 1994–95 season. Celtic responded by adding numbers to the top of their sleeves, however within a few weeks the football authorities ordered the club to attach them to the back of their shirts, where they appeared on a large white patch, breaking up the green and white hoops. In 1984 Celtic took up shirt sponsorship for the first time, with Fife-based double glazing firm CR Smith having their logo emblazoned on the front of the team jersey. In season 1991–92, Celtic switched to Glasgow-based car sales company Peoples as sponsors. The club failed to secure a shirt sponsor for season 1992–93, and for the first time since the early 1980s Celtic took to the field in 'unblemished' hoops. Despite the loss of marketing revenue, sales of the new unsponsored replica top increased dramatically. Celtic regained shirt sponsorship for season 1993–94, with CR Smith returning as shirt sponsors in a four-year deal. In 2005 the club severed their connection with Umbro, suppliers of their kits since the 1960s and entered into a contract with Nike. To mark the 40th anniversary of their European Cup win, a special crest was introduced for the 2007–08 season. The star that represents this triumph was retained when the usual crest was reinstated the following season. In 2012, a retro style kit was designed by Nike that included narrower hoops to mark the club's 125th anniversary. A special crest was introduced with a Celtic knot design embroidered round the traditional badge. A third-choice strip based on the first strip from 1888 was also adopted for the season. In March 2015, Celtic agreed a new kit deal worth £30 million with Boston-based sportswear manufacturer New Balance to replace Nike from the start of the 2015–16 season. All of the kits for the 2017–18 season paid tribute to the Lisbon Lions, with the kits having a line on each side to represent the handles of the European Cup. The kits also included a commemorative crest, designed specifically for the season. The regular crest was reinstated the following season, although the away strip featured a Celtic cross once again in reference to the club's heritage. In March 2020, Celtic announced a new five-year partnership with Adidas starting on 1 July 2020, in a deal believed to be the biggest kit sponsorship ever in Scottish sport. Period Kit manufacturer Shirt sponsor (front) Shirt sponsor (back) 1960s–1984 Umbro none none 1984–1991 CR Smith 1991–1992 Peoples Ford 1992–1993 none 1993–1997 CR Smith 1997–1999 Umbro 1999–2003 NTL 2003–2005 Carling 2005–2010 Nike 2010–2013 Tennents 2013–2015 Magners 2015–2016 New Balance 2016–2020 Dafabet Magners 2020– Adidas Stadium Main article: Celtic Park Statue of Jock Stein outside Celtic Park Celtic's stadium is Celtic Park, which is in the Parkhead area of Glasgow. Celtic Park, an all-seater stadium with a capacity of 60,411, is the largest football stadium in Scotland and the eighth-largest stadium in the United Kingdom, after Murrayfield, Old Trafford, Twickenham, Wembley, the London Stadium, Tottenham Hotspur Stadium and the Millennium Stadium. It is commonly known as Parkhead or Paradise. Celtic opened the original Celtic Park in the Parkhead area in 1888. The club moved to a different site in 1892, however, when the rental charge was greatly increased. The new site was developed into an oval shaped stadium, with vast terracing sections. The record attendance of 83,500 was set by an Old Firm derby on 1 January 1938. The terraces were covered and floodlights were installed between 1957 and 1971. The Taylor Report mandated that all major clubs should have an all-seated stadium by August 1994. Celtic was in a bad financial position in the early 1990s and no major work was carried out until Fergus McCann took control of the club in March 1994. He carried out a plan to demolish the old terraces and develop a new stadium in a phased rebuild, which was completed in August 1998. During this development, Celtic spent the 1994–95 season playing at the national stadium Hampden Park, costing the club £500,000 in rent. The total cost of the new stadium on its completion was £40 million. Celtic Park has been used as a venue for Scotland internationals and Cup Finals, particularly when Hampden Park has been unavailable. Before the First World War, Celtic Park hosted various other sporting events, including composite rules shinty-hurling, track and field and the 1897 Track Cycling World Championships. Open-air masses, and First World War recruitment drives have also been held there. In more recent years, Celtic Park has hosted the Opening Ceremonies of the 2014 Commonwealth Games, the 2005 Special Olympics National Games and the 1990 Special Olympics European Games. Celtic Park has occasionally been used for concerts, including performances by The Who and U2. In July 2016, Celtic Park became the first British football stadium to have a "rail seating" (safe standing) area in the ground. Rail seating is particularly common in Germany's Bundesliga, most notably at Borussia Dortmund's Westfalenstadion, a ground with a reputation on par with Celtic Park for its intensity and atmosphere. In June 2018, Celtic announced a series of stadium improvements that would be implemented before the 2018–19 season. These include the installation of new LED floodlights and a new entertainment system, a stadium-wide PA system and a new hybrid playing surface. A panoramic view of Celtic Park Supporters Main article: Celtic F.C. supporters In 2003 Celtic were estimated to have a fan base of nine million people, including one million in the US and Canada. There are over 160 Celtic Supporters Clubs in over 20 countries around the world. An estimated 80,000 Celtic supporters, many without match tickets, travelled to Seville in Spain for the UEFA Cup Final in May 2003. The club's fans subsequently received awards from UEFA and FIFA for their behaviour at the match. Celtic has the highest average home attendance of any Scottish club. They also had the 12th highest average league attendance out of all the football clubs in Europe in 2011. A study of stadium attendance figures from 2013 to 2018 by the CIES Football Observatory ranked Celtic at 16th in the world during that period, and their proportion of the distribution of spectators in Scotland at 36.5%, the highest of any club in the leagues examined. In October 2013, French football magazine So Foot  published a list of whom they considered the "best" football supporters in the world. Celtic fans were placed third, the only club in Britain on the list, with the magazine highlighting their rendition of "You'll Never Walk Alone" before the start of European ties at Celtic Park. On 23 October 2017, Celtic fans were awarded with the FIFA Fan Award for their tifo commemorating the 50th anniversary of the club's European cup win. The award celebrates the best fan moment of November 2016 to August 2017. Sectarianism Main articles: Old Firm and Sectarianism in Glasgow Celtic's traditional rivals are Rangers; collectively, the two clubs are known as the Old Firm and seen by some as the world's biggest football derby. The two have dominated Scottish football's history; between them, they have won the Scottish league championship 108 times (as of May 2023) since its inception in 1890 – all other clubs combined have won 19 championships. The two clubs are also by far the most supported in Scotland, with Celtic having the sixth highest home attendance in the UK during the 2014–15 season. Celtic have a historic association with the people of Ireland and Scots of Irish descent, both of whom are mainly Roman Catholic. Traditionally fans of rivals Rangers came from Scottish or Northern Irish Protestant backgrounds and support Unionism in Ireland. The clubs have attracted the support of opposing factions in the Troubles in Northern Ireland. Some supporters use songs, chants and banners at matches to abuse or show support for the Protestant or Catholic religions and proclaim support for Northern Irish paramilitary groups such as the IRA and UVF. There have been over 400 Old Firm matches played. The games have been described as having an "atmosphere of hatred, religious tension and intimidation which continues to lead to violence in communities across Scotland." The rivalry has fuelled many assaults and even deaths on Old Firm Derby days. Admissions to hospital emergency rooms have been reported to increase ninefold over normal levels and in the period from 1996 to 2003, eight deaths in Glasgow were directly linked to Old Firm matches, and hundreds of assaults. Both sets of fans fought on the pitch after Celtic's victory in the 1980 Scottish Cup Final at Hampden Park. There was serious fan disorder during an Old Firm match played in May 1999 at Celtic Park; missiles were thrown by Celtic fans, including one which struck referee Hugh Dallas, who needed medical treatment and a small number of fans invaded the pitch. Celtic have taken measures to reduce sectarianism. In 1996, the club launched its Bhoys Against Bigotry campaign, later followed by Youth Against Bigotry to "educate the young on having ... respect for all aspects of the community – all races, all colours, all creeds". Irish republicanism Some groups of Celtic fans have expressed their support for Irish republicanism and the Irish Republican Army by singing or chanting about them at matches. In 2008 and 2010, there were protests by groups of fans over the team wearing the poppy for Remembrance Day, as the symbol is opposed by Irish Republicans owing to its association with the British military. Celtic expressed disapproval of these protests, saying they were damaging to the image of the club and its fans, and pledged to ban those involved. In 2011, UEFA and the Scottish Premier League investigated the club over pro-IRA chants by fans at different games. UEFA fined Celtic £12,700, while the SPL took no action, as the club had taken all reasonable action to prevent the chants. Celtic media The Celtic View In 1965, Celtic began publishing its own newspaper, The Celtic View, now the oldest club magazine in football. It was the brainchild of future chairman Jack McGinn, who at the time was working in the circulation department of Beaverbrook Newspapers. McGinn himself edited the paper for the first few years, with circulation initially reaching around 26,000 copies. By 2020, it was a 72-page glossy magazine with over 6,000 weekly readers, and the top selling club magazine in the United Kingdom. In the spring of 2020, the magazine saw a temporary cease of production due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK. However, in August 2021, Celtic announced the restart of the production activities for the magazine, which was turned into a 100-page, quarterly publication. From 2002, Celtic's Internet TV channel Channel67 (previously known as Celtic Replay) broadcast Celtic's own content worldwide and offered live match coverage to subscribers outside the UK. It also provided three online channels. In 2004, Celtic launched their own digital TV channel called Celtic TV, which was available in the UK through Setanta Sports on satellite and cable platforms. Due to the collapse of Setanta in the UK in June 2009, Celtic TV stopped broadcasting, although the club hoped to find a new broadcast partner. In 2011, Celtic TV was relaunched as an online service and replaced Channel 67. Influence on other clubs Due to Celtic's large following, several clubs have emulated or been inspired by Celtic. As the club has a large following, especially in Northern Ireland, several clubs have been founded there by local Celtic fans. The most notable and successful was Belfast Celtic, formed in 1891 simply as Celtic. Upon incorporation as a limited company in 1901, however, the club adopted the name "Belfast Celtic", the title "Celtic Football Club Ltd" already being registered by the Glasgow club. Their home from the same year was Celtic Park on Donegall Road in west Belfast, known to the fans as Paradise. It was one of the most successful teams in Ireland until it withdrew from the Irish League in 1949. Donegal Celtic, currently playing in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League, was established in 1970, with the Celtic part being taken on due to the massive local following for Scotland's Celtic and formerly Belfast Celtic. They are nicknamed The Wee Hoops and play at Donegal Celtic Park on Suffolk Road in Belfast. A club by the name of Lurgan Celtic was originally formed in 1903, with the obvious slant of aiming towards the Roman Catholic community of the town, adopting the name and colours of the Glaswegian Celtic. The County Armagh club currently plays in the NIFL Championship. In the Republic of Ireland, both Tuam Celtic A.F.C. and Castlebar Celtic F.C. play at grounds called Celtic Park. Throughout Scotland and England, other clubs have been named after and adopted Celtic's kit. These include the now defunct Scottish club Blantyre Celtic F.C.; Irish club Listowel Celtic F.C.; and English lower-league clubs Cleator Moor Celtic F.C., which was founded in 1908–09 by Irish immigrants employed in the local iron ore mines, Celtic Nation F.C. (now defunct) and West Allotment Celtic F.C. Somerset club Yeovil Town F.C., who traditionally wore an all-green shirt, modified their uniform to emulate Celtic's, inspired by the Scottish club's 2003 UEFA Cup run. South African club Bloemfontein Celtic F.C., one of the most popular club in the country with a large fan base in the Free State, is also named after Celtic F.C. Founded in 1969 as Mangaung United, in 1984, the then owner Molemela took over the club and changed the name to Bloemfontein Celtic. Based in Bloemfontein, they play in the Premier Soccer League. In the United States of America, Hurricanes F.C. of Houston, Texas rebranded as Celtic FC America in 2019 and play in the Texas Premier Soccer League. Charity Celtic was initially founded to raise money for the poor in the East End of Glasgow and the club still retain strong charitable traditions today. In 1995 the Celtic Charity Fund was formed with the aim of "revitalising Celtic's charitable traditions" and by September 2013 had raised over £5 million. The Charity Fund has since then merged with the Celtic Foundation, forming the Celtic FC Foundation, and continues to raise money for local, national and international causes. On 9 August 2011 Celtic held a testimonial match in honour of former player John Kennedy. Due to the humanitarian crisis in East Africa, the entire proceeds were donated to Oxfam. An estimated £300,000 was raised. Celtic hold an annual charity fashion show at Celtic Park. In 2011 the main beneficiaries were Breast Cancer Care Scotland. Yorkhill Hospital is another charity with whom Celtic are affiliated and in December 2011 the club donated £3000 to it. Chief Executive Peter Lawwell said that; "Celtic has always been much more than a football club and it is important that, at all times we play an important role in the wider community. The club is delighted to have enjoyed such a long and positive connection with Yorkhill Hospital." Ownership and finances Private company Celtic were formed in 1887, and in 1897 the club became a Private Limited Company with a nominal share capital of 5000 shares at £1 each. The following year a further share issue of 5000 £1 shares was created to raise more capital. The largest number of shares held were by businessmen from the East End of Glasgow, notably James Grant, an Irish publican and engineer, James Kelly, one of the club's original players turned publican, and John Glass, a builder and driving force in the early years of the club. His shares, upon his death in 1906, passed on to Thomas White. The Grant, Kelly and White families' shareholdings dominated ownership of the club throughout the 20th century. James Kelly was one of Celtic's early directors and also briefly chairman. His son Robert Kelly spent many years as chairman, and further descendants Kevin Kelly and Michael Kelly went on to have prominent roles on the Celtic board.The late 1940s saw Robert Kelly, son of James Kelly, become chairman of the club after having been a director since 1931. Desmond White also joined the board around this time, upon the death of his father Thomas White. By the 1950s, a significant number of shares in the club had passed to Neil and Felicia Grant, who lived in Toomebridge, County Antrim. These shares accounted for more than a sixth of the club's total issue. Club chairman Robert Kelly's own family share-holding was of a similar size, and he used his close relationship with the Toomebridge Grants to ensure his power base at Celtic was unchallengeable. When Neil Grant died in the early 1960s, his shareholding passed to his sister Felicia, leaving her as the largest share-holder in Celtic. This gave rise to the myth among Celtic supporters of the "old lady in Ireland" who supposedly had the ultimate say in the running of the club. Celtic's board of directors had a reputation of being miserly and authoritarian. In particular they were known for frequently selling their top players and not paying their staff enough; they were also seen as lacking ambition, which caused friction with several managers. Jimmy McGrory's tenure as manager is generally considered a period of underachievement, but with Chairman Robert Kelly's domineering influence. many have questioned how much authority McGrory ever had in team selection. Even Jock Stein's time as manager ended on a sour note when he was offered a place on the Celtic board, but in a role involving ticket sales. Stein felt that this was demeaning, stating he was "a football man, not a ticket salesman". He declined this offer and decided to stay in football management, joining Leeds United instead. Billy McNeill won a trophy in each of his five seasons as manager, but was still paid less than the managers of Rangers, Aberdeen and Dundee United. He left the club in June 1983 after his request for a contract and pay rise was publicly rebuffed by the board. McNeill moved on to manage Manchester City, stating that to remain at Celtic would have been humiliating. McNeill's successor, Davie Hay, also had his difficulties with the Celtic board. When trying to sign players in 1987 to strengthen his squad to compete with high-spending Rangers, the board refused to pay for them; chairman Jack McGinn was quoted as saying that if Hay wanted these players, "he will have to pay for them himself". By the end of the 1980s the Celtic board consisted of chairman McGinn and directors Kevin Kelly, Chris White, Tom Grant and Jimmy Farrell. Neither McGinn nor Farrell were members of the traditional family dynasties at Celtic. Farrell was a partner in the Shaughnessy law firm that had long-standing connections with Celtic, and was invited to become a director in 1964. McGinn had set up The Celtic View in the 1960s and later became the club's commercial manager. He was given a seat on the board and became chairman in 1986. In May 1990 the former Lord Provost of Glasgow, Michael Kelly, and property developer Brian Dempsey were invited to join the Celtic board. Dempsey did not last long however, as a dispute about a proposed relocation to Robroyston resulted in him being voted off the board five months later. McCann takeover and transition to plc Throughout the 1960s and 70s Celtic had been one of the strongest clubs in Europe. However, the directors failed to accompany the wave of economic development facing football in the 1980s, although the club continued to remain successful on the field, albeit limited to the domestic scene in Scotland. In 1989, the club's annual budget was £6.4 million, about a third as much as Barcelona, with a debt of around 40% and on-field success deteriorating. In the early 1990s the situation began to worsen as playing success declined dramatically and the club slipped further into debt. In 1993 fans began organising pressure groups to protest against the board, one of the most prominent being "Celts for Change". They supported a takeover bid led by Canadian-based businessman Fergus McCann and former director Brian Dempsey. Football writer Jim Traynor described McCann's attempt to buy the club as "good against evil". Despite declining attendances and increasing unrest amongst supporters, the Kelly, White and Grant family groupings continued to guard their control of Celtic. On 4 March 1994, McCann bought Celtic for £9 million, finally wresting control from the family dynasties that had run the club for almost 100 years. When he bought the club it was reported to be within 24 hours of entering receivership due to exceeding a £5 million overdraft with the Bank of Scotland. He turned Celtic into a public limited company through a share issue which raised over £14 million, the most successful share issue in British football history. He also oversaw the building of a new stadium, the 60,000 seater Celtic Park, which cost £40 million and at the time was Britain's largest club stadium. This allowed Celtic to progress as a club because over £20 million was being raised each year from season ticket sales. McCann had maintained that he would only be at Celtic for five years and in September 1999 he announced that his 50.3% stake in Celtic was for sale. McCann had wanted the ownership of Celtic to be spread as widely as possible and gave first preference to existing shareholders and season-ticket holders, to prevent a new consortium taking over the club. 14.4 million shares were sold by McCann at a value of 280 pence each. McCann made £40 million out of this, meaning he left Celtic with a £31 million profit. During his tenure, turnover at Celtic rose by 385% to £33.8m and operating profits rose from £282,000 to £6.7m. McCann was often criticised during his time at Celtic and many people disagreed with him over building a stadium which they thought Celtic could not fill, not investing enough in the squad and being overly focused on finance. However, McCann was responsible for the financial recovery of the club and for providing a very good platform for it to build on. After he left Celtic, the club were able to invest in players and achieved much success such as winning the treble in 2000–01 and reaching the 2003 UEFA Cup Final. After McCann's exit, Irish billionaire Dermot Desmond was left as the majority shareholder. He purchased 2.8 million of McCann's shares to increase his stake in the club from 13% to 20%. In 2005, Celtic issued a share offer designed to raise £15 million for the club; 50 million new shares were made available priced at 30p each. It was also revealed that majority shareholder Desmond would buy around £10 million worth of the shares. £10 million of the money raised was for building a new training centre and youth academy, expanding the club's global scouting network and investing in coaching and player development programmes. The rest of the money was to be used to reduce debt. Building a youth academy was important for Celtic to surpass both Hearts and Rangers who had superior youth facilities at the time. The share issue was a success and Celtic had more applicants than shares available, The new Lennoxtown training centre was opened in October 2007. Celtic have been ranked in the Deloitte Football Money League six times. This lists the top 20 football clubs in the world according to revenue. They were ranked between 2002 (2000–01 season), 2006 (2004–05 season) and 2008 (2006–07 season). Celtic's financial results for 2011 showed that the club's debt had been reduced from £5.5 million to £500,000 and that a pre-tax profit of £100,000 had been achieved, compared with a loss of over £2 million the previous year. Turnover also decreased by 15% from £63 million to £52 million. In May 2012, Celtic were rated 37th in Brand Finance's annual valuation of the world's biggest football clubs. Celtic's brand was valued at $64 million (£40.7 million), $15 million more than the previous year. It was the first time a Scottish club had been ranked in the top 50. Matt Hannagan, Sports Brand Valuation Analyst at Brand Finance, said that Celtic were constrained by the amount of money they got from the SPL and that if they were in the Premiership then, due to their large fan base, they could be in the top 10 clubs in the world. Later that month David Low, the financial consultant who advised Fergus McCann on his takeover of Celtic in 1994, said that Celtic's 'enterprise value' (how much it would cost to buy the club) was £52 million. Players First-team squad As of 7 March 2024 Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. No. Pos. Nation Player 2 DF  CAN Alistair Johnston 3 DF  SCO Greg Taylor 4 DF  SWE Gustaf Lagerbielke 5 DF  IRL Liam Scales 7 FW  HON Luis Palma 8 FW  JPN Kyogo Furuhashi 9 FW  MNE Sead Hakšabanović 10 FW  GER Nicolas Kühn 13 FW  KOR Yang Hyun-jun 15 MF  NOR Odin Thiago Holm 16 MF  IRL James McCarthy 17 DF  POL Maik Nawrocki 18 DF  JPN Yuki Kobayashi 19 FW  KOR Oh Hyeon-gyu 20 DF  USA Cameron Carter-Vickers No. Pos. Nation Player 22 MF  KOR Kwon Hyeok-kyu 23 FW  AUS Marco Tilio 24 MF  JPN Tomoki Iwata 29 GK  SCO Scott Bain 30 MF  ENG Liam Shaw 31 GK  SUI Benjamin Siegrist 33 MF  DEN Matt O'Riley 38 FW  JPN Daizen Maeda 41 MF  JPN Reo Hatate 42 MF  SCO Callum McGregor (captain) 49 MF  SCO James Forrest 54 DF  SCO Adam Montgomery 56 DF  SCO Anthony Ralston 57 DF  SCO Stephen Welsh 90 FW  IRL Mikey Johnston Out on loan Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality. No. Pos. Nation Player 25 DF  ARG Alexandro Bernabei (at Internacional until 24 December 2024) — FW  IRL Johnny Kenny (at Shamrock Rovers until 30 November 2024) Academy squads For more details on the academy squads, see Celtic F.C. B Team and Academy. Women's team Main article: Celtic F.C. Women Celtic have a pathway for female players, from eleven years old upwards. In 2007 the club launched their women's first team, sometimes known as Celtic Women. The women's team reached the Scottish Women's Cup Final in their first season, and won their first trophy in 2010, the Scottish Women's Premier League Cup. In December 2018 they announced a move to full-time training, becoming the first professional women's football team in Scotland. Former players For further information, see List of Celtic F.C. players for players with over 100 appearances or other stated notability, List of Celtic F.C. international footballers and Category:Celtic FC players for a general list of ex-players. Club captains For further information, see Celtic club captains List of Celtic F.C. captains Name Period James Kelly 1888–1897 Dan Doyle 1897–1899 Sandy McMahon 1899–1903 Willie Orr 1903–1906 Jimmy Hay 1906–1911 Jim Young 1911–1917 Alec McNair 1917–1920 Willie Cringan 1920–1923 Charlie Shaw 1923–1925 Willie McStay 1925–1929 Jimmy McStay 1929–1934 Bobby Hogg 1934–1935 Willie Lyon 1935–1939 John McPhail 1948–1953 Sean Fallon 1952–1953 Jock Stein 1953–1955   Name Period Bobby Evans 1955–1957 Bertie Peacock 1957–1961 Duncan MacKay 1961–1963 Billy McNeill 1963–1975 Kenny Dalglish 1975–1977 Danny McGrain 1977–1987 Roy Aitken 1987–1990 Paul McStay 1990–1997 Tom Boyd 1997–2002 Paul Lambert 2002–2004 Jackie McNamara 2004–2005 Neil Lennon 2005–2007 Stephen McManus 2007–2010 Scott Brown 2010–2021 Callum McGregor 2021–present Greatest ever team SIMPSON McNEILL MURDOCH GEMMELL McGRAIN JOHNSTONE AULD McSTAY LARSSON DALGLISH LENNOX Greatest ever Celtic team In 2002 the greatest ever Celtic team was voted by supporters: Ronnie Simpson Danny McGrain Tommy Gemmell Bobby Murdoch Paul McStay Billy McNeill – Voted Celtic's greatest ever captain Bertie Auld Jimmy Johnstone – Voted Celtic's greatest ever player Bobby Lennox Kenny Dalglish Henrik Larsson – Voted Celtic's greatest ever foreign player Club officials Board of directors Position Name Chairman Peter Lawwell Chief executive Michael Nicholson Chief financial officer Chris McKay Senior independent director Tom Allison Independent non-executive director Sharon Brown Independent non-executive director Dermot Desmond Independent non-executive director Brian Rose Independent non-executive director Brian Wilson Company secretary Chris Duffy Management Position Name Manager Brendan Rodgers Assistant manager John Kennedy First team coach Adam Sadler Gavin Strachan Goalkeeping coach Stevie Woods Head of performance Glen Driscoll Physio Tim Williamson Managerial history Brendan Rodgers led Celtic to a unique unbeaten domestic treble in the 2016–17 season. Main article: List of Celtic F.C. managers Name Period Willie Maley 1897–1940 Jimmy McStay 1940–1945 Jimmy McGrory 1945–1965 Jock Stein 1965–1978 Billy McNeill 1978–1983 1987–1991 David Hay 1983–1987 Liam Brady 1991–1993 Lou Macari 1993–1994 Tommy Burns 1994–1997 Wim Jansen 1997–1998   Name Period Jozef Vengloš 1998–1999 John Barnes 1999–2000 Martin O'Neill 2000–2005 Gordon Strachan 2005–2009 Tony Mowbray 2009–2010 Neil Lennon 2010–2014 2019–2021 Ronny Deila 2014–2016 Brendan Rodgers 2016–2019 2023–present Ange Postecoglou 2021–2023 Halls of Fame Scotland Football Hall of Fame As of 1 June 2020, 27 Celtic players and managers have entered the Scottish Football Hall of Fame: Roy Aitken Bertie Auld Stevie Chalmers John Clark Jim Craig Paddy Crerand Sir Kenny Dalglish MBE Jimmy Delaney Bobby Evans Tommy Gemmell Mo Johnston Jimmy Johnstone Paul Lambert Henrik Larsson Bobby Lennox Willie Maley Danny McGrain Jimmy McGrory Billy McNeill Paul McStay Bobby Murdoch Charlie Nicholas Ronnie Simpson Jock Stein CBE Gordon Strachan John Thomson Willie Wallace Scotland Roll of Honour The Scotland national football team roll of honour recognises players who have gained 50 or more international caps for Scotland. Inductees to have played for Celtic are: Roy Aitken (50) Tom Boyd (66) Scott Brown (52) Gary Caldwell (17) John Collins (32) Kenny Dalglish MBE (47) Craig Gordon (14) Danny McGrain MBE (62) Paul McStay (76) Kenny Miller (7) Numbers in brackets indicate the number of caps the above players won whilst at Celtic. Scottish Sports Hall of Fame In the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame, five Celtic players have been selected, they are: Sir Kenny Dalglish MBE Jimmy Johnstone Jimmy McGrory Billy McNeill MBE Jock Stein CBE Honours For a full list of honours including minor, reserve and youth competitions, see list of Celtic F.C. records and statistics § Honours. Domestic honours Trophy case at Celtic Park Scottish League Championship: 54 1892–93, 1893–94, 1895–96, 1897–98, 1904–05, 1905–06, 1906–07, 1907–08, 1908–09, 1909–10, 1913–14, 1914–15, 1915–16, 1916–17, 1918–19, 1921–22, 1925–26, 1935–36, 1937–38, 1953–54, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1997–98, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22, 2022–23, 2023–24 Scottish Cup: 42 (record) 1891–92, 1898–99, 1899–1900, 1903–04, 1906–07, 1907–08, 1910–11, 1911–12, 1913–14, 1922–23, 1924–25, 1926–27, 1930–31, 1932–33, 1936–37, 1950–51, 1953–54, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1973–74, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1979–80, 1984–85, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1994–95, 2000–01, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2010–11, 2012–13, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2022–23, 2023–24 Scottish League Cup: 21 1956–57, 1957–58, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1974–75, 1982–83, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2014–15, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22, 2022–23 Continental honours European Cup/UEFA Champions League Winners: 1966–67 Runners-up: 1969–70 UEFA Cup Runners-up: 2002–03 Intercontinental Cup Runners-up: 1967 British League Cup Winners: 1902 Empire Exhibition Trophy Winners: 1938 Coronation Cup Winners: 1953 Other awards BBC Sports Personality of the Year Team Award: 1 1967 France Football European Team of the Year: 1 1970 FIFA Fair Play Award: 1 20031 UEFA Fair Play Award: 1 20031 FIFA Fan Award: 1 20171 1 Awarded to the fans of Celtic. Quadruple League Title, Scottish Cup, League Cup, and European Cup: 1 1966–67 Trebles League Title, Scottish Cup, and League Cup: 8 1966–67, 1968–69, 2000–01, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2022–23 Doubles League Title and Scottish Cup: 13 1906–07, 1907–08, 1913–14, 1953–54, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1973–74, 1976–77, 1987–88, 2003–04, 2006–07, 2012–13, 2023–24 League Title and League Cup: 7 1965–66, 1967–68, 1969–70, 1997–98, 2005–06, 2014–15, 2021–22 Scottish Cup and Scottish League Cup: 1 1974–75 Records Main article: List of Celtic F.C. records and statistics Club records See also: Celtic F.C. league record by opponent and Celtic F.C. in European football The Scottish Cup final win against Aberdeen in 1937 was attended by a crowd of 147,365 at Hampden Park in Glasgow, which remains a world record gate for a national cup final, and also the highest attendance for a club football match in Europe. Highest attendance for a European club competition match: 136,505 against Leeds United in the European Cup semi-final at Hampden Park (15 April 1970). Record home attendance: 83,500 against Rangers on 1 January 1938. A 3–0 victory for Celtic. UK record for an unbeaten run in domestic professional football: 69 games (60 won, 9 drawn), from 15 May 2016 until 17 December 2017  – a total of 582 days in all. SPL record for an unbeaten run of home matches: 77 games, from 2001 to 2004. 14 consecutive League Cup final appearances, from season 1964–65 to 1977–78 inclusive, a world record for successive appearances in the final of a major football competition. World record for total number of goals scored in a season (competitive games only): 196 (season 1966–67). Most goals scored in one Scottish top-flight league match by one player: eight goals by Jimmy McGrory against Dunfermline in 9–0 win on 14 January 1928. Highest score in a domestic British cup final: Celtic 7–1 Rangers (1957 Scottish League Cup Final). Fastest hat-trick in European Club Football: Mark Burchill against Jeunesse Esch in 2000; 3 minutes (between twelfth minute and fifteenth minute), a record at the time. Earliest Scottish Premiership title won: Won with eight games remaining in 2017, against Heart of Midlothian on 2 April 2017. Biggest margin of victory in the SPL: 9–0 against Aberdeen, 6 November 2010. Biggest margin of victory in the Scottish Premiership: 9–0 against Dundee United, 28 August 2022. Celtic and Hibernian hold the record for the largest transfer fee between two Scottish clubs (Scott Brown in May 2007). Most expensive export from Scottish football: Kieran Tierney to Arsenal (August 2019). First weekly football club publication in the UK: The Celtic View. First European club to field a player from the Indian sub-continent: Mohammed Salim. Gil Heron, who signed for Celtic in 1951, was the first black person to play professionally in Scotland; his son Gil Scott-Heron rose to prominence in the 1970s as a hugely influential jazz and soul musician. Individual records Record appearances (all competitions): Billy McNeill, 822 from 1957 to 1975 Record appearances (League): Alec McNair, 583 from 1904 to 1925 Most capped player for Scotland: 102 (47 whilst at Celtic), Kenny Dalglish Most international caps for Scotland while a Celtic player: 76, Paul McStay Most caps won whilst at Celtic: 80, Pat Bonner Record scorer: Jimmy McGrory, 522 (1922/23 – 1937/38) Record scorer in league: Jimmy McGrory, 396 Most goals in a season (all competitions): Jimmy McGrory, 62 (1927/28) (47 in League, 15 in Cup competitions) Most goals in a season (league only): Jimmy McGrory, 50 (1935/36) Club partners As of 12 June 2022, Celtic has partnerships with: Adidas Dafabet Magners Intelligent Car Leasing JD Sports Coca-Cola Powerade Sky Sports BT Sport Eden Mill Konami Eleven Sports Media Forbes on the Square Celtic Compare Cadbury Clyde 1 Go Radio Nirvana Europe Primal Strength Homeheat Utilita Energy Be Cordial Hotels University of the West of Scotland Catapult Sports My Personal English Coach Vitality Soccer Supplement Squalk The Turmeric Co. 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Official website Celtic F.C. on X Club information at fitbastats.com Celtic F.C. on BBC Sport: Club news – Recent results and fixtures vteCeltic Football Club Players Managers Records & Statistics Honours Head-to-head Current season Teams Celtic F.C. Celtic F.C. Women Academy and Under-20's History 1887–1994 1994–present Celtic and World War I Lisbon Lions Nine in a row Seasons Europe Notable matches Home stadium Celtic Park (1888–1892) Celtic Park (1892–present) Hampden Park (temporary, 1994–1995) Training ground Lennoxtown training centre Rivalries Old Firm People Players Managers Player of the Year International footballers The Quality Street Gang The Bhoys from Seville Supporters Green Brigade Songs "The Celtic Song" "You'll Never Walk Alone" "The Fields of Athenry" Associated songs Media Celtic TV The Celtic View Affiliated teams St Patrick's Sports Academy Nerang Eagles Related articles Celtic F.C. Foundation Jimmy Johnstone: Lord of the Wing 1971 Ibrox disaster vteCeltic F.C. seasons 1888–89 1889–90 1890–91 1891–92 1892–93 1893–94 1894–95 1895–96 1896–97 1897–98 1898–99 1899–1900 1900–01 1901–02 1902–03 1903–04 1904–05 1905–06 1906–07 1907–08 1908–09 1909–10 1910–11 1911–12 1912–13 1913–14 1914–15 1915–16 1916–17 1917–18 1918–19 1919–20 1920–21 1921–22 1922–23 1923–24 1924–25 1925–26 1926–27 1927–28 1928–29 1929–30 1930–31 1931–32 1932–33 1933–34 1934–35 1935–36 1936–37 1937–38 1938–39 1939–40 1940–41 1941–42 1942–43 1943–44 1944–45 1945–46 1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50 1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23 2023–24 2024–25 List of unbeaten football club seasons vteCeltic F.C. matchesScottish Cup Finals 1889 1892 1893 1894 1899 1900 1901 1902 1904 1907 1908 1909 1911 1912 1914 1923 1925 1926 1927 1928 1931 1933 1937 1951 1954 1955 1956 1961 1963 1965 1966 1967 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1977 1980 1984 1985 1988 1989 1990 1995 1999 2001 2002 2004 2005 2007 2011 2013 2017 2018 2019 2020 2023 2024 Scottish League Cup Finals 1956 1957 1964 1965 1966 1967 1969 (April) 1969 (October) 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1978 1982 1984 (March) 1986 1990 1994 1997 2000 2001 2003 2006 2009 2011 2012 2015 2016 (November) 2017 2018 2019 2021 (December) 2023 (February) SFL Championship Play-offs 1905 European Cup Finals 1967 1970 UEFA Cup Final 2003 Intercontinental Cup 1967 Other matches 1888 Glasgow Exhibition Cup Final 1901 Glasgow International Exhibition Cup Final 1902 British League Cup Final 1938 Empire Exhibition Trophy Final Coronation Cup Final (1953) CNE Cup of Champions (1968) 1971 Ibrox disaster Dubai Champions Cup (1986, 1989) Rangers 2–2 Celtic (1987) 2007 MLS All-Star Game Lincoln Red Imps 1–0 Celtic (2016) vteEuropean Cup and UEFA Champions League winnersEuropean Cup era, 1955–19921950s 1955–56: Real Madrid 1956–57: Real Madrid 1957–58: Real Madrid 1958–59: Real Madrid 1959–60: Real Madrid 1960s 1960–61: Benfica 1961–62: Benfica 1962–63: AC Milan 1963–64: Inter Milan 1964–65: Inter Milan 1965–66: Real Madrid 1966–67: Celtic 1967–68: Manchester United 1968–69: AC Milan 1969–70: Feyenoord 1970s 1970–71: Ajax 1971–72: Ajax 1972–73: Ajax 1973–74: Bayern Munich 1974–75: Bayern Munich 1975–76: Bayern Munich 1976–77: Liverpool 1977–78: Liverpool 1978–79: Nottingham Forest 1979–80: Nottingham Forest 1980s 1980–81: Liverpool 1981–82: Aston Villa 1982–83: Hamburger SV 1983–84: Liverpool 1984–85: Juventus 1985–86: Steaua București 1986–87: Porto 1987–88: PSV 1988–89: AC Milan 1989–90: AC Milan 1990s 1990–91: Red Star Belgrade 1991–92: Barcelona UEFA Champions League era, 1992–present1990s 1992–93: Marseille 1993–94: AC Milan 1994–95: Ajax 1995–96: Juventus 1996–97: Borussia Dortmund 1997–98: Real Madrid 1998–99: Manchester United 1999–2000: Real Madrid 2000s 2000–01: Bayern Munich 2001–02: Real Madrid 2002–03: AC Milan 2003–04: Porto 2004–05: Liverpool 2005–06: Barcelona 2006–07: AC Milan 2007–08: Manchester United 2008–09: Barcelona 2009–10: Inter Milan 2010s 2010–11: Barcelona 2011–12: Chelsea 2012–13: Bayern Munich 2013–14: Real Madrid 2014–15: Barcelona 2015–16: Real Madrid 2016–17: Real Madrid 2017–18: Real Madrid 2018–19: Liverpool 2019–20: Bayern Munich 2020s 2020–21: Chelsea 2021–22: Real Madrid 2022–23: Manchester City 2023–24: Real Madrid Finals Winning managers vteScottish Football League original clubs, 1890–91 3rd LRV Abercorn Cambuslang Celtic Cowlairs Dumbarton Heart of Midlothian Rangers Renton St Mirren Vale of Leven vteScottish Professional Football League « Scottish Premier League (1998–2013) « Scottish Football League (1890–2013) Divisions Premiership Championship League One League Two Cup competitions League Cup Challenge Cup 2024–25 Premiership teams Aberdeen Celtic Dundee Dundee United Heart of Midlothian Hibernian Kilmarnock Motherwell Rangers Ross County St Johnstone St Mirren 2024–25 Championship teams Airdrieonians Ayr United Dunfermline Athletic Falkirk Greenock Morton Hamilton Academical Livingston Partick Thistle Queen's Park Raith Rovers 2024–25 League One teams Alloa Athletic Arbroath Annan Athletic Cove Rangers Dumbarton Inverness Caledonian Thistle Kelty Hearts Montrose Queen of the South Stenhousemuir 2024–25 League Two teams Bonnyrigg Rose Clyde East Fife Edinburgh City Elgin City Forfar Athletic Peterhead Stirling Albion Stranraer The Spartans Former teams Albion Rovers Berwick Rangers Brechin City Cowdenbeath East Stirlingshire Seasons 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23 2023–24 2024–25 Clubs Foreign players Hat-tricks Managers Monthly awards Stadia Yearly awards Reserve League Development League vteScottish Premier League (1998–2013) « Scottish Football League Premier Division (1975–98) Scottish Premiership (2013– ) » Former teams Aberdeen Celtic Dundee Dundee United Dunfermline Athletic Falkirk Gretna Hamilton Academical Heart of Midlothian Hibernian Inverness Caledonian Thistle Kilmarnock Livingston Motherwell Partick Thistle Rangers Ross County St Johnstone St Mirren Seasons 1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 Clubs Stadia Foreign players Hat-tricks Yearly awards Monthly awards Reserve League vteScottish Football League (1890–2013) ≫ Scottish Professional Football League (2013–present) Divisions Premier Division (1975–1998) First Division (1975–2013) Second Division (1975–2013) Third Division (1994–2013) Cup competitions League Cup Challenge Cup B Division Supplementary Cup Summer Cup Spring Cup Clubs Abercorn Aberdeen Airdrieonians (1878) Airdrieonians (2002) Albion Rovers Alloa Athletic Annan Athletic Arbroath Armadale Arthurlie Ayr Ayr Parkhouse Ayr United Bathgate Beith Berwick Rangers Bo'ness Brechin City Broxburn United Cambuslang Celtic Clackmannan Clyde Clydebank (1914) Clydebank (1965) Cowdenbeath Cowlairs Dumbarton Dumbarton Harp Dundee Dundee United Dundee Wanderers Dunfermline Athletic Dykehead East Fife East Stirlingshire Edinburgh City (1928) Elgin City Falkirk Forfar Athletic Galston Greenock Morton Gretna Hamilton Academical Heart of Midlothian Helensburgh Hibernian Inverness Caledonian Thistle Johnstone Kilmarnock King's Park Leith Athletic Linthouse Livingston Lochgelly United Meadowbank Thistle Mid-Annandale Montrose Motherwell Nithsdale Wanderers Northern Partick Thistle Peebles Rovers Peterhead Port Glasgow Athletic Queen of the South Queen's Park Raith Rovers Rangers Renton Ross County Royal Albert Solway Star St Bernard's St Johnstone St Mirren Stenhousemuir Stirling Albion Stranraer Third Lanark Thistle Vale of Leven Seasons 1890–91 1891–92 1892–93 1893–94 1894–95 1895–96 1896–97 1897–98 1898–99 1899–1900 1900–01 1901–02 1902–03 1903–04 1904–05 1905–06 1906–07 1907–08 1908–09 1909–10 1910–11 1911–12 1912–13 1913–14 1914–15 1915–16 1916–17 1917–18 1918–19 1919–20 1920–21 1921–22 1922–23 1923–24 1924–25 1925–26 1926–27 1927–28 1928–29 1929–30 1930–31 1931–32 1932–33 1933–34 1934–35 1935–36 1936–37 1937–38 1938–39 1939–40 1940–41 1941–42 1942–43 1943–44 1944–45 1945–46 1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50 1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 Anglo-Franco-Scottish Friendship Cup Clubs Stadia Yearly awards Monthly awards Representative team List of players vteGlasgow CityHistory Battle of Glasgow (1544) Battle of Langside Timeline of Glasgow history 1888 exhibition 1901 exhibition 1911 exhibition Battle of George Square 1938 Empire Exhibition Glasgow razor gangs 1968 storm 1988 Garden Festival Glasgow young teams Politics City Chambers Glasgow City Council Lord Provost Red Clydeside Glasgow Trades Council Scottish Parliament electoral region Glasgow's miles better Parliamentary constituencies Council wards Geography Demography Subdivisions Glasgow city centre Greater Glasgow Urban Area Housing Parks River Clyde River Kelvin Squares Streets Tallest buildings Culture Architecture Art Chinatown Festivals Glasgow Fair Glasgow patter Media People TRNSMT World Pipe Band Championships Transport Buchanan bus station Glasgow Central railway station Glasgow Queen Street railway station Glasgow Airport Prestwick Airport Renfrew Airport (until 1966) Subway Clyde Tunnel Kingston Bridge Road junctions Trams (until 1962) Trolleybuses (until 1967) Education University of Strathclyde Glasgow Caledonian University University of Glasgow Glasgow Medical School Glasgow School of Art Royal Conservatoire of Scotland (RSAMD) Religion Archbishop of Glasgow (Roman Catholic) Bishop of Glasgow and Galloway (Episcopalian) Glasgow Cathedral Glasgow Central Mosque Presbytery of Glasgow Saint Mungo Sectarianism Sport 2014 Commonwealth Games Celtic F.C. Clyde F.C. Commonwealth Arena Glasgow Rocks Glasgow Warriors Hamilton Crescent Hampden Park Kelvin Hall Old Firm Original Glasgow derby Partick Thistle F.C. Queen's Park F.C. Rangers F.C. Third Lanark A.C. (defunct) West of Scotland Cricket Club Attractions Ashton Lane Botanic Gardens Buchanan Street Burrell Collection Celtic Park Clydeside distillery SEC Armadillo (Clyde Auditorium) Concert Hall Gallery of Modern Art George Square Glasgow distillery Glasgow Green Glasgow Science Centre Glasgow Tower Glasgow Women's Library Hilton Hotel Holmwood House Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery Ibrox Stadium Listed buildings Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum Mitchell Library Pollok House Riverside Museum Scottish Football Museum Willow Tearooms Health Dental Hospital Gartnavel General Hospital Glasgow effect Glasgow Royal Infirmary New Victoria Hospital NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde Queen Elizabeth University Hospital Stobhill Hospital Category vteFootball in GlasgowSPFL teams Premiership: Celtic Rangers Championship: Queen's Park Partick Thistle League One: Clyde Lowland League teams Broomhill West of Scotland League teams Premier Division: Benburb Pollok First Division: Ashfield Drumchapel United Petershill St Roch's Second Division: Caledonian Locomotives Glasgow Perthshire Glasgow University Maryhill St Anthony's Vale of Clyde Third Division: Finnart Glasgow United Fourth Division: Broomhill Sports Club Easterhouse Knightswood Amateur teams Drumchapel Amateurs Women's teams SWPL1: Celtic Glasgow City Rangers SWPL2: Glasgow Women Partick Thistle Queen's Park Youth teams St Patrick's Sports Academy (formerly Celtic Boys Club) Celtic Academy Rangers Academy Defunct League teams Cowlairs Linthouse Northern Third Lanark Thistle Venues Cathkin Park Celtic Park Firhill Stadium Hampden Park Ibrox Stadium Lesser Hampden Lochburn Park Newlandsfield Park Petershill Park Saracen Park Toryglen Regional Football Centre Other topics All clubs Glasgow Cup Glasgow FA Old Firm Scottish Football Museum SJFA West Region Teams in italics are no longer based in, or do not currently play home games in, Glasgow Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National France BnF data Germany Czech Republic Poland
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Celtic (disambiguation) § Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_(disambiguation)#Sports"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CelticFC_League_Performance.svg"},{"link_name":"Scottish Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Football_League"},{"link_name":"1890","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1890%E2%80%9391_Scottish_Football_League"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"/ˈsɛltɪk/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"Scottish Premiership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"Scottish football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_football_league_system"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Irish–Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish-Scottish_people"},{"link_name":"East End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow#East_End"},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"Jock Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock_Stein"},{"link_name":"1967 European Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_European_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Scottish league championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scottish_football_champions"},{"link_name":"2023–24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"Scottish Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"Scottish League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1966–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"European Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League"},{"link_name":"Scottish league championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"Scottish Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"Glasgow Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Cup"},{"link_name":"1970 European Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970_European_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"2003 UEFA Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_UEFA_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"Old Firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Firm"},{"link_name":"fanbase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_F.C._supporters"},{"link_name":"Seville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seville"},{"link_name":"Fair Play","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Fair_Play_Award"},{"link_name":"FIFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA"},{"link_name":"UEFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA"}],"text":"Association football club in Glasgow, ScotlandThis article is about the Scottish football club. For other football clubs named Celtic, see Celtic (disambiguation) § Sports.Football clubCeltic have been in the Scottish top division since the inaugural Scottish Football League season in 1890.[3]The Celtic Football Club, commonly known as Celtic (/ˈsɛltɪk/), is a professional football club in Glasgow, Scotland. The team competes in the Scottish Premiership, the top division of Scottish football. The club was founded in 1887[nb 1] with the purpose of alleviating poverty in the Irish–Scots population in the city's East End area. They played their first match in May 1888, a friendly match against Rangers which Celtic won 5–2. Celtic established themselves within Scottish football, winning six successive league titles during the first decade of the 20th century. The club enjoyed their greatest successes during the 1960s and 70s under Jock Stein, when they won nine consecutive league titles and the 1967 European Cup. Celtic have played in green and white throughout their history, adopting in 1903 the hoops that have been used ever since.Celtic are one of only five clubs in the world to have won over 100 trophies.[4] The club has won the Scottish league championship 54 times, most recently in 2023–24, the Scottish Cup 42 times and the Scottish League Cup 21 times. The club's greatest season was 1966–67, when Celtic became the first British team to win the European Cup, also winning the Scottish league championship, the Scottish Cup, the League Cup and the Glasgow Cup. Celtic also reached the 1970 European Cup Final and the 2003 UEFA Cup Final, losing in both.Celtic have a long-standing fierce rivalry with Rangers and, together, the clubs are known as the Old Firm. Their matches against each other are regarded as among the world's biggest football derbies. The club's fanbase was estimated in 2003 as being around 9 million worldwide and there are more than 160 Celtic supporters clubs in over 20 countries. An estimated 80,000 fans travelled to Seville for the 2003 UEFA Cup Final, and their \"extraordinarily loyal and sporting behaviour\" in spite of defeat earned the club Fair Play awards from FIFA and UEFA, respectively.","title":"Celtic F.C."},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BrotherWalfrid(AndrewKerins).jpg"},{"link_name":"Brother Walfrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brother_Walfrid"},{"link_name":"St. Mary's church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Mary%27s,_Calton"},{"link_name":"Calton, Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calton,_Glasgow"},{"link_name":"Marist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marist_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Brother Walfrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brother_Walfrid"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Hibernian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernian_F.C."},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"postcard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcard"},{"link_name":"Gaelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_fc_1889.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CFCBriefHistory-12"},{"link_name":"Neil McCallum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_McCallum_(footballer,_born_1868)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-firstg-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_cross"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"1889","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1889_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"Scottish Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"Third Lanark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Lanark_A.C."},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"1892","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1892_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"Queen's 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Maley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Maley"},{"link_name":"manager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manager_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"1905","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904%E2%80%9305_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1910","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1909%E2%80%9310_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CFCBriefHistory-12"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"1907","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1907_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"1908","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1908_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"double","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CFCBriefHistory-12"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CFCBriefHistory-12"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McGrory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McGrory"},{"link_name":"Clydebank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clydebank_F.C._(1914)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcg-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mcg1-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McStay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McStay"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"Victory in Europe Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Maley_(1868-1958)_Secretary_Celtic_Football_Club.png"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wil82-31"},{"link_name":"Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal_F.C."},{"link_name":"Manchester United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_United_F.C."},{"link_name":"Coronation Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_Cup_(football)"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"Scottish League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"Hampden Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampden_Park"},{"link_name":"7–1 scoreline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957_Scottish_League_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Trainer_Jock_Stein_van_Celtic_in_het_Hiltonhotel,_Bestanddeelnr_924-3395.jpg"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"AFC Ajax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFC_Ajax"},{"link_name":"Jock Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock_Stein"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"annus mirabilis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annus_mirabilis"},{"link_name":"Glasgow Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow_Cup"},{"link_name":"European Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Cup"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Treble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treble_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Inter Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter_Milan"},{"link_name":"Estádio Nacional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Est%C3%A1dio_Nacional"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecwinner67-44"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Lisbon Lions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon_Lions"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Racing Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racing_Club_de_Avellaneda"},{"link_name":"Intercontinental Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercontinental_Cup_(football)"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-racing-47"},{"link_name":"1970","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970_European_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"Feyenoord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feyenoord"},{"link_name":"San Siro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Siro"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ec6970-48"},{"link_name":"ninth consecutive league title","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine_in_a_row"},{"link_name":"MTK Budapest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTK_Budapest"},{"link_name":"CSKA Sofia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSKA_Sofia"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Centenary season of 1987–88","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"Scottish Premier Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Bank of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"overdraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraft"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-newmt-51"},{"link_name":"Fergus McCann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergus_McCann"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"public limited company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_limited_company"},{"link_name":"1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"Wim Jansen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wim_Jansen"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Martin O'Neill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_O%27Neill"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"SPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"UEFA Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_UEFA_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"Seville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seville"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OSMSeville-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ESPNSeville-59"},{"link_name":"Porto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC_Porto"},{"link_name":"Henrik Larsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Larsson"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uefa03-60"},{"link_name":"FIFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA"},{"link_name":"UEFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FIFA1-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuropesBest-62"},{"link_name":"Gordon Strachan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Strachan"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"UEFA Champions League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League"},{"link_name":"2006–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_UEFA_Champions_League"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"2007–08","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_UEFA_Champions_League"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"SPL title","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Tony Mowbray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Mowbray"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Neil Lennon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Lennon"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"defeating Aberdeen 9–0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_9%E2%80%930_Aberdeen"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"Fraser Forster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraser_Forster"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"Ronny Deila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronny_Deila"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brendan-80"},{"link_name":"Brendan Rodgers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Rodgers"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brendan-80"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-81"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_F.C."},{"link_name":"League Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_Scottish_League_Cup_Final_(November)"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"top-flight league season undefeated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unbeaten_football_club_seasons"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"2017 Scottish Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Hearts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_Midlothian_F.C."},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"the final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Scottish_League_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"2018 Scottish Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Leicester City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leicester_City_F.C."},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"2019 Scottish Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"2019 Scottish League Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Scottish_League_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"SPFL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Professional_Football_League"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"2019–20 Scottish Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"penalty-kicks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penalty_shootout"},{"link_name":"tied at 3–3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie_(draw)"},{"link_name":"extra time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extra_time"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"2020–21 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%9321_in_Scottish_football"},{"link_name":"Ross County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ross_County_F.C."},{"link_name":"John Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kennedy_(Scottish_footballer)"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"text":"Brother Walfrid, founder of Celtic FCCeltic Football Club was formally constituted at a meeting in St. Mary's church hall in East Rose Street (now Forbes Street), Calton, Glasgow, by Irish Marist Brother Walfrid[5] on 6 November 1887, with the purpose of alleviating poverty in the East End of Glasgow by raising money for the charity Walfrid had instituted, the Poor Children's Dinner Table.[6] Walfrid's move to establish the club as a means of fund-raising was largely inspired by the example of Hibernian, which was formed out of the immigrant Irish population a few years earlier in Edinburgh.[7] Walfrid's own suggestion of the name Celtic (pronounced Seltik) was intended to reflect the club's Irish and Scottish roots and was adopted at the same meeting.[8][9] The club has the official nickname, The Bhoys. However, according to the Celtic press office, the newly established club was known to many as \"the bold boys\". A postcard from the early 20th century that pictured the team and read \"The Bould Bhoys\" is the first known example of the unique spelling. The extra h imitates the spelling system of Gaelic, wherein the letter b is often accompanied by the letter h.[10]A team photo from the early days of the club (around 1889), before the adoption of the hooped jerseysOn 28 May 1888, Celtic played their first official match against Rangers and won 5–2 in what was described as a \"friendly encounter\".[11] Neil McCallum scored Celtic's first goal.[12] Celtic's first kit consisted of a white shirt with a green collar, black shorts, and emerald green socks.[13] The original club crest was a simple green cross on a red oval background.[13] In 1889 Celtic reached the final of the Scottish Cup in their first season taking part in the competition, but lost 2–1 to Third Lanark.[14] Celtic reached the final again in 1892 and this time were victorious after defeating Queen's Park 5–1, the club's first major honour.[15] Several months later the club moved to its new ground, Celtic Park, and in the following season won the Scottish League Championship for the first time.[11] In 1895, Celtic set the League record for the highest home score when they beat Dundee 11–0.[16]In 1897, the club became a private limited company[17] and Willie Maley was appointed as the first 'secretary-manager'.[18] Between 1905 and 1910, Celtic won the Scottish League Championship six times in a row.[11][19] They also won the Scottish Cup in both 1907 and 1908, the first times a Scottish club had ever won the double.[11][20] During World War I, Celtic won the league four times in a row, including 62 matches unbeaten between November 1915 and April 1917.[11][21] The mid-1920s saw the emergence of Jimmy McGrory as one of the most prolific goalscorers in British football history; over a sixteen-year playing career, he scored 550 goals in 547 games (including 16 goals for Clydebank during a season on loan in 1923–24), a British goal-scoring record to this day.[22][23] In January 1940, Willie Maley's retirement was announced. He was 71 years old and had served the club in varying roles for nearly 52 years, initially as a player and then as secretary-manager.[24][25] Jimmy McStay became manager of the club in February 1940.[26] He spent over five years in this role, although due to the Second World War no official competitive league football took place during this time. The Scottish Football League and Scottish Cup were suspended and in their place regional league competitions were set up.[27][28] Celtic did not do particularly well during the war years, but did win the Victory in Europe Cup held in May 1945 as a one-off football match to celebrate Victory in Europe Day.[29]William Maley (1868–1958) Secretary Celtic Football Club.Ex-player and captain Jimmy McGrory took over as manager in 1945.[30] Under McGrory, Celtic defeated Arsenal, Manchester United and Hibernian to win the Coronation Cup, a one-off tournament held in May 1953 to commemorate the coronation of Elizabeth II.[31] He also led them to a League and Cup double in 1954.[32] On 19 October 1957, Celtic defeated Rangers in the final of the Scottish League Cup at Hampden Park in Glasgow, retaining the trophy they had won for the first time the previous year; the 7–1 scoreline remains a record win in a British domestic cup final.[33][34] The years that followed, however, saw Celtic struggle and the club won no more trophies under McGrory.[35]Jock Stein in an Amsterdam hotel, ahead of a European Cup quarter-final against AFC Ajax (1971)Former Celtic captain Jock Stein succeeded McGrory in 1965.[36] He won the Scottish Cup in his first few months at the club,[37] and then led them to the League title the following season.[38]1967 was Celtic's annus mirabilis. The club won every competition they entered: the Scottish League, the Scottish Cup, the Scottish League Cup, the Glasgow Cup, and the European Cup.[39][40] With this haul, Celtic became the first club to win the European Treble and remains the only club to win the fabled Quadruple.[41][42] Under the leadership of Stein, the club defeated Inter Milan 2–1 at the Estádio Nacional in Lisbon, on 25 May 1967 to become the first British team,[43][44] and indeed the first from outside Spain, Portugal and Italy to win the European Cup. They remain the only Scottish team to have reached the final. The players that day, all of whom were born within 30 miles of Glasgow, subsequently became known as the \"Lisbon Lions\".[45] The following season Celtic lost to Racing Club of Argentina in the Intercontinental Cup.[46]Celtic reached the European Cup Final again in 1970, but were beaten 2–1 by Feyenoord at the San Siro in Milan.[47] The club continued to dominate Scottish football in the early 1970s, and their Scottish Championship win in 1974 was their ninth consecutive league title, equalling the joint world record held at the time by MTK Budapest and CSKA Sofia.[48]Celtic enjoyed further domestic success in the 1980s, and in their Centenary season of 1987–88 won a Scottish Premier Division and Scottish Cup double.[49]The club endured a slump in the early 1990s, culminating in the Bank of Scotland informing directors on 3 March 1994 that it was calling in the receivers as a result of the club exceeding a £5 million overdraft.[50] However, expatriate businessman Fergus McCann wrested control of the club, and ousted the family dynasties which had controlled Celtic since its foundation. According to media reports, McCann took over the club minutes before it was to be declared bankrupt.[51] McCann reconstituted the club business as a public limited company – Celtic PLC – and oversaw the redevelopment of Celtic Park into a 60,832 all-seater stadium. In 1998 Celtic won the title again under Dutchman Wim Jansen and prevented Rangers from beating their nine-in-a-row record.[52]Martin O'Neill took charge of the club in June 2000.[53] Under his leadership, Celtic won three SPL championships out of five (losing the others by very small margins)[54] and in his first season in charge the club also won the domestic treble,[55] making O'Neill only the second Celtic manager to do so after Jock Stein.[56] In 2003, around 80,000 Celtic fans travelled to watch the club compete in the UEFA Cup Final in Seville.[57][58] Celtic lost 3–2 to Porto after extra time, despite two goals from Henrik Larsson during normal time.[59] The conduct of the thousands of travelling Celtic supporters received widespread praise from the people of Seville and the fans were awarded Fair Play Awards from both FIFA and UEFA \"for their extraordinarily loyal and sporting behaviour\".[60][61]Gordon Strachan was announced as O'Neill's replacement in June 2005 and after winning the SPL title in his first year in charge,[62] he became only the third Celtic manager to win three titles in a row. He also guided Celtic to their first UEFA Champions League knockout stage in 2006–07[63] and repeated the feat in 2007–08[64] before departing the club in May 2009, after failing to win the SPL title.[65] Tony Mowbray took charge of the club in June 2009,[66] and he was succeeded a year later by Neil Lennon.[67] In November 2010, Celtic set an SPL record for the biggest win in SPL history, defeating Aberdeen 9–0 at Celtic Park.[68]Celtic celebrated their 125th anniversary in November 2012, the same week as a Champions League match against Barcelona.[69] They won 2–1 on the night to complete a memorable week,[70] and eventually qualified from the group stages for the round of 16.[71] Celtic finished the season with the SPL and Scottish Cup double.[72] The club clinched their third consecutive league title in March 2014,[73] with goalkeeper Fraser Forster setting a new record during the campaign of 1,256 minutes without conceding a goal in a league match.[74] At the end of the season, manager Neil Lennon announced his departure from the club after four years in the role.[75]Norwegian Ronny Deila was appointed manager of Celtic on 6 June 2014.[76][77] He went on to lead the team to two consecutive league titles and a League Cup, but the team's performances in European competition were poor. After being eliminated from the Scottish Cup by Rangers in April 2016, Deila announced he would leave the club at the end of the season.[78][79]On 20 May 2016, Brendan Rodgers was announced as Deila's successor.[79][80] His first season saw the team go on a long unbeaten run in domestic competitions, during which time the club won their 100th major trophy, defeating Aberdeen 3–0 in the League Cup Final in November 2016.[81] Celtic also clinched their sixth successive league title in April 2017 with a record eight league games to spare,[82] and eventually finished with a record 106 points, becoming the first Scottish side to complete a top-flight league season undefeated since Rangers in 1899.[83][84] Celtic clinched their fourth treble by defeating Aberdeen 2–1 in the 2017 Scottish Cup Final, the result of which saw the club go through the entire domestic season unbeaten.[85]Celtic continued their unbeaten domestic run into the following season, eventually extending it to 69 games, surpassing their own 100-year-old British record of 62 games, before finally losing to Hearts in November 2017.[86][87] Celtic retained the League Cup that same month by defeating Motherwell in the final,[88] and went on to clinch their seventh consecutive league title in April 2018.[89] They went on to defeat Motherwell again in the 2018 Scottish Cup Final to clinch a second consecutive domestic treble (the \"double treble\"), the first club in Scotland to do so.[90] Rodgers left the club midway through following season to join Leicester City;[91] Neil Lennon returned as caretaker manager for the rest of the season and helped Celtic secure an unprecedented third consecutive domestic treble (the \"treble treble\"), defeating Hearts 2–1 in the 2019 Scottish Cup Final.[92] Later that month, he was confirmed as the club's new manager.[93]In December 2019, Lennon led Celtic to a 1–0 win over Rangers in the 2019 Scottish League Cup Final, the club's tenth consecutive domestic trophy.[94] By March 2020, Celtic were 13 points ahead in the league when professional football in Scotland was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom.[95][96] they were confirmed as champions in May 2020 following a SPFL board meeting where it was agreed that completing the full league campaign was infeasible.[97] The completion of the 2019–20 Scottish Cup was delayed, with the semi-finals and final – between Celtic and Hearts as in the previous year – not taking place until late autumn/winter of 2020. Celtic won on penalty-kicks after the sides tied at 3–3 after extra time, clinching a fourth successive treble.[98] However, Celtic struggled throughout the 2020–21 season with poor performances in Europe, knocked out of the League Cup by Ross County, and by February 2021 were trailing 18 points behind Rangers in the league – effectively ending their hopes of winning \"ten in a row\" league titles. Lennon resigned on 24 February 2021, with assistant manager John Kennedy taking interim charge of the team.[99] In the closing weeks of the season, Celtic were knocked out of the Scottish Cup by Rangers which condemned them to their first trophy-less season since 2010,[100] and finished the league campaign 25 points behind their Glasgow rivals.[101]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Celtic F.C. kits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Celtic_F.C._kits"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CelticCrest1977.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celticfc100.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_50th_Anniversary_of_Lisbon_Lions_1967_(2017%E2%80%9318).jpg"},{"link_name":"Celtic cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_cross"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ntv-104"},{"link_name":"Partick Thistle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partick_Thistle_F.C."},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crests-105"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crests-105"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"Robert Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Kelly_(football_chairman)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"European competition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_competitions"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"Scottish Football League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Football_League"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trshirt-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9293p1-110"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9293p1-110"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-trshirt-106"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"Umbro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbro"},{"link_name":"Nike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"Celtic knot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_knot"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"New Balance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Balance"},{"link_name":"Nike","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike,_Inc."},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"2017–18 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"Lisbon Lions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisbon_Lions"},{"link_name":"European Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Cup"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-numbers-14"},{"link_name":"Adidas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adidas"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Celtic F.C. kits.The club crest adopted on the team's football shirts in 1977, based on a badge originating from the 1930sThe special crest that was adopted in seasons 1987–88 & 1988–89 to celebrate the club's centenarySpecial commemorative crest used in season 2017–18 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the club's European Cup Final win in 1967For most of Celtic's history their home strip has featured green and white horizontal hoops, but their original strip consisted of a white top with black shorts and black and green hooped socks. The top also featured the Marist Brothers' badge on the right hand side, consisting of a green Celtic cross inside a red circle.[13][102] In 1889, the club changed to a green and white vertically striped top and for the next fourteen years this remained unchanged although the colour of the shorts alternated between white and black several times over this period. The top did not feature a crest.[13][103]In 1903, Celtic adopted their now famous green and white hooped tops. The new design was worn for the first time on 15 August 1903 in a match against Partick Thistle.[13] Black socks continued to be worn until the early 1930s, at which point the team switched to green socks. Plain white socks came into use in the mid-1960s, and white has been the predominant colour worn since then.[13]The club began using a badge in the 1930s, featuring a four leaf clover logo surrounded by the club's formal title, \"The Celtic Football and Athletic Coy. Ltd\".[104] However, it was not until 1977 that Celtic finally adopted the club crest on their shirts. The outer segment was reversed out, with white lettering on a green background on the team shirts. The text around the clover logo on the shirts was also shortened from the official club crest to \"The Celtic Football Club\".[104] For their centenary year in 1988, a commemorative crest was worn, featuring the Celtic cross that appeared on their first shirts. The 1977 version was reinstated for season 1989–90.[13]From 1945 onwards numbered shirts slowly came into use throughout Scotland, before becoming compulsory in 1960. By this time Celtic were the last club in Britain to adopt the use of numbers on the team strip to identify players. The traditionalist and idealistic Celtic chairman, Robert Kelly, baulked at the prospect of the famous green and white hoops being disfigured, and as such Celtic wore their numbers on the players' shorts.[13] This unusual tradition survived until 1994, although numbered shirts were worn in European competition from 1975 onwards.[13] Celtic's tradition of wearing numbers on their shorts rather than on the back of their shirts was brought to an end when the Scottish Football League instructed Celtic to wear numbers on their shirts from the start of the 1994–95 season. Celtic responded by adding numbers to the top of their sleeves, however within a few weeks the football authorities ordered the club to attach them to the back of their shirts, where they appeared on a large white patch, breaking up the green and white hoops.[13]In 1984 Celtic took up shirt sponsorship for the first time, with Fife-based double glazing firm CR Smith having their logo emblazoned on the front of the team jersey.[105][106] In season 1991–92, Celtic switched to Glasgow-based car sales company Peoples as sponsors.[107] The club failed to secure a shirt sponsor for season 1992–93, and for the first time since the early 1980s Celtic took to the field in 'unblemished' hoops.[108][109] Despite the loss of marketing revenue, sales of the new unsponsored replica top increased dramatically.[109] Celtic regained shirt sponsorship for season 1993–94, with CR Smith returning as shirt sponsors in a four-year deal.[105][110]In 2005 the club severed their connection with Umbro, suppliers of their kits since the 1960s and entered into a contract with Nike. To mark the 40th anniversary of their European Cup win, a special crest was introduced for the 2007–08 season. The star that represents this triumph was retained when the usual crest was reinstated the following season.[13] In 2012, a retro style kit was designed by Nike that included narrower hoops to mark the club's 125th anniversary. A special crest was introduced with a Celtic knot design embroidered round the traditional badge. A third-choice strip based on the first strip from 1888 was also adopted for the season.[13]In March 2015, Celtic agreed a new kit deal worth £30 million with Boston-based sportswear manufacturer New Balance to replace Nike from the start of the 2015–16 season.[111]All of the kits for the 2017–18 season paid tribute to the Lisbon Lions, with the kits having a line on each side to represent the handles of the European Cup. The kits also included a commemorative crest, designed specifically for the season.[112] The regular crest was reinstated the following season, although the away strip featured a Celtic cross once again in reference to the club's heritage.[13]In March 2020, Celtic announced a new five-year partnership with Adidas starting on 1 July 2020, in a deal believed to be the biggest kit sponsorship ever in Scottish sport.[113]","title":"Crest and colours"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_%22Jock%22_Stein_Bronze_statue_outside_Celtic_Parkhead_stadium_by_sculptor_John_McKenna.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jock Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock_Stein"},{"link_name":"Celtic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Park"},{"link_name":"Parkhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkhead"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"all-seater stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-seater_stadium"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-capacity-115"},{"link_name":"largest football stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_football_stadiums_in_Scotland"},{"link_name":"eighth-largest stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_British_stadiums_by_capacity"},{"link_name":"Murrayfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murrayfield_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Old Trafford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Trafford"},{"link_name":"Twickenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Wembley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wembley_Stadium"},{"link_name":"London Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Stadium_(London)"},{"link_name":"Tottenham Hotspur Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tottenham_Hotspur_Stadium"},{"link_name":"Millennium Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Stadium"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sfgg-117"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-paradise-118"},{"link_name":"original Celtic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Park_(1888%E2%80%9392)"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-first_game-119"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis432-120"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis435-121"},{"link_name":"Old Firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Firm"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis432-120"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis432-120"},{"link_name":"Taylor Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Report"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis433-122"},{"link_name":"Fergus McCann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergus_McCann"},{"link_name":"1994–95 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_in_Scottish_football"},{"link_name":"Hampden Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampden_Park"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis434-123"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCannSellshare-124"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"Hampden Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampden_Park"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"composite rules shinty-hurling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_rules_shinty-hurling"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"Track Cycling World Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCI_Track_Cycling_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis432-120"},{"link_name":"masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucharist_in_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inglis432-120"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fallen-127"},{"link_name":"Opening Ceremonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opening_ceremony"},{"link_name":"2014 Commonwealth Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Commonwealth_Games"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"2005 Special Olympics National Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Olympics_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"The Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Who"},{"link_name":"U2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U2"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"rail seating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safe_standing#Rail_seats"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Bundesliga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bundesliga"},{"link_name":"Borussia Dortmund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borussia_Dortmund"},{"link_name":"Westfalenstadion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfalenstadion"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"LED","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"},{"link_name":"PA system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_address_system"},{"link_name":"hybrid playing surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GrassMaster"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_park_2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_park_2.jpg"}],"text":"Statue of Jock Stein outside Celtic ParkCeltic's stadium is Celtic Park, which is in the Parkhead area of Glasgow. Celtic Park, an all-seater stadium with a capacity of 60,411,[114] is the largest football stadium in Scotland and the eighth-largest stadium in the United Kingdom, after Murrayfield, Old Trafford, Twickenham, Wembley, the London Stadium, Tottenham Hotspur Stadium and the Millennium Stadium. It is commonly known as Parkhead[115] or Paradise.[116][117]Celtic opened the original Celtic Park in the Parkhead area in 1888.[118] The club moved to a different site in 1892, however, when the rental charge was greatly increased.[119] The new site was developed into an oval shaped stadium, with vast terracing sections.[120] The record attendance of 83,500 was set by an Old Firm derby on 1 January 1938.[119] The terraces were covered and floodlights were installed between 1957 and 1971.[119] The Taylor Report mandated that all major clubs should have an all-seated stadium by August 1994.[121] Celtic was in a bad financial position in the early 1990s and no major work was carried out until Fergus McCann took control of the club in March 1994. He carried out a plan to demolish the old terraces and develop a new stadium in a phased rebuild, which was completed in August 1998. During this development, Celtic spent the 1994–95 season playing at the national stadium Hampden Park, costing the club £500,000 in rent.[122] The total cost of the new stadium on its completion was £40 million.[123]Celtic Park has been used as a venue for Scotland internationals and Cup Finals, particularly when Hampden Park has been unavailable.[124] Before the First World War, Celtic Park hosted various other sporting events, including composite rules shinty-hurling,[125] track and field and the 1897 Track Cycling World Championships.[119] Open-air masses,[119] and First World War recruitment drives have also been held there.[126] In more recent years, Celtic Park has hosted the Opening Ceremonies of the 2014 Commonwealth Games,[127] the 2005 Special Olympics National Games and the 1990 Special Olympics European Games.[128] Celtic Park has occasionally been used for concerts, including performances by The Who and U2.[129]In July 2016, Celtic Park became the first British football stadium to have a \"rail seating\" (safe standing) area in the ground. Rail seating is particularly common in Germany's Bundesliga, most notably at Borussia Dortmund's Westfalenstadion, a ground with a reputation on par with Celtic Park for its intensity and atmosphere.[130][131][132]In June 2018, Celtic announced a series of stadium improvements that would be implemented before the 2018–19 season. These include the installation of new LED floodlights and a new entertainment system, a stadium-wide PA system and a new hybrid playing surface.[133]A panoramic view of Celtic Park","title":"Stadium"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fanbase-135"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"UEFA Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_UEFA_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FIFA1-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuropesBest-62"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Relish-137"},{"link_name":"UEFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA"},{"link_name":"FIFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OSMSeville-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ESPNSeville-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FIFA1-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuropesBest-62"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"CIES Football Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Centre_for_Sports_Studies"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"So Foot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=So_Foot&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/So_Foot"},{"link_name":"You'll Never Walk Alone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/You%27ll_Never_Walk_Alone"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"FIFA Fan Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Fan_Award"},{"link_name":"tifo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tifo"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"}],"text":"In 2003 Celtic were estimated to have a fan base of nine million people, including one million in the US and Canada.[134] There are over 160 Celtic Supporters Clubs in over 20 countries around the world.[135]An estimated 80,000 Celtic supporters, many without match tickets, travelled to Seville in Spain for the UEFA Cup Final in May 2003.[60][61][136] The club's fans subsequently received awards from UEFA and FIFA for their behaviour at the match.[57][58][60][61][137]Celtic has the highest average home attendance of any Scottish club.[138] They also had the 12th highest average league attendance out of all the football clubs in Europe in 2011.[139] A study of stadium attendance figures from 2013 to 2018 by the CIES Football Observatory ranked Celtic at 16th in the world during that period, and their proportion of the distribution of spectators in Scotland at 36.5%, the highest of any club in the leagues examined.[140]In October 2013, French football magazine So Foot [fr] published a list of whom they considered the \"best\" football supporters in the world. Celtic fans were placed third, the only club in Britain on the list, with the magazine highlighting their rendition of \"You'll Never Walk Alone\" before the start of European ties at Celtic Park.[141]On 23 October 2017, Celtic fans were awarded with the FIFA Fan Award for their tifo commemorating the 50th anniversary of the club's European cup win. The award celebrates the best fan moment of November 2016 to August 2017.[142]","title":"Supporters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"Old Firm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Firm"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OLDF-144"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FIFA-146"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OLDF-144"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fanid-150"},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"},{"link_name":"Unionism in Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fanid-150"},{"link_name":"Troubles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Troubles"},{"link_name":"IRA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_Irish_Republican_Army"},{"link_name":"UVF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Volunteer_Force_(1966)"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HoS-151"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HoS-151"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsc-153"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsc-153"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"1980 Scottish Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_Scottish_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"Hampden Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampden_Park"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Hugh Dallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Dallas"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dallas-156"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"}],"sub_title":"Sectarianism","text":"Celtic's traditional rivals are Rangers; collectively, the two clubs are known as the Old Firm[143] and seen by some as the world's biggest football derby.[144][145] The two have dominated Scottish football's history;[143] between them, they have won the Scottish league championship 108 times (as of May 2023) since its inception in 1890 – all other clubs combined have won 19 championships.[146] The two clubs are also by far the most supported in Scotland, with Celtic having the sixth highest home attendance in the UK during the 2014–15 season.[147][148] Celtic have a historic association with the people of Ireland and Scots of Irish descent, both of whom are mainly Roman Catholic.[149] Traditionally fans of rivals Rangers came from Scottish or Northern Irish Protestant backgrounds and support Unionism in Ireland.[149]The clubs have attracted the support of opposing factions in the Troubles in Northern Ireland. Some supporters use songs, chants and banners at matches to abuse or show support for the Protestant or Catholic religions and proclaim support for Northern Irish paramilitary groups such as the IRA and UVF.[150]There have been over 400 Old Firm matches played.[151] The games have been described as having an \"atmosphere of hatred, religious tension and intimidation which continues to lead to violence in communities across Scotland.\"[150] The rivalry has fuelled many assaults and even deaths on Old Firm Derby days. Admissions to hospital emergency rooms have been reported to increase ninefold over normal levels[152] and in the period from 1996 to 2003, eight deaths in Glasgow were directly linked to Old Firm matches, and hundreds of assaults.[152][153]Both sets of fans fought on the pitch after Celtic's victory in the 1980 Scottish Cup Final at Hampden Park.[154] There was serious fan disorder during an Old Firm match played in May 1999 at Celtic Park; missiles were thrown by Celtic fans, including one which struck referee Hugh Dallas, who needed medical treatment and a small number of fans invaded the pitch.[155]Celtic have taken measures to reduce sectarianism. In 1996, the club launched its Bhoys Against Bigotry campaign, later followed by Youth Against Bigotry to \"educate the young on having ... respect for all aspects of the community – all races, all colours, all creeds\".[156]","title":"Supporters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Irish republicanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_republicanism"},{"link_name":"Irish Republican Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sept11-158"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"poppy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppy"},{"link_name":"Remembrance Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remembrance_Day"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banner-161"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banner-161"},{"link_name":"Scottish Premier League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"}],"sub_title":"Irish republicanism","text":"Some groups of Celtic fans have expressed their support for Irish republicanism and the Irish Republican Army by singing or chanting about them at matches.[157][158]In 2008 and 2010, there were protests by groups of fans over the team wearing the poppy for Remembrance Day, as the symbol is opposed by Irish Republicans owing to its association with the British military.[159][160] Celtic expressed disapproval of these protests, saying they were damaging to the image of the club and its fans, and pledged to ban those involved.[160] In 2011, UEFA and the Scottish Premier League investigated the club over pro-IRA chants by fans at different games. UEFA fined Celtic £12,700, while the SPL took no action, as the club had taken all reasonable action to prevent the chants.[161]","title":"Supporters"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TheCelticViewIssue1.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Celtic View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Celtic_View"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google1999-164"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"quarterly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarterly"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"Channel67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel67"},{"link_name":"Celtic TV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_TV"},{"link_name":"Setanta Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setanta_Sports"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"}],"text":"The Celtic ViewIn 1965, Celtic began publishing its own newspaper, The Celtic View, now the oldest club magazine in football.[162] It was the brainchild of future chairman Jack McGinn, who at the time was working in the circulation department of Beaverbrook Newspapers.[163] McGinn himself edited the paper for the first few years, with circulation initially reaching around 26,000 copies.[164] By 2020, it was a 72-page glossy magazine with over 6,000 weekly readers, and the top selling club magazine in the United Kingdom. In the spring of 2020, the magazine saw a temporary cease of production due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK.[165] However, in August 2021, Celtic announced the restart of the production activities for the magazine, which was turned into a 100-page, quarterly publication.[166]From 2002, Celtic's Internet TV channel Channel67 (previously known as Celtic Replay) broadcast Celtic's own content worldwide and offered live match coverage to subscribers outside the UK. It also provided three online channels. In 2004, Celtic launched their own digital TV channel called Celtic TV, which was available in the UK through Setanta Sports on satellite and cable platforms. Due to the collapse of Setanta in the UK in June 2009, Celtic TV stopped broadcasting, although the club hoped to find a new broadcast partner.[167] In 2011, Celtic TV was relaunched as an online service and replaced Channel 67.[168][169]","title":"Celtic media"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belfast Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_Celtic"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"Celtic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Park_(Belfast)"},{"link_name":"Belfast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-groundtastic-172"},{"link_name":"Irish League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Football_League"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"Donegal Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donegal_Celtic"},{"link_name":"NIFL Premier Intermediate League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIFL_Premier_Intermediate_League"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-napit-175"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"Donegal Celtic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donegal_Celtic_Park"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-napit-175"},{"link_name":"Lurgan Celtic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurgan_Celtic"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic"},{"link_name":"town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurgan"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"},{"link_name":"County Armagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Armagh"},{"link_name":"NIFL Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIFL_Championship"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"Tuam Celtic A.F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuam_Celtic_A.F.C."},{"link_name":"Castlebar Celtic F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castlebar_Celtic_F.C."},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"Blantyre Celtic F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blantyre_Celtic_F.C."},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Cleator Moor Celtic F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleator_Moor_Celtic_F.C."},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"link_name":"Celtic Nation F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Nation_F.C."},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"West Allotment Celtic F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Allotment_Celtic_F.C."},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"Yeovil Town F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeovil_Town_F.C."},{"link_name":"UEFA Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Cup"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"Bloemfontein Celtic F.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloemfontein_Celtic_F.C."},{"link_name":"Free State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_State_(South_African_province)"},{"link_name":"Bloemfontein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloemfontein"},{"link_name":"Premier Soccer League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_Soccer_League"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"Houston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"Celtic FC America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_FC_America"},{"link_name":"Texas Premier Soccer League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Premier_Soccer_League"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"}],"text":"Due to Celtic's large following, several clubs have emulated or been inspired by Celtic. As the club has a large following, especially in Northern Ireland, several clubs have been founded there by local Celtic fans. The most notable and successful was Belfast Celtic, formed in 1891 simply as Celtic. Upon incorporation as a limited company in 1901, however, the club adopted the name \"Belfast Celtic\", the title \"Celtic Football Club Ltd\" already being registered by the Glasgow club.[170] Their home from the same year was Celtic Park on Donegall Road in west Belfast, known to the fans as Paradise.[171] It was one of the most successful teams in Ireland until it withdrew from the Irish League in 1949.[172] Donegal Celtic, currently playing in the NIFL Premier Intermediate League,[173] was established in 1970,[174] with the Celtic part being taken on due to the massive local following for Scotland's Celtic and formerly Belfast Celtic.[175][176] They are nicknamed The Wee Hoops and play at Donegal Celtic Park on Suffolk Road in Belfast.[174]\nA club by the name of Lurgan Celtic was originally formed in 1903, with the obvious slant of aiming towards the Roman Catholic community of the town, adopting the name and colours of the Glaswegian Celtic.[177] The County Armagh club currently plays in the NIFL Championship.[178] In the Republic of Ireland, both Tuam Celtic A.F.C. and Castlebar Celtic F.C. play at grounds called Celtic Park.[179][180]Throughout Scotland and England, other clubs have been named after and adopted Celtic's kit. These include the now defunct Scottish club Blantyre Celtic F.C.;[181] Irish club Listowel Celtic F.C.;[citation needed] and English lower-league clubs Cleator Moor Celtic F.C., which was founded in 1908–09 by Irish immigrants employed in the local iron ore mines,[182] Celtic Nation F.C. (now defunct)[183][184] and West Allotment Celtic F.C.[185]\nSomerset club Yeovil Town F.C., who traditionally wore an all-green shirt, modified their uniform to emulate Celtic's, inspired by the Scottish club's 2003 UEFA Cup run.[186]South African club Bloemfontein Celtic F.C., one of the most popular club in the country with a large fan base in the Free State, is also named after Celtic F.C. Founded in 1969 as Mangaung United, in 1984, the then owner Molemela took over the club and changed the name to Bloemfontein Celtic. Based in Bloemfontein, they play in the Premier Soccer League.[187] In the United States of America, Hurricanes F.C. of Houston, Texas rebranded as Celtic FC America in 2019 and play in the Texas Premier Soccer League.[188]","title":"Influence on other clubs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fashion2011-192"},{"link_name":"Celtic FC Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_FC_Foundation_(charity)"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-193"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"John Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kennedy_(Scottish_footballer)"},{"link_name":"humanitarian crisis in East Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Horn_of_Africa_famine"},{"link_name":"Oxfam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxfam"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"},{"link_name":"Celtic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Park"},{"link_name":"Breast Cancer Care Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_Cancer_Care"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fashion2011-192"},{"link_name":"Yorkhill Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkhill_Hospital"},{"link_name":"Peter Lawwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lawwell"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"}],"text":"Celtic was initially founded to raise money for the poor in the East End of Glasgow and the club still retain strong charitable traditions today.[189] In 1995 the Celtic Charity Fund was formed with the aim of \"revitalising Celtic's charitable traditions\" and by September 2013 had raised over £5 million.[190][191] The Charity Fund has since then merged with the Celtic Foundation, forming the Celtic FC Foundation, and continues to raise money for local, national and international causes.[192][193]On 9 August 2011 Celtic held a testimonial match in honour of former player John Kennedy. Due to the humanitarian crisis in East Africa, the entire proceeds were donated to Oxfam. An estimated £300,000 was raised.[194]Celtic hold an annual charity fashion show at Celtic Park. In 2011 the main beneficiaries were Breast Cancer Care Scotland.[191]Yorkhill Hospital is another charity with whom Celtic are affiliated and in December 2011 the club donated £3000 to it. Chief Executive Peter Lawwell said that; \"Celtic has always been much more than a football club and it is important that, at all times we play an important role in the wider community. The club is delighted to have enjoyed such a long and positive connection with Yorkhill Hospital.\"[195]","title":"Charity"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ownership and finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Private Limited Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limited_Company"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CFCBriefHistory-12"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p174-197"},{"link_name":"James Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Kelly_(footballer,_born_1865)"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p174-197"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celticseer-199"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-200"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LeicesterStudy-201"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:James_Kelly_footballer_in_1892.jpg"},{"link_name":"James Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Kelly_(footballer,_born_1865)"},{"link_name":"Robert Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Kelly_(football_chairman)"},{"link_name":"Michael Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Kelly_(Lord_Provost)"},{"link_name":"Robert Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Kelly_(football_chairman)"},{"link_name":"Desmond White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_White_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-202"},{"link_name":"Toomebridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toomebridge"},{"link_name":"County Antrim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Antrim"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p179-203"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p179-203"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p179-203"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-204"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-p179-203"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-205"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McGrory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McGrory"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wilson8687-206"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207"},{"link_name":"Jock Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock_Stein"},{"link_name":"Leeds United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_United"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-208"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TimesPictureGoogle-209"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"},{"link_name":"Billy McNeill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_McNeill"},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_F.C."},{"link_name":"Dundee United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dundee_United_F.C."},{"link_name":"Manchester City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_City_F.C."},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TimesPictureGoogle-209"},{"link_name":"Davie Hay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davie_Hay"},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-211"},{"link_name":"The Celtic View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Celtic_View"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"},{"link_name":"Michael Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Kelly_(Lord_Provost)"},{"link_name":"Brian Dempsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Dempsey_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-215"}],"sub_title":"Private company","text":"Celtic were formed in 1887, and in 1897 the club became a Private Limited Company with a nominal share capital of 5000 shares at £1 each.[11][196] The following year a further share issue of 5000 £1 shares was created to raise more capital. The largest number of shares held were by businessmen from the East End of Glasgow, notably James Grant, an Irish publican and engineer, James Kelly, one of the club's original players turned publican, and John Glass, a builder and driving force in the early years of the club.[196] His shares, upon his death in 1906, passed on to Thomas White.[197] The Grant, Kelly and White families' shareholdings dominated ownership of the club throughout the 20th century.[198][199][200]James Kelly was one of Celtic's early directors and also briefly chairman. His son Robert Kelly spent many years as chairman, and further descendants Kevin Kelly and Michael Kelly went on to have prominent roles on the Celtic board.The late 1940s saw Robert Kelly, son of James Kelly, become chairman of the club after having been a director since 1931. Desmond White also joined the board around this time, upon the death of his father Thomas White.[201] By the 1950s, a significant number of shares in the club had passed to Neil and Felicia Grant, who lived in Toomebridge, County Antrim. These shares accounted for more than a sixth of the club's total issue.[202] Club chairman Robert Kelly's own family share-holding was of a similar size, and he used his close relationship with the Toomebridge Grants to ensure his power base at Celtic was unchallengeable.[202] When Neil Grant died in the early 1960s, his shareholding passed to his sister Felicia, leaving her as the largest share-holder in Celtic.[202][203] This gave rise to the myth among Celtic supporters of the \"old lady in Ireland\" who supposedly had the ultimate say in the running of the club.[202]Celtic's board of directors had a reputation of being miserly and authoritarian. In particular they were known for frequently selling their top players and not paying their staff enough; they were also seen as lacking ambition, which caused friction with several managers.[204] Jimmy McGrory's tenure as manager is generally considered a period of underachievement, but with Chairman Robert Kelly's domineering influence. many have questioned how much authority McGrory ever had in team selection.[205][206] Even Jock Stein's time as manager ended on a sour note when he was offered a place on the Celtic board, but in a role involving ticket sales. Stein felt that this was demeaning, stating he was \"a football man, not a ticket salesman\". He declined this offer and decided to stay in football management, joining Leeds United instead.[207][208][209] Billy McNeill won a trophy in each of his five seasons as manager, but was still paid less than the managers of Rangers, Aberdeen and Dundee United. He left the club in June 1983 after his request for a contract and pay rise was publicly rebuffed by the board. McNeill moved on to manage Manchester City, stating that to remain at Celtic would have been humiliating.[208] McNeill's successor, Davie Hay, also had his difficulties with the Celtic board. When trying to sign players in 1987 to strengthen his squad to compete with high-spending Rangers, the board refused to pay for them; chairman Jack McGinn was quoted as saying that if Hay wanted these players, \"he will have to pay for them himself\".[210]By the end of the 1980s the Celtic board consisted of chairman McGinn and directors Kevin Kelly, Chris White, Tom Grant and Jimmy Farrell. Neither McGinn nor Farrell were members of the traditional family dynasties at Celtic. Farrell was a partner in the Shaughnessy law firm that had long-standing connections with Celtic, and was invited to become a director in 1964. McGinn had set up The Celtic View in the 1960s and later became the club's commercial manager. He was given a seat on the board and became chairman in 1986.[211] In May 1990 the former Lord Provost of Glasgow, Michael Kelly, and property developer Brian Dempsey were invited to join the Celtic board.[212][213] Dempsey did not last long however, as a dispute about a proposed relocation to Robroyston resulted in him being voted off the board five months later.[214]","title":"Ownership and finances"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-decl-216"},{"link_name":"Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FC_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LeicesterStudy-201"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-decl-216"},{"link_name":"Fergus McCann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergus_McCann"},{"link_name":"Brian Dempsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Dempsey_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Jim Traynor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Traynor"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-217"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-decl-216"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LeicesterStudy-201"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herald_Scotland-218"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"},{"link_name":"Bank of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celticseer-199"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herald_Scotland-218"},{"link_name":"public limited company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_limited_company"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celticseer-199"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCannAttack-220"},{"link_name":"Celtic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Park"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCannSellshare-124"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celticseer-199"},{"link_name":"[220]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celticseer-199"},{"link_name":"[221]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-222"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCannSellshare-124"},{"link_name":"treble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treble_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"2000–01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2003 UEFA Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003_UEFA_Cup_Final"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCannSellshare-124"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Celticseer-199"},{"link_name":"Dermot Desmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermot_Desmond"},{"link_name":"[222]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223"},{"link_name":"Hearts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_Midlothian_F.C."},{"link_name":"Rangers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rangers_F.C."},{"link_name":"[223]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224"},{"link_name":"[224]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-225"},{"link_name":"Lennoxtown training centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennoxtown_training_centre"},{"link_name":"[225]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-226"},{"link_name":"Deloitte Football Money League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deloitte_Football_Money_League"},{"link_name":"2000–01 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2004–05 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2006–07 season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"[226]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-227"},{"link_name":"[227]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-228"},{"link_name":"[228]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-229"},{"link_name":"[229]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-230"},{"link_name":"[230]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231"},{"link_name":"[231]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-232"}],"sub_title":"McCann takeover and transition to plc","text":"Throughout the 1960s and 70s Celtic had been one of the strongest clubs in Europe. However, the directors failed to accompany the wave of economic development facing football in the 1980s, although the club continued to remain successful on the field, albeit limited to the domestic scene in Scotland.[215] In 1989, the club's annual budget was £6.4 million, about a third as much as Barcelona, with a debt of around 40% and on-field success deteriorating.[200] In the early 1990s the situation began to worsen as playing success declined dramatically and the club slipped further into debt.[215]In 1993 fans began organising pressure groups to protest against the board, one of the most prominent being \"Celts for Change\". They supported a takeover bid led by Canadian-based businessman Fergus McCann and former director Brian Dempsey. Football writer Jim Traynor described McCann's attempt to buy the club as \"good against evil\".[216] Despite declining attendances and increasing unrest amongst supporters, the Kelly, White and Grant family groupings continued to guard their control of Celtic.[215][200]On 4 March 1994, McCann bought Celtic for £9 million, finally wresting control from the family dynasties that had run the club for almost 100 years.[217][218] When he bought the club it was reported to be within 24 hours of entering receivership due to exceeding a £5 million overdraft with the Bank of Scotland.[198][217] He turned Celtic into a public limited company through a share issue which raised over £14 million, the most successful share issue in British football history.[198][219] He also oversaw the building of a new stadium, the 60,000 seater Celtic Park, which cost £40 million and at the time was Britain's largest club stadium.[123][198][220] This allowed Celtic to progress as a club because over £20 million was being raised each year from season ticket sales.[198]McCann had maintained that he would only be at Celtic for five years and in September 1999 he announced that his 50.3% stake in Celtic was for sale. McCann had wanted the ownership of Celtic to be spread as widely as possible and gave first preference to existing shareholders and season-ticket holders, to prevent a new consortium taking over the club.[221] 14.4 million shares were sold by McCann at a value of 280 pence each. McCann made £40 million out of this, meaning he left Celtic with a £31 million profit. During his tenure, turnover at Celtic rose by 385% to £33.8m and operating profits rose from £282,000 to £6.7m.[123] McCann was often criticised during his time at Celtic and many people disagreed with him over building a stadium which they thought Celtic could not fill, not investing enough in the squad and being overly focused on finance. However, McCann was responsible for the financial recovery of the club and for providing a very good platform for it to build on. After he left Celtic, the club were able to invest in players and achieved much success such as winning the treble in 2000–01 and reaching the 2003 UEFA Cup Final.[123][198]After McCann's exit, Irish billionaire Dermot Desmond was left as the majority shareholder. He purchased 2.8 million of McCann's shares to increase his stake in the club from 13% to 20%.[222]In 2005, Celtic issued a share offer designed to raise £15 million for the club; 50 million new shares were made available priced at 30p each. It was also revealed that majority shareholder Desmond would buy around £10 million worth of the shares. £10 million of the money raised was for building a new training centre and youth academy, expanding the club's global scouting network and investing in coaching and player development programmes. The rest of the money was to be used to reduce debt. Building a youth academy was important for Celtic to surpass both Hearts and Rangers who had superior youth facilities at the time.[223] The share issue was a success and Celtic had more applicants than shares available,[224] The new Lennoxtown training centre was opened in October 2007.[225]Celtic have been ranked in the Deloitte Football Money League six times. This lists the top 20 football clubs in the world according to revenue. They were ranked between 2002 (2000–01 season), 2006 (2004–05 season) and 2008 (2006–07 season).[226][227]Celtic's financial results for 2011 showed that the club's debt had been reduced from £5.5 million to £500,000 and that a pre-tax profit of £100,000 had been achieved, compared with a loss of over £2 million the previous year. Turnover also decreased by 15% from £63 million to £52 million.[228]In May 2012, Celtic were rated 37th in Brand Finance's annual valuation of the world's biggest football clubs. Celtic's brand was valued at $64 million (£40.7 million), $15 million more than the previous year. It was the first time a Scottish club had been ranked in the top 50. Matt Hannagan, Sports Brand Valuation Analyst at Brand Finance, said that Celtic were constrained by the amount of money they got from the SPL and that if they were in the Premiership then, due to their large fan base, they could be in the top 10 clubs in the world.[229][230] Later that month David Low, the financial consultant who advised Fergus McCann on his takeover of Celtic in 1994, said that Celtic's 'enterprise value' (how much it would cost to buy the club) was £52 million.[231]","title":"Ownership and finances"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[232]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233"},{"link_name":"FIFA eligibility rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_eligibility_rules"}],"sub_title":"First-team squad","text":"As of 7 March 2024[232]Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FIFA eligibility rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_eligibility_rules"}],"sub_title":"Out on loan","text":"Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Celtic F.C. B Team and Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_F.C._B_Team_and_Academy"}],"sub_title":"Academy squads","text":"For more details on the academy squads, see Celtic F.C. B Team and Academy.","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[233]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-234"},{"link_name":"women's first team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_F.C._Women"},{"link_name":"Scottish Women's Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Women%27s_Cup"},{"link_name":"Scottish Women's Premier League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Women%27s_Premier_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"[234]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-235"},{"link_name":"professional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_sports"},{"link_name":"[235]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236"}],"sub_title":"Women's team","text":"Celtic have a pathway for female players, from eleven years old upwards.[233] In 2007 the club launched their women's first team, sometimes known as Celtic Women. The women's team reached the Scottish Women's Cup Final in their first season, and won their first trophy in 2010, the Scottish Women's Premier League Cup.[234] In December 2018 they announced a move to full-time training, becoming the first professional women's football team in Scotland.[235]","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of Celtic F.C. players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Celtic_F.C._players"},{"link_name":"List of Celtic F.C. international footballers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Celtic_F.C._international_footballers"},{"link_name":"Category:Celtic FC players","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Celtic_F.C._players"}],"sub_title":"Former players","text":"For further information, see List of Celtic F.C. players for players with over 100 appearances or other stated notability, List of Celtic F.C. international footballers and Category:Celtic FC players for a general list of ex-players.","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Celtic club captains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Celtic_F.C._players#Club_captains"}],"sub_title":"Club captains","text":"For further information, see Celtic club captains","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[237]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-238"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Ronnie Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Simpson"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Danny McGrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_McGrain"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Tommy Gemmell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Gemmell"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Bobby Murdoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Murdoch"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Paul McStay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McStay"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Billy McNeill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_McNeill"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Bertie Auld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertie_Auld"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Johnstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Johnstone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Bobby Lennox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Lennox"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Kenny Dalglish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Henrik Larsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Larsson"}],"sub_title":"Greatest ever team","text":"In 2002 the greatest ever Celtic team was voted by supporters:[237]Ronnie Simpson\n Danny McGrain\n Tommy Gemmell\n Bobby Murdoch\n Paul McStay\n Billy McNeill – Voted Celtic's greatest ever captain\n Bertie Auld\n Jimmy Johnstone – Voted Celtic's greatest ever player\n Bobby Lennox\n Kenny Dalglish\n Henrik Larsson – Voted Celtic's greatest ever foreign player","title":"Players"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[238]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-239"},{"link_name":"Peter Lawwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Lawwell"},{"link_name":"Dermot Desmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermot_Desmond"},{"link_name":"Brian Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Wilson_(Labour_politician)"},{"link_name":"[239]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-240"},{"link_name":"Brendan Rodgers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Rodgers"},{"link_name":"John Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Kennedy_(Scottish_footballer)"},{"link_name":"Adam Sadler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Sadler"},{"link_name":"Gavin Strachan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Strachan"},{"link_name":"Stevie Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Woods_(footballer)"}],"text":"Board of directors\n\n\n\nPosition[238]\n\nName\n\n\nChairman\nPeter Lawwell\n\n\nChief executive\nMichael Nicholson\n\n\nChief financial officer\nChris McKay\n\n\nSenior independent director\nTom Allison\n\n\nIndependent non-executive director\nSharon Brown\n\n\nIndependent non-executive director\nDermot Desmond\n\n\nIndependent non-executive director\nBrian Rose\n\n\nIndependent non-executive director\nBrian Wilson\n\n\nCompany secretary\nChris Duffy\n\n\n\nManagement\n\n\n\nPosition[239]\n\nName\n\n\nManager\nBrendan Rodgers\n\n\nAssistant manager\nJohn Kennedy\n\n\nFirst team coach\nAdam Sadler\n\n\nGavin Strachan\n\n\nGoalkeeping coach\nStevie Woods\n\n\nHead of performance\nGlen Driscoll\n\n\nPhysio\nTim Williamson","title":"Club officials"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FC_Salzburg_versus_Celtic_FC_(4._Oktober_2918_Gruppe_B,_Zweiter_Spieltag)_13.jpg"},{"link_name":"2016–17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Celtic_F.C._season"}],"sub_title":"Managerial history","text":"Brendan Rodgers led Celtic to a unique unbeaten domestic treble in the 2016–17 season.","title":"Club officials"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Halls of Fame"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scottish Football Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Football_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[241]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-242"},{"link_name":"Roy Aitken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Aitken"},{"link_name":"Bertie Auld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertie_Auld"},{"link_name":"Stevie Chalmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Chalmers"},{"link_name":"John Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clark_(footballer,_born_1941)"},{"link_name":"Jim Craig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Craig_(Scottish_footballer)"},{"link_name":"Paddy Crerand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paddy_Crerand"},{"link_name":"Sir Kenny Dalglish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Kenny_Dalglish"},{"link_name":"MBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Delaney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Delaney"},{"link_name":"Bobby Evans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Evans_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"Tommy Gemmell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Gemmell"},{"link_name":"Mo Johnston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo_Johnston"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Johnstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Johnstone"},{"link_name":"Paul Lambert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Lambert"},{"link_name":"Henrik Larsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik_Larsson"},{"link_name":"Bobby Lennox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Lennox"},{"link_name":"Willie Maley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Maley"},{"link_name":"Danny McGrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_McGrain"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McGrory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McGrory"},{"link_name":"Billy McNeill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_McNeill"},{"link_name":"Paul McStay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McStay"},{"link_name":"Bobby Murdoch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Murdoch"},{"link_name":"Charlie Nicholas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Nicholas"},{"link_name":"Ronnie Simpson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Simpson"},{"link_name":"Jock Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock_Stein"},{"link_name":"CBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBE"},{"link_name":"Gordon Strachan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Strachan"},{"link_name":"John Thomson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Thomson_(footballer,_born_1909)"},{"link_name":"Willie Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Wallace"}],"sub_title":"Scotland Football Hall of Fame","text":"As of 1 June 2020, 27 Celtic players and managers have entered the Scottish Football Hall of Fame:[241]Roy Aitken\nBertie Auld\nStevie Chalmers\nJohn Clark\nJim Craig\nPaddy Crerand\nSir Kenny Dalglish MBE\nJimmy Delaney\nBobby Evans\nTommy Gemmell\nMo Johnston\nJimmy Johnstone\nPaul Lambert\nHenrik Larsson\nBobby Lennox\nWillie Maley\nDanny McGrain\nJimmy McGrory\nBilly McNeill\nPaul McStay\nBobby Murdoch\nCharlie Nicholas\nRonnie Simpson\nJock Stein CBE\nGordon Strachan\nJohn Thomson\nWillie Wallace","title":"Halls of Fame"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scotland national football team roll of honour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team_roll_of_honour"},{"link_name":"[242]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SFARoll-243"},{"link_name":"Roy Aitken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Aitken"},{"link_name":"Tom Boyd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Boyd_(Scottish_footballer)"},{"link_name":"Scott Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Brown_(footballer,_born_June_1985)"},{"link_name":"Gary Caldwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Caldwell"},{"link_name":"John Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Collins_(footballer_born_1968)"},{"link_name":"Kenny Dalglish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish"},{"link_name":"MBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Craig Gordon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Gordon"},{"link_name":"Danny McGrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danny_McGrain"},{"link_name":"MBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Paul McStay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McStay"},{"link_name":"Kenny Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Miller"},{"link_name":"[243]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lh-244"}],"sub_title":"Scotland Roll of Honour","text":"The Scotland national football team roll of honour recognises players who have gained 50 or more international caps for Scotland. Inductees to have played for Celtic are:[242]Roy Aitken (50)\nTom Boyd (66)\nScott Brown (52)\nGary Caldwell (17)\nJohn Collins (32)\nKenny Dalglish MBE (47)\nCraig Gordon (14)\nDanny McGrain MBE (62)\nPaul McStay (76)\nKenny Miller (7)Numbers in brackets indicate the number of caps the above players won whilst at Celtic.[243]","title":"Halls of Fame"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scottish Sports Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Sports_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Sir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Bachelor"},{"link_name":"Kenny Dalglish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish"},{"link_name":"MBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[244]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-245"},{"link_name":"Jimmy Johnstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Johnstone"},{"link_name":"[245]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-246"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McGrory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McGrory"},{"link_name":"[246]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-247"},{"link_name":"Billy McNeill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_McNeill"},{"link_name":"MBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Most_Excellent_Order_of_the_British_Empire"},{"link_name":"[247]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-248"},{"link_name":"Jock Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jock_Stein"},{"link_name":"CBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBE"},{"link_name":"[248]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-249"}],"sub_title":"Scottish Sports Hall of Fame","text":"In the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame, five Celtic players have been selected, they are:Sir Kenny Dalglish MBE[244]\nJimmy Johnstone[245]\nJimmy McGrory[246]\nBilly McNeill MBE[247]\nJock Stein CBE[248]","title":"Halls of Fame"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"list of Celtic F.C. records and statistics § Honours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Celtic_F.C._records_and_statistics#Honours"}],"text":"For a full list of honours including minor, reserve and youth competitions, see list of Celtic F.C. records and statistics § Honours.","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celtic_FC_trophy_case.JPG"},{"link_name":"Celtic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_Park"},{"link_name":"[249]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-250"},{"link_name":"[250]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-celthons-251"},{"link_name":"Scottish League Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Scottish_football_champions"},{"link_name":"1892–93","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1892%E2%80%9393_Scottish_Football_League"},{"link_name":"1893–94","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1893%E2%80%9394_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1895–96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1895%E2%80%9396_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1897–98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1897%E2%80%9398_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1904–05","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904%E2%80%9305_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1905–06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1905%E2%80%9306_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1906–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906%E2%80%9307_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1907–08","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1907%E2%80%9308_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1908–09","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1908%E2%80%9309_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1909–10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1909%E2%80%9310_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1913–14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913%E2%80%9314_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1914–15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914%E2%80%9315_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1915–16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1915%E2%80%9316_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1916–17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916%E2%80%9317_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1918–19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1918%E2%80%9319_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1921–22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1921%E2%80%9322_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1925–26","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1925%E2%80%9326_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1935–36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935%E2%80%9336_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1937–38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937%E2%80%9338_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1953–54","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%E2%80%9354_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1965–66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965%E2%80%9366_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1966–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1967–68","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%E2%80%9368_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1968–69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1969–70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969%E2%80%9370_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1970–71","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%E2%80%9371_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1971–72","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%E2%80%9372_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1972–73","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972%E2%80%9373_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1973–74","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973%E2%80%9374_Scottish_Division_One"},{"link_name":"1976–77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"1978–79","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1978%E2%80%9379_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"1980–81","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980%E2%80%9381_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"1981–82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981%E2%80%9382_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"1985–86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985%E2%80%9386_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"1987–88","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"1997–98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_Scottish_Premier_Division"},{"link_name":"2000–01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2001–02","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%E2%80%9302_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2003–04","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2005–06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2006–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2007–08","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%9308_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2011–12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011%E2%80%9312_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2012–13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Scottish_Premier_League"},{"link_name":"2013–14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013%E2%80%9314_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2014–15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2015–16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015%E2%80%9316_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2016–17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2017–18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2018–19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2019–20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2021–22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2022–23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"2023–24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_Scottish_Premiership"},{"link_name":"Scottish Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1891–92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1891%E2%80%9392_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1898–99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1898%E2%80%9399_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1899–1900","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1899%E2%80%931900_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1903–04","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1903%E2%80%9304_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1906–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906%E2%80%9307_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1907–08","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1907%E2%80%9308_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1910–11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910%E2%80%9311_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1911–12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1911%E2%80%9312_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1913–14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913%E2%80%9314_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1922–23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1922%E2%80%9323_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1924–25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1924%E2%80%9325_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1926–27","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1926%E2%80%9327_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1930–31","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1930%E2%80%9331_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1932–33","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932%E2%80%9333_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1936–37","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936%E2%80%9337_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1950–51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950%E2%80%9351_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1953–54","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%E2%80%9354_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1964–65","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%E2%80%9365_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1966–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1968–69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1970–71","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%E2%80%9371_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1971–72","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%E2%80%9372_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1973–74","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973%E2%80%9374_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1974–75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1976–77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1979–80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979%E2%80%9380_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1984–85","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984%E2%80%9385_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1987–88","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1988–89","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%E2%80%9389_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"1994–95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%E2%80%9395_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2000–01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2003–04","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2004–05","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%E2%80%9305_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2006–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2010–11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010%E2%80%9311_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2012–13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2016–17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2017–18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2018–19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2019–20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2022–23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"2023–24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"Scottish League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1956–57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956%E2%80%9357_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1957–58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1957%E2%80%9358_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1965–66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965%E2%80%9366_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1966–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1967–68","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%E2%80%9368_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1968–69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1969–70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969%E2%80%9370_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1974–75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1982–83","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982%E2%80%9383_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1997–98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"1999–2000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2000–01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2005–06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2008–09","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008%E2%80%9309_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2014–15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2016–17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2017–18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2018–19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2019–20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2021–22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Scottish_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"2022–23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Scottish_League_Cup"}],"sub_title":"Domestic honours","text":"Trophy case at Celtic Park[249][250]Scottish League Championship: 541892–93, 1893–94, 1895–96, 1897–98, 1904–05, 1905–06, 1906–07, 1907–08, 1908–09, 1909–10, 1913–14, 1914–15, 1915–16, 1916–17, 1918–19, 1921–22, 1925–26, 1935–36, 1937–38, 1953–54, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1973–74, 1976–77, 1978–79, 1980–81, 1981–82, 1985–86, 1987–88, 1997–98, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22, 2022–23, 2023–24Scottish Cup: 42 (record)1891–92, 1898–99, 1899–1900, 1903–04, 1906–07, 1907–08, 1910–11, 1911–12, 1913–14, 1922–23, 1924–25, 1926–27, 1930–31, 1932–33, 1936–37, 1950–51, 1953–54, 1964–65, 1966–67, 1968–69, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1973–74, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1979–80, 1984–85, 1987–88, 1988–89, 1994–95, 2000–01, 2003–04, 2004–05, 2006–07, 2010–11, 2012–13, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2022–23, 2023–24Scottish League Cup: 211956–57, 1957–58, 1965–66, 1966–67, 1967–68, 1968–69, 1969–70, 1974–75, 1982–83, 1997–98, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2014–15, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2021–22, 2022–23","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Cup/UEFA Champions League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League"},{"link_name":"1966–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_European_Cup"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ecwinner67-44"},{"link_name":"1969–70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969%E2%80%9370_European_Cup"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ec6970-48"},{"link_name":"UEFA Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Europa_League"},{"link_name":"2002–03","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%E2%80%9303_UEFA_Cup"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uefa03-60"},{"link_name":"Intercontinental Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercontinental_Cup_(football)"},{"link_name":"1967","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Intercontinental_Cup"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-racing-47"},{"link_name":"British League Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_League_Cup"},{"link_name":"[251]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-252"},{"link_name":"Empire Exhibition Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_Exhibition_Trophy"},{"link_name":"[252]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scottrans-253"},{"link_name":"Coronation Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_Cup_(football)"},{"link_name":"[253]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254"}],"sub_title":"Continental honours","text":"European Cup/UEFA Champions League\nWinners: 1966–67[43]\nRunners-up: 1969–70[47]\nUEFA Cup\nRunners-up: 2002–03[59]\nIntercontinental Cup\nRunners-up: 1967[46]\nBritish League Cup\nWinners: 1902[251]\nEmpire Exhibition Trophy\nWinners: 1938[252]\nCoronation Cup\nWinners: 1953[253]","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BBC Sports Personality of the Year Team Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Sports_Personality_of_the_Year_Team_Award"},{"link_name":"[254]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-255"},{"link_name":"France Football European Team of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_Football_European_Team_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"[255]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-256"},{"link_name":"FIFA Fair Play Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Fair_Play_Award"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FIFA1-61"},{"link_name":"UEFA Fair Play Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Fair_Play_ranking"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EuropesBest-62"},{"link_name":"FIFA Fan Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Best_FIFA_Football_Awards_2017#FIFA_Fan_Award"},{"link_name":"[256]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-257"}],"sub_title":"Other awards","text":"BBC Sports Personality of the Year Team Award: 11967[254]France Football European Team of the Year: 11970[255]FIFA Fair Play Award: 120031[60]UEFA Fair Play Award: 120031[61]FIFA Fan Award: 120171[256]1 Awarded to the fans of Celtic.","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fbhist-258"},{"link_name":"1966–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Celtic_F.C._season"}],"sub_title":"Quadruple","text":"League Title, Scottish Cup, League Cup, and European Cup: 1[257]1966–67","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[258]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-259"},{"link_name":"1966–67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1966%E2%80%9367_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1968–69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968%E2%80%9369_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2000–01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000%E2%80%9301_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2016–17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016%E2%80%9317_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2017–18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017%E2%80%9318_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2018–19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2019–20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019-20_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2022–23","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022%E2%80%9323_Celtic_F.C._season"}],"sub_title":"Trebles","text":"League Title, Scottish Cup, and League Cup: 8[258]1966–67, 1968–69, 2000–01, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2022–23","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fbhist-258"},{"link_name":"1906–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906%E2%80%9307_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1907–08","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1907%E2%80%9308_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1913–14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913%E2%80%9314_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1953–54","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953%E2%80%9354_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1970–71","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970%E2%80%9371_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1971–72","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%E2%80%9372_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1973–74","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1973%E2%80%9374_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1976–77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%E2%80%9377_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1987–88","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987%E2%80%9388_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2003–04","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2006–07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%E2%80%9307_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2012–13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012%E2%80%9313_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2023–24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023%E2%80%9324_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fbhist-258"},{"link_name":"1965–66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965%E2%80%9366_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1967–68","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967%E2%80%9368_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1969–70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1969%E2%80%9370_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"1997–98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997%E2%80%9398_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2005–06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%9306_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2014–15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014%E2%80%9315_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"2021–22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021%E2%80%9322_Celtic_F.C._season"},{"link_name":"[257]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fbhist-258"},{"link_name":"1974–75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%E2%80%9375_Celtic_F.C._season"}],"sub_title":"Doubles","text":"League Title and Scottish Cup: 13[257]1906–07, 1907–08, 1913–14, 1953–54, 1970–71, 1971–72, 1973–74, 1976–77, 1987–88, 2003–04, 2006–07, 2012–13, 2023–24League Title and League Cup: 7[257]1965–66, 1967–68, 1969–70, 1997–98, 2005–06, 2014–15, 2021–22Scottish Cup and Scottish League Cup: 1[257]1974–75","title":"Honours"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Celtic F.C. league record by opponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_F.C._league_record_by_opponent"},{"link_name":"Celtic F.C. in European football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_F.C._in_European_football"},{"link_name":"Scottish Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Cup"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_F.C."},{"link_name":"1937","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936%E2%80%9337_Scottish_Cup#Final"},{"link_name":"Hampden Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampden_Park"},{"link_name":"Glasgow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasgow"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scottishfa.co.uk-260"},{"link_name":"[260]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-261"},{"link_name":"Leeds United","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeds_United_F.C."},{"link_name":"European Cup semi-final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Cup_1969%E2%80%9370#Semi_finals"},{"link_name":"[259]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scottishfa.co.uk-260"},{"link_name":"attendance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_football_attendance_records"},{"link_name":"[nb 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262"},{"link_name":"[261]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-263"},{"link_name":"[262]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264"},{"link_name":"[263]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-265"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeeRed81-266"},{"link_name":"[265]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-267"},{"link_name":"[266]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-268"},{"link_name":"[267]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-269"},{"link_name":"[268]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-270"},{"link_name":"[269]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-271"},{"link_name":"[270]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-272"},{"link_name":"[271]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-273"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McGrory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McGrory"},{"link_name":"Dunfermline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunfermline_Athletic_F.C."},{"link_name":"[272]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-274"},{"link_name":"1957 Scottish League Cup Final","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampden_in_the_sun"},{"link_name":"[273]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-275"},{"link_name":"Mark Burchill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Burchill"},{"link_name":"Jeunesse Esch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeunesse_Esch"},{"link_name":"[264]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WeeRed81-266"},{"link_name":"[274]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-276"},{"link_name":"Heart of Midlothian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_of_Midlothian_F.C."},{"link_name":"[275]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-277"},{"link_name":"[276]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-278"},{"link_name":"Hibernian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernian_F.C."},{"link_name":"Scott Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Brown_(footballer,_born_June_1985)"},{"link_name":"[277]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-279"},{"link_name":"Kieran Tierney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kieran_Tierney"},{"link_name":"Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenal_F.C."},{"link_name":"[278]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-280"},{"link_name":"The Celtic View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Celtic_View"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google1999-164"},{"link_name":"Mohammed Salim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammed_Salim_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"[279]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mohammed_Salim_at_Celtic-281"},{"link_name":"Gil Heron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_Heron"},{"link_name":"[280]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-282"},{"link_name":"Gil Scott-Heron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gil_Scott-Heron"},{"link_name":"[281]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-283"}],"sub_title":"Club records","text":"See also: Celtic F.C. league record by opponent and Celtic F.C. in European footballThe Scottish Cup final win against Aberdeen in 1937 was attended by a crowd of 147,365 at Hampden Park in Glasgow, which remains a world record gate for a national cup final,[259] and also the highest attendance for a club football match in Europe.[260]\nHighest attendance for a European club competition match: 136,505 against Leeds United in the European Cup semi-final at Hampden Park (15 April 1970).[259]\nRecord home attendance: 83,500 against Rangers on 1 January 1938.[nb 2][261][262][263][264] A 3–0 victory for Celtic.[265]\nUK record for an unbeaten run in domestic professional football: 69 games (60 won, 9 drawn), from 15 May 2016 until 17 December 2017  – a total of 582 days in all.[266]\nSPL record for an unbeaten run of home matches: 77 games, from 2001 to 2004.[267][268]\n14 consecutive League Cup final appearances, from season 1964–65 to 1977–78 inclusive,[269] a world record for successive appearances in the final of a major football competition.[270]\nWorld record for total number of goals scored in a season (competitive games only): 196 (season 1966–67).[271]\nMost goals scored in one Scottish top-flight league match by one player: eight goals by Jimmy McGrory against Dunfermline in 9–0 win on 14 January 1928.[272]\nHighest score in a domestic British cup final: Celtic 7–1 Rangers (1957 Scottish League Cup Final).[273]\nFastest hat-trick in European Club Football: Mark Burchill against Jeunesse Esch in 2000; 3 minutes (between twelfth minute and fifteenth minute), a record at the time.[264][274]\nEarliest Scottish Premiership title won: Won with eight games remaining in 2017, against Heart of Midlothian on 2 April 2017.[275]\nBiggest margin of victory in the SPL: 9–0 against Aberdeen, 6 November 2010.[276]\nBiggest margin of victory in the Scottish Premiership: 9–0 against Dundee United, 28 August 2022.\nCeltic and Hibernian hold the record for the largest transfer fee between two Scottish clubs (Scott Brown in May 2007).[277]\nMost expensive export from Scottish football: Kieran Tierney to Arsenal (August 2019).[278]\nFirst weekly football club publication in the UK: The Celtic View.[163]\nFirst European club to field a player from the Indian sub-continent: Mohammed Salim.[279]\nGil Heron, who signed for Celtic in 1951, was the first black person to play professionally in Scotland;[280] his son Gil Scott-Heron rose to prominence in the 1970s as a hugely influential jazz and soul musician.[281]","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Billy McNeill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_McNeill"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atp-284"},{"link_name":"Alec McNair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_McNair"},{"link_name":"[283]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atplg-285"},{"link_name":"Kenny Dalglish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Dalglish"},{"link_name":"[284]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-286"},{"link_name":"caps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap_(sport)"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland_national_football_team"},{"link_name":"Paul McStay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_McStay"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-capsceltic-287"},{"link_name":"Pat Bonner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Bonner"},{"link_name":"[285]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-capsceltic-287"},{"link_name":"[282]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atp-284"},{"link_name":"[286]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jim550-288"},{"link_name":"[283]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-atplg-285"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McGrory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McGrory"},{"link_name":"[287]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-289"},{"link_name":"Jimmy McGrory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_McGrory"},{"link_name":"[288]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-290"},{"link_name":"[289]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wfl-291"}],"sub_title":"Individual records","text":"Record appearances (all competitions): Billy McNeill, 822 from 1957 to 1975[282]\nRecord appearances (League): Alec McNair, 583 from 1904 to 1925[283]\nMost capped player for Scotland: 102 (47 whilst at Celtic), Kenny Dalglish[284]\nMost international caps for Scotland while a Celtic player: 76, Paul McStay[285]\nMost caps won whilst at Celtic: 80, Pat Bonner[285]\nRecord scorer: Jimmy McGrory, 522 (1922/23 – 1937/38)[282][286]\nRecord scorer in league: Jimmy McGrory, 396[283]\nMost goals in a season (all competitions): Jimmy McGrory, 62 (1927/28) (47 in League, 15 in Cup competitions)[287]\nMost goals in a season (league only): Jimmy McGrory, 50[288] (1935/36)[289]","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celtic_F.C.&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[290]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-292"},{"link_name":"Adidas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adidas"},{"link_name":"Dafabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dafabet"},{"link_name":"Magners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%26C_Group"},{"link_name":"JD Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JD_Sports"},{"link_name":"Coca-Cola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Coca-Cola_Company"},{"link_name":"Powerade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Coca-Cola_Company"},{"link_name":"Sky Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_Group"},{"link_name":"BT Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BT_Group"},{"link_name":"Eden Mill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eden_Mill_St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"Konami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konami"},{"link_name":"Cadbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadbury"},{"link_name":"Clyde 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauer_Media_Group"},{"link_name":"Utilita Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilita_Energy"},{"link_name":"University of the West of Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_West_of_Scotland"},{"link_name":"Catapult Sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catapult_Sports"},{"link_name":"Vitality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VitalityHealth"},{"link_name":"UFL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFL_(video_game)"},{"link_name":"Sorare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorare"}],"text":"As of 12 June 2022,[update] Celtic has partnerships with:[290]Adidas\nDafabet\nMagners\nIntelligent Car Leasing\nJD Sports\nCoca-Cola\nPowerade\nSky Sports\nBT Sport\nEden Mill\nKonami\n\n\nEleven Sports Media\nForbes on the Square\nCeltic Compare\nCadbury\nClyde 1\nGo Radio\nNirvana Europe\nPrimal Strength\nHomeheat\nUtilita Energy\nBe Cordial Hotels\n\n\nUniversity of the West of Scotland\nCatapult Sports\nMy Personal English Coach\nVitality\nSoccer Supplement\nSqualk\nThe Turmeric Co.\nUFL\nIndigo Unified Communications\nSorare","title":"Club partners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-262"}],"text":"^ Although the club was \"formally constituted\" in 1887, no matches were played until 1888. The latter date is listed by the club as their foundation date; for example, on the club badge.\n\n^ Newspaper reports at the time indicate that the officially returned attendance was given as 83,500, with an estimated further 10,000 supporters locked out of the ground for safety reasons. However, the ground's capacity was gauged at the time as being around 88,000 and several subsequent sources (including the club's official website) have since revised the attendance up to 92,000.","title":"Footnotes"}]
[{"image_text":"Celtic have been in the Scottish top division since the inaugural Scottish Football League season in 1890.[3]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/CelticFC_League_Performance.svg/320px-CelticFC_League_Performance.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Brother Walfrid, founder of Celtic FC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/BrotherWalfrid%28AndrewKerins%29.jpg/180px-BrotherWalfrid%28AndrewKerins%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A team photo from the early days of the club (around 1889), before the adoption of the hooped jerseys","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Celtic_fc_1889.jpg/220px-Celtic_fc_1889.jpg"},{"image_text":"William Maley (1868–1958) Secretary Celtic Football Club.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/William_Maley_%281868-1958%29_Secretary_Celtic_Football_Club.png/220px-William_Maley_%281868-1958%29_Secretary_Celtic_Football_Club.png"},{"image_text":"Jock Stein in an Amsterdam hotel, ahead of a European Cup quarter-final against AFC Ajax (1971)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Trainer_Jock_Stein_van_Celtic_in_het_Hiltonhotel%2C_Bestanddeelnr_924-3395.jpg/180px-Trainer_Jock_Stein_van_Celtic_in_het_Hiltonhotel%2C_Bestanddeelnr_924-3395.jpg"},{"image_text":"The club crest adopted on the team's football shirts in 1977, based on a badge originating from the 1930s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a7/CelticCrest1977.jpg/220px-CelticCrest1977.jpg"},{"image_text":"The special crest that was adopted in seasons 1987–88 & 1988–89 to celebrate the club's centenary","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c1/Celticfc100.png/220px-Celticfc100.png"},{"image_text":"Special commemorative crest used in season 2017–18 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the club's European Cup Final win in 1967","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dc/Celtic_50th_Anniversary_of_Lisbon_Lions_1967_%282017%E2%80%9318%29.jpg/220px-Celtic_50th_Anniversary_of_Lisbon_Lions_1967_%282017%E2%80%9318%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Statue of Jock Stein outside Celtic Park","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/John_%22Jock%22_Stein_Bronze_statue_outside_Celtic_Parkhead_stadium_by_sculptor_John_McKenna.jpg/170px-John_%22Jock%22_Stein_Bronze_statue_outside_Celtic_Parkhead_stadium_by_sculptor_John_McKenna.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Celtic View","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a6/TheCelticViewIssue1.jpg/170px-TheCelticViewIssue1.jpg"},{"image_text":"James Kelly was one of Celtic's early directors and also briefly chairman. His son Robert Kelly spent many years as chairman, and further descendants Kevin Kelly and Michael Kelly went on to have prominent roles on the Celtic board.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/James_Kelly_footballer_in_1892.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brendan Rodgers led Celtic to a unique unbeaten domestic treble in the 2016–17 season.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/FC_Salzburg_versus_Celtic_FC_%284._Oktober_2918_Gruppe_B%2C_Zweiter_Spieltag%29_13.jpg/170px-FC_Salzburg_versus_Celtic_FC_%284._Oktober_2918_Gruppe_B%2C_Zweiter_Spieltag%29_13.jpg"},{"image_text":"Trophy case at Celtic Park","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Celtic_FC_trophy_case.JPG/220px-Celtic_FC_trophy_case.JPG"}]
null
[{"reference":"Grove, Daryl (22 December 2014). \"10 Soccer Things You Might Be Saying Incorrectly\". PasteSoccer. Paste. Archived from the original on 30 July 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2014/11/10-soccer-things-you-might-be-saying-wrong.html","url_text":"\"10 Soccer Things You Might Be Saying Incorrectly\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paste_(magazine)","url_text":"Paste"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170730161714/https://www.pastemagazine.com/articles/2014/11/10-soccer-things-you-might-be-saying-wrong.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nardelli, Alberto (2 June 2015). \"Which European football clubs have never been relegated?\". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 April 2024. Retrieved 7 April 2024. Only two clubs have always played in Scotland's top division: Celtic (since 1890) and Aberdeen (since 1905).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/jun/02/which-european-football-clubs-have-never-been-relegated","url_text":"\"Which European football clubs have never been relegated?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240407100141/https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2015/jun/02/which-european-football-clubs-have-never-been-relegated","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lea, Greg (7 February 2020). \"Ranked! The 30 most successful clubs in world football\". FourFourTwo. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 23 July 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fourfourtwo.com/gallery/ranked-30-most-successful-clubs-world-football-ever","url_text":"\"Ranked! The 30 most successful clubs in world football\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FourFourTwo","url_text":"FourFourTwo"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210723082452/https://www.fourfourtwo.com/gallery/ranked-30-most-successful-clubs-world-football-ever","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Coogan, Tim Pat (2002). Wherever Green Is Worn: The Story of the Irish Diaspora. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 250. ISBN 978-1-4039-6014-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-6014-6","url_text":"978-1-4039-6014-6"}]},{"reference":"Wagg, Stephen (2002). British football and social exclusion. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-7146-5217-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-5217-7","url_text":"978-0-7146-5217-7"}]},{"reference":"Thomas, Gareth (5 December 2014). \"The Crest Dissected – Celtic FC\". The Football History Boys. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 26 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefootballhistoryboys.com/2014/12/the-crest-dissected-celtic-fc.html?view=sidebar","url_text":"\"The Crest Dissected – Celtic FC\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150904075246/http://www.thefootballhistoryboys.com/2014/12/the-crest-dissected-celtic-fc.html?view=sidebar","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Brief History\". Celtic FC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 11 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.celticfc.net/pages/history","url_text":"\"Brief History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160510143304/http://www.celticfc.net/pages/history","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The men who kicked it all off for the Celts\". Celtic FC. Archived from the original on 28 May 2019. Retrieved 28 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.celticfc.net/news/4095","url_text":"\"The men who kicked it all off for the Celts\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190528204910/http://www.celticfc.net/news/4095","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Celtic – Kit History\". Historical Football Kits. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.historicalkits.co.uk/Scottish_Football_League/Celtic/Celtic.htm","url_text":"\"Celtic – Kit History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110812014900/http://www.historicalkits.co.uk/Scottish_Football_League/Celtic/Celtic.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cuddihy, Paul; Friel, David (July 2010). The Century Bhoys: The Official History of Celtic's Greatest Goalscorers. Black and White Publishing. ISBN 978-1845022976. Archived from the original on 9 September 2022. 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ISBN 978-1-905156-37-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905156-37-5","url_text":"978-1-905156-37-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Celtic fight in final\". The Times. 31 October 1966. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 20 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181003015905/http://image.wikifoundry.com/image/1/AlI2v8uzdNzMWiAJCrOPTA118142","url_text":"\"Celtic fight in final\""},{"url":"http://image.wikifoundry.com/image/1/AlI2v8uzdNzMWiAJCrOPTA118142","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Who has won a treble, including domestic league and cup titles, plus the European Cup or UEFA Champions League?\". UEFA. 10 June 2023. 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The Guardian. 1 June 2000. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/football/2000/jun/01/newsstory.sport9","url_text":"\"O'Neill confirmed as Celtic manager\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161231080230/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2000/jun/01/newsstory.sport9","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"O'Neill sees a brilliant new era for Celtic under Strachan\". The Guardian. 26 May 2005. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/football/2005/may/26/newsstory.sport2","url_text":"\"O'Neill sees a brilliant new era for Celtic under Strachan\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161231080033/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2005/may/26/newsstory.sport2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Celtic lift cup to complete Treble\". BBC Sport. 26 May 2001. Archived from the original on 7 February 2006. 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Belfast Telegraph. 5 December 2007. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/sport/football/european/milan-1-celtic-0-inzaghi-delight-as-celtic-defeat-turns-into-celebration-13499641.html","url_text":"\"Milan 1 Celtic 0: Inzaghi delight as Celtic defeat turns into celebration\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111129100912/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/sport/football/european/milan-1-celtic-0-inzaghi-delight-as-celtic-defeat-turns-into-celebration-13499641.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Gordon Strachan stands down at Celtic\". The Telegraph. 25 May 2009. 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Retrieved 11 August 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-14482006","url_text":"\"Oxfam appeal match at Celtic park raises £300,000\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110811191449/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-14482006","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Celtic Christmas cheer for Yorkhill kids\". Celtic FC. 13 December 2011. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 13 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.celticfc.net/news/1867?item=1867","url_text":"\"Celtic Christmas cheer for Yorkhill kids\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150904075246/http://www.celticfc.net/news/1867?item=1867","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Fergus the Celtic seer\". The Scotsman. 29 February 2004. Archived from the original on 15 September 2021. 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Hail!: Classic Celtic Old Firm Clashes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780577128","url_text":"9781780577128"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211211072028/https://books.google.com/books?id=MKBefdszfwMC&q=celtic+92000+83500&pg=PT70","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"81 fascinating football facts – all from the Wee Red Book\". Evening Times. 3 July 2009. Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/81-fascinating-football-facts-all-from-the-wee-red-book-1.970916","url_text":"\"81 fascinating football facts – all from the Wee Red Book\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130619044913/http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/81-fascinating-football-facts-all-from-the-wee-red-book-1.970916","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Empire Exhibition Cup 1938\". Celtic Programmes Online. 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Retrieved 8 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49283667","url_text":"\"Kieran Tierney: Celtic defender completes £25m Arsenal move\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190808170510/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/49283667","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Barefooted Indian who left Calcutta to join Celtic\". The Scotsman. 12 December 2008. Archived from the original on 16 January 2014. Retrieved 10 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.scotsman.com/sport/barefooted_indian_who_left_calcutta_to_join_celtic_1_1151472","url_text":"\"Barefooted Indian who left Calcutta to join Celtic\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140116193832/http://www.scotsman.com/sport/barefooted_indian_who_left_calcutta_to_join_celtic_1_1151472","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Gillie Heron story\". BBC Caribbean. 9 January 2009. Archived from the original on 29 December 2020. 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Retrieved 28 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah0jAwAAQBAJ&q=pat+bonner+most+appearances+celtic&pg=PT155","url_text":"Celtic FC – the Ireland Connection"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845022488","url_text":"978-1845022488"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220909141724/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ah0jAwAAQBAJ&q=pat+bonner+most+appearances+celtic&pg=PT155","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cairney, John (2007). \"McGrory statistics\". Heroes are Forever: The Life and Times of Celtic Legend Jimmy McGrory. Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 9781780570617. Archived from the original on 9 September 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=yOT7E7NGfB4C&q=jimmy+mcgrory+glasgow+charity+cup+goals&pg=PT78","url_text":"\"McGrory statistics\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781780570617","url_text":"9781780570617"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220909141725/https://books.google.com/books?id=yOT7E7NGfB4C&q=jimmy+mcgrory+glasgow+charity+cup+goals&pg=PT78","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Most Goals Scored in a Single European Season\". Sportige. 9 April 2012. Archived from the original on 20 February 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://sportige.com/top-10-players-most-goals-single-season/","url_text":"\"The Most Goals Scored in a Single European Season\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160220100338/http://sportige.com/top-10-players-most-goals-single-season/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"ARFTS – Jimmy McGrory(James McGrory) 1935–1936 Scottish First Division\". ARFTS. Archived from the original on 21 October 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171021062116/http://arfts.com/paginas/archive/reports/mcgrory3536.php","url_text":"\"ARFTS – Jimmy McGrory(James McGrory) 1935–1936 Scottish First Division\""},{"url":"http://arfts.com/paginas/archive/reports/mcgrory3536.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Jimmy McGrory\". World Football Legends. Archived from the original on 29 September 2015. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solid
Amorphous solid
["1 Etymology","2 Structure","3 Fundamental properties of amorphous solids","3.1 Glass transition at high temperatures","3.2 Universal low-temperature properties of amorphous solids","4 Nano-structured materials","5 Characterization of amorphous solids","5.1 X-ray and neutron diffraction","5.2 X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy","5.3 Atomic electron tomography","5.4 Fluctuation electron microscopy","5.5 Computational techniques","6 Uses and observations","6.1 Amorphous thin films","6.2 Superconductivity","6.3 Thermal protection","6.4 Technological uses","6.5 Pharmaceutical use","6.6 In soils","7 Phase","8 Notes","9 References","10 Further reading"]
Non-crystalline solid "Amorphous" redirects here. For other uses, see Amorphous (disambiguation). In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal. The terms "glass" and "glassy solid" are sometimes used synonymously with amorphous solid; however, these terms refer specifically to amorphous materials that undergo a glass transition. Examples of amorphous solids include glasses, metallic glasses, and certain types of plastics and polymers. Etymology The term comes from the Greek a ("without"), and morphé ("shape, form"). Structure Crystalline vs. amorphous solid Amorphous materials have an internal structure consisting of interconnected structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units found in the corresponding crystalline phase of the same compound. Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range order exists. Amorphous materials therefore cannot be defined by a finite unit cell. Statistical methods, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function, are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids. Glass is a commonly encountered example of amorphous solids. Although amorphous materials lack long range order, they exhibit localized order on small length scales. Localized order in amorphous materials can be categorized as short or medium range order. By convention, short range order extends only to the nearest neighbor shell, typically only 1-2 atomic spacings. Medium range order is then defined as the structural organization extending beyond the short range order, usually by 1-2 nm. Fundamental properties of amorphous solids Glass transition at high temperatures The freezing from liquid state to amorphous solid - glass transition - is considered one of the very important and unsolved problems of physics. Universal low-temperature properties of amorphous solids At very low temperatures (below 1-10 K), large family of amorphous solids have various similar low-temperature properties. Although there are various theoretical models, neither glass transition nor low-temperature properties of glassy solids are well understood on the fundamental physics level. Amorphous solids is an important area of condensed matter physics aiming to understand these substances at high temperatures of glass transition and at low temperatures towards absolute zero. From 1970s, low-temperature properties of amorphous solids were studied experimentally in great detail. For all of these substances, specific heat has a (nearly) linear dependence as a function of temperature, and thermal conductivity has nearly quadratic temperature dependence. These properties are conventionally called anomalous being very different from properties of crystalline solids. On the phenomenological level, many of these properties were described by a collection of tunneling two-level systems. Nevertheless, the microscopic theory of these properties is still missing after more than 50 years of the research. Remarkably, a dimensionless quantity of internal friction is nearly universal in these materials. This quantity is a dimensionless ratio (up to a numerical constant) of the phonon wavelength to the phonon mean free path. Since the theory of tunneling two-level states (TLSs) does not address the origin of the density of TLSs, this theory cannot explain the universality of internal friction, which in turn is proportional to the density of scattering TLSs. The theoretical significance of this important and unsolved problem was highlighted by Anthony Leggett. Nano-structured materials Amorphous materials will have some degree of short-range order at the atomic-length scale due to the nature of intermolecular chemical bonding. Furthermore, in very small crystals, short-range order encompasses a large fraction of the atoms; nevertheless, relaxation at the surface, along with interfacial effects, distorts the atomic positions and decreases structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, can have difficulty distinguishing amorphous and crystalline structures at short size scales. Characterization of amorphous solids Due to the lack of long-range order, standard crystallographic techniques are often inadequate in determining the structure of amorphous solids. A variety of electron, X-ray, and computation-based techniques have been used to characterize amorphous materials. Multi-modal analysis is very common for amorphous materials. X-ray and neutron diffraction Unlike crystalline materials which exhibit strong Bragg diffraction, the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials are characterized by broad and diffuse peaks. As a result, detailed analysis and complementary techniques are required to extract real space structural information from the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials. It is useful to obtain diffraction data from both X-ray and neutron sources as they have different scattering properties and provide complementary data. Pair distribution function analysis can be performed on diffraction data to determine the probability of finding a pair of atoms separated by a certain distance. Another type of analysis that is done with diffraction data of amorphous materials is radial distribution function analysis, which measures the number of atoms found at varying radial distances away from an arbitrary reference atom. From these techniques, the local order of an amorphous material can be elucidated. X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy is an atomic scale probe making it useful for studying materials lacking in long range order. Spectra obtained using this method provide information on the oxidation state, coordination number, and species surrounding the atom in question as well as the distances at which they are found. Atomic electron tomography The atomic electron tomography technique is performed in transmission electron microscopes capable of reaching sub-Angstrom resolution. A collection of 2D images taken at numerous different tilt angles is acquired from the sample in question, and then used to reconstruct a 3D image. After image acquisition, a significant amount of processing must be done to correct for issues such as drift, noise, and scan distortion. High quality analysis and processing using atomic electron tomography results in a 3D reconstruction of an amorphous material detailing the atomic positions of the different species that are present. Fluctuation electron microscopy Fluctuation electron microscopy is another transmission electron microscopy based technique that is sensitive to the medium range order of amorphous materials. Structural fluctuations arising from different forms of medium range order can be detected with this method. Fluctuation electron microscopy experiments can be done in conventional or scanning transmission electron microscope mode. Computational techniques Simulation and modeling techniques are often combined with experimental methods to characterize structures of amorphous materials. Commonly used computational techniques include density functional theory, molecular dynamics, and reverse Monte Carlo. Uses and observations Amorphous thin films Amorphous phases are important constituents of thin films. Thin films are solid layers of a few nanometres to tens of micrometres thickness that are deposited onto a substrate. So-called structure zone models were developed to describe the microstructure of thin films as a function of the homologous temperature (Th), which is the ratio of deposition temperature to melting temperature. According to these models, a necessary condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases is that (Th) has to be smaller than 0.3. The deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature. Superconductivity Amorphous metals have low toughness, but high strength Regarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discovery of superconductivity in amorphous metals made by Buckel and Hilsch. The superconductivity of amorphous metals, including amorphous metallic thin films, is now understood to be due to phonon-mediated Cooper pairing. The role of structural disorder can be rationalized based on the strong-coupling Eliashberg theory of superconductivity. Thermal protection Amorphous solids typically exhibit higher localization of heat carriers compared to crystalline, giving rise to low thermal conductivity. Products for thermal protection, such as thermal barrier coatings and insulation, rely on materials with ultralow thermal conductivity. Technological uses Today, optical coatings made from TiO2, SiO2, Ta2O5 etc. (and combinations of these) in most cases consist of amorphous phases of these compounds. Much research is carried out into thin amorphous films as a gas separating membrane layer. The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by a few nm thin SiO2 layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si:H) is of technical significance for thin-film solar cells. Pharmaceutical use In the pharmaceutical industry, some amorphous drugs have been shown to offer higher bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts as a result of the higher solubility of the amorphous phase. However, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous form in vivo, and can then decrease mutual bioavailability if administered together. In soils Amorphous materials in soil strongly influence bulk density, aggregate stability, plasticity, and water holding capacity of soils. The low bulk density and high void ratios are mostly due to glass shards and other porous minerals not becoming compacted. Andisol soils contain the highest amounts of amorphous materials. Phase The occurrence of amorphous phases turned out to be a phenomenon of particular interest for the studying of thin-film growth. The growth of polycrystalline films is often used and preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by the unoriented molecules of thin polycrystalline silicon films. Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure, and various other process parameters. The phenomenon has been interpreted in the framework of Ostwald's rule of stages that predicts the formation of phases to proceed with increasing condensation time towards increasing stability. Notes ^ See the structure of liquids and glasses for more information on non-crystalline material structure. ^ For higher values, the surface diffusion of deposited atomic species would allow for the formation of crystallites with long-range atomic order. ^ In the case of a hydrogenated amorphous silicon, the missing long-range order between silicon atoms is partly induced by the presence of hydrogen in the percent range. ^ An initial amorphous layer was observed in many studies of thin polycrystalline silicon films. ^ Experimental studies of the phenomenon require a clearly defined state of the substrate surface—and its contaminant density, etc.—upon which the thin film is deposited. References ^ a b c Thorpe., M.F.; Tichy, L. (2001). Properties and Applications of Amorphous Materials (1st ed.). Springer Dordrecht. pp. 1–11. ISBN 978-0-7923-6811-3. ^ Ponçot, M.; Addiego, F.; Dahoun, A. (2013-01-01). "True intrinsic mechanical behaviour of semi-crystalline and amorphous polymers: Influences of volume deformation and cavities shape". International Journal of Plasticity. 40: 126–139. doi:10.1016/j.ijplas.2012.07.007. ISSN 0749-6419. ^ a b Zaccone, A. (2023). Theory of Disordered Solids. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 1015 (1st ed.). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24706-4. ISBN 978-3-031-24705-7. S2CID 259299183. ^ Mavračić, Juraj; Mocanu, Felix C.; Deringer, Volker L.; Csányi, Gábor; Elliott, Stephen R. (2018). "Similarity Between Amorphous and Crystalline Phases: The Case of TiO2". J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 9 (11): 2985–2990. doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b01067. PMID 29763315. ^ a b Cheng, Y. Q.; Ma, E. (2011-05-01). "Atomic-level structure and structure–property relationship in metallic glasses". Progress in Materials Science. 56 (4): 379–473. doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2010.12.002. ISSN 0079-6425. ^ Stephens, Robert B.; Liu, Xiao (2021). Low-Energy Excitations in Disordered Solids. A Story of the 'Universal' Phenomena of Structural Tunneling. doi:10.1142/11746. ISBN 978-981-12-1724-1. S2CID 224844997. ^ Grushin, Adolfo G. (2022). Ramos, M. (ed.). Low-Temperature Thermal and Vibrational Properties of Disordered Solids. A Half-Century of Universal "Anomalies" of Glasses. arXiv:2010.02851. doi:10.1142/q0371. ISBN 978-1-80061-257-0. S2CID 222140882. ^ Anderson, P.W.; Halperin, B.I.; Varma, C.M (1972). "Anomalous low-temperature thermal properties of glasses and spin glasses". Philosophical Magazine. 25 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:1972PMag...25....1A. doi:10.1080/14786437208229210. ^ Phillips, W.A. (1972). "Tunneling states in amorphous solids". J. Low Temp. Phys., Pp 751. 7 (3–4): 351–360. Bibcode:1972JLTP....7..351P. doi:10.1007/BF00660072. S2CID 119873202. ^ Esquinazi, Pablo, ed. (1998). Tunneling Systems in Amorphous and Crystalline Solids. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03695-2. ISBN 978-3-642-08371-6. ^ Pohl, R.O.; etc, etc (2002). "Low-temperature thermal conductivity and acoustic attenuation in amorphous solids". Revs. Mod Phys. 74 (1): 991. Bibcode:1972PMag...25....1A. doi:10.1080/14786437208229210. ^ Leggett, A.J. (1991). "Amorphous materials at low temperatures: why are they so similar?". Physica B. 169 (1–4): 322–327. Bibcode:1991PhyB..169..322L. doi:10.1016/0921-4526(91)90246-B. ^ Goldstein, Joseph I.; Newbury, Dale E.; Michael, Joseph R.; Ritchie, Nicholas W. M.; Scott, John Henry J.; Joy, David C. (2018). Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis (Fourth ed.). New York, NY. ISBN 978-1493966745.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ a b Yang, Yao; Zhou, Jihan; Zhu, Fan; Yuan, Yakun; Chang, Dillan J.; Kim, Dennis S.; Pham, Minh; Rana, Arjun; Tian, Xuezeng; Yao, Yonggang; Osher, Stanley J.; Schmid, Andreas K.; Hu, Liangbing; Ercius, Peter; Miao, Jianwei (March 31, 2021). "Determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of an amorphous solid". 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Bibcode:2020AIPC.2314b0001S. doi:10.1063/5.0034410. ISSN 0094-243X. S2CID 234542087. ^ Newville, Matthew (July 22, 2004). "Fundamentals of XAFS" (PDF). ^ a b Zhou, Jihan; Yang, Yongsoo; Ercius, Peter; Miao, Jianwei (April 9, 2020). "Atomic electron tomography in three and four dimensions". MRS Bulletin. 45 (4): 290–297. Bibcode:2020MRSBu..45..290Z. doi:10.1557/mrs.2020.88. ISSN 0883-7694. S2CID 216408488. ^ a b Voyles, Paul; Hwang, Jinwoo (2012-10-12), Kaufmann, Elton N. (ed.), "Fluctuation Electron Microscopy", Characterization of Materials, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. com138, doi:10.1002/0471266965.com138, ISBN 978-0-471-26696-9, retrieved 2022-12-07 ^ Movchan, B. A.; Demchishin, A. V. (1969). "Study of the Structure and Properties of Thick Vacuum Condensates of Nickel, Titanium, Tungsten, Aluminium Oxide and Zirconium Dioxide". Phys. Met. Metallogr. 28: 83–90.Russian-language version: Fiz. Metal Metalloved (1969) 28: 653-660. ^ Thornton, John A. (1974), "Influence of Apparatus Geometry and Deposition Conditions on the Structure and Topography of Thick Sputtered Coatings", Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, 11 (4): 666–670, Bibcode:1974JVST...11..666T, doi:10.1116/1.1312732 ^ Buckel, W.; Hilsch, R. (1956). "Supraleitung und elektrischer Widerstand neuartiger Zinn-Wismut-Legierungen". Z. Phys. 146 (1): 27–38. Bibcode:1956ZPhy..146...27B. doi:10.1007/BF01326000. S2CID 119405703. ^ a b Buckel, W. (1961). "The influence of crystal bonds on film growth". Elektrische en Magnetische Eigenschappen van dunne Metallaagies. Leuven, Belgium. ^ Baggioli, Matteo; Setty, Chandan; Zaccone, Alessio (2020). "Effective Theory of Superconductivity in Strongly Coupled Amorphous Materials". Physical Review B. 101 (21): 214502. arXiv:2001.00404. Bibcode:2020PhRvB.101u4502B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.101.214502. hdl:10486/703598. S2CID 209531947. ^ a b Zhou, Wu-Xing; Cheng, Yuan; Chen, Ke-Qiu; Xie, Guofeng; Wang, Tian; Zhang, Gang (September 9, 2019). "Thermal Conductivity of Amorphous Materials". Advanced Functional Materials. 30 (8): 1903829. doi:10.1002/adfm.201903829. ISSN 1616-301X. S2CID 203143442. ^ de Vos, Renate M.; Verweij, Henk (1998). "High-Selectivity, High-Flux Silica Membranes for Gas Separation". Science. 279 (5357): 1710–1711. Bibcode:1998Sci...279.1710D. doi:10.1126/science.279.5357.1710. PMID 9497287. ^ "Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2023-10-17. ^ Hsieh, Yi-Ling; Ilevbare, Grace A.; Van Eerdenbrugh, Bernard; Box, Karl J.; Sanchez-Felix, Manuel Vincente; Taylor, Lynne S. (2012-05-12). "pH-Induced Precipitation Behavior of Weakly Basic Compounds: Determination of Extent and Duration of Supersaturation Using Potentiometric Titration and Correlation to Solid State Properties". Pharmaceutical Research. 29 (10): 2738–2753. doi:10.1007/s11095-012-0759-8. ISSN 0724-8741. PMID 22580905. S2CID 15502736. ^ Dengale, Swapnil Jayant; Grohganz, Holger; Rades, Thomas; Löbmann, Korbinian (May 2016). "Recent Advances in Co-amorphous Drug Formulations". Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 100: 116–125. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2015.12.009. ISSN 0169-409X. PMID 26805787. ^ Encyclopedia of Soil Science. Marcel Dekker. pp. 93–94. ^ Magnuson, Martin; Andersson, Matilda; Lu, Jun; Hultman, Lars; Jansson, Ulf (2012). "Electronic Structure and Chemical Bonding of Amorphous Chromium Carbide Thin Films". J. Phys. Condens. Matter. 24 (22): 225004. arXiv:1205.0678. Bibcode:2012JPCM...24v5004M. doi:10.1088/0953-8984/24/22/225004. PMID 22553115. S2CID 13135386. ^ a b Birkholz, M.; Selle, B.; Fuhs, W.; Christiansen, S.; Strunk, H. P.; Reich, R. (2001). "Amorphous-crystalline phase transition during the growth of thin films: The case of microcrystalline silicon" (PDF). Phys. Rev. B. 64 (8): 085402. Bibcode:2001PhRvB..64h5402B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.64.085402. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-03-31. ^ Ostwald, Wilhelm (1897). "Studien über die Bildung und Umwandlung fester Körper" (PDF). Z. Phys. Chem. (in German). 22: 289–330. doi:10.1515/zpch-1897-2233. S2CID 100328323. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-08. Further reading R. Zallen (1969). The Physics of Amorphous Solids. Wiley Interscience. S.R. Elliot (1990). The Physics of Amorphous Materials (2nd ed.). Longman. A. Zaccone (2023). Theory of Disordered Solids. Springer. N. Cusack (1969). The Physics of Structurally Disordered Matter: An Introduction. IOP Publishing. N.H. March; R.A. Street; M.P. Tosi, eds. (1969). Amorphous Solids and the Liquid State. Springer. D.A. Adler; B.B. Schwartz; M.C. Steele, eds. (1969). Physical Properties of Amorphous Materials. Springer. A. Inoue; K. Hasimoto, eds. (1969). Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Materials. Springer. Authority control databases: National Japan Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Amorphous (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"condensed matter physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"materials science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materials_science"},{"link_name":"solid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid"},{"link_name":"long-range order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-range_order"},{"link_name":"crystal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal"},{"link_name":"glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"glass transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-1"},{"link_name":"metallic glasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metallic_glasses"},{"link_name":"plastics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic"},{"link_name":"polymers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Z-3"}],"text":"\"Amorphous\" redirects here. For other uses, see Amorphous (disambiguation).In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal. The terms \"glass\" and \"glassy solid\" are sometimes used synonymously with amorphous solid; however, these terms refer specifically to amorphous materials that undergo a glass transition.[1] Examples of amorphous solids include glasses, metallic glasses, and certain types of plastics and polymers.[2][3]","title":"Amorphous solid"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"}],"text":"The term comes from the Greek a (\"without\"), and morphé (\"shape, form\").","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crystalline_vs._Amorphous_solid.png"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"radial distribution function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radial_distribution_function"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Z-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Mj%C3%B8sa_sunrise_reflected_in_window_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Glass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-5"}],"text":"Crystalline vs. amorphous solidAmorphous materials have an internal structure consisting of interconnected structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units found in the corresponding crystalline phase of the same compound.[4] Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range order exists. Amorphous materials therefore cannot be defined by a finite unit cell. Statistical methods, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function, are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids.[1][3]Glass is a commonly encountered example of amorphous solids.Although amorphous materials lack long range order, they exhibit localized order on small length scales. Localized order in amorphous materials can be categorized as short or medium range order.[1] By convention, short range order extends only to the nearest neighbor shell, typically only 1-2 atomic spacings.[5] Medium range order is then defined as the structural organization extending beyond the short range order, usually by 1-2 nm.[5]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Fundamental properties of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"glass transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition"},{"link_name":"unsolved problems of physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsolved_problems_of_physics"}],"sub_title":"Glass transition at high temperatures","text":"The freezing from liquid state to amorphous solid - glass transition - is considered one of the very important and unsolved problems of physics.","title":"Fundamental properties of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"glass transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition"},{"link_name":"glassy solids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glassy_solids&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fundamental physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_physics"},{"link_name":"Amorphous solids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"condensed matter physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"glass transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transition"},{"link_name":"temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"absolute zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_zero"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stephens2021-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramos2022-7"},{"link_name":"specific heat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_heat"},{"link_name":"thermal conductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_conductivity"},{"link_name":"crystalline solids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalline_solid"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AHV1972-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Phillips1972-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Esquinazi1998-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pohl2002-11"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"mean free path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean_free_path"},{"link_name":"Anthony Leggett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Leggett"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leggett1991-12"}],"sub_title":"Universal low-temperature properties of amorphous solids","text":"At very low temperatures (below 1-10 K), large family of amorphous solids have various similar low-temperature properties.\nAlthough there are various theoretical models, neither glass transition nor low-temperature properties of glassy solids are well understood on the fundamental physics level.Amorphous solids is an important area of condensed matter physics aiming to understand these substances at high temperatures of glass transition and at low temperatures towards absolute zero. From 1970s, low-temperature properties of amorphous solids were studied experimentally in great detail.[6][7] For all of these substances, specific heat has a (nearly) linear dependence as a function of temperature, and thermal conductivity has nearly quadratic temperature dependence. These properties are conventionally called anomalous being very different from properties of crystalline solids.On the phenomenological level, many of these properties were described by a collection of tunneling two-level systems.[8][9] Nevertheless, the microscopic theory of these properties is still missing after more than 50 years of the research.[10]Remarkably, a dimensionless quantity of internal friction is nearly universal in these materials.[11] This quantity is a dimensionless ratio (up to a numerical constant) of the phonon wavelength to the phonon mean free path. Since the theory of tunneling two-level states (TLSs) does not address the origin of the density of TLSs, this theory cannot explain the universality of internal friction, which in turn is proportional to the density of scattering TLSs. The theoretical significance of this important and unsolved problem was highlighted by Anthony Leggett.[12]","title":"Fundamental properties of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"short-range order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-range_order"},{"link_name":"chemical bonding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bond"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"crystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal"},{"link_name":"atoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom"},{"link_name":"X-ray diffraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_diffraction"},{"link_name":"transmission electron microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Amorphous materials will have some degree of short-range order at the atomic-length scale due to the nature of intermolecular chemical bonding.[a] Furthermore, in very small crystals, short-range order encompasses a large fraction of the atoms; nevertheless, relaxation at the surface, along with interfacial effects, distorts the atomic positions and decreases structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, can have difficulty distinguishing amorphous and crystalline structures at short size scales.[13]","title":"Nano-structured materials"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-15"}],"text":"Due to the lack of long-range order, standard crystallographic techniques are often inadequate in determining the structure of amorphous solids.[14] A variety of electron, X-ray, and computation-based techniques have been used to characterize amorphous materials. Multi-modal analysis is very common for amorphous materials.","title":"Characterization of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bragg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bragg%27s_law"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Pair distribution function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_distribution_function"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"X-ray and neutron diffraction","text":"Unlike crystalline materials which exhibit strong Bragg diffraction, the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials are characterized by broad and diffuse peaks.[15] As a result, detailed analysis and complementary techniques are required to extract real space structural information from the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials. It is useful to obtain diffraction data from both X-ray and neutron sources as they have different scattering properties and provide complementary data.[16] Pair distribution function analysis can be performed on diffraction data to determine the probability of finding a pair of atoms separated by a certain distance.[15] Another type of analysis that is done with diffraction data of amorphous materials is radial distribution function analysis, which measures the number of atoms found at varying radial distances away from an arbitrary reference atom.[17] From these techniques, the local order of an amorphous material can be elucidated.","title":"Characterization of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"oxidation state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation_state"},{"link_name":"coordination number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordination_number"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy","text":"X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy is an atomic scale probe making it useful for studying materials lacking in long range order. Spectra obtained using this method provide information on the oxidation state, coordination number, and species surrounding the atom in question as well as the distances at which they are found.[18]","title":"Characterization of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tomography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomography"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-20"}],"sub_title":"Atomic electron tomography","text":"The atomic electron tomography technique is performed in transmission electron microscopes capable of reaching sub-Angstrom resolution. A collection of 2D images taken at numerous different tilt angles is acquired from the sample in question, and then used to reconstruct a 3D image.[19] After image acquisition, a significant amount of processing must be done to correct for issues such as drift, noise, and scan distortion.[19] High quality analysis and processing using atomic electron tomography results in a 3D reconstruction of an amorphous material detailing the atomic positions of the different species that are present.","title":"Characterization of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fluctuation electron microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluctuation_electron_microscopy"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-21"},{"link_name":"scanning transmission electron microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_transmission_electron_microscopy"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-21"}],"sub_title":"Fluctuation electron microscopy","text":"Fluctuation electron microscopy is another transmission electron microscopy based technique that is sensitive to the medium range order of amorphous materials. Structural fluctuations arising from different forms of medium range order can be detected with this method.[20] Fluctuation electron microscopy experiments can be done in conventional or scanning transmission electron microscope mode.[20]","title":"Characterization of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"density functional theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_functional_theory"},{"link_name":"molecular dynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_dynamics"},{"link_name":"Monte Carlo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monte_Carlo_method"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-15"}],"sub_title":"Computational techniques","text":"Simulation and modeling techniques are often combined with experimental methods to characterize structures of amorphous materials. Commonly used computational techniques include density functional theory, molecular dynamics, and reverse Monte Carlo.[14]","title":"Characterization of amorphous solids"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Uses and observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"thin films","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_film"},{"link_name":"nanometres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanometre"},{"link_name":"micrometres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrometre"},{"link_name":"homologous temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homologous_temperature"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MoDe1969-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thor1974-23"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Amorphous thin films","text":"Amorphous phases are important constituents of thin films. Thin films are solid layers of a few nanometres to tens of micrometres thickness that are deposited onto a substrate. So-called structure zone models were developed to describe the microstructure of thin films as a function of the homologous temperature (Th), which is the ratio of deposition temperature to melting temperature.[21][22] According to these models, a necessary condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases is that (Th) has to be smaller than 0.3. The deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature.[b][citation needed]","title":"Uses and observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg"},{"link_name":"Amorphous metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metal"},{"link_name":"toughness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughness"},{"link_name":"superconductivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity"},{"link_name":"amorphous metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metal"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buck1956-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buck1961-26"},{"link_name":"phonon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonon"},{"link_name":"Cooper pairing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper_pair"},{"link_name":"structural disorder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_disorder"},{"link_name":"Eliashberg theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eliashberg_theory&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baggioli-27"}],"sub_title":"Superconductivity","text":"Amorphous metals have low toughness, but high strengthRegarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discovery of superconductivity in amorphous metals made by Buckel and Hilsch.[23][24] The superconductivity of amorphous metals, including amorphous metallic thin films, is now understood to be due to phonon-mediated Cooper pairing. The role of structural disorder can be rationalized based on the strong-coupling Eliashberg theory of superconductivity.[25]","title":"Uses and observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-28"},{"link_name":"thermal barrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_barrier"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-28"}],"sub_title":"Thermal protection","text":"Amorphous solids typically exhibit higher localization of heat carriers compared to crystalline, giving rise to low thermal conductivity.[26] Products for thermal protection, such as thermal barrier coatings and insulation, rely on materials with ultralow thermal conductivity.[26]","title":"Uses and observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"optical coatings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_coating"},{"link_name":"TiO2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium_dioxide"},{"link_name":"SiO2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxide"},{"link_name":"Ta2O5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantalum_pentoxide"},{"link_name":"membrane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_membrane"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vos1998-29"},{"link_name":"metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET"},{"link_name":"hydrogenated amorphous silicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_silicon"},{"link_name":"thin-film solar cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin-film_solar_cells"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Technological uses","text":"Today, optical coatings made from TiO2, SiO2, Ta2O5 etc. (and combinations of these) in most cases consist of amorphous phases of these compounds. Much research is carried out into thin amorphous films as a gas separating membrane layer.[27] The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by a few nm thin SiO2 layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si:H) is of technical significance for thin-film solar cells.[c][28]","title":"Uses and observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pharmaceutical industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry"},{"link_name":"bioavailability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioavailability"},{"link_name":"in vivo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vivo_supersaturation"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Pharmaceutical use","text":"In the pharmaceutical industry, some amorphous drugs have been shown to offer higher bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts as a result of the higher solubility of the amorphous phase. However, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous form in vivo, and can then decrease mutual bioavailability if administered together.[29][30]","title":"Uses and observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bulk density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_density"},{"link_name":"aggregate stability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_aggregate_stability"},{"link_name":"plasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"water holding capacity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_capacity"},{"link_name":"void ratios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Void_ratio"},{"link_name":"compacted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_compaction"},{"link_name":"Andisol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andisol"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"sub_title":"In soils","text":"Amorphous materials in soil strongly influence bulk density, aggregate stability, plasticity, and water holding capacity of soils. The low bulk density and high void ratios are mostly due to glass shards and other porous minerals not becoming compacted. Andisol soils contain the highest amounts of amorphous materials.[31]","title":"Uses and observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Birk2001-37"},{"link_name":"transmission electron microscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy"},{"link_name":"Ostwald's rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)#Ostwald's_rule"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ostw1897-38"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buck1961-26"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Birk2001-37"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"The occurrence of amorphous phases turned out to be a phenomenon of particular interest for the studying of thin-film growth.[32] The growth of polycrystalline films is often used and preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by the unoriented molecules of thin polycrystalline silicon films.[d][33] Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure, and various other process parameters. The phenomenon has been interpreted in the framework of Ostwald's rule of stages[34] that predicts the formation of phases to proceed with increasing condensation time towards increasing stability.[24][33][e]","title":"Phase"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"structure of liquids and glasses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasses"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-30"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"}],"text":"^ See the structure of liquids and glasses for more information on non-crystalline material structure.\n\n^ For higher values, the surface diffusion of deposited atomic species would allow for the formation of crystallites with long-range atomic order.\n\n^ In the case of a hydrogenated amorphous silicon, the missing long-range order between silicon atoms is partly induced by the presence of hydrogen in the percent range.\n\n^ An initial amorphous layer was observed in many studies of thin polycrystalline silicon films.\n\n^ Experimental studies of the phenomenon require a clearly defined state of the substrate surface—and its contaminant density, etc.—upon which the thin film is deposited.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wiley Interscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley_Interscience"},{"link_name":"Longman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longman"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q103382#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567945"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118405&CON_LNG=ENG"}],"text":"R. Zallen (1969). The Physics of Amorphous Solids. Wiley Interscience.\nS.R. Elliot (1990). The Physics of Amorphous Materials (2nd ed.). Longman.\nA. Zaccone (2023). Theory of Disordered Solids. Springer.\nN. Cusack (1969). The Physics of Structurally Disordered Matter: An Introduction. IOP Publishing.\nN.H. March; R.A. Street; M.P. Tosi, eds. (1969). Amorphous Solids and the Liquid State. Springer.\nD.A. Adler; B.B. Schwartz; M.C. Steele, eds. (1969). Physical Properties of Amorphous Materials. Springer.\nA. Inoue; K. Hasimoto, eds. (1969). Amorphous and Nanocrystalline Materials. Springer.Authority control databases: National \nJapan\nCzech Republic","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Crystalline vs. amorphous solid","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Crystalline_vs._Amorphous_solid.png/220px-Crystalline_vs._Amorphous_solid.png"},{"image_text":"Glass is a commonly encountered example of amorphous solids.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Lake_Mj%C3%B8sa_sunrise_reflected_in_window_01.jpg/170px-Lake_Mj%C3%B8sa_sunrise_reflected_in_window_01.jpg"},{"image_text":"Amorphous metals have low toughness, but high strength","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg/170px-Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"Thorpe., M.F.; Tichy, L. (2001). Properties and Applications of Amorphous Materials (1st ed.). Springer Dordrecht. pp. 1–11. ISBN 978-0-7923-6811-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6811-3","url_text":"978-0-7923-6811-3"}]},{"reference":"Ponçot, M.; Addiego, F.; Dahoun, A. (2013-01-01). \"True intrinsic mechanical behaviour of semi-crystalline and amorphous polymers: Influences of volume deformation and cavities shape\". International Journal of Plasticity. 40: 126–139. doi:10.1016/j.ijplas.2012.07.007. ISSN 0749-6419.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749641912001155","url_text":"\"True intrinsic mechanical behaviour of semi-crystalline and amorphous polymers: Influences of volume deformation and cavities shape\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijplas.2012.07.007","url_text":"10.1016/j.ijplas.2012.07.007"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0749-6419","url_text":"0749-6419"}]},{"reference":"Zaccone, A. (2023). Theory of Disordered Solids. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 1015 (1st ed.). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24706-4. ISBN 978-3-031-24705-7. S2CID 259299183.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-24706-4","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-031-24706-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-24705-7","url_text":"978-3-031-24705-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:259299183","url_text":"259299183"}]},{"reference":"Mavračić, Juraj; Mocanu, Felix C.; Deringer, Volker L.; Csányi, Gábor; Elliott, Stephen R. (2018). \"Similarity Between Amorphous and Crystalline Phases: The Case of TiO2\". J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 9 (11): 2985–2990. doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b01067. PMID 29763315.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/283145","url_text":"\"Similarity Between Amorphous and Crystalline Phases: The Case of TiO2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Phys._Chem._Lett.","url_text":"J. Phys. Chem. Lett."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Facs.jpclett.8b01067","url_text":"10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b01067"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29763315","url_text":"29763315"}]},{"reference":"Cheng, Y. Q.; Ma, E. (2011-05-01). \"Atomic-level structure and structure–property relationship in metallic glasses\". Progress in Materials Science. 56 (4): 379–473. doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2010.12.002. ISSN 0079-6425.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079642510000691","url_text":"\"Atomic-level structure and structure–property relationship in metallic glasses\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.pmatsci.2010.12.002","url_text":"10.1016/j.pmatsci.2010.12.002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0079-6425","url_text":"0079-6425"}]},{"reference":"Stephens, Robert B.; Liu, Xiao (2021). Low-Energy Excitations in Disordered Solids. A Story of the 'Universal' Phenomena of Structural Tunneling. doi:10.1142/11746. ISBN 978-981-12-1724-1. S2CID 224844997.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1142%2F11746","url_text":"10.1142/11746"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-12-1724-1","url_text":"978-981-12-1724-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224844997","url_text":"224844997"}]},{"reference":"Grushin, Adolfo G. (2022). Ramos, M. (ed.). Low-Temperature Thermal and Vibrational Properties of Disordered Solids. A Half-Century of Universal \"Anomalies\" of Glasses. arXiv:2010.02851. doi:10.1142/q0371. ISBN 978-1-80061-257-0. S2CID 222140882.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/2010.02851","url_text":"2010.02851"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1142%2Fq0371","url_text":"10.1142/q0371"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80061-257-0","url_text":"978-1-80061-257-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222140882","url_text":"222140882"}]},{"reference":"Anderson, P.W.; Halperin, B.I.; Varma, C.M (1972). \"Anomalous low-temperature thermal properties of glasses and spin glasses\". Philosophical Magazine. 25 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:1972PMag...25....1A. doi:10.1080/14786437208229210.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972PMag...25....1A","url_text":"1972PMag...25....1A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786437208229210","url_text":"10.1080/14786437208229210"}]},{"reference":"Phillips, W.A. (1972). \"Tunneling states in amorphous solids\". J. Low Temp. Phys., Pp 751. 7 (3–4): 351–360. Bibcode:1972JLTP....7..351P. doi:10.1007/BF00660072. S2CID 119873202.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972JLTP....7..351P","url_text":"1972JLTP....7..351P"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00660072","url_text":"10.1007/BF00660072"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119873202","url_text":"119873202"}]},{"reference":"Esquinazi, Pablo, ed. (1998). Tunneling Systems in Amorphous and Crystalline Solids. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-03695-2. 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ISBN 978-1493966745.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1493966745","url_text":"978-1493966745"}]},{"reference":"Yang, Yao; Zhou, Jihan; Zhu, Fan; Yuan, Yakun; Chang, Dillan J.; Kim, Dennis S.; Pham, Minh; Rana, Arjun; Tian, Xuezeng; Yao, Yonggang; Osher, Stanley J.; Schmid, Andreas K.; Hu, Liangbing; Ercius, Peter; Miao, Jianwei (March 31, 2021). \"Determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of an amorphous solid\". Nature. 592 (7852): 60–64. arXiv:2004.02266. Bibcode:2021Natur.592...60Y. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03354-0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33790443. 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MRS Bulletin. 45 (4): 290–297. Bibcode:2020MRSBu..45..290Z. doi:10.1557/mrs.2020.88. ISSN 0883-7694. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere_(microarchitecture)
Ampere (microarchitecture)
["1 Details","1.1 Chips","2 Ampere dies","3 A100 accelerator and DGX A100","4 Products using Ampere","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]
GPU microarchitecture by Nvidia AmpereLaunchedMay 14, 2020; 4 years ago (2020-05-14)Designed byNvidiaManufactured byTSMCSamsungFabrication processTSMC N7 (professional) Samsung 8N (consumer)Codename(s)GA10xProduct SeriesDesktopGeForce RTX 30 seriesProfessional/workstationRTX A seriesServer/datacenterA100SpecificationsL1 cache192 KB per SM (professional)128 KB per SM (consumer)L2 cache2 MB to 6 MBMemory supportGDDR6GDDR6XHBM2PCIe supportPCIe 4.0Supported Graphics APIsDirectXDirectX 12 Ultimate (Feature Level 12_2)Direct3DDirect3D 12.0Shader ModelShader Model 6.8OpenCLOpenCL 3.0OpenGLOpenGL 4.6CUDACompute Capability 8.6VulkanVulkan 1.3Media EngineEncode codecsH.264H.265Decode codecsH.264H.265AV1Color bit-depth8-bit10-bitEncoder(s) supportedNVENCDisplay outputsDisplayPort 1.4aHDMI 2.1HistoryPredecessorTuring (consumer) Volta (professional)SuccessorAda Lovelace (consumer) Hopper (datacenter)Support statusSupported Ampere is the codename for a graphics processing unit (GPU) microarchitecture developed by Nvidia as the successor to both the Volta and Turing architectures. It was officially announced on May 14, 2020 and is named after French mathematician and physicist André-Marie Ampère. Nvidia announced the Ampere architecture GeForce 30 series consumer GPUs at a GeForce Special Event on September 1, 2020. Nvidia announced the A100 80GB GPU at SC20 on November 16, 2020. Mobile RTX graphics cards and the RTX 3060 based on the Ampere architecture were revealed on January 12, 2021. Nvidia announced Ampere's successor, Hopper, at GTC 2022, and "Ampere Next Next" (Blackwell) for a 2024 release at GPU Technology Conference 2021. Details Architectural improvements of the Ampere architecture include the following: CUDA Compute Capability 8.0 for A100 and 8.6 for the GeForce 30 series TSMC's 7 nm FinFET process for A100 Custom version of Samsung's 8 nm process (8N) for the GeForce 30 series Third-generation Tensor Cores with FP16, bfloat16, TensorFloat-32 (TF32) and FP64 support and sparsity acceleration. The individual Tensor cores have with 256 FP16 FMA operations per clock 4x processing power (GA100 only, 2x on GA10x) compared to previous Tensor Core generations; the Tensor Core Count is reduced to one per SM. Second-generation ray tracing cores; concurrent ray tracing, shading, and compute for the GeForce 30 series High Bandwidth Memory 2 (HBM2) on A100 40 GB & A100 80 GB GDDR6X memory for GeForce RTX 3090, RTX 3080 Ti, RTX 3080, RTX 3070 Ti Double FP32 cores per SM on GA10x GPUs NVLink 3.0 with a 50 Gbit/s per pair throughput PCI Express 4.0 with SR-IOV support (SR-IOV is reserved only for A100) Multi-instance GPU (MIG) virtualization and GPU partitioning feature in A100 supporting up to seven instances PureVideo feature set K hardware video decoding with AV1 hardware decoding for the GeForce 30 series and feature set J for A100 5 NVDEC for A100 Adds new hardware-based 5-core JPEG decode (NVJPG) with YUV420, YUV422, YUV444, YUV400, RGBA. Should not be confused with Nvidia NVJPEG (GPU-accelerated library for JPEG encoding/decoding) Chips GA100 GA102 GA103 GA104 GA106 GA107 GA10B Comparison of Compute Capability: GP100 vs GV100 vs GA100 GPU features Nvidia Tesla P100 Nvidia Tesla V100 Nvidia A100 GPU codename GP100 GV100 GA100 GPU architecture Pascal Volta Ampere Compute capability 6.0 7.0 8.0 Threads / warp 32 32 32 Max warps / SM 64 64 64 Max threads / SM 2048 2048 2048 Max thread blocks / SM 32 32 32 Max 32-bit registers / SM 65536 65536 65536 Max registers / block 65536 65536 65536 Max registers / thread 255 255 255 Max thread block size 1024 1024 1024 FP32 cores / SM 64 64 64 Ratio of SM registers to FP32 cores 1024 1024 1024 Shared Memory Size / SM 64 KB Configurable up to 96 KB Configurable up to 164 KB Comparison of Precision Support Matrix Supported CUDA Core Precisions Supported Tensor Core Precisions FP16 FP32 FP64 INT1 INT4 INT8 TF32 BF16 FP16 FP32 FP64 INT1 INT4 INT8 TF32 BF16 Nvidia Tesla P4 No Yes Yes No No Yes No No No No No No No No No No Nvidia P100 Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No No No No No No No No Nvidia Volta Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No No Yes No No No No No No No Nvidia Turing Yes Yes Yes No No No No No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No Nvidia A100 Yes Yes Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Legend: FPnn: floating point with nn bits INTn: integer with n bits INT1: binary TF32: TensorFloat32 BF16: bfloat16 Comparison of Decode Performance Concurrent streams H.264 decode (1080p30) H.265 (HEVC) decode (1080p30) VP9 decode (1080p30) V100 16 22 22 A100 75 157 108 Ampere dies Die GA100 GA102 GA103 GA104 GA106 GA107 GA10B GA10F Die size 826 mm2 628 mm2 496 mm2 392 mm2 276 mm2 200 mm2 ? ? Transistors 54.2B 28.3B 22B 17.4B 12B 8.7B ? ? Transistor density 65.6 MTr/mm2 45.1 MTr/mm2 44.4 MTr/mm2 44.4 MTr/mm2 43.5 MTr/mm2 43.5 MTr/mm2 ? ? Graphics processing clusters 8 7 6 6 3 2 2 1 Streaming multiprocessors 128 84 60 48 30 20 16 12 CUDA cores 12288 10752 7680 6144 3480 2560 2048 1536 Texture mapping units 512 336 240 192 120 80 64 48 Render output units 192 112 96 96 48 32 32 16 Tensor cores 512 336 240 192 120 80 64 48 RT cores N/A 84 60 48 30 20 8 12 L1 cache 24 MB 10.5 MB 7.5 MB 6 MB 3 MB 2.5 MB 3 MB 1.5 MB 192 KBper SM 128 KB per SM 192 KBper SM 128 KBper SM L2 cache 40 MB 6 MB 4 MB 4 MB 3 MB 2 MB 4 MB ? A100 accelerator and DGX A100 The Ampere-based A100 accelerator was announced and released on May 14, 2020. The A100 features 19.5 teraflops of FP32 performance, 6912 FP32/INT32 CUDA cores, 3456 FP64 CUDA cores, 40 GB of graphics memory, and 1.6 TB/s of graphics memory bandwidth. The A100 accelerator was initially available only in the 3rd generation of DGX server, including 8 A100s. Also included in the DGX A100 is 15 TB of PCIe gen 4 NVMe storage, two 64-core AMD Rome 7742 CPUs, 1 TB of RAM, and Mellanox-powered HDR InfiniBand interconnect. The initial price for the DGX A100 was $199,000. Comparison of accelerators used in DGX: Model Architecture Socket FP32CUDAcores FP64 cores(excl. tensor) MixedINT32/FP32cores INT32cores Boostclock Memoryclock Memorybus width Memorybandwidth VRAM Singleprecision(FP32) Doubleprecision(FP64) INT8(non-tensor) INT8dense tensor INT32 FP4 dense tensor FP16 FP16dense tensor bfloat16dense tensor TensorFloat-32(TF32)dense tensor FP64dense tensor Interconnect(NVLink) GPU L1 Cache L2 Cache TDP Die size Transistorcount Process B200 Blackwell N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 8 Gbit/s HBM3e 8192-bit 8 TB/sec 192 GB HBM3e N/A N/A N/A 4.5 POPS N/A 9 PFLOPS N/A 2.25 PFLOPS 2.25 PFLOPS 1.2 PFLOPS 40 TFLOPS 1.8 TB/sec GB100 N/A N/A 1000 W N/A 208 B TSMC 4NP B100 Blackwell N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 8 Gbit/s HBM3e 8192-bit 8 TB/sec 192 GB HBM3e N/A N/A N/A 3.5 POPS N/A 7 PFLOPS N/A 1.98 PFLOPS 1.98 PFLOPS 989 TFLOPS 30 TFLOPS 1.8 TB/sec GB100 N/A N/A 700 W N/A 208 B TSMC 4NP H200 Hopper SXM5 16896 4608 16896 N/A 1980 MHz 6.3 Gbit/s HBM3e 6144-bit 4.8 TB/sec 141 GB HBM3e 67 TFLOPS 34 TFLOPS N/A 1.98 POPS N/A N/A N/A 990 TFLOPS 990 TFLOPS 495 TFLOPS 67 TFLOPS 900 GB/sec GH100 25344 KB (192 KB × 132) 51200 KB 1000 W 814 mm2 80 B TSMC 4N H100 Hopper SXM5 16896 4608 16896 N/A 1980 MHz 5.2 Gbit/s HBM3 5120-bit 3.35 TB/sec 80 GB HBM3 67 TFLOPS 34 TFLOPS N/A 1.98 POPS N/A N/A N/A 990 TFLOPS 990 TFLOPS 495 TFLOPS 67 TFLOPS 900 GB/sec GH100 25344 KB (192 KB × 132) 51200 KB 700 W 814 mm2 80 B TSMC 4N A100 80GB Ampere SXM4 6912 3456 6912 N/A 1410 MHz 3.2 Gbit/s HBM2e 5120-bit 1.52 TB/sec 80 GB HBM2e 19.5 TFLOPS 9.7 TFLOPS N/A 624 TOPS 19.5 TOPS N/A 78 TFLOPS 312 TFLOPS 312 TFLOPS 156 TFLOPS 19.5 TFLOPS 600 GB/sec GA100 20736 KB (192 KB × 108) 40960 KB 400 W 826 mm2 54.2 B TSMC N7 A100 40GB Ampere SXM4 6912 3456 6912 N/A 1410 MHz 2.4 Gbit/s HBM2 5120-bit 1.52 TB/sec 40 GB HBM2 19.5 TFLOPS 9.7 TFLOPS N/A 624 TOPS 19.5 TOPS N/A 78 TFLOPS 312 TFLOPS 312 TFLOPS 156 TFLOPS 19.5 TFLOPS 600 GB/sec GA100 20736 KB (192 KB × 108) 40960 KB 400 W 826 mm2 54.2 B TSMC N7 V100 32GB Volta SXM3 5120 2560 N/A 5120 1530 MHz 1.75 Gbit/s HBM2 4096-bit 900 GB/sec 32 GB HBM2 15.7 TFLOPS 7.8 TFLOPS 62 TOPS N/A 15.7 TOPS N/A 31.4 TFLOPS 125 TFLOPS N/A N/A N/A 300 GB/sec GV100 10240 KB (128 KB × 80) 6144 KB 350 W 815 mm2 21.1 B TSMC 12FFN V100 16GB Volta SXM2 5120 2560 N/A 5120 1530 MHz 1.75 Gbit/s HBM2 4096-bit 900 GB/sec 16 GB HBM2 15.7 TFLOPS 7.8 TFLOPS 62 TOPS N/A 15.7 TOPS N/A 31.4 TFLOPS 125 TFLOPS N/A N/A N/A 300 GB/sec GV100 10240 KB (128 KB × 80) 6144 KB 300 W 815 mm2 21.1 B TSMC 12FFN P100 Pascal SXM/SXM2 N/A 1792 3584 N/A 1480 MHz 1.4 Gbit/s HBM2 4096-bit 720 GB/sec 16 GB HBM2 10.6 TFLOPS 5.3 TFLOPS N/A N/A N/A N/A 21.2 TFLOPS N/A N/A N/A N/A 160 GB/sec GP100 1344 KB (24 KB × 56) 4096 KB 300 W 610 mm2 15.3 B TSMC 16FF+ Products using Ampere GeForce MX series GeForce MX570 (mobile) (GA107) GeForce 20 series GeForce RTX 2050 (mobile) (GA107) GeForce 30 series GeForce RTX 3050 Laptop GPU (GA107) GeForce RTX 3050 (GA106 or GA107) GeForce RTX 3050 Ti Laptop GPU (GA107) GeForce RTX 3060 Laptop GPU (GA106) GeForce RTX 3060 (GA106 or GA104) GeForce RTX 3060 Ti (GA104 or GA103) GeForce RTX 3070 Laptop GPU (GA104) GeForce RTX 3070 (GA104) GeForce RTX 3070 Ti Laptop GPU (GA104) GeForce RTX 3070 Ti (GA104 or GA102) GeForce RTX 3080 Laptop GPU (GA104) GeForce RTX 3080 (GA102) GeForce RTX 3080 12 GB (GA102) GeForce RTX 3080 Ti Laptop GPU (GA103) GeForce RTX 3080 Ti (GA102) GeForce RTX 3090 (GA102) GeForce RTX 3090 Ti (GA102) Nvidia Workstation GPUs (formerly Quadro) RTX A1000 (mobile) (GA107) RTX A2000 (mobile) (GA106) RTX A2000 (GA106) RTX A3000 (mobile) (GA104) RTX A4000 (mobile) (GA104) RTX A4000 (GA104) RTX A5000 (mobile) (GA104) RTX A5500 (mobile) (GA103) RTX A4500 (GA102) RTX A5000 (GA102) RTX A5500 (GA102) RTX A6000 (GA102) Nvidia Data Center GPUs (formerly Tesla) Nvidia A2 (GA107) Nvidia A10 (GA102) Nvidia A16 (4 × GA107) Nvidia A30 (GA100) Nvidia A40 (GA102) Nvidia A100 (GA100) Nvidia A100 80 GB (GA100) Tegra SoCs AGX Orin (GA10B) Orin NX (GA10B) Orin Nano (GA10B) Products using Ampere (per Chip) Type GA10B GA107 GA106 GA104 GA103 GA102 GA100 GeForce MX series — GeForce MX570 (mobile) — — — — — GeForce 20 series — GeForce RTX 2050 (mobile) — — — — — GeForce 30 series — GeForce RTX 3050 LaptopGeForce RTX 3050GeForce RTX 3050 Ti Laptop GeForce RTX 3050GeForce RTX 3060 LaptopGeForce RTX 3060 GeForce RTX 3060GeForce RTX 3060 TiGeForce RTX 3070 LaptopGeForce RTX 3070GeForce RTX 3070 Ti LaptopGeForce RTX 3070 TiGeForce RTX 3080 Laptop GeForce RTX 3060 TiGeForce RTX 3080 Ti Laptop GeForce RTX 3070 TiGeForce RTX 3080GeForce RTX 3080 TiGeForce RTX 3090GeForce RTX 3090 Ti — Nvidia Workstation GPUs — RTX A1000 (mobile) RTX A2000 (mobile) RTX A2000 RTX A3000 (mobile)RTX A4000 (mobile)RTX A4000RTX A5000 (mobile) RTX A5500 (mobile) RTX A4500RTX A5000RTX A5500RTX A6000 — Nvidia Data Center GPUs — Nvidia A2Nvidia A16 — — — Nvidia A10Nvidia A40 Nvidia A30Nvidia A100 Tegra SoCs AGX OrinOrin NXOrin Nano — — — — — — See also List of eponyms of Nvidia GPU microarchitectures List of Nvidia graphics processing units Nvidia NVENC Nvidia NVDEC References ^ Newsroom, NVIDIA. "NVIDIA's New Ampere Data Center GPU in Full Production". NVIDIA Newsroom Newsroom. ^ "NVIDIA Ampere Architecture In-Depth". NVIDIA Developer Blog. May 14, 2020. ^ "NVIDIA Delivers Greatest-Ever Generational Leap with GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs". Nvidia Newsroom. September 1, 2020. Retrieved April 9, 2023. ^ "NVIDIA GeForce Ultimate Countdown". Nvidia. ^ "NVIDIA Doubles Down: Announces A100 80GB GPU, Supercharging World's Most Powerful GPU for AI Supercomputing". Nvidia Newsroom. November 16, 2020. Retrieved April 9, 2023. ^ "NVIDIA GeForce Beyond at CES 2023". NVIDIA. ^ "I.7. Compute Capability 8.x". Nvidia. Retrieved September 23, 2020. ^ Bosnjak, Dominik (September 1, 2020). "Samsung's old 8nm tech at the heart of NVIDIA's monstrous Ampere cards". SamMobile. Retrieved September 19, 2020. ^ a b c d e Smith, Ryan (May 14, 2020). "NVIDIA Ampere Unleashed: NVIDIA Announces New GPU Architecture, A100 GPU, and Accelerator". AnandTech. ^ Delgado, Gerardo (September 1, 2020). "GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs: Ushering In A New Era of Video Content With AV1 Decode". Nvidia. Retrieved April 9, 2023. ^ Morgan, Timothy Prickett (May 29, 2020). "Diving Deep Into The Nvidia Ampere GPU Architecture". The Next Platform. Retrieved March 24, 2022. ^ "NVIDIA A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture: Unprecedented Accerlation at Every Scale" (PDF). Nvidia. Retrieved September 18, 2020. ^ "NVIDIA Tensor Cores: Versatility for HPC & AI". NVIDIA. ^ "Abstract". docs.nvidia.com. ^ "NVIDIA A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture" (PDF). NVIDIA Corporation. Retrieved April 29, 2024. ^ "NVIDIA GA102 GPU Specs". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024. ^ "NVIDIA GA103 GPU Specs". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024. ^ "NVIDIA GA104 GPU Specs". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024. ^ "NVIDIA GA106 GPU Specs". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024. ^ "NVIDIA GA107 GPU Specs". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024. ^ "NVIDIA AGX Orin Series Technical Brief v1.2" (PDF). NVIDIA Corporation. 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"ZOTAC launches GeForce RTX 3070 Ti with GA102-150 GPU". VideoCardz. Retrieved May 21, 2023. External links Nvidia A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture whitepaper Nvidia Ampere GA102 GPU Architecture whitepaper Nvidia Ampere Architecture Nvidia A100 Tensor Core GPU Nvidia Ampere Architecture In-Depth vteNvidiaGeForce (List of GPUs)Fixed pixel pipelinePre-GeForce NV1 NV2 RIVA 128 RIVA TNT TNT2  GeForce 256 2 4 MXVertex and pixel shaders GeForce 3 4 Ti FX 6 7 Unified shaders GeForce 8 9 100 200 300 400 500 Unified shaders & NUMA GeForce 600 700 800M 900 10 16 Ray tracing & tensor cores GeForce 20 30 40 Software and technologiesMultimedia acceleration NVENC (video encoding) NVDEC (video decoding) PureVideo (video decoding) Software Cg (shading language) CUDA Nvidia GameWorks OptiX (ray tracing API) PhysX (physics SDK) Nvidia Omniverse (3D graphics) Nvidia RTX (ray tracing platform) Nvidia System Tools VDPAU (video decode API) Technologies Nvidia 3D Vision (stereo 3D) Nvidia G-Sync (variable refresh rate) Nvidia Optimus (GPU switching) Nvidia Surround (multi-monitor) MXM (module/socket) SXM (module/socket) NVLink (protocol) Scalable Link Interface (multi-GPU) TurboCache (framebuffer in system memory) Video Super Resolution (live video upscaling) GPU microarchitectures Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin Rankine Curie Tesla Fermi Kepler Maxwell Pascal Volta Turing Ampere Hopper Ada Lovelace Blackwell Rubin Other productsGraphics processing Nvidia Quadro Quadro Plex GPGPU Nvidia Tesla DGX Console components NV2A (Xbox) RSX 'Reality Synthesizer' (PlayStation 3) Tegra NX-SoC (Nintendo Switch) Nvidia Shield Shield Portable Shield Tablet Shield Android TV GeForce Now SoCs and embedded GoForce Drive Jetson Tegra CPUs Project Denver Computer chipsets nForce CompanyKey people Jen-Hsun Huang Chris Malachowsky Curtis Priem David Kirk Bill Dally Debora Shoquist Ranga Jayaraman Jonah M. Alben Acquisitions 3dfx Interactive Ageia ULi Bright Computing Cumulus Networks DeepMap Icera Mellanox Technologies Mental Images PortalPlayer Exluna MediaQ Stexar
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graphics processing unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit"},{"link_name":"microarchitecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microarchitecture"},{"link_name":"Nvidia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia"},{"link_name":"Volta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Turing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"André-Marie Ampère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"GeForce 30 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_30_series"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Hopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopper_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Blackwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwell_(microarchitecture)"}],"text":"Ampere is the codename for a graphics processing unit (GPU) microarchitecture developed by Nvidia as the successor to both the Volta and Turing architectures. It was officially announced on May 14, 2020 and is named after French mathematician and physicist André-Marie Ampère.[1][2]Nvidia announced the Ampere architecture GeForce 30 series consumer GPUs at a GeForce Special Event on September 1, 2020.[3][4] Nvidia announced the A100 80GB GPU at SC20 on November 16, 2020.[5] Mobile RTX graphics cards and the RTX 3060 based on the Ampere architecture were revealed on January 12, 2021.[6]Nvidia announced Ampere's successor, Hopper, at GTC 2022, and \"Ampere Next Next\" (Blackwell) for a 2024 release at GPU Technology Conference 2021.","title":"Ampere (microarchitecture)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CUDA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CUDA"},{"link_name":"the GeForce 30 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_30_series"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"TSMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TSMC"},{"link_name":"7 nm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_nm"},{"link_name":"FinFET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FinFET"},{"link_name":"Samsung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samsung"},{"link_name":"8 nm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_nm_process"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"bfloat16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bfloat16_floating-point_format"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-A100-9"},{"link_name":"High Bandwidth Memory 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBM2"},{"link_name":"GDDR6X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDDR6X"},{"link_name":"NVLink 3.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVLink"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-A100-9"},{"link_name":"PCI Express 4.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_Express#PCI_Express_4.0"},{"link_name":"SR-IOV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SR-IOV"},{"link_name":"PureVideo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_PureVideo"},{"link_name":"AV1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AV1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"NVDEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_NVDEC"},{"link_name":"JPEG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG"},{"link_name":"library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)"}],"text":"Architectural improvements of the Ampere architecture include the following:CUDA Compute Capability 8.0 for A100 and 8.6 for the GeForce 30 series[7]\nTSMC's 7 nm FinFET process for A100\nCustom version of Samsung's 8 nm process (8N) for the GeForce 30 series[8]\nThird-generation Tensor Cores with FP16, bfloat16, TensorFloat-32 (TF32) and FP64 support and sparsity acceleration.[9] The individual Tensor cores have with 256 FP16 FMA operations per clock 4x processing power (GA100 only, 2x on GA10x) compared to previous Tensor Core generations; the Tensor Core Count is reduced to one per SM.\nSecond-generation ray tracing cores; concurrent ray tracing, shading, and compute for the GeForce 30 series\nHigh Bandwidth Memory 2 (HBM2) on A100 40 GB & A100 80 GB\nGDDR6X memory for GeForce RTX 3090, RTX 3080 Ti, RTX 3080, RTX 3070 Ti\nDouble FP32 cores per SM on GA10x GPUs\nNVLink 3.0 with a 50 Gbit/s per pair throughput[9]\nPCI Express 4.0 with SR-IOV support (SR-IOV is reserved only for A100)\nMulti-instance GPU (MIG) virtualization and GPU partitioning feature in A100 supporting up to seven instances\nPureVideo feature set K hardware video decoding with AV1 hardware decoding[10] for the GeForce 30 series and feature set J for A100\n5 NVDEC for A100\nAdds new hardware-based 5-core JPEG decode (NVJPG) with YUV420, YUV422, YUV444, YUV400, RGBA. Should not be confused with Nvidia NVJPEG (GPU-accelerated library for JPEG encoding/decoding)","title":"Details"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Chips","text":"GA100[11]\nGA102\nGA103\nGA104\nGA106\nGA107\nGA10BComparison of Compute Capability: GP100 vs GV100 vs GA100[12]Comparison of Precision Support Matrix[13][14]Legend:FPnn: floating point with nn bits\nINTn: integer with n bits\nINT1: binary\nTF32: TensorFloat32\nBF16: bfloat16Comparison of Decode Performance","title":"Details"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ampere dies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-A100-9"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-A100-22"},{"link_name":"DGX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_DGX"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-A100-9"},{"link_name":"PCIe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCI_express"},{"link_name":"NVMe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NVMe"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-verge-A100-22"},{"link_name":"Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epyc#Second_generation_Epyc_(Rome)"},{"link_name":"Mellanox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellanox"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-anand-A100-9"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Blackwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwell_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Blackwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwell_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Hopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopper_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Hopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hopper_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Ampere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Ampere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Volta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Volta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(microarchitecture)"}],"text":"The Ampere-based A100 accelerator was announced and released on May 14, 2020.[9] The A100 features 19.5 teraflops of FP32 performance, 6912 FP32/INT32 CUDA cores, 3456 FP64 CUDA cores, 40 GB of graphics memory, and 1.6 TB/s of graphics memory bandwidth.[22] The A100 accelerator was initially available only in the 3rd generation of DGX server, including 8 A100s.[9] Also included in the DGX A100 is 15 TB of PCIe gen 4 NVMe storage,[22] two 64-core AMD Rome 7742 CPUs, 1 TB of RAM, and Mellanox-powered HDR InfiniBand interconnect. The initial price for the DGX A100 was $199,000.[9]Comparison of accelerators used in DGX:[23][24][25]Model\nArchitecture\nSocket\nFP32CUDAcores\nFP64 cores(excl. tensor)\nMixedINT32/FP32cores\nINT32cores\nBoostclock\nMemoryclock\nMemorybus width\nMemorybandwidth\nVRAM\nSingleprecision(FP32)\nDoubleprecision(FP64)\nINT8(non-tensor)\nINT8dense tensor\nINT32\nFP4 dense tensor\nFP16\nFP16dense tensor\nbfloat16dense tensor\nTensorFloat-32(TF32)dense tensor\nFP64dense tensor\nInterconnect(NVLink)\nGPU\nL1 Cache\nL2 Cache\nTDP\nDie size\nTransistorcount\nProcess\n\n\nB200\n\nBlackwell\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n8 Gbit/s HBM3e\n8192-bit\n8 TB/sec\n192 GB HBM3e\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n4.5 POPS\nN/A\n9 PFLOPS\nN/A\n2.25 PFLOPS\n2.25 PFLOPS\n1.2 PFLOPS\n40 TFLOPS\n1.8 TB/sec\nGB100\nN/A\nN/A\n1000 W\nN/A\n208 B\nTSMC 4NP\n\n\nB100\n\nBlackwell\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n8 Gbit/s HBM3e\n8192-bit\n8 TB/sec\n192 GB HBM3e\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n3.5 POPS\nN/A\n7 PFLOPS\nN/A\n1.98 PFLOPS\n1.98 PFLOPS\n989 TFLOPS\n30 TFLOPS\n1.8 TB/sec\nGB100\nN/A\nN/A\n700 W\nN/A\n208 B\nTSMC 4NP\n\n\nH200\n\nHopper\nSXM5\n16896\n4608\n16896\nN/A\n1980 MHz\n6.3 Gbit/s HBM3e\n6144-bit\n4.8 TB/sec\n141 GB HBM3e\n67 TFLOPS\n34 TFLOPS\nN/A\n1.98 POPS\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n990 TFLOPS\n990 TFLOPS\n495 TFLOPS\n67 TFLOPS\n900 GB/sec\nGH100\n25344 KB (192 KB × 132)\n51200 KB\n1000 W\n814 mm2\n80 B\nTSMC 4N\n\n\nH100\n\nHopper\nSXM5\n16896\n4608\n16896\nN/A\n1980 MHz\n5.2 Gbit/s HBM3\n5120-bit\n3.35 TB/sec\n80 GB HBM3\n67 TFLOPS\n34 TFLOPS\nN/A\n1.98 POPS\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n990 TFLOPS\n990 TFLOPS\n495 TFLOPS\n67 TFLOPS\n900 GB/sec\nGH100\n25344 KB (192 KB × 132)\n51200 KB\n700 W\n814 mm2\n80 B\nTSMC 4N\n\n\nA100 80GB\n\nAmpere\nSXM4\n6912\n3456\n6912\nN/A\n1410 MHz\n3.2 Gbit/s HBM2e\n5120-bit\n1.52 TB/sec\n80 GB HBM2e\n19.5 TFLOPS\n9.7 TFLOPS\nN/A\n624 TOPS\n19.5 TOPS\nN/A\n78 TFLOPS\n312 TFLOPS\n312 TFLOPS\n156 TFLOPS\n19.5 TFLOPS\n600 GB/sec\nGA100\n20736 KB (192 KB × 108)\n40960 KB\n400 W\n826 mm2\n54.2 B\nTSMC N7\n\n\nA100 40GB\n\nAmpere\nSXM4\n6912\n3456\n6912\nN/A\n1410 MHz\n2.4 Gbit/s HBM2\n5120-bit\n1.52 TB/sec\n40 GB HBM2\n19.5 TFLOPS\n9.7 TFLOPS\nN/A\n624 TOPS\n19.5 TOPS\nN/A\n78 TFLOPS\n312 TFLOPS\n312 TFLOPS\n156 TFLOPS\n19.5 TFLOPS\n600 GB/sec\nGA100\n20736 KB (192 KB × 108)\n40960 KB\n400 W\n826 mm2\n54.2 B\nTSMC N7\n\n\nV100 32GB\n\nVolta\nSXM3\n5120\n2560\nN/A\n5120\n1530 MHz\n1.75 Gbit/s HBM2\n4096-bit\n900 GB/sec\n32 GB HBM2\n15.7 TFLOPS\n7.8 TFLOPS\n62 TOPS\nN/A\n15.7 TOPS\nN/A\n31.4 TFLOPS\n125 TFLOPS\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n300 GB/sec\nGV100\n10240 KB (128 KB × 80)\n6144 KB\n350 W\n815 mm2\n21.1 B\nTSMC 12FFN\n\n\nV100 16GB\n\nVolta\nSXM2\n5120\n2560\nN/A\n5120\n1530 MHz\n1.75 Gbit/s HBM2\n4096-bit\n900 GB/sec\n16 GB HBM2\n15.7 TFLOPS\n7.8 TFLOPS\n62 TOPS\nN/A\n15.7 TOPS\nN/A\n31.4 TFLOPS\n125 TFLOPS\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n300 GB/sec\nGV100\n10240 KB (128 KB × 80)\n6144 KB\n300 W\n815 mm2\n21.1 B\nTSMC 12FFN\n\n\nP100\n\nPascal\nSXM/SXM2\nN/A\n1792\n3584\nN/A\n1480 MHz\n1.4 Gbit/s HBM2\n4096-bit\n720 GB/sec\n16 GB HBM2\n10.6 TFLOPS\n5.3 TFLOPS\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n21.2 TFLOPS\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\nN/A\n160 GB/sec\nGP100\n1344 KB (24 KB × 56)\n4096 KB\n300 W\n610 mm2\n15.3 B\nTSMC 16FF+","title":"A100 accelerator and DGX A100"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GeForce MX series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nvidia_graphics_processing_units#GeForce_MX_series"},{"link_name":"GeForce 20 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_20_series"},{"link_name":"GeForce 30 series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeForce_30_series"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-igor-ga107-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3060-ga104-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3060ti-ga103-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3070ti-ga102-29"},{"link_name":"Nvidia Workstation GPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Quadro"},{"link_name":"Quadro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadro"},{"link_name":"Nvidia Data Center GPUs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Tesla"},{"link_name":"Tesla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_(microarchitecture)"},{"link_name":"Tegra SoCs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tegra"}],"text":"GeForce MX series\nGeForce MX570 (mobile) (GA107)\nGeForce 20 series\nGeForce RTX 2050 (mobile) (GA107)\nGeForce 30 series\nGeForce RTX 3050 Laptop GPU (GA107)\nGeForce RTX 3050 (GA106 or GA107)[26]\nGeForce RTX 3050 Ti Laptop GPU (GA107)\nGeForce RTX 3060 Laptop GPU (GA106)\nGeForce RTX 3060 (GA106 or GA104)[27]\nGeForce RTX 3060 Ti (GA104 or GA103)[28]\nGeForce RTX 3070 Laptop GPU (GA104)\nGeForce RTX 3070 (GA104)\nGeForce RTX 3070 Ti Laptop GPU (GA104)\nGeForce RTX 3070 Ti (GA104 or GA102)[29]\nGeForce RTX 3080 Laptop GPU (GA104)\nGeForce RTX 3080 (GA102)\nGeForce RTX 3080 12 GB (GA102)\nGeForce RTX 3080 Ti Laptop GPU (GA103)\nGeForce RTX 3080 Ti (GA102)\nGeForce RTX 3090 (GA102)\nGeForce RTX 3090 Ti (GA102)\nNvidia Workstation GPUs (formerly Quadro)\nRTX A1000 (mobile) (GA107)\nRTX A2000 (mobile) (GA106)\nRTX A2000 (GA106)\nRTX A3000 (mobile) (GA104)\nRTX A4000 (mobile) (GA104)\nRTX A4000 (GA104)\nRTX A5000 (mobile) (GA104)\nRTX A5500 (mobile) (GA103)\nRTX A4500 (GA102)\nRTX A5000 (GA102)\nRTX A5500 (GA102)\nRTX A6000 (GA102)\nNvidia Data Center GPUs (formerly Tesla)\nNvidia A2 (GA107)\nNvidia A10 (GA102)\nNvidia A16 (4 × GA107)\nNvidia A30 (GA100)\nNvidia A40 (GA102)\nNvidia A100 (GA100)\nNvidia A100 80 GB (GA100)\nTegra SoCs\nAGX Orin (GA10B)\nOrin NX (GA10B)\nOrin Nano (GA10B)","title":"Products using Ampere"}]
[]
[{"title":"List of eponyms of Nvidia GPU microarchitectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_eponyms_of_Nvidia_GPU_microarchitectures"},{"title":"List of Nvidia graphics processing units","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nvidia_graphics_processing_units"},{"title":"Nvidia NVENC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_NVENC"},{"title":"Nvidia NVDEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_NVDEC"}]
[{"reference":"Newsroom, NVIDIA. \"NVIDIA's New Ampere Data Center GPU in Full Production\". NVIDIA Newsroom Newsroom.","urls":[{"url":"http://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidias-new-ampere-data-center-gpu-in-full-production","url_text":"\"NVIDIA's New Ampere Data Center GPU in Full Production\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA Ampere Architecture In-Depth\". NVIDIA Developer Blog. May 14, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://developer.nvidia.com/blog/nvidia-ampere-architecture-in-depth/","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Ampere Architecture In-Depth\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA Delivers Greatest-Ever Generational Leap with GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs\". Nvidia Newsroom. September 1, 2020. Retrieved April 9, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-delivers-greatest-ever-generational-leap-in-performance-with-geforce-rtx-30-series-gpus","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Delivers Greatest-Ever Generational Leap with GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA GeForce Ultimate Countdown\". Nvidia.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/special-event/","url_text":"\"NVIDIA GeForce Ultimate Countdown\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA Doubles Down: Announces A100 80GB GPU, Supercharging World's Most Powerful GPU for AI Supercomputing\". Nvidia Newsroom. November 16, 2020. Retrieved April 9, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://nvidianews.nvidia.com/news/nvidia-doubles-down-announces-a100-80gb-gpu-supercharging-worlds-most-powerful-gpu-for-ai-supercomputing","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Doubles Down: Announces A100 80GB GPU, Supercharging World's Most Powerful GPU for AI Supercomputing\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA GeForce Beyond at CES 2023\". NVIDIA.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/special-event/","url_text":"\"NVIDIA GeForce Beyond at CES 2023\""}]},{"reference":"\"I.7. Compute Capability 8.x\". Nvidia. Retrieved September 23, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.nvidia.com/cuda/cuda-c-programming-guide/index.html#compute-capability-8-x","url_text":"\"I.7. Compute Capability 8.x\""}]},{"reference":"Bosnjak, Dominik (September 1, 2020). \"Samsung's old 8nm tech at the heart of NVIDIA's monstrous Ampere cards\". SamMobile. Retrieved September 19, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sammobile.com/news/samsung-8nm-process-nvidia-geforce-rtx-30-ampere","url_text":"\"Samsung's old 8nm tech at the heart of NVIDIA's monstrous Ampere cards\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Ryan (May 14, 2020). \"NVIDIA Ampere Unleashed: NVIDIA Announces New GPU Architecture, A100 GPU, and Accelerator\". AnandTech.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/15801/nvidia-announces-ampere-architecture-and-a100-products","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Ampere Unleashed: NVIDIA Announces New GPU Architecture, A100 GPU, and Accelerator\""}]},{"reference":"Delgado, Gerardo (September 1, 2020). \"GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs: Ushering In A New Era of Video Content With AV1 Decode\". Nvidia. Retrieved April 9, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/news/rtx-30-series-av1-decoding/","url_text":"\"GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs: Ushering In A New Era of Video Content With AV1 Decode\""}]},{"reference":"Morgan, Timothy Prickett (May 29, 2020). \"Diving Deep Into The Nvidia Ampere GPU Architecture\". The Next Platform. 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NVIDIA.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/tensor-cores/","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Tensor Cores: Versatility for HPC & AI\""}]},{"reference":"\"Abstract\". docs.nvidia.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/tensorrt/support-matrix/index.html","url_text":"\"Abstract\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture\" (PDF). NVIDIA Corporation. Retrieved April 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://images.nvidia.com/aem-dam/en-zz/Solutions/data-center/nvidia-ampere-architecture-whitepaper.pdf","url_text":"\"NVIDIA A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA GA102 GPU Specs\". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga102.g930","url_text":"\"NVIDIA GA102 GPU Specs\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA GA103 GPU Specs\". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga103.g989","url_text":"\"NVIDIA GA103 GPU Specs\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA GA104 GPU Specs\". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga104.g964","url_text":"\"NVIDIA GA104 GPU Specs\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA GA106 GPU Specs\". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga106.g966","url_text":"\"NVIDIA GA106 GPU Specs\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA GA107 GPU Specs\". TechPowerUp. Retrieved April 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga107.g988","url_text":"\"NVIDIA GA107 GPU Specs\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA AGX Orin Series Technical Brief v1.2\" (PDF). NVIDIA Corporation. Retrieved April 29, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nvidia.com/content/dam/en-zz/Solutions/gtcf21/jetson-orin/nvidia-jetson-agx-orin-technical-brief.pdf","url_text":"\"NVIDIA AGX Orin Series Technical Brief v1.2\""}]},{"reference":"Tom Warren; James Vincent (May 14, 2020). \"Nvidia's first Ampere GPU is designed for data centers and AI, not your PC\". The Verge.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/14/21258419/nvidia-ampere-gpu-ai-data-centers-specs-a100-dgx-supercomputer","url_text":"\"Nvidia's first Ampere GPU is designed for data centers and AI, not your PC\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Ryan (March 22, 2022). \"NVIDIA Hopper GPU Architecture and H100 Accelerator Announced: Working Smarter and Harder\". AnandTech.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/17327/","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Hopper GPU Architecture and H100 Accelerator Announced: Working Smarter and Harder\""}]},{"reference":"Smith, Ryan (May 14, 2020). \"NVIDIA Ampere Unleashed: NVIDIA Announces New GPU Architecture, A100 GPU, and Accelerator\". AnandTech.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/15801/nvidia-announces-ampere-architecture-and-a100-products","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Ampere Unleashed: NVIDIA Announces New GPU Architecture, A100 GPU, and Accelerator\""}]},{"reference":"\"NVIDIA Tesla V100 tested: near unbelievable GPU power\". TweakTown. September 17, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tweaktown.com/news/59155/nvidia-tesla-v100-tested-near-unbelievable-gpu-power/index.html","url_text":"\"NVIDIA Tesla V100 tested: near unbelievable GPU power\""}]},{"reference":"Igor, Wallossek (February 13, 2022). \"The two faces of the GeForce RTX 3050 8GB\". Igor's Lab. Retrieved February 23, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.igorslab.de/en/the-two-faces-of-geforce-rtx-3050-8gb-different-chips-and-different-thirsts/","url_text":"\"The two faces of the GeForce RTX 3050 8GB\""}]},{"reference":"Shilov, Anton (September 25, 2021). \"Gainward and Galax List GeForce RTX 3060 Cards With GA104 GPU\". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved September 23, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tomshardware.com/news/ga104-based-geforce-rtx-3060-listed","url_text":"\"Gainward and Galax List GeForce RTX 3060 Cards With GA104 GPU\""}]},{"reference":"Tyson, Mark (February 23, 2022). \"Zotac Debuts First RTX 3060 Ti Desktop Cards With GA103 GPU\". Tom's Hardware. Retrieved September 23, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tomshardware.com/news/zotac-geforce-rtx-3060-ti-ga103","url_text":"\"Zotac Debuts First RTX 3060 Ti Desktop Cards With GA103 GPU\""}]},{"reference":"WhyCry (October 26, 2022). \"ZOTAC launches GeForce RTX 3070 Ti with GA102-150 GPU\". VideoCardz. Retrieved May 21, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://videocardz.com/newz/zotac-launches-geforce-rtx-3070-ti-with-ga102-150-gpu","url_text":"\"ZOTAC launches GeForce RTX 3070 Ti with GA102-150 GPU\""}]}]
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Compute Capability 8.x\""},{"Link":"https://www.sammobile.com/news/samsung-8nm-process-nvidia-geforce-rtx-30-ampere","external_links_name":"\"Samsung's old 8nm tech at the heart of NVIDIA's monstrous Ampere cards\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/15801/nvidia-announces-ampere-architecture-and-a100-products","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA Ampere Unleashed: NVIDIA Announces New GPU Architecture, A100 GPU, and Accelerator\""},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/geforce/news/rtx-30-series-av1-decoding/","external_links_name":"\"GeForce RTX 30 Series GPUs: Ushering In A New Era of Video Content With AV1 Decode\""},{"Link":"https://www.nextplatform.com/2020/05/28/diving-deep-into-the-nvidia-ampere-gpu-architecture/","external_links_name":"\"Diving Deep Into The Nvidia Ampere GPU Architecture\""},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/content/dam/en-zz/Solutions/Data-Center/nvidia-ampere-architecture-whitepaper.pdf","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture: Unprecedented Accerlation at Every Scale\""},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/tensor-cores/","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA Tensor Cores: Versatility for HPC & AI\""},{"Link":"https://docs.nvidia.com/deeplearning/tensorrt/support-matrix/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Abstract\""},{"Link":"https://images.nvidia.com/aem-dam/en-zz/Solutions/data-center/nvidia-ampere-architecture-whitepaper.pdf","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture\""},{"Link":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga102.g930","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA GA102 GPU Specs\""},{"Link":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga103.g989","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA GA103 GPU Specs\""},{"Link":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga104.g964","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA GA104 GPU Specs\""},{"Link":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga106.g966","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA GA106 GPU Specs\""},{"Link":"https://www.techpowerup.com/gpu-specs/nvidia-ga107.g988","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA GA107 GPU Specs\""},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/content/dam/en-zz/Solutions/gtcf21/jetson-orin/nvidia-jetson-agx-orin-technical-brief.pdf","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA AGX Orin Series Technical Brief v1.2\""},{"Link":"https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/14/21258419/nvidia-ampere-gpu-ai-data-centers-specs-a100-dgx-supercomputer","external_links_name":"\"Nvidia's first Ampere GPU is designed for data centers and AI, not your PC\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/17327/","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA Hopper GPU Architecture and H100 Accelerator Announced: Working Smarter and Harder\""},{"Link":"https://www.anandtech.com/show/15801/nvidia-announces-ampere-architecture-and-a100-products","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA Ampere Unleashed: NVIDIA Announces New GPU Architecture, A100 GPU, and Accelerator\""},{"Link":"https://www.tweaktown.com/news/59155/nvidia-tesla-v100-tested-near-unbelievable-gpu-power/index.html","external_links_name":"\"NVIDIA Tesla V100 tested: near unbelievable GPU power\""},{"Link":"https://www.igorslab.de/en/the-two-faces-of-geforce-rtx-3050-8gb-different-chips-and-different-thirsts/","external_links_name":"\"The two faces of the GeForce RTX 3050 8GB\""},{"Link":"https://www.tomshardware.com/news/ga104-based-geforce-rtx-3060-listed","external_links_name":"\"Gainward and Galax List GeForce RTX 3060 Cards With GA104 GPU\""},{"Link":"https://www.tomshardware.com/news/zotac-geforce-rtx-3060-ti-ga103","external_links_name":"\"Zotac Debuts First RTX 3060 Ti Desktop Cards With GA103 GPU\""},{"Link":"https://videocardz.com/newz/zotac-launches-geforce-rtx-3070-ti-with-ga102-150-gpu","external_links_name":"\"ZOTAC launches GeForce RTX 3070 Ti with GA102-150 GPU\""},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/content/dam/en-zz/Solutions/Data-Center/nvidia-ampere-architecture-whitepaper.pdf","external_links_name":"Nvidia A100 Tensor Core GPU Architecture whitepaper"},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/content/dam/en-zz/Solutions/geforce/ampere/pdf/NVIDIA-ampere-GA102-GPU-Architecture-Whitepaper-V1.pdf","external_links_name":"Nvidia Ampere GA102 GPU Architecture whitepaper"},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/nvidia-ampere-gpu-architecture/","external_links_name":"Nvidia Ampere Architecture"},{"Link":"https://www.nvidia.com/en-us/data-center/a100/","external_links_name":"Nvidia A100 Tensor Core GPU"},{"Link":"https://devblogs.nvidia.com/nvidia-ampere-architecture-in-depth/","external_links_name":"Nvidia Ampere Architecture In-Depth"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lam%C3%A9_(fabric)
Lamé (fabric)
["1 See also","2 Notes"]
Fabric with metallic threads Gold-lamé and emerald royal boudoir gown from the film Cleopatra (1934) Lamé (/lɑːˈmeɪ/ lah-MAY; French: ) is a type of fabric woven or knit with threads made of metallic fiber wrapped around natural or synthetic fibers like silk, nylon, or spandex for added strength and stretch. (Guipé refers to the thread composed of metallic fibers wrapped around a fiber core.) Lamé is classically gold, silver, or copper in color. Today, most mass-market lamé uses synthetic metallized polyester film such as Mylar instead of true metallic fiber, so it is available in any color. A problem with lamé is that it is subject to seam or yarn slippage, making it less than ideal for garments worn frequently. The wrapped fibers can be coated in plastic to increase strength and to prevent tarnishing. Lamé is often used in evening and dress wear and in theatrical and dance costumes. It is also most commonly used in futuristic costumes and spacesuits for science fiction television, films, and performances. Common variants used in the fashion and costume industries are liquid lamé, tissue lamé, hologram lamé, and pearl lamé. Lamé is used in the sport of fencing to make the jackets (called lamés) that facilitate the scoring of touches through electrical conductivity. See also Cloth of gold Gimp (thread) Lurex Notes ^ "Lamé". Textile Dictionary. FabricLink. Retrieved 21 October 2012. ^ Fabia Denninger, Elke Giese: Textil- und Modelexikon. 8. vollständig überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, Bd. L–Z. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 3-87150-848-9, page 402 vteFabricTypesWoven Abacá cloth (Medriñaque) Aertex Armazine Almerían silk Barathea Barkcloth Batiste Bedford cord Bengaline Beta cloth Bombazine Brilliantine Broadcloth Buckram Bunting Burlap Byrd Cloth C change Calico Cambric Canvas Chambray Capilene Cedar bark textile Challis Char cloth Charmeuse Charvet Cheesecloth Chiffon Chino Chintz Cloqué Cloth of gold Cordura Corduroy Cotton duck Coutil Crêpe Cretonne Denim Dimity Donegal tweed Dornix Dowlas Drill Drugget Eolienne Flannel Foulard Fustian Gabardine Gauze Gazar Georgette Ghalamkar Gingham Grenadine Grenfell Cloth Grosgrain Habutai Haircloth Harris tweed Herringbone Himroo Hodden Irish linen Jamdani Kerseymere Khādī Khaki drill Kijōka-bashōfu Kente cloth Lamé Lawn Linsey-woolsey Loden Longcloth Mackinaw Madapollam Madras Moleskin Muslin Nainsook Nankeen Ninon Oilskin Organdy Organza Osnaburg Ottoman Oxford Paduasoy Percale Perpetuana Pongee Poplin Rakematiz Rayadillo Rep Ripstop Russell cord Saga Nishiki Samite Sateen Satin Saye Scarlet Seerhand muslin Seersucker Sendal Serge Scrim Shot silk Stuff Taffeta Tais Tartan Ticking Toile Tucuyo Tweed Twill Ultrasuede Vegetable flannel Ventile Vinyl coated polyester Viyella Voile Wadmal Waffle Wigan Whipcord Zephyr Zorbeez Figured woven Brocade Camlet Damask Lampas Songket Rinzu Pile woven Baize Chenille Corduroy Crimplene Fustian Mockado Moquette Plush Polar fleece Terrycloth Velours du Kasaï Velvet Velveteen Zibeline Nonwoven Felt Cedar bark Knitted Boiled wool Coolmax Machine knitting Milliskin Jersey Velour Netted Bobbinet Carbon fibers Lace Mesh Needlerun net Ninon Tulle Technical Ballistic nylon Ban-Lon Conductive textile Darlexx E-textiles Gannex Gore-Tex Lenticular fabric Silnylon Spandex Stub-tex SympaTex Windstopper Patterns Argyle Bizarre silk Check Chiné Herringbone Houndstooth Kelsch Paisley Pinstripes Polka dot Shweshwe Tartan or plaid Tattersall Textile fibers Abacá (Manila hemp) Acrylic Alpaca Angora Bashō Cashmere Coir Cotton Eisengarn Hemp Jute Kevlar Linen Mohair Nylon Microfiber Olefin Pashmina Polyester Piña Ramie Rayon Sea silk Silk Sisal Spandex Spider silk Wool Finishing andprinting Androsia Batik Beetling Bingata Bògòlanfini Burnout Calendering Decatising Devoré Finishing Fulling Heatsetting Indienne Kasuri Katazome Mercerization Moire Nap Parchmentising Rogan printing Rōketsuzome Roller printing Sanforization Tenterhook Textile printing Tsutsugaki Warp printing Waxed cotton Woodblock printing Yūzen Fabric mills Carlo Barbera Cerruti Dormeuil E. Thomas Holland & Sherry Larusmiani Loro Piana Piacenza Reda Scabal Vitale Barberis Canonico Zegna Manufacturingindustry Design Manufacturing Performance Preservation Recycling Terminology Related Dyeing Fiber History of textiles History of silk Knitting Pandy Shrinkage Swatches and strike-offs Synthetic fabric Weaving Yarn Authority control databases: Artists KulturNav This article about textiles is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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(Guipé refers to the thread composed of metallic fibers wrapped around a fiber core.)Lamé is classically gold, silver, or copper in color. Today, most mass-market lamé uses synthetic metallized polyester film such as Mylar instead of true metallic fiber, so it is available in any color.A problem with lamé is that it is subject to seam or yarn slippage, making it less than ideal for garments worn frequently. The wrapped fibers can be coated in plastic to increase strength and to prevent tarnishing.Lamé is often used in evening and dress wear and in theatrical and dance costumes. It is also most commonly used in futuristic costumes and spacesuits for science fiction television, films, and performances. Common variants used in the fashion and costume industries are liquid lamé, tissue lamé, hologram lamé, and pearl lamé.[2]Lamé is used in the sport of fencing to make the jackets (called lamés) that facilitate the scoring of touches through electrical conductivity.","title":"Lamé (fabric)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Lamé\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fabriclink.com/dictionaries/textile.cfm#L"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Textile"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Textile"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Textile"},{"link_name":"Fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile"},{"link_name":"Woven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woven_fabric"},{"link_name":"Abacá 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drill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khaki_drill"},{"link_name":"Kijōka-bashōfu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kij%C5%8Dka-bash%C5%8Dfu"},{"link_name":"Kente cloth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kente_cloth"},{"link_name":"Lamé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Lawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawn_cloth"},{"link_name":"Linsey-woolsey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linsey-woolsey"},{"link_name":"Loden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loden_cape"},{"link_name":"Longcloth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longcloth"},{"link_name":"Mackinaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mackinaw_cloth"},{"link_name":"Madapollam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madapollam"},{"link_name":"Madras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_(cloth)"},{"link_name":"Moleskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moleskin"},{"link_name":"Muslin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslin"},{"link_name":"Nainsook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nainsook"},{"link_name":"Nankeen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankeen"},{"link_name":"Ninon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninon"},{"link_name":"Oilskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oilskin"},{"link_name":"Organdy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organdy"},{"link_name":"Organza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organza"},{"link_name":"Osnaburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osnaburg"},{"link_name":"Ottoman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_(textile)"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_(cloth)"},{"link_name":"Paduasoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paduasoy"},{"link_name":"Percale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percale"},{"link_name":"Perpetuana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perpetuana"},{"link_name":"Pongee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pongee"},{"link_name":"Poplin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poplin"},{"link_name":"Rakematiz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakematiz"},{"link_name":"Rayadillo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayadillo"},{"link_name":"Rep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rep_(fabric)"},{"link_name":"Ripstop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripstop"},{"link_name":"Russell cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_cord"},{"link_name":"Saga Nishiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saga_Nishiki"},{"link_name":"Samite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samite"},{"link_name":"Sateen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sateen"},{"link_name":"Satin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satin"},{"link_name":"Saye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saye"},{"link_name":"Scarlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet_(cloth)"},{"link_name":"Seerhand muslin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seerhand_muslin"},{"link_name":"Seersucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seersucker"},{"link_name":"Sendal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sendal"},{"link_name":"Serge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_(fabric)"},{"link_name":"Scrim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrim_(material)"},{"link_name":"Shot silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shot_silk"},{"link_name":"Stuff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuff_(cloth)"},{"link_name":"Taffeta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taffeta"},{"link_name":"Tais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tais"},{"link_name":"Tartan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartan"},{"link_name":"Ticking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticking"},{"link_name":"Toile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toile"},{"link_name":"Tucuyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucuyo"},{"link_name":"Tweed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweed"},{"link_name":"Twill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twill"},{"link_name":"Ultrasuede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasuede"},{"link_name":"Vegetable flannel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_flannel"},{"link_name":"Ventile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventile"},{"link_name":"Vinyl coated polyester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinyl_coated_polyester"},{"link_name":"Viyella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viyella"},{"link_name":"Voile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voile"},{"link_name":"Wadmal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadmal"},{"link_name":"Waffle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waffle_fabric"},{"link_name":"Wigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wigan_(fabric)"},{"link_name":"Whipcord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whipcord"},{"link_name":"Zephyr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zephyr_cloth"},{"link_name":"Zorbeez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zorbeez"},{"link_name":"Brocade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brocade"},{"link_name":"Camlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camlet"},{"link_name":"Damask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damask"},{"link_name":"Lampas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampas"},{"link_name":"Songket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songket"},{"link_name":"Rinzu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rinzu"},{"link_name":"Pile woven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pile_(textile)"},{"link_name":"Baize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baize"},{"link_name":"Chenille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chenille_fabric"},{"link_name":"Corduroy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corduroy"},{"link_name":"Crimplene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimplene"},{"link_name":"Fustian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fustian"},{"link_name":"Mockado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mockado"},{"link_name":"Moquette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moquette"},{"link_name":"Plush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plush"},{"link_name":"Polar fleece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_fleece"},{"link_name":"Terrycloth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrycloth"},{"link_name":"Velours du Kasaï","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velours_du_Kasa%C3%AF"},{"link_name":"Velvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet"},{"link_name":"Velveteen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velveteen"},{"link_name":"Zibeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zibeline"},{"link_name":"Nonwoven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonwoven_fabric"},{"link_name":"Felt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felt"},{"link_name":"Cedar bark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedar_bark_textile"},{"link_name":"Knitted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knitted_fabric"},{"link_name":"Boiled wool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiled_wool"},{"link_name":"Coolmax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolmax"},{"link_name":"Machine knitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knitting_machine"},{"link_name":"Milliskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milliskin"},{"link_name":"Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey_(fabric)"},{"link_name":"Velour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velour"},{"link_name":"Netted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Net_(textile)"},{"link_name":"Bobbinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobbinet"},{"link_name":"Carbon fibers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_fibers"},{"link_name":"Lace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lace"},{"link_name":"Mesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesh"},{"link_name":"Needlerun net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needlerun_net"},{"link_name":"Ninon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninon"},{"link_name":"Tulle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulle_netting"},{"link_name":"Technical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_textile"},{"link_name":"Ballistic nylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_nylon"},{"link_name":"Ban-Lon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban-Lon"},{"link_name":"Conductive textile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conductive_textile"},{"link_name":"Darlexx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darlexx"},{"link_name":"E-textiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-textiles"},{"link_name":"Gannex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gannex"},{"link_name":"Gore-Tex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gore-Tex"},{"link_name":"Lenticular fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenticular_fabric"},{"link_name":"Silnylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silnylon"},{"link_name":"Spandex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandex"},{"link_name":"Stub-tex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stub-tex"},{"link_name":"SympaTex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SympaTex"},{"link_name":"Windstopper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windstopper"},{"link_name":"Argyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argyle_(pattern)"},{"link_name":"Bizarre silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bizarre_silk"},{"link_name":"Check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_(pattern)"},{"link_name":"Chiné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warp_printing"},{"link_name":"Herringbone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herringbone_(cloth)"},{"link_name":"Houndstooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houndstooth"},{"link_name":"Kelsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelsch_d%27Alsace"},{"link_name":"Paisley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paisley_(design)"},{"link_name":"Pinstripes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinstripes"},{"link_name":"Polka dot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polka_dot"},{"link_name":"Shweshwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shweshwe"},{"link_name":"Tartan or plaid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartan"},{"link_name":"Tattersall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattersall_(cloth)"},{"link_name":"Textile fibers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber"},{"link_name":"Abacá","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abac%C3%A1"},{"link_name":"Acrylic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_fiber"},{"link_name":"Alpaca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpaca_fiber"},{"link_name":"Angora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angora_wool"},{"link_name":"Bashō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musa_basjoo"},{"link_name":"Cashmere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cashmere_wool"},{"link_name":"Coir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coir"},{"link_name":"Cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton"},{"link_name":"Eisengarn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisengarn"},{"link_name":"Hemp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemp"},{"link_name":"Jute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jute"},{"link_name":"Kevlar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevlar"},{"link_name":"Linen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen"},{"link_name":"Mohair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohair"},{"link_name":"Nylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon"},{"link_name":"Microfiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfiber"},{"link_name":"Olefin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olefin_fiber"},{"link_name":"Pashmina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pashmina"},{"link_name":"Polyester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester"},{"link_name":"Piña","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Ramie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramie"},{"link_name":"Rayon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayon"},{"link_name":"Sea silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_silk"},{"link_name":"Silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk"},{"link_name":"Sisal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sisal"},{"link_name":"Spandex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spandex"},{"link_name":"Spider silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider_silk"},{"link_name":"Wool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool"},{"link_name":"Finishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finishing_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_printing"},{"link_name":"Androsia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androsia"},{"link_name":"Batik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batik"},{"link_name":"Beetling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetling"},{"link_name":"Bingata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bingata"},{"link_name":"Bògòlanfini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B2g%C3%B2lanfini"},{"link_name":"Burnout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devor%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Calendering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendering_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"Decatising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decatising"},{"link_name":"Devoré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devor%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Finishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finishing_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"Fulling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulling"},{"link_name":"Heatsetting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heatsetting"},{"link_name":"Indienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indienne"},{"link_name":"Kasuri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasuri"},{"link_name":"Katazome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katazome"},{"link_name":"Mercerization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercerised_cotton"},{"link_name":"Moire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moire_(fabric)"},{"link_name":"Nap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nap_(textile)"},{"link_name":"Parchmentising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchmentising"},{"link_name":"Rogan printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogan_printing"},{"link_name":"Rōketsuzome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%8Dketsuzome"},{"link_name":"Roller printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roller_printing_on_textiles"},{"link_name":"Sanforization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanforization"},{"link_name":"Tenterhook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenterhook"},{"link_name":"Textile printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_printing"},{"link_name":"Tsutsugaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsutsugaki"},{"link_name":"Warp printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warp_printing"},{"link_name":"Waxed cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waxed_cotton"},{"link_name":"Woodblock printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_printing_on_textiles"},{"link_name":"Yūzen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y%C5%ABzen"},{"link_name":"Carlo Barbera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Barbera"},{"link_name":"Cerruti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanificio_Fratelli_Cerruti"},{"link_name":"Dormeuil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormeuil"},{"link_name":"E. Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._Thomas"},{"link_name":"Holland & Sherry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_%26_Sherry"},{"link_name":"Larusmiani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larusmiani"},{"link_name":"Loro Piana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loro_Piana"},{"link_name":"Piacenza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fratelli_Piacenza"},{"link_name":"Reda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reda_(fabric_mill)"},{"link_name":"Scabal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scabal"},{"link_name":"Vitale Barberis Canonico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitale_Barberis_Canonico"},{"link_name":"Zegna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zegna"},{"link_name":"Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_design"},{"link_name":"Manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturing"},{"link_name":"Performance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_performance"},{"link_name":"Preservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_preservation"},{"link_name":"Recycling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_recycling"},{"link_name":"Terminology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_textile_manufacturing"},{"link_name":"Dyeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing"},{"link_name":"Fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber"},{"link_name":"History of textiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles"},{"link_name":"History of silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_silk"},{"link_name":"Knitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knitting"},{"link_name":"Pandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulling_mill"},{"link_name":"Shrinkage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrinkage_(fabric)"},{"link_name":"Swatches and strike-offs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_sample"},{"link_name":"Synthetic fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fabric"},{"link_name":"Weaving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving"},{"link_name":"Yarn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarn"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1801748#identifiers"},{"link_name":"KulturNav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//kulturnav.org/5a91fe75-778e-426b-97e1-273596294488"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Denim.jpg"},{"link_name":"textiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile"},{"link_name":"stub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub"},{"link_name":"expanding it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lam%C3%A9_(fabric)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Textile-stub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Textile-stub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Textile-stub"}],"text":"^ \"Lamé\". Textile Dictionary. FabricLink. Retrieved 21 October 2012.\n\n^ Fabia Denninger, Elke Giese: Textil- und Modelexikon. 8. vollständig überarbeitete und erweiterte Auflage, Bd. L–Z. Deutscher Fachverlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 3-87150-848-9, page 402vteFabricTypesWoven\nAbacá cloth (Medriñaque)\nAertex\nArmazine\nAlmerían silk\nBarathea\nBarkcloth\nBatiste\nBedford cord\nBengaline\nBeta cloth\nBombazine\nBrilliantine\nBroadcloth\nBuckram\nBunting\nBurlap\nByrd Cloth\nC change\nCalico\nCambric\nCanvas\nChambray\nCapilene\nCedar bark textile\nChallis\nChar cloth\nCharmeuse\nCharvet\nCheesecloth\nChiffon\nChino\nChintz\nCloqué\nCloth of gold\nCordura\nCorduroy\nCotton duck\nCoutil\nCrêpe\nCretonne\nDenim\nDimity\nDonegal tweed\nDornix\nDowlas\nDrill\nDrugget\nEolienne\nFlannel\nFoulard\nFustian\nGabardine\nGauze\nGazar\nGeorgette\nGhalamkar\nGingham\nGrenadine\nGrenfell Cloth\nGrosgrain\nHabutai\nHaircloth\nHarris tweed\nHerringbone\nHimroo\nHodden\nIrish linen\nJamdani\nKerseymere\nKhādī\nKhaki drill\nKijōka-bashōfu\nKente cloth\nLamé\nLawn\nLinsey-woolsey\nLoden\nLongcloth\nMackinaw\nMadapollam\nMadras\nMoleskin\nMuslin\nNainsook\nNankeen\nNinon\nOilskin\nOrgandy\nOrganza\nOsnaburg\nOttoman\nOxford\nPaduasoy\nPercale\nPerpetuana\nPongee\nPoplin\nRakematiz\nRayadillo\nRep\nRipstop\nRussell cord\nSaga Nishiki\nSamite\nSateen\nSatin\nSaye\nScarlet\nSeerhand muslin\nSeersucker\nSendal\nSerge\nScrim\nShot silk\nStuff\nTaffeta\nTais\nTartan\nTicking\nToile\nTucuyo\nTweed\nTwill\nUltrasuede\nVegetable flannel\nVentile\nVinyl coated polyester\nViyella\nVoile\nWadmal\nWaffle\nWigan\nWhipcord\nZephyr\nZorbeez\nFigured woven\nBrocade\nCamlet\nDamask\nLampas\nSongket\nRinzu\nPile woven\nBaize\nChenille\nCorduroy\nCrimplene\nFustian\nMockado\nMoquette\nPlush\nPolar fleece\nTerrycloth\nVelours du Kasaï\nVelvet\nVelveteen\nZibeline\nNonwoven\nFelt\nCedar bark\nKnitted\nBoiled wool\nCoolmax\nMachine knitting\nMilliskin\nJersey\nVelour\nNetted\nBobbinet\nCarbon fibers\nLace\nMesh\nNeedlerun net\nNinon\nTulle\nTechnical\nBallistic nylon\nBan-Lon\nConductive textile\nDarlexx\nE-textiles\nGannex\nGore-Tex\nLenticular fabric\nSilnylon\nSpandex\nStub-tex\nSympaTex\nWindstopper\nPatterns\nArgyle\nBizarre silk\nCheck\nChiné\nHerringbone\nHoundstooth\nKelsch\nPaisley\nPinstripes\nPolka dot\nShweshwe\nTartan or plaid\nTattersall\nTextile fibers\nAbacá (Manila hemp)\nAcrylic\nAlpaca\nAngora\nBashō\nCashmere\nCoir\nCotton\nEisengarn\nHemp\nJute\nKevlar\nLinen\nMohair\nNylon\nMicrofiber\nOlefin\nPashmina\nPolyester\nPiña\nRamie\nRayon\nSea silk\nSilk\nSisal\nSpandex\nSpider silk\nWool\nFinishing andprinting\nAndrosia\nBatik\nBeetling\nBingata\nBògòlanfini\nBurnout\nCalendering\nDecatising\nDevoré\nFinishing\nFulling\nHeatsetting\nIndienne\nKasuri\nKatazome\nMercerization\nMoire\nNap\nParchmentising\nRogan printing\nRōketsuzome\nRoller printing\nSanforization\nTenterhook\nTextile printing\nTsutsugaki\nWarp printing\nWaxed cotton\nWoodblock printing\nYūzen\nFabric mills\nCarlo Barbera\nCerruti\nDormeuil\nE. Thomas\nHolland & Sherry\nLarusmiani\nLoro Piana\n Piacenza\nReda\nScabal\nVitale Barberis Canonico\nZegna\nManufacturingindustry\nDesign\nManufacturing\nPerformance\nPreservation\nRecycling\nTerminology\nRelated\nDyeing\nFiber\nHistory of textiles\nHistory of silk\nKnitting\nPandy\nShrinkage\nSwatches and strike-offs\nSynthetic fabric\nWeaving\nYarnAuthority control databases: Artists \nKulturNavThis article about textiles is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"Gold-lamé and emerald royal boudoir gown from the film Cleopatra (1934)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Debbie_Reynolds_Auction_-_Claudette_Colbert_gold-lame_and_emerald_royal_boudoir_gown_from_%22Cleopatra%22_%281934%29_%285851926969%29.jpg/220px-Debbie_Reynolds_Auction_-_Claudette_Colbert_gold-lame_and_emerald_royal_boudoir_gown_from_%22Cleopatra%22_%281934%29_%285851926969%29.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Cloth of gold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_of_gold"},{"title":"Gimp (thread)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gimp_(thread)"},{"title":"Lurex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurex"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert_Fieldhouse
Lambert Fieldhouse
["1 References","2 External links"]
Coordinates: 40°25′56″N 86°54′57″W / 40.432298°N 86.915937°W / 40.432298; -86.915937Athletic facility on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, IN This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Lambert Fieldhouse" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Lambert FieldhouseFormer namesPurdue FieldhouseLocationStadium DrWest Lafayette, INOwnerPurdue UniversityOperatorPurdue UniversityCapacity1,000 (current) 7,500-10,000 (original)OpenedDecember 12, 1937TenantsPurdue Boilermakers men's basketball (1937-1967)Purdue Boilermakers(Indoor Track & Field) Lambert Fieldhouse is an athletic facility on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. It was built in 1937 on land bought by David Ross and George Ade (the namesakes of nearby Ross–Ade Stadium) as a replacement for Memorial Gymnasium to be the home of the Purdue basketball team, and also contained an indoor track. Memorial Gym was a 2,000 seat facility built in 1910 which had outgrown its usefulness, as the team had even resorted to playing games at the local high school gym, which seated twice as many as the gym did. In 1967, the team moved into the newly built Mackey Arena next door, and the building was remodeled to become a full-time track facility. The building also contains pool facilities, which were in use by the swimming and diving teams until 2001, when the Boilermaker Aquatic Center was completed. The basement of the facility is used by the crew team for indoor training during winter months. In 2006, the pool was filled in and now the wrestling team has their practice area where the pool used to be. The building was originally named Purdue Fieldhouse. It was renamed in honor of longtime basketball coach Ward "Piggy" Lambert. It originally housed 7,500 with the ability to expand to 10,000. Lambert Fieldhouse is also home to the department of Health and Kinesiology in the College of Health and Human Sciences. The main office, as well as offices of most professors, graduate students, and a computer lab for HK students are all housed in Lambert. Many HK classes are held in Lambert, but because there is no large lecture hall, those are held in nearby buildings, typically Physics and Electrical Engineering. The academic portion of the building lacks handicapped accessibility to most offices, classrooms, and laboratories and possesses an antiquated heating/cooling system that results in stifling work conditions during summer months. While efforts have been made in recent years to renovate portions of the building used by the intercollegiate athletic program (new track surface in 2005, conversion of the pool into a facility for the wrestling team in the same timeframe), little has been done to address these problems in the academic facility. The A.H. Ismail center was previously also housed in Lambert Fieldhouse, before being relocated to Lyles-Porter Hall. The Ismail center is a small fitness facility for Purdue Faculty, Staff, and retirees. There is a membership fee for the Ismail Center, and while it is higher than a membership at the Recreational Sports Center, the only students in the facility are volunteers or staff members from the HK department. The Ismail Center has come under internal criticism for financial non-viability. References ^ "Ismail Center's new equipment to enhance research and learning opportunities - Purdue University". www.purdue.edu. Retrieved 15 December 2021. External links 2005-06 Purdue Men's Basketball Media Guide, pg. 110-111 Ismail Center Homepage Purdue CrossFit Purdue Health and Kinesiology Department Homepage vtePurdue UniversityLocated in: West Lafayette, IndianaSystem West Lafayette Fort Wayne IPFW, dissolved 2018 Northwest IUPUI, to be dissolved in 2024 IUPUC, transferring to the IU system in 2024 Global (Law School) Academics College of Agriculture College of Education College of Engineering College of Health and Human Sciences College of Liberal Arts Krannert School of Management College of Pharmacy Polytechnic Institute College of Science College of Veterinary Medicine AthleticsTeams Purdue Boilermakers Baseball Men's basketball Women's basketball Football Men's golf Softball Women's volleyball Indiana rivalry Men's basketball Governor's Cup (Multi-sport) Old Oaken Bucket (Football) Barn Burner Trophy (Women's basketball) Monon Spike (Women's volleyball) Golden Boot (Women's soccer) Other rivalries Illinois (Purdue Cannon) Notre Dame (Shillelagh Trophy) Chicago Facilities Ross–Ade Stadium Mackey Arena Alexander Field Lambert Field Lambert Fieldhouse Other All-American Marching Band Big Bass Drum Big Ten Conference Glee Club Hail Purdue! Boilermaker Special Purdue Pete Campus Purdue Aeronautics Corporation Purdue Airlines Purdue Airport Purdue Bell Tower The Boilermaker Discovery Park Elliott Hall of Music Engineering Fountain Horticulture Gardens Nuclear reactor Purdue Memorial Union Purdue Research Park Rawls Hall Slayter Center West Lafayette Student life The Exponent WBAA Purdue Grand Prix Electric Vehicle Grand Prix Purdue OWL Rube Goldberg Machine Contest Purdue Reamer Club People Alumni Faculty Presidents John Purdue Founded: 1869 Students: 49,639 (2021) Endowment: US $2.59 billion (2020) vtePurdue Boilermakers men's basketballVenues Lafayette Coliseum (1896–1909) Memorial Gymnasium (1909–1934) Lafayette Jefferson High School Gymnasium (1929, 1934–1937) Lambert Fieldhouse (1937–1967) Mackey Arena (1967–present) Rivalries Indiana Culture & lore Crossroads Classic Boilermaker Special Purdue Pete "Hail Purdue!" 2023 Fairleigh Dickinson upset People Head coaches NBA players Statistical leaders Seasons List of seasons 1896–97 1897–99 1899–1900 1900–01 1901–02 1902–03 1903–04 1904–05 1905–06 1906–07 1907–08 1908–09 1909–10 1910–11 1911–12 1912–13 1913–14 1914–15 1915–16 1916–17 1917–18 1918–19 1919–20 1920–21 1921–22 1922–23 1923–24 1924–25 1925–26 1926–27 1927–28 1928–29 1929–30 1930–31 1931–32 1932–33 1933–34 1934–35 1935–36 1936–37 1937–38 1938–39 1939–40 1940–41 1941–42 1942–43 1943–44 1944–45 1945–46 1946–47 1947–48 1948–49 1949–50 1950–51 1951–52 1952–53 1953–54 1954–55 1955–56 1956–57 1957–58 1958–59 1959–60 1960–61 1961–62 1962–63 1963–64 1964–65 1965–66 1966–67 1967–68 1968–69 1969–70 1970–71 1971–72 1972–73 1973–74 1974–75 1975–76 1976–77 1977–78 1978–79 1979–80 1980–81 1981–82 1982–83 1983–84 1984–85 1985–86 1986–87 1987–88 1988–89 1989–90 1990–91 1991–92 1992–93 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96 1996–97 1997–98 1998–99 1999–2000 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 2003–04 2004–05 2005–06 2006–07 2007–08 2008–09 2009–10 2010–11 2011–12 2012–13 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23 2023–24 2024–25 Helms and Premo-Porretta national championship in bold; NCAA Final Four appearances in italics 40°25′56″N 86°54′57″W / 40.432298°N 86.915937°W / 40.432298; -86.915937
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatics
Electrostatics
["1 Coulomb's law","2 Electric field","2.1 Gauss's law","2.2 Poisson and Laplace equations","3 Electrostatic approximation","3.1 Electrostatic potential","3.2 Electrostatic energy","3.3 Electrostatic pressure","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]
Study of stationary or slow-moving electric charges Articles aboutElectromagnetism Electricity Magnetism Optics History Computational Textbooks Phenomena Electrostatics Charge density Conductor Coulomb law Electret Electric charge Electric dipole Electric field Electric flux Electric potential Electrostatic discharge Electrostatic induction Gauss law Insulator Permittivity Polarization Potential energy Static electricity Triboelectricity Magnetostatics Ampère law Biot–Savart law Gauss magnetic law Magnetic dipole Magnetic field Magnetic flux Magnetic scalar potential Magnetic vector potential Magnetization Permeability Right-hand rule Electrodynamics Bremsstrahlung Cyclotron radiation Displacement current Eddy current Electromagnetic field Electromagnetic induction Electromagnetic pulse Electromagnetic radiation Faraday law Jefimenko equations Larmor formula Lenz law Liénard–Wiechert potential London equations Lorentz force Maxwell equations Maxwell tensor Poynting vector Synchrotron radiation Electrical network Alternating current Capacitance Current density Direct current Electric current Electrolysis Electromotive force Impedance Inductance Joule heating Kirchhoff laws Network analysis Ohm law Parallel circuit Resistance Resonant cavities Series circuit Voltage Waveguides Magnetic circuit AC motor DC motor Electric machine Electric motor Gyrator–capacitor Induction motor Linear motor Magnetomotive force Permeance Reluctance (complex) Reluctance (real) Rotor Stator Transformer Covariant formulation Electromagnetic tensor Electromagnetism and special relativity Four-current Four-potential Mathematical descriptions Maxwell equations in curved spacetime Relativistic electromagnetism Stress–energy tensor Scientists Ampère Biot Coulomb Davy Einstein Faraday Fizeau Gauss Heaviside Helmholtz Henry Hertz Hopkinson Jefimenko Joule Kelvin Kirchhoff Larmor Lenz Liénard Lorentz Maxwell Neumann Ohm Ørsted Poisson Poynting Ritchie Savart Singer Steinmetz Tesla Volta Weber Wiechert vte Foam peanuts clinging to a cat's fur due to static electricity. The electric field of the charged fur causes polarization of the molecules of the foam due to electrostatic induction, resulting in a slight attraction of the light plastic pieces to the fur. This effect is also the cause of static cling in clothes. Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies slow-moving or stationary electric charges. Since classical times, it has been known that some materials, such as amber, attract lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον (ḗlektron), was thus the source of the word electricity. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are described by Coulomb's law. There are many examples of electrostatic phenomena, from those as simple as the attraction of plastic wrap to one's hand after it is removed from a package, to the apparently spontaneous explosion of grain silos, the damage of electronic components during manufacturing, and photocopier and laser printer operation. The electrostatic model accurately predicts electrical phenomena in "classical" cases where the velocities are low and the system is macroscopic so no quantum effects are involved. It also plays a role in quantum mechanics, where additional terms also need to be included. Coulomb's law Main article: Coulomb's law Coulomb's law states that: The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive. If r {\displaystyle r} is the distance (in meters) between two charges, then the force between two point charges q {\displaystyle q} and Q {\displaystyle Q} is: F = q Q 4 π ε 0 r 2 , {\displaystyle F={\frac {qQ}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r^{2}}}\,,} where ε0 = 8.8541878188(14)×10−12 F⋅m−1 is the vacuum permittivity. The SI unit of ε0 is equivalently A2⋅s4 ⋅kg−1⋅m−3 or C2⋅N−1⋅m−2 or F⋅m−1. Electric field Main article: Electric field The electrostatic field (lines with arrows) of a nearby positive charge (+) causes the mobile charges in conductive objects to separate due to electrostatic induction. Negative charges (blue) are attracted and move to the surface of the object facing the external charge. Positive charges (red) are repelled and move to the surface facing away. These induced surface charges are exactly the right size and shape so their opposing electric field cancels the electric field of the external charge throughout the interior of the metal. Therefore, the electrostatic field everywhere inside a conductive object is zero, and the electrostatic potential is constant. The electric field, E {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } , in units of Newtons per Coulomb or volts per meter, is a vector field that can be defined everywhere, except at the location of point charges (where it diverges to infinity). It is defined as the electrostatic force , {\displaystyle \mathbf {,} } on a hypothetical small test charge at the point due to Coulomb's law, divided by the charge q {\displaystyle q} E = F q {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ={\mathbf {F} \over q}} Electric field lines are useful for visualizing the electric field. Field lines begin on positive charge and terminate on negative charge. They are parallel to the direction of the electric field at each point, and the density of these field lines is a measure of the magnitude of the electric field at any given point. Consider a collection of n {\displaystyle n} particles of charge q i {\displaystyle q_{i}} , located at points r i {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} _{i}} (called source points), the electric field at r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } (called the field point) is: E ( r ) = 1 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 n q i r ^ i | r i | 2 = 1 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 n q i r i | r i | 3 , {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}q_{i}{{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}_{i} \over {|\mathbf {r} _{i}|}^{2}}={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{n}q_{i}{\mathbf {r} _{i} \over {|\mathbf {r} _{i}|}^{3}},} where r i = r − r i {\textstyle \mathbf {r} _{i}=\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{i}} is the displacement vector from a source point r i {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} _{i}} to the field point r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } , and r ^ i   = d e f   r i | r i | {\textstyle {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}_{i}\ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ {\frac {\mathbf {r} _{i}}{|\mathbf {r} _{i}|}}} is a unit vector that indicates the direction of the field. For a single point charge at the origin, the magnitude of this electric field is E = Q / 4 π ε 0 r 2 {\displaystyle E=Q/4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r^{2}} and points away from that charge if it is positive. The fact that the force (and hence the field) can be calculated by summing over all the contributions due to individual source particles is an example of the superposition principle. The electric field produced by a distribution of charges is given by the volume charge density ρ ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho (\mathbf {r} )} and can be obtained by converting this sum into a triple integral: E ( r ) = 1 4 π ε 0 ∭ ρ ( r ′ ) r ′ | r ′ | 3 d 3 | r ′ | {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}\iiint \,\rho (\mathbf {r} '){\mathbf {r} ' \over {|\mathbf {r} '|}^{3}}\mathrm {d} ^{3}|\mathbf {r} '|} Gauss's law Main articles: Gauss's law and Gaussian surface Gauss's law states that "the total electric flux through any closed surface in free space of any shape drawn in an electric field is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed by the surface." Many numerical problems can be solved by considering a Gaussian surface around a body. Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral equation: Φ E = ∮ S E ⋅ d A = Q enclosed ε 0 = ∫ V ρ ε 0 d 3 r , {\displaystyle \Phi _{E}=\oint _{S}\mathbf {E} \cdot \mathrm {d} \mathbf {A} ={Q_{\text{enclosed}} \over \varepsilon _{0}}=\int _{V}{\rho \over \varepsilon _{0}}\mathrm {d} ^{3}r,} where d 3 r = d x   d y   d z {\displaystyle \mathrm {d} ^{3}r=\mathrm {d} x\ \mathrm {d} y\ \mathrm {d} z} is a volume element. If the charge is distributed over a surface or along a line, replace ρ d 3 r {\displaystyle \rho \,\mathrm {d} ^{3}r} by σ d A {\displaystyle \sigma \,\mathrm {d} A} or λ d ℓ {\displaystyle \lambda \,\mathrm {d} \ell } . The divergence theorem allows Gauss's Law to be written in differential form: ∇ → ⋅ E → = ρ ε 0 . {\displaystyle {\vec {\nabla }}\cdot {\vec {E}}={\rho \over \varepsilon _{0}}.} where ∇ → ⋅ {\displaystyle {\vec {\nabla }}\cdot } is the divergence operator. Poisson and Laplace equations Main articles: Poisson's equation and Laplace's equation The definition of electrostatic potential, combined with the differential form of Gauss's law (above), provides a relationship between the potential Φ and the charge density ρ: ∇ 2 ϕ = − ρ ε 0 . {\displaystyle {\nabla }^{2}\phi =-{\rho \over \varepsilon _{0}}.} This relationship is a form of Poisson's equation. In the absence of unpaired electric charge, the equation becomes Laplace's equation: ∇ 2 ϕ = 0 , {\displaystyle {\nabla }^{2}\phi =0,} Electrostatic approximation The validity of the electrostatic approximation rests on the assumption that the electric field is irrotational: ∇ → × E → = 0. {\displaystyle {\vec {\nabla }}\times {\vec {E}}=0.} From Faraday's law, this assumption implies the absence or near-absence of time-varying magnetic fields: ∂ B → ∂ t = 0. {\displaystyle {\partial {\vec {B}} \over \partial t}=0.} In other words, electrostatics does not require the absence of magnetic fields or electric currents. Rather, if magnetic fields or electric currents do exist, they must not change with time, or in the worst-case, they must change with time only very slowly. In some problems, both electrostatics and magnetostatics may be required for accurate predictions, but the coupling between the two can still be ignored. Electrostatics and magnetostatics can both be seen as non-relativistic Galilean limits for electromagnetism. In addition, conventional electrostatics ignore quantum effects which have to be added for a complete description.: 2  Electrostatic potential Main article: Electrostatic potential As the electric field is irrotational, it is possible to express the electric field as the gradient of a scalar function, ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } , called the electrostatic potential (also known as the voltage). An electric field, E {\displaystyle E} , points from regions of high electric potential to regions of low electric potential, expressed mathematically as E → = − ∇ → ϕ . {\displaystyle {\vec {E}}=-{\vec {\nabla }}\phi .} The gradient theorem can be used to establish that the electrostatic potential is the amount of work per unit charge required to move a charge from point a {\displaystyle a} to point b {\displaystyle b} with the following line integral: − ∫ a b E → ⋅ d ℓ → = ϕ ( b → ) − ϕ ( a → ) . {\displaystyle -\int _{a}^{b}{{\vec {E}}\cdot \mathrm {d} {\vec {\ell }}}=\phi ({\vec {b}})-\phi ({\vec {a}}).} From these equations, we see that the electric potential is constant in any region for which the electric field vanishes (such as occurs inside a conducting object). Electrostatic energy Main articles: Electric potential energy and Energy density A test particle's potential energy, U E single {\displaystyle U_{\mathrm {E} }^{\text{single}}} , can be calculated from a line integral of the work, q n E → ⋅ d ℓ → {\displaystyle q_{n}{\vec {E}}\cdot \mathrm {d} {\vec {\ell }}} . We integrate from a point at infinity, and assume a collection of N {\displaystyle N} particles of charge Q n {\displaystyle Q_{n}} , are already situated at the points r → i {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}_{i}} . This potential energy (in Joules) is: U E single = q ϕ ( r → ) = q 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 N Q i ‖ R → i ‖ {\displaystyle U_{\mathrm {E} }^{\text{single}}=q\phi ({\vec {r}})={\frac {q}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}{\frac {Q_{i}}{\left\|{\mathcal {{\vec {R}}_{i}}}\right\|}}} where R i → = r → − r → i {\displaystyle {\vec {\mathcal {R_{i}}}}={\vec {r}}-{\vec {r}}_{i}} is the distance of each charge Q i {\displaystyle Q_{i}} from the test charge q {\displaystyle q} , which situated at the point r → {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}} , and ϕ ( r → ) {\displaystyle \phi ({\vec {r}})} is the electric potential that would be at r → {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}} if the test charge were not present. If only two charges are present, the potential energy is Q 1 Q 2 / ( 4 π ε 0 r ) {\displaystyle Q_{1}Q_{2}/(4\pi \varepsilon _{0}r)} . The total electric potential energy due a collection of N charges is calculating by assembling these particles one at a time: U E total = 1 4 π ε 0 ∑ j = 1 N Q j ∑ i = 1 j − 1 Q i r i j = 1 2 ∑ i = 1 N Q i ϕ i , {\displaystyle U_{\mathrm {E} }^{\text{total}}={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}\sum _{j=1}^{N}Q_{j}\sum _{i=1}^{j-1}{\frac {Q_{i}}{r_{ij}}}={\frac {1}{2}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}Q_{i}\phi _{i},} where the following sum from, j = 1 to N, excludes i = j: ϕ i = 1 4 π ε 0 ∑ j ≠ i j = 1 N Q j r i j . {\displaystyle \phi _{i}={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}\sum _{\stackrel {j=1}{j\neq i}}^{N}{\frac {Q_{j}}{r_{ij}}}.} This electric potential, ϕ i {\displaystyle \phi _{i}} is what would be measured at r → i {\displaystyle {\vec {r}}_{i}} if the charge Q i {\displaystyle Q_{i}} were missing. This formula obviously excludes the (infinite) energy that would be required to assemble each point charge from a disperse cloud of charge. The sum over charges can be converted into an integral over charge density using the prescription ∑ ( ⋯ ) → ∫ ( ⋯ ) ρ d 3 r {\textstyle \sum (\cdots )\rightarrow \int (\cdots )\rho \,\mathrm {d} ^{3}r} : U E total = 1 2 ∫ ρ ( r → ) ϕ ( r → ) d 3 r = ε 0 2 ∫ | E | 2 d 3 r , {\displaystyle U_{\mathrm {E} }^{\text{total}}={\frac {1}{2}}\int \rho ({\vec {r}})\phi ({\vec {r}})\,\mathrm {d} ^{3}r={\frac {\varepsilon _{0}}{2}}\int \left|{\mathbf {E} }\right|^{2}\,\mathrm {d} ^{3}r,} This second expression for electrostatic energy uses the fact that the electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential, as well as vector calculus identities in a way that resembles integration by parts. These two integrals for electric field energy seem to indicate two mutually exclusive formulas for electrostatic energy density, namely 1 2 ρ ϕ {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}\rho \phi } and 1 2 ε 0 E 2 {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}\varepsilon _{0}E^{2}} ; they yield equal values for the total electrostatic energy only if both are integrated over all space. Electrostatic pressure On a conductor, a surface charge will experience a force in the presence of an electric field. This force is the average of the discontinuous electric field at the surface charge. This average in terms of the field just outside the surface amounts to: P = ε 0 2 E 2 , {\displaystyle P={\frac {\varepsilon _{0}}{2}}E^{2},} This pressure tends to draw the conductor into the field, regardless of the sign of the surface charge. See also Electromagnetism – Fundamental interaction between charged particles Electrostatic generator, machines that create static electricity. Electrostatic induction, separation of charges due to electric fields. Permittivity and relative permittivity, the electric polarizability of materials. Quantisation of charge, the charge units carried by electrons or protons. Static electricity, stationary charge accumulated on a material. Triboelectric effect, separation of charges due to sliding or contact. References ^ Ling, Samuel J.; Moebs, William; Sanny, Jeff (2019). University Physics, Vol. 2. OpenStax. ISBN 9781947172210. Ch.30: Conductors, Insulators, and Charging by Induction ^ Bloomfield, Louis A. (2015). How Things Work: The Physics of Everyday Life. John Wiley and Sons. p. 270. ISBN 9781119013846. ^ "Polarization". Static Electricity – Lesson 1 – Basic Terminology and Concepts. The Physics Classroom. 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2021. ^ Thompson, Xochitl Zamora (2004). "Charge It! All About Electrical Attraction and Repulsion". Teach Engineering: Stem curriculum for K-12. University of Colorado. Retrieved 18 June 2021. ^ J, Griffiths (2017). Introduction to Electrodynamics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 296–354. doi:10.1017/9781108333511.008. ISBN 978-1-108-33351-1. Retrieved 2023-08-11. ^ "2022 CODATA Value: vacuum electric permittivity". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18. ^ Matthew Sadiku (2009). Elements of electromagnetics. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 9780195387759. ^ a b c Purcell, Edward M. (2013). Electricity and Magnetism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-1107014022. ^ "Sur l'attraction des sphéroides elliptiques, par M. de La Grange". Mathematics General Collection. doi:10.1163/9789004460409_mor2-b29447057. Retrieved 2023-08-11. ^ Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1877), "Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum, methodo nova tractata", Werke, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 279–286, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-49319-5_8, ISBN 978-3-642-49320-1, retrieved 2023-08-11 ^ Poisson, M; sciences (France), Académie royale des (1827). Mémoires de l'Académie (royale) des sciences de l'Institut (imperial) de France. Vol. 6. Paris. ^ Heras, J. A. (2010). "The Galilean limits of Maxwell's equations". American Journal of Physics. 78 (10): 1048–1055. arXiv:1012.1068. Bibcode:2010AmJPh..78.1048H. doi:10.1119/1.3442798. S2CID 118443242. Further reading Hermann A. Haus; James R. Melcher (1989). Electromagnetic Fields and Energy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-249020-X. Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (1992). Physics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-80457-6. Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X. External links Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Electrostatics". Media related to Electrostatics at Wikimedia Commons Look up electrostatics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II Ch. 4: Electrostatics Introduction to Electrostatics: Point charges can be treated as a distribution using the Dirac delta function Library resources about Electrostatics Resources in your library Learning materials related to Electrostatics at Wikiversity vteMajor branches of physicsDivisions Pure Applied Engineering Approaches Experimental Theoretical Computational Classical Classical mechanics Newtonian Analytical Celestial Continuum Acoustics Classical electromagnetism Classical optics Ray Wave Thermodynamics Statistical Non-equilibrium Modern Relativistic mechanics Special General Nuclear physics Quantum mechanics Particle physics Atomic, molecular, and optical physics Atomic Molecular Modern optics Condensed matter physics Interdisciplinary Astrophysics Atmospheric physics Biophysics Chemical physics Geophysics Materials science Mathematical physics Medical physics Ocean physics Quantum information science Related History of physics Nobel Prize in Physics Philosophy of physics Physics education Timeline of physics discoveries Authority control databases National Germany Czech Republic Other Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cat_demonstrating_static_cling_with_styrofoam_peanuts_upscayled_4x.jpg"},{"link_name":"Foam peanuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foam_peanut"},{"link_name":"static electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_electricity"},{"link_name":"electrostatic induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_induction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ling-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bloomfield-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PhysicsClassroom-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Thompson-4"},{"link_name":"static cling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_cling"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"electric charges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"classical times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"amber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber"},{"link_name":"rubbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triboelectric_effect"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity"},{"link_name":"forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forces"},{"link_name":"Coulomb's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law"},{"link_name":"photocopier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photocopier"},{"link_name":"laser printer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_printing"}],"text":"Foam peanuts clinging to a cat's fur due to static electricity. The electric field of the charged fur causes polarization of the molecules of the foam due to electrostatic induction, resulting in a slight attraction of the light plastic pieces to the fur.[1][2][3][4] This effect is also the cause of static cling in clothes.Electrostatics is a branch of physics that studies slow-moving or stationary electric charges.Since classical times, it has been known that some materials, such as amber, attract lightweight particles after rubbing. The Greek word for amber, ἤλεκτρον (ḗlektron), was thus the source of the word electricity. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are described by Coulomb's law.There are many examples of electrostatic phenomena, from those as simple as the attraction of plastic wrap to one's hand after it is removed from a package, to the apparently spontaneous explosion of grain silos, the damage of electronic components during manufacturing, and photocopier and laser printer operation.The electrostatic model accurately predicts electrical phenomena in \"classical\" cases where the velocities are low and the system is macroscopic so no quantum effects are involved. It also plays a role in quantum mechanics, where additional terms also need to be included.","title":"Electrostatics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Coulomb's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"meters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meters"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-physconst-eps0-6"},{"link_name":"vacuum permittivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_permittivity"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sadiku-7"},{"link_name":"SI unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_unit"},{"link_name":"A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere"},{"link_name":"s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb"},{"link_name":"N","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"F","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farad"}],"text":"Coulomb's law states that:[5]The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.The force is along the straight line joining them. If the two charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they have different signs, the force between them is attractive.If \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r}\n \n is the distance (in meters) between two charges, then the force between two point charges \n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}\n \n and \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q}\n \n is:F\n =\n \n \n \n q\n Q\n \n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle F={\\frac {qQ}{4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}r^{2}}}\\,,}where ε0 = 8.8541878188(14)×10−12 F⋅m−1[6] is the vacuum permittivity.[7]The SI unit of ε0 is equivalently A2⋅s4 ⋅kg−1⋅m−3 or C2⋅N−1⋅m−2 or F⋅m−1.","title":"Coulomb's law"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Electrostatic_induction.svg"},{"link_name":"electrostatic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_field"},{"link_name":"electrostatic induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_induction"},{"link_name":"electrostatic potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_potential"},{"link_name":"Newtons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Coulomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb"},{"link_name":"volts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volt"},{"link_name":"vector field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_field"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Purcell-8"},{"link_name":"test charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_charge"},{"link_name":"Electric field lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_line"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Purcell-8"},{"link_name":"displacement vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_vector"},{"link_name":"unit vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_vector"},{"link_name":"superposition principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superposition_principle"},{"link_name":"volume charge density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volume_charge_density"},{"link_name":"triple integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_integral"}],"text":"The electrostatic field (lines with arrows) of a nearby positive charge (+) causes the mobile charges in conductive objects to separate due to electrostatic induction. Negative charges (blue) are attracted and move to the surface of the object facing the external charge. Positive charges (red) are repelled and move to the surface facing away. These induced surface charges are exactly the right size and shape so their opposing electric field cancels the electric field of the external charge throughout the interior of the metal. Therefore, the electrostatic field everywhere inside a conductive object is zero, and the electrostatic potential is constant.The electric field, \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} }\n \n, in units of Newtons per Coulomb or volts per meter, is a vector field that can be defined everywhere, except at the location of point charges (where it diverges to infinity).[8] It is defined as the electrostatic force \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {,} }\n \n on a hypothetical small test charge at the point due to Coulomb's law, divided by the charge \n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}E\n \n =\n \n \n \n F\n \n q\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} ={\\mathbf {F} \\over q}}Electric field lines are useful for visualizing the electric field. Field lines begin on positive charge and terminate on negative charge. They are parallel to the direction of the electric field at each point, and the density of these field lines is a measure of the magnitude of the electric field at any given point.Consider a collection of \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n particles of charge \n \n \n \n \n q\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle q_{i}}\n \n, located at points \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} _{i}}\n \n (called source points), the electric field at \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} }\n \n (called the field point) is:[8]E\n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n q\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n q\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} (\\mathbf {r} )={1 \\over 4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}}\\sum _{i=1}^{n}q_{i}{{\\hat {\\mathbf {r} }}_{i} \\over {|\\mathbf {r} _{i}|}^{2}}={1 \\over 4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}}\\sum _{i=1}^{n}q_{i}{\\mathbf {r} _{i} \\over {|\\mathbf {r} _{i}|}^{3}},}where \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n r\n \n −\n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle \\mathbf {r} _{i}=\\mathbf {r} -\\mathbf {r} _{i}}\n \n is the displacement vector from a source point \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} _{i}}\n \n to the field point \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {r} }\n \n, and \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ^\n \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n  \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n  \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\hat {\\mathbf {r} }}_{i}\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ {\\frac {\\mathbf {r} _{i}}{|\\mathbf {r} _{i}|}}}\n \n is a unit vector that indicates the direction of the field. For a single point charge at the origin, the magnitude of this electric field is \n \n \n \n E\n =\n Q\n \n /\n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n r\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E=Q/4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}r^{2}}\n \n and points away from that charge if it is positive. The fact that the force (and hence the field) can be calculated by summing over all the contributions due to individual source particles is an example of the superposition principle. The electric field produced by a distribution of charges is given by the volume charge density \n \n \n \n ρ\n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho (\\mathbf {r} )}\n \n and can be obtained by converting this sum into a triple integral:E\n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n ∭\n \n ρ\n (\n \n \n r\n \n ′\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ′\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n r\n \n ′\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n \n r\n \n ′\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} (\\mathbf {r} )={\\frac {1}{4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}}}\\iiint \\,\\rho (\\mathbf {r} '){\\mathbf {r} ' \\over {|\\mathbf {r} '|}^{3}}\\mathrm {d} ^{3}|\\mathbf {r} '|}","title":"Electric field"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gauss's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauss%27s_law"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"electric flux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_flux"},{"link_name":"electric charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"},{"link_name":"Gaussian surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_surface"},{"link_name":"divergence theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence_theorem"},{"link_name":"divergence operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divergence"}],"sub_title":"Gauss's law","text":"Gauss's law[9][10] states that \"the total electric flux through any closed surface in free space of any shape drawn in an electric field is proportional to the total electric charge enclosed by the surface.\" Many numerical problems can be solved by considering a Gaussian surface around a body. Mathematically, Gauss's law takes the form of an integral equation:Φ\n \n E\n \n \n =\n \n ∮\n \n S\n \n \n \n E\n \n ⋅\n \n d\n \n \n A\n \n =\n \n \n \n Q\n \n enclosed\n \n \n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∫\n \n V\n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 3\n \n \n r\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Phi _{E}=\\oint _{S}\\mathbf {E} \\cdot \\mathrm {d} \\mathbf {A} ={Q_{\\text{enclosed}} \\over \\varepsilon _{0}}=\\int _{V}{\\rho \\over \\varepsilon _{0}}\\mathrm {d} ^{3}r,}where \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 3\n \n \n r\n =\n \n d\n \n x\n  \n \n d\n \n y\n  \n \n d\n \n z\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathrm {d} ^{3}r=\\mathrm {d} x\\ \\mathrm {d} y\\ \\mathrm {d} z}\n \n is a volume element. If the charge is distributed over a surface or along a line, replace \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 3\n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho \\,\\mathrm {d} ^{3}r}\n \n by \n \n \n \n σ\n \n \n d\n \n A\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma \\,\\mathrm {d} A}\n \n or \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n d\n \n ℓ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lambda \\,\\mathrm {d} \\ell }\n \n. The divergence theorem allows Gauss's Law to be written in differential form:∇\n →\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n E\n →\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n ρ\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\nabla }}\\cdot {\\vec {E}}={\\rho \\over \\varepsilon _{0}}.}where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∇\n →\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\nabla }}\\cdot }\n \n is the divergence operator.","title":"Electric field"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Poisson's equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson%27s_equation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Laplace's equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace%27s_equation"}],"sub_title":"Poisson and Laplace equations","text":"The definition of electrostatic potential, combined with the differential form of Gauss's law (above), provides a relationship between the potential Φ and the charge density ρ:∇\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ϕ\n =\n −\n \n \n ρ\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\nabla }^{2}\\phi =-{\\rho \\over \\varepsilon _{0}}.}This relationship is a form of Poisson's equation.[11] In the absence of unpaired electric charge, the equation becomes Laplace's equation:∇\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ϕ\n =\n 0\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\nabla }^{2}\\phi =0,}","title":"Electric field"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"irrotational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrotational"},{"link_name":"Faraday's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faraday%27s_law_of_induction"},{"link_name":"magnetostatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetostatics"},{"link_name":"Galilean limits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_electromagnetism"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Purcell-8"}],"text":"The validity of the electrostatic approximation rests on the assumption that the electric field is irrotational:∇\n →\n \n \n \n ×\n \n \n \n E\n →\n \n \n \n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\nabla }}\\times {\\vec {E}}=0.}From Faraday's law, this assumption implies the absence or near-absence of time-varying magnetic fields:∂\n \n \n \n B\n →\n \n \n \n \n \n ∂\n t\n \n \n \n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\partial {\\vec {B}} \\over \\partial t}=0.}In other words, electrostatics does not require the absence of magnetic fields or electric currents. Rather, if magnetic fields or electric currents do exist, they must not change with time, or in the worst-case, they must change with time only very slowly. In some problems, both electrostatics and magnetostatics may be required for accurate predictions, but the coupling between the two can still be ignored. Electrostatics and magnetostatics can both be seen as non-relativistic Galilean limits for electromagnetism.[12] In addition, conventional electrostatics ignore quantum effects which have to be added for a complete description.[8]: 2","title":"Electrostatic approximation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"irrotational","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrotational"},{"link_name":"gradient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient"},{"link_name":"electrostatic potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_potential"},{"link_name":"voltage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage"},{"link_name":"gradient theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient_theorem"},{"link_name":"work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_(physics)"},{"link_name":"line integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_integral"}],"sub_title":"Electrostatic potential","text":"As the electric field is irrotational, it is possible to express the electric field as the gradient of a scalar function, \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi }\n \n, called the electrostatic potential (also known as the voltage). An electric field, \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E}\n \n, points from regions of high electric potential to regions of low electric potential, expressed mathematically asE\n →\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n \n ∇\n →\n \n \n \n ϕ\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {E}}=-{\\vec {\\nabla }}\\phi .}The gradient theorem can be used to establish that the electrostatic potential is the amount of work per unit charge required to move a charge from point \n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n to point \n \n \n \n b\n \n \n {\\displaystyle b}\n \n with the following line integral:−\n \n ∫\n \n a\n \n \n b\n \n \n \n \n \n \n E\n →\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n d\n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n →\n \n \n \n \n =\n ϕ\n (\n \n \n \n b\n →\n \n \n \n )\n −\n ϕ\n (\n \n \n \n a\n →\n \n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle -\\int _{a}^{b}{{\\vec {E}}\\cdot \\mathrm {d} {\\vec {\\ell }}}=\\phi ({\\vec {b}})-\\phi ({\\vec {a}}).}From these equations, we see that the electric potential is constant in any region for which the electric field vanishes (such as occurs inside a conducting object).","title":"Electrostatic approximation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"test particle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_particle"},{"link_name":"line integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_integral"},{"link_name":"Joules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joule"},{"link_name":"test charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_charge"},{"link_name":"test charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_charge"},{"link_name":"electric potential energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_potential_energy"},{"link_name":"one at a time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_Potential_Energy"},{"link_name":"electrostatic energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_energy"},{"link_name":"gradient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradient"},{"link_name":"vector calculus identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_calculus_identities"},{"link_name":"integration by parts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integration_by_parts"}],"sub_title":"Electrostatic energy","text":"A test particle's potential energy, \n \n \n \n \n U\n \n \n E\n \n \n \n single\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{\\mathrm {E} }^{\\text{single}}}\n \n, can be calculated from a line integral of the work, \n \n \n \n \n q\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n \n E\n →\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n d\n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n →\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle q_{n}{\\vec {E}}\\cdot \\mathrm {d} {\\vec {\\ell }}}\n \n. We integrate from a point at infinity, and assume a collection of \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n particles of charge \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q_{n}}\n \n, are already situated at the points \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {r}}_{i}}\n \n. This potential energy (in Joules) is:U\n \n \n E\n \n \n \n single\n \n \n =\n q\n ϕ\n (\n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n )\n =\n \n \n q\n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n N\n \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n i\n \n \n \n ‖\n \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n →\n \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n ‖\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{\\mathrm {E} }^{\\text{single}}=q\\phi ({\\vec {r}})={\\frac {q}{4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}}}\\sum _{i=1}^{N}{\\frac {Q_{i}}{\\left\\|{\\mathcal {{\\vec {R}}_{i}}}\\right\\|}}}where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n i\n \n \n \n →\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n −\n \n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {\\mathcal {R_{i}}}}={\\vec {r}}-{\\vec {r}}_{i}}\n \n is the distance of each charge \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q_{i}}\n \n from the test charge \n \n \n \n q\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q}\n \n, which situated at the point \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {r}}}\n \n, and \n \n \n \n ϕ\n (\n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi ({\\vec {r}})}\n \n is the electric potential that would be at \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {r}}}\n \n if the test charge were not present. If only two charges are present, the potential energy is \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n 1\n \n \n \n Q\n \n 2\n \n \n \n /\n \n (\n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n r\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q_{1}Q_{2}/(4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}r)}\n \n. The total electric potential energy due a collection of N charges is calculating by assembling these particles one at a time:U\n \n \n E\n \n \n \n total\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n N\n \n \n \n Q\n \n j\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n j\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n i\n \n \n \n r\n \n i\n j\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n N\n \n \n \n Q\n \n i\n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{\\mathrm {E} }^{\\text{total}}={\\frac {1}{4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}}}\\sum _{j=1}^{N}Q_{j}\\sum _{i=1}^{j-1}{\\frac {Q_{i}}{r_{ij}}}={\\frac {1}{2}}\\sum _{i=1}^{N}Q_{i}\\phi _{i},}where the following sum from, j = 1 to N, excludes i = j:ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n \n 4\n π\n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n \n \n j\n ≠\n i\n \n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n j\n \n \n \n r\n \n i\n j\n \n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{i}={\\frac {1}{4\\pi \\varepsilon _{0}}}\\sum _{\\stackrel {j=1}{j\\neq i}}^{N}{\\frac {Q_{j}}{r_{ij}}}.}This electric potential, \n \n \n \n \n ϕ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi _{i}}\n \n is what would be measured at \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\vec {r}}_{i}}\n \n if the charge \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Q_{i}}\n \n were missing. This formula obviously excludes the (infinite) energy that would be required to assemble each point charge from a disperse cloud of charge. The sum over charges can be converted into an integral over charge density using the prescription \n \n \n \n ∑\n (\n ⋯\n )\n →\n ∫\n (\n ⋯\n )\n ρ\n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 3\n \n \n r\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\sum (\\cdots )\\rightarrow \\int (\\cdots )\\rho \\,\\mathrm {d} ^{3}r}\n \n:U\n \n \n E\n \n \n \n total\n \n \n =\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n ∫\n ρ\n (\n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n )\n ϕ\n (\n \n \n \n r\n →\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 3\n \n \n r\n =\n \n \n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ∫\n \n \n |\n \n \n E\n \n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n \n 3\n \n \n r\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle U_{\\mathrm {E} }^{\\text{total}}={\\frac {1}{2}}\\int \\rho ({\\vec {r}})\\phi ({\\vec {r}})\\,\\mathrm {d} ^{3}r={\\frac {\\varepsilon _{0}}{2}}\\int \\left|{\\mathbf {E} }\\right|^{2}\\,\\mathrm {d} ^{3}r,}This second expression for electrostatic energy uses the fact that the electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential, as well as vector calculus identities in a way that resembles integration by parts. These two integrals for electric field energy seem to indicate two mutually exclusive formulas for electrostatic energy density, namely \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n ρ\n ϕ\n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\frac {1}{2}}\\rho \\phi }\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n \n E\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\textstyle {\\frac {1}{2}}\\varepsilon _{0}E^{2}}\n \n; they yield equal values for the total electrostatic energy only if both are integrated over all space.","title":"Electrostatic approximation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductor"},{"link_name":"electric field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field"}],"sub_title":"Electrostatic pressure","text":"On a conductor, a surface charge will experience a force in the presence of an electric field. This force is the average of the discontinuous electric field at the surface charge. This average in terms of the field just outside the surface amounts to:P\n =\n \n \n \n ε\n \n 0\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n E\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle P={\\frac {\\varepsilon _{0}}{2}}E^{2},}This pressure tends to draw the conductor into the field, regardless of the sign of the surface charge.","title":"Electrostatic approximation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-249020-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-249020-X"},{"link_name":"Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/isbn_9780471559184"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-471-80457-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-80457-6"},{"link_name":"Griffiths, David J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_J._Griffiths"},{"link_name":"Introduction to Electrodynamics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/introductiontoel00grif_0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-13-805326-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-805326-X"}],"text":"Hermann A. Haus; James R. Melcher (1989). Electromagnetic Fields and Energy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-249020-X.\nHalliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (1992). Physics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-80457-6.\nGriffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Foam peanuts clinging to a cat's fur due to static electricity. The electric field of the charged fur causes polarization of the molecules of the foam due to electrostatic induction, resulting in a slight attraction of the light plastic pieces to the fur.[1][2][3][4] This effect is also the cause of static cling in clothes.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Cat_demonstrating_static_cling_with_styrofoam_peanuts_upscayled_4x.jpg/310px-Cat_demonstrating_static_cling_with_styrofoam_peanuts_upscayled_4x.jpg"},{"image_text":"The electrostatic field (lines with arrows) of a nearby positive charge (+) causes the mobile charges in conductive objects to separate due to electrostatic induction. Negative charges (blue) are attracted and move to the surface of the object facing the external charge. Positive charges (red) are repelled and move to the surface facing away. These induced surface charges are exactly the right size and shape so their opposing electric field cancels the electric field of the external charge throughout the interior of the metal. Therefore, the electrostatic field everywhere inside a conductive object is zero, and the electrostatic potential is constant.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Electrostatic_induction.svg/440px-Electrostatic_induction.svg.png"}]
[{"title":"Electromagnetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetism"},{"title":"Electrostatic generator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_generator"},{"title":"Electrostatic induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic_induction"},{"title":"Permittivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permittivity"},{"title":"relative permittivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_permittivity"},{"title":"Quantisation of charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_charge"},{"title":"Static electricity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_electricity"},{"title":"Triboelectric effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triboelectric_effect"}]
[{"reference":"Ling, Samuel J.; Moebs, William; Sanny, Jeff (2019). University Physics, Vol. 2. OpenStax. ISBN 9781947172210.","urls":[{"url":"https://opentextbc.ca/universityphysicsv2openstax/chapter/conductors-insulators-and-charging-by-induction/","url_text":"University Physics, Vol. 2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781947172210","url_text":"9781947172210"}]},{"reference":"Bloomfield, Louis A. (2015). How Things Work: The Physics of Everyday Life. John Wiley and Sons. p. 270. ISBN 9781119013846.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=TLE7CwAAQBAJ&dq=polarization&pg=PA270","url_text":"How Things Work: The Physics of Everyday Life"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119013846","url_text":"9781119013846"}]},{"reference":"\"Polarization\". Static Electricity – Lesson 1 – Basic Terminology and Concepts. The Physics Classroom. 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/u8l1e.cfm","url_text":"\"Polarization\""}]},{"reference":"Thompson, Xochitl Zamora (2004). \"Charge It! All About Electrical Attraction and Repulsion\". Teach Engineering: Stem curriculum for K-12. University of Colorado. Retrieved 18 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_electricity_lesson02_activity1","url_text":"\"Charge It! All About Electrical Attraction and Repulsion\""}]},{"reference":"J, Griffiths (2017). Introduction to Electrodynamics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 296–354. doi:10.1017/9781108333511.008. ISBN 978-1-108-33351-1. Retrieved 2023-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781108333511.008","url_text":"Introduction to Electrodynamics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108333511.008","url_text":"10.1017/9781108333511.008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-33351-1","url_text":"978-1-108-33351-1"}]},{"reference":"\"2022 CODATA Value: vacuum electric permittivity\". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?ep0","url_text":"\"2022 CODATA Value: vacuum electric permittivity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology","url_text":"NIST"}]},{"reference":"Matthew Sadiku (2009). Elements of electromagnetics. Oxford University Press. p. 104. ISBN 9780195387759.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195387759","url_text":"9780195387759"}]},{"reference":"Purcell, Edward M. (2013). Electricity and Magnetism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-1107014022.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=A2rS5vlSFq0C&q=%22electric+field%22&pg=PA16","url_text":"Electricity and Magnetism"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1107014022","url_text":"978-1107014022"}]},{"reference":"\"Sur l'attraction des sphéroides elliptiques, par M. de La Grange\". Mathematics General Collection. doi:10.1163/9789004460409_mor2-b29447057. Retrieved 2023-08-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004460409_mor2-b29447057","url_text":"\"Sur l'attraction des sphéroides elliptiques, par M. de La Grange\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004460409_mor2-b29447057","url_text":"10.1163/9789004460409_mor2-b29447057"}]},{"reference":"Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1877), \"Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum, methodo nova tractata\", Werke, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 279–286, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-49319-5_8, ISBN 978-3-642-49320-1, retrieved 2023-08-11","urls":[{"url":"https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-49319-5_8","url_text":"\"Theoria attractionis corporum sphaeroidicorum ellipticorum homogeneorum, methodo nova tractata\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-49319-5_8","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-49319-5_8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-49320-1","url_text":"978-3-642-49320-1"}]},{"reference":"Poisson, M; sciences (France), Académie royale des (1827). Mémoires de l'Académie (royale) des sciences de l'Institut (imperial) de France. Vol. 6. Paris.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/55214","url_text":"Mémoires de l'Académie (royale) des sciences de l'Institut (imperial) de France"}]},{"reference":"Heras, J. A. (2010). \"The Galilean limits of Maxwell's equations\". American Journal of Physics. 78 (10): 1048–1055. arXiv:1012.1068. Bibcode:2010AmJPh..78.1048H. doi:10.1119/1.3442798. S2CID 118443242.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Physics","url_text":"American Journal of Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1012.1068","url_text":"1012.1068"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010AmJPh..78.1048H","url_text":"2010AmJPh..78.1048H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.3442798","url_text":"10.1119/1.3442798"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118443242","url_text":"118443242"}]},{"reference":"Hermann A. Haus; James R. Melcher (1989). Electromagnetic Fields and Energy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-249020-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-249020-X","url_text":"0-13-249020-X"}]},{"reference":"Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (1992). Physics. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-80457-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780471559184","url_text":"Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-80457-6","url_text":"0-471-80457-6"}]},{"reference":"Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-805326-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_J._Griffiths","url_text":"Griffiths, David J."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/introductiontoel00grif_0","url_text":"Introduction to Electrodynamics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-805326-X","url_text":"0-13-805326-X"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Taiwan_monsoon_rain_forests
South Taiwan monsoon rain forests
["1 Location and description","2 Climate","3 Flora and fauna","4 Conservation","5 See also","6 References"]
Coordinates: 22°30′N 120°45′E / 22.500°N 120.750°E / 22.500; 120.750Ecoregion in Southern Taiwan South Taiwan monsoon rain forestsView in Kenting National ParkEcoregion territory (in purple)EcologyRealmIndomalayan realmBiometropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forestsBordersTaiwan subtropical evergreen forestsGeographyArea2,590 km2 (1,000 sq mi)CountryTaiwanCoordinates22°30′N 120°45′E / 22.500°N 120.750°E / 22.500; 120.750ConservationProtected349 km2 (135 sq mi) (14%) The South Taiwan monsoon rain forests ecoregion (WWF ID: IM0171) covers the southern tip of Taiwan, 200 km east of the mainland. The area is one of high biodiversity, due to its location between temperate and subtropical zones, its monsoon exposure, and its high altitude variation (from mangrove forests at sea level to inland mountains). Location and description The ecoregion covers only the southernmost 60 km of the island, 70 km west to east at its widest. The central ridge is mountainous, with a flat coastal flat on the northwest. The ecoregion is only 1,000 square miles in area. Much of the southern tip of the island is protected by Kenting National Park. It is bounded on the north by the Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests ecoregion. Climate The climate of the ecoregion is tropical monsoon (Köppen climate classification (Am)). This climate is characterized as having no month averaging below 18 °C (64 °F), and typically a very rainy wet season and relatively short dry season. Flora and fauna The inland mountains support forests of both evergreen and deciduous trees. The evergreens include Chinese banyan (Ficus microcarpa) and Chinese cryptocarya (Cryptocarya chinensis); deciduous trees include Kapok (Bombax ceiba). The coastal mangrove forests feature the Asiatic mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) and Black mangrove (Bruguiera gymnorhiza). The coastal areas support migratory birds on the East Asian–Australasian Flyway. Conservation A 2017 assessment found that 349 km², or 14%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Another 68% is forested but outside protected areas. Protected areas include: Kenting National Park Dawu Working Circle Taiwan Amentotaxus Nature Reserve Dawushan Nature Reserve Kenting Uplifted Coral Reefs Nature Reserve Xuhai-Guanyinbi Nature Reserve Dawu Taiwan Keteleeria Forest Reserve Chachayalaishan Major Wildlife Habitat Jin-shuei-ying Major Wildlife Habitat See also List of ecoregions in China References ^ Eric Dinerstein, David Olson, et al. (2017). An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm, BioScience, Volume 67, Issue 6, June 2017, Pages 534–545; Supplemental material 2 table S1b. ^ a b "South Taiwan monsoon rain forests". World Wildlife Federation. Retrieved March 9, 2020. ^ "Map of Ecoregions 2017". Resolve, using WWF data. Retrieved September 14, 2019. ^ Kottek, M.; Grieser, J.; Beck, C.; Rudolf, B.; Rubel, F. (2006). "World Map of Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification Updated" (PDF). Gebrüder Borntraeger 2006. Retrieved September 14, 2019. ^ "Dataset - Koppen climate classifications". World Bank. Retrieved September 14, 2019. ^ Eric Dinerstein, David Olson, et al. (2017). An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm, BioScience, Volume 67, Issue 6, June 2017, Pages 534–545; Supplemental material 2 table S1b. ^ "South Taiwan monsoon rain forests". DOPA Explorer. Accessed 14 February 2022.
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The area is one of high biodiversity, due to its location between temperate and subtropical zones, its monsoon exposure, and its high altitude variation (from mangrove forests at sea level to inland mountains).[2][3]","title":"South Taiwan monsoon rain forests"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kenting National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenting_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan_subtropical_evergreen_forests"}],"text":"The ecoregion covers only the southernmost 60 km of the island, 70 km west to east at its widest. The central ridge is mountainous, with a flat coastal flat on the northwest. The ecoregion is only 1,000 square miles in area. Much of the southern tip of the island is protected by Kenting National Park. It is bounded on the north by the Taiwan subtropical evergreen forests ecoregion.","title":"Location and description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tropical monsoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_monsoon_climate"},{"link_name":"Köppen climate classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification"},{"link_name":"(Am)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_monsoon_climate"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kop-data-5"}],"text":"The climate of the ecoregion is tropical monsoon (Köppen climate classification (Am)). This climate is characterized as having no month averaging below 18 °C (64 °F), and typically a very rainy wet season and relatively short dry season.[4][5]","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ficus microcarpa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ficus_microcarpa"},{"link_name":"Cryptocarya chinensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptocarya_chinensis"},{"link_name":"Bombax ceiba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombax_ceiba"},{"link_name":"Rhizophora mucronata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizophora_mucronata"},{"link_name":"Bruguiera gymnorhiza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruguiera_gymnorhiza"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wwf-2"},{"link_name":"East Asian–Australasian Flyway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian%E2%80%93Australasian_Flyway"}],"text":"The inland mountains support forests of both evergreen and deciduous trees. The evergreens include Chinese banyan (Ficus microcarpa) and Chinese cryptocarya (Cryptocarya chinensis); deciduous trees include Kapok (Bombax ceiba). The coastal mangrove forests feature the Asiatic mangrove (Rhizophora mucronata) and Black mangrove (Bruguiera gymnorhiza).[2] The coastal areas support migratory birds on the East Asian–Australasian Flyway.","title":"Flora and fauna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dopa-7"},{"link_name":"Kenting National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenting_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Dawu Working Circle Taiwan Amentotaxus Nature Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dawu_Working_Circle_Taiwan_Amentotaxus_Nature_Reserve&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dawushan Nature Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dawushan_Nature_Reserve&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kenting Uplifted Coral Reefs Nature Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kenting_Uplifted_Coral_Reefs_Nature_Reserve&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Xuhai-Guanyinbi Nature Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xuhai-Guanyinbi_Nature_Reserve&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dawu Taiwan Keteleeria Forest Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dawu_Taiwan_Keteleeria_Forest_Reserve&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chachayalaishan Major Wildlife Habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chachayalaishan_Major_Wildlife_Habitat&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Jin-shuei-ying Major Wildlife Habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jin-shuei-ying_Major_Wildlife_Habitat&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"A 2017 assessment found that 349 km², or 14%, of the ecoregion is in protected areas. Another 68% is forested but outside protected areas.[6] Protected areas include:[7]Kenting National Park\nDawu Working Circle Taiwan Amentotaxus Nature Reserve\nDawushan Nature Reserve\nKenting Uplifted Coral Reefs Nature Reserve\nXuhai-Guanyinbi Nature Reserve\nDawu Taiwan Keteleeria Forest Reserve\nChachayalaishan Major Wildlife Habitat\nJin-shuei-ying Major Wildlife Habitat","title":"Conservation"}]
[]
[{"title":"List of ecoregions in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_China"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Joint_Declaration_of_1956
Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956
["1 Territorial provisions","2 Legacy","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]
1956 restoration of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Japan Joint Declaration between Japan and the Soviet UnionJapan-Soviet joint declaration Japan-Soviet diplomatic joint declarationContextDeclaration of the end of the war between Japan and Soviet Union, Declaration of peace and friendly relations between the two countriesSigned19 October 1956LocationMoscow, Soviet UnionEffective12 December 1956Parties  Japan  Soviet Union LanguageJapanese and RussianFull text ru:Советско-японская декларация 1956 года at Wikisource The Soviet Union did not sign the 1951 Treaty of Peace with Japan, which had re‑established peaceful relations between most other Allied Powers and Japan. On 19 October 1956, Japan and the Soviet Union signed a Joint Declaration providing for the end of the state of war and for the restoration of diplomatic relations between both countries. They also agreed to continue negotiations for a peace treaty. In addition, the Soviet Union pledged to support Japan for UN membership and to waive all World War II reparations claims. The joint declaration was accompanied by a trade protocol, which granted reciprocal most favored nation status and provided for the development of trade. Japan derived few apparent gains from the normalization of diplomatic relations. The second half of the 1950s saw an increase in cultural exchanges. Territorial provisions The Joint Declaration provided in Article 9 for the continuation of negotiations for the conclusion of a peace treaty after the restoration of diplomatic relations between the countries and further stipulated that "in this connexion, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, desiring to meet the wishes of Japan and taking into consideration the interests of the Japanese State, agrees to transfer to Japan the Habomai Islands and the island of Shikoton , the actual transfer of these islands to Japan to take place after the conclusion of a Peace Treaty between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan." At the time, the United States threatened to keep the Ryukyu Islands if Japan gave away the other islands, which prevented the negotiation of the promised treaty. Moreover, the clause was supposedly based upon agreement between the two nations, but each came to interpret it differently. The Soviet Union maintained that the territorial problem had been closed and that territorial demarcation would not be discussed beyond the promised transfer of two islands. When the Japanese tried to include a passage "including territorial issue" in a sentence regarding continuation of the negotiations, the Soviets refused, explicitly stating that it did so precisely to avoid interpretation that would suggest other "territorial questions" beyond Shikotan-Habomai issue. The Japanese agreed to drop the expression but had a different interpretation arrived anyway. When the final agreement had been reached on the terms of the Joint Declaration, the Japanese delegation decided to interpret it as including a discussion of the territorial problem in the future peace negotiation by interpreting the declaration jointly with "Hatoyama-Bulganin letters" and "Matsumoto-Gromyko letters". Exchanged before the final negotiations on the declaration, they intended to confirm the conditions for under the so-called "Adenauer Formula" in which diplomatic relations were to be restored without signing a peace treaty and the territorial problem was to be shelved for future negotiation. The formula did not pass, however, since in spite of preliminary agreement with the Soviets to shelve the territorial issue, Japan raised it at the negotiations and managed to get their territorial clause in the declaration but "interpreted in such a manner as to preserve the plenipotentiaries' face at home": "Habomais and Shikotan were promised in the Joint Declaration, and the question of Kunashiri and Etorofu was to be settled during negotiations for a peace treaty." The disagreement between "two-island transfer" stipulated in the 1956 declaration and Japan's persistent demand of "four-island return" became the cornerstone for the continuation of the Kuril Islands dispute in the Soviet and post-Soviet years. Legacy On 14 November 2004, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said in a NTV interview that the Russian Federation, which is the successor state of the Soviet Union, recognized the Declaration of 1956, and was ready to have territorial talks with Japan on that basis and was followed by Russian President Vladimir Putin the next day. However, the dispute persists, no peace treaty has yet been signed, and the islands remain under Russian administration. See also Japan–Soviet Union relations References ^ This joint declaration clearly states "Japanese and Russian are authentic and authentic". ^ a b Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol. New York Times, page 2, October 20, 1956.Subtitle: "Moscow, October 19. (UP) – Following are the texts of a Soviet–Japanese peace declaration and of a trade protocol between the two countries, signed here today, in unofficial translation from the Russian". Quote: "The state of war between the U.S.S.R. and Japan ends on the day the present declaration enters into force " ^ Compendium of Documents ^ "Joint Declaration of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan. Signed at Moscow, on 19 October 1956" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Series. 263: 99–117. 1957. ^ Kimie Hara, 50 Years from San Francisco: Re-Examining the Peace Treaty and Japan's Territorial Problems. Pacific Affairs, Vol. 74, No. 3 (Autumn, 2001), pp. 361–382. Available online at J-STOR. ^ Northern Territories dispute highlights flawed diplomacy. By Gregory Clark. Japan Times, March 24, 2005. ^ Furthermore, the Soviet Union and Russia have seen the agreement as recognizing the Soviet/Russian sovereignty over entire territory taken in 1945: that is, the 1956 offer was not the "return" of ostensibly-occupied territory but the "transfer" of Soviet/Russian territory made as an act of goodwill, not as a legal obligation: James D. J. Brown (2016). Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion. Routledge. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-317-27267-0. Within Japan it is sometimes suggested that this agreement could serve as the starting point of a process that could ultimately lead to the return of more than just two islands. This was, for instance, the proposal of Foreign Minister Watanabe during the early 1990s (Hasegawa 1998: 461). This is, however, entirely to misinterpret how the statement was intended and how it continues to be understood by proponents within Russia. For the Russian side, the 1956 Joint Declaration is significant not in serving as some initial step towards resolution, but rather in providing a decisive end to the dispute. The intended meaning is very clearly that the two smaller islands would only be transferred (note the use of "transfer" rather than "return") at some point after the conclusion of a peace treaty in which the borders of the two countries would be definitively demarcated. In effect then, Japan is being asked to give up its claims to the disputed territory and, in exchange, as a gesture of goodwill and not as a response to legal obligation, Russia would transfer Shikotan and Habomai. What is more, this would be the full extent of the Russian concessions. The Russian side will no longer countenance any further sweeteners (any "plus alpha") with regard to the other two islands, such as a promise of demilitarisation or any special arrangements that hint at recognition of the legitimacy of Japan's claims. Протокольная запись беседы Н. С. Хрущева с И. Коно 16 октября 1956 г. . Istochnik (in Russian). 6/25: 117–118. 1996. Khrushchev:<...>Desiring the wishes of Japan, the Soviet Government was ready to relinquish its rights to our possessions of Habomai and Shikotan Islands.. The dialogue continues and follows with the following remark from the Soviet leader (pp. 117–118): "The Japanese side wants to obtain Habomai and Shikotan without concluding a peace treaty and decide later on other territorial questions <...> The Soviet government wishes to come to an agreement with Japan as quickly as possible, and it does not exploit the territorial question for bargaining. But I must once again completely, definitively, and categorically declare that we do not and should not accept any other territorial claims from Japan, other than Habomai and Shikotan, and refuse to discuss any proposal whatever onthis question." "Tokyo recognized USSR's ownership of Kuril Islands in 1956 Declaration, Lavrov says". TASS. May 3, 2019. Retrieved October 31, 2019. Lavrov recalled that under the Declaration Russia and Japan agreed on taking steps to achieve a peace treaty, and this implies the recognition of the outcome of World War II. The Declaration says that after signing this agreement Moscow will be ready to solve the border disengagement issue as a good will gesture and to meet the Japanese people's interests, he noted."The mere fact that the basis of such a prospect was defined as the Soviet Union's good will gesture and its intention to take into account the interests of the Japanese people means only one thing – at the moment of signing the declaration both sides considered these islands as an inalienable part of the Soviet territory," Lavrov said. "Without recognizing this fact it is impossible to move forward on the basis of the declaration." ^ a b Hara, Kimie. Japanese-Soviet/Russian Relations since 1945: A Difficult Peace (1998) online ^ Протокольная запись беседы Н. С. Хрущева с И. Коно 18 октября 1956 г. . Istochnik (in Russian). 6/25: 127–128. 1996. Khrushchev: The Soviet side is generally in agreement with proposed draft. We want to meet the wishes of Japan, so we are ready to drop the clause regarding transfer of Okinawa and other territories to Japan from our draft. We only have one reservation, merely of wording: we ask to drop expression "including territorial question" from the first section of Japanese draft. We propose so, because otherwise it may be thought, that there exists some other territorial question between Japan and the Soviet Union besides Habomai and Shikotan. This might lead to rumors and misinterpretation of documents which we are about to sign. ^ James D. J. Brown (2016). Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-317-27267-0. In 1956, on the occasion of the restoration of bilateral diplomatic relations, Moscow officially stated that it was willing to transfer the two smaller islands to Japan following the conclusion of a peace treaty. As confirmed by Vladimir Putin in 2000 and again in 2012, this remains Moscow's position (Soejima and Komaki 2012). Japanese leaders, however, have consistently refused to accept this offer, drawing attention to the fact that Shikotan and Habomai represent only 7 percent of the disputed territory (Prime Minister Noda cited in Nihon Keizai Shinbun 2012). Despite the passage of much time and considerable diplomatic effort, the sides have essentially been unable to proceed beyond this impasse. ^ Россия и проблема курильских островов. Тактика отстаивания или стратегия сдачи , pravoslavie.ru ^ "President Vladimir Putin held a meeting with the Cabinet members". President of Russia. November 15, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019. ^ "Стенографический отчет о совещании с членами Правительства". Президент России (in Russian). November 15, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019. ^ "Япония требует отдать ей все острова Южных Курил". Российская газета (in Russian). November 17, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019. ^ "Пресс-конференция для российских и иностранных журналистов". Президент России (in Russian). December 23, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019. 1956 Joint Declaration, which was ratified in the Soviet Union, was also ratified in Japan. So, when today you say "we don't want two islands, we want four", this looks somehow strange to me. Why did you ratify then? Further reading Pavliatenko, Viktor. "The Difficult Road to Peace. On the 50th Anniversary of the Signing of the Joint Soviet-Japanese Declaration." Far Eastern Affairs: A Russian Journal on China, Japan and Asia-Pacific Region 34.4 (2006) pp 77–100. External links Text of the declaration, from the UN website South Kuriles/Northern Territories: A Stumbling-block in Russia–Japan Relations vteTreaties of JapanBakumatsu period(1854–1868) Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity (1854) Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty (1854) Treaty of Shimoda (1855) Dutch-Japan Treaty of Peace and Amity (1854)  Japan-US Additional Treaty (1855) Japan-Netherlands Additional Treaty (1856)  Japan-Russia Additional Treaty (1858) Treaty of Amity and Commerce (United States–Japan) (1859) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Japan (1859) Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1858) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan (1858) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan (1858) Treaty of Peace, Amity and Commerce between Portugal and Japan (1860) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Prussia and Japan (1861) London Protocol (1862) Agreement of Paris (1864)  Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Belgium and Japan (1866) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Italy and Japan (1866) Russo-Japanese Provisional Treaty of Karafuto Island (1867) Meiji era(1868–1912) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Spain and Japan (1868) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Austria-Hungary and Japan (1869) Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty (1871) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Hawaii and Japan (1871) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Peru and Japan (1873) Engagement between Japan and China respecting Formosa of 1874 Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 US-Japanese Convention Revising Certain Portions of Existing Commercial Treaties (1878) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882 Japan-Hawaii Labor Immigration Treaty (1884) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1885 Convention of Tientsin (1885) Declaration of Amity and Commerce between Thailand and Japan (1887) Treaty of Friendship and Commerce between Mexico and Japan (1888) Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1894) Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and the USA (1894) Italo–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1894) Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) Japan-Brazil Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation (1895)  Treaty for returning Fengtian Peninsula (1895)  German–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896) Komura-Weber Memorandum (1896) Yamagata–Lobanov Agreement (1896) Japan–China Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896)  Franco–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896) Japan–Netherlands Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Chile and Japan (1897) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Argentina and Japan (1898) Nishi–Rosen Agreement (1898) Japan-Thailand Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty (1898) Boxer Protocol (1901) Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) Japan-China Additional Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1903)  Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904 Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1904 Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) Taft–Katsura agreement (1905) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 Additional Agreement of the Japan-China Treaty relating to Manchuria (1905)  Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 Franco-Japanese Treaty of 1907 Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 Japan–Russia Secret Agreements (1907–1916) Root–Takahira Agreement (1908) Japan-China Agreement relating to Manchuria and Jiandao (1909)  Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and the USA (1911) Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1911) North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 World War I–II(1913–1945) Japan-China Treaty of 1915 Lansing–Ishii Agreement (1917) Sino-Japanese Joint Defence Agreement (1918) Treaty of Versailles (1919) Covenant of the League of Nations (1919) Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine (1919) Svalbard Treaty (1920) Gongota Agreement of 1920 Treaty of Sèvres (1920) Treaty of Trianon (1921) Four-Power Treaty (1921) Nine-Power Treaty (1922) Treaty concerning solution of Shandong issues (1922)  Washington Naval Treaty (1922) Treaty of Lausanne (1923) Klaipėda Convention (1924) Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention (1925) German–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1927) Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928) Japan-China Customs Agreement (1930) London Naval Treaty (1930) Shanghai Ceasefire Agreement (1932) Japan-Manchukuo Protocol (1932) Tanggu Truce (1933) India-Japan Agreement of 1934 Japan-Manchukuo-Soviet Protocol for Cession of North Manchuria Railway (1935)  He–Umezu Agreement (1935) Chin-Doihara Agreement (1935) Canada-Japan New Trade Agreement (1935) Japan-Netherlands Shipping Agreement (1936) Anti-Comintern Pact (1936) Hart-Ishizawa Agreement (1937) India-Japan Agreement of 1937 Van Mook-Kotani Agreement (1938) Arita-Craigie Agreement (1939) Tripartite Pact (1940) Japan-China Basic Relations Treaty (1940) Japan-Manchukuo-China Joint Declaration (1940)  Treaty between Thailand and Japan (1940) Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact (1941) Japan-Thailand Offensive and Defensive Alliance Treaty (1941)  Japanese Instrument of Surrender (1945) During the Cold War(1945–1989) Security Treaty between the United States and Japan (1951) Treaty of San Francisco (1951) Treaty of Taipei (1952) Treaty of Peace between Japan and India (1952) Treaty of Peace between Japan and Burma (1954) Japan–Philippines Reparations Agreement (1956) Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 Treaty of Peace between Japan and Indonesia (1958) Japan–South Vietnam Reparations Agreement (1959) Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan (1960) U.S.–Japan Status of Forces Agreement Tokyo Convention (1963) Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea (1965) Ogasawara Reversion Agreement (1968) Okinawa Reversion Agreement (1971) Japan–China Joint Communiqué (1972) Japan-North Vietnam Joint Communiqué (1973) Japan–China Trade Agreement (1974) Basic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (1976) Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and China (1978) Post-Cold War(1989–) US-Japanese Fishery Agreement (1991) South Korean-Japanese Agreement on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Protection (1993) Kyoto Protocol (1997) Japan-Korea GSOMIA (2016) Australian-Japanese Security Treaty (2022) American–Japanese–Korean trilateral pact (2023)
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Peace with Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Allied Powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"state of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_war"},{"link_name":"diplomatic relations between both countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"UN membership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_membership"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"}],"text":"1956 restoration of diplomatic relations between the USSR and JapanThe Soviet Union did not sign the 1951 Treaty of Peace with Japan, which had re‑established peaceful relations between most other Allied Powers and Japan. On 19 October 1956, Japan and the Soviet Union signed a Joint Declaration providing for the end of the state of war and for the restoration of diplomatic relations between both countries.[2][3] They also agreed to continue negotiations for a peace treaty. In addition, the Soviet Union pledged to support Japan for UN membership and to waive all World War II reparations claims. The joint declaration was accompanied by a trade protocol, which granted reciprocal most favored nation status and provided for the development of trade. Japan derived few apparent gains from the normalization of diplomatic relations. The second half of the 1950s saw an increase in cultural exchanges.","title":"Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"peace treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_treaty"},{"link_name":"Habomai Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habomai_Islands"},{"link_name":"Shikoton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shikotan"},{"link_name":"sic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"to keep the Ryukyu Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Civil_Administration_of_the_Ryukyu_Islands"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Available_online_at_J-STOR-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clarke-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Adenauer Formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Adenauer_Formula&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"Kuril Islands dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuril_Islands_dispute"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Joint Declaration provided in Article 9 for the continuation of negotiations for the conclusion of a peace treaty after the restoration of diplomatic relations between the countries and further stipulated that \"in this connexion, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, desiring to meet the wishes of Japan and taking into consideration the interests of the Japanese State, agrees to transfer to Japan the Habomai Islands and the island of Shikoton [sic], the actual transfer of these islands to Japan to take place after the conclusion of a Peace Treaty between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan.\"[2][4] At the time, the United States threatened to keep the Ryukyu Islands if Japan gave away the other islands, which prevented the negotiation of the promised treaty.[5][6]Moreover, the clause was supposedly based upon agreement between the two nations, but each came to interpret it differently. The Soviet Union maintained that the territorial problem had been closed and that territorial demarcation would not be discussed beyond the promised transfer of two islands.[7]\nWhen the Japanese tried to include a passage \"including territorial issue\" in a sentence regarding continuation of the negotiations, the Soviets refused,[8] explicitly stating that it did so precisely to avoid interpretation that would suggest other \"territorial questions\" beyond Shikotan-Habomai issue.[9]\nThe Japanese agreed to drop the expression but had a different interpretation arrived anyway. When the final agreement had been reached on the terms of the Joint Declaration, the Japanese delegation decided to interpret it as including a discussion of the territorial problem in the future peace negotiation by interpreting the declaration jointly with \"Hatoyama-Bulganin letters\" and \"Matsumoto-Gromyko letters\". Exchanged before the final negotiations on the declaration, they intended to confirm the conditions for under the so-called \"Adenauer Formula\" in which diplomatic relations were to be restored without signing a peace treaty and the territorial problem was to be shelved for future negotiation. The formula did not pass, however, since in spite of preliminary agreement with the Soviets to shelve the territorial issue, Japan raised it at the negotiations and managed to get their territorial clause in the declaration but \"interpreted in such a manner as to preserve the plenipotentiaries' face at home\": \"Habomais and Shikotan were promised in the Joint Declaration, and the question of Kunashiri and Etorofu was to be settled during negotiations for a peace treaty.\"[8] The disagreement between \"two-island transfer\" stipulated in the 1956 declaration and Japan's persistent demand of \"four-island return\" became the cornerstone for the continuation of the Kuril Islands dispute in the Soviet and post-Soviet years.[10]","title":"Territorial provisions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sergei Lavrov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Lavrov"},{"link_name":"NTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTV_(Russia)"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Putin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"On 14 November 2004, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said in a NTV interview that the Russian Federation, which is the successor state of the Soviet Union, recognized the Declaration of 1956, and was ready to have territorial talks with Japan on that basis and was followed by Russian President Vladimir Putin the next day.[11] However, the dispute persists,[12][13][14][15] no peace treaty has yet been signed, and the islands remain under Russian administration.","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Pavliatenko, Viktor. \"The Difficult Road to Peace. On the 50th Anniversary of the Signing of the Joint Soviet-Japanese Declaration.\" Far Eastern Affairs: A Russian Journal on China, Japan and Asia-Pacific Region 34.4 (2006) pp 77–100.","title":"Further reading"}]
[]
[{"title":"Japan–Soviet Union relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations"}]
[{"reference":"\"Joint Declaration of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan. Signed at Moscow, on 19 October 1956\" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Series. 263: 99–117. 1957.","urls":[{"url":"https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20263/v263.pdf","url_text":"\"Joint Declaration of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan. Signed at Moscow, on 19 October 1956\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Treaty_Series","url_text":"United Nations Treaty Series"}]},{"reference":"James D. J. Brown (2016). Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion. Routledge. p. 143. ISBN 978-1-317-27267-0. Within Japan it is sometimes suggested that this agreement could serve as the starting point of a process that could ultimately lead to the return of more than just two islands. This was, for instance, the proposal of Foreign Minister Watanabe during the early 1990s (Hasegawa 1998: 461). This is, however, entirely to misinterpret how the statement was intended and how it continues to be understood by proponents within Russia. For the Russian side, the 1956 Joint Declaration is significant not in serving as some initial step towards resolution, but rather in providing a decisive end to the dispute. The intended meaning is very clearly that the two smaller islands would only be transferred (note the use of \"transfer\" rather than \"return\") at some point after the conclusion of a peace treaty in which the borders of the two countries would be definitively demarcated. In effect then, Japan is being asked to give up its claims to the disputed territory and, in exchange, as a gesture of goodwill and not as a response to legal obligation, Russia would transfer Shikotan and Habomai. What is more, this would be the full extent of the Russian concessions. The Russian side will no longer countenance any further sweeteners (any \"plus alpha\") with regard to the other two islands, such as a promise of demilitarisation or any special arrangements that hint at recognition of the legitimacy of Japan's claims.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9FWFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143","url_text":"Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27267-0","url_text":"978-1-317-27267-0"}]},{"reference":"Протокольная запись беседы Н. С. Хрущева с И. Коно 16 октября 1956 г. [Memorandum of conversation between Nikita Khrushchev and Ichirō Kōno. 16 October 1956]. Istochnik (in Russian). 6/25: 117–118. 1996. Khrushchev:<...>Desiring the wishes of Japan, the Soviet Government was ready to relinquish its rights to our possessions of Habomai and Shikotan Islands.","urls":[{"url":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_(%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB)#%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F","url_text":"Istochnik"}]},{"reference":"\"Tokyo recognized USSR's ownership of Kuril Islands in 1956 Declaration, Lavrov says\". TASS. May 3, 2019. Retrieved October 31, 2019. Lavrov recalled that under the Declaration Russia and Japan agreed on taking steps to achieve a peace treaty, and this implies the recognition of the outcome of World War II. The Declaration says that after signing this agreement Moscow will be ready to solve the border disengagement issue as a good will gesture and to meet the Japanese people's interests, he noted.\"The mere fact that the basis of such a prospect was defined as the Soviet Union's good will gesture and its intention to take into account the interests of the Japanese people means only one thing – at the moment of signing the declaration both sides considered these islands as an inalienable part of the Soviet territory,\" Lavrov said. \"Without recognizing this fact it is impossible to move forward on the basis of the declaration.\"","urls":[{"url":"https://tass.com/politics/1061082","url_text":"\"Tokyo recognized USSR's ownership of Kuril Islands in 1956 Declaration, Lavrov says\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TASS","url_text":"TASS"}]},{"reference":"Протокольная запись беседы Н. С. Хрущева с И. Коно 18 октября 1956 г. [Memorandum of conversation between Nikita Khrushchev and Ichirō Kōno. 19 October 1956]. Istochnik (in Russian). 6/25: 127–128. 1996. Khrushchev: The Soviet side is generally in agreement with proposed draft. We want to meet the wishes of Japan, so we are ready to drop the clause regarding transfer of Okinawa and other [US-administered] territories to Japan from our draft. We only have one reservation, merely of wording: we ask [Japan] to drop expression \"including territorial question\" from the first section of Japanese draft. We propose so, because otherwise it may be thought, that there exists some other territorial question between Japan and the Soviet Union besides Habomai and Shikotan. This might lead to rumors and misinterpretation of documents which we are about to sign.","urls":[{"url":"https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_(%D0%B6%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB)#%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F","url_text":"Istochnik"}]},{"reference":"James D. J. Brown (2016). Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-317-27267-0. In 1956, on the occasion of the restoration of bilateral diplomatic relations, Moscow officially stated that it was willing to transfer the two smaller islands to Japan following the conclusion of a peace treaty. As confirmed by Vladimir Putin in 2000 and again in 2012, this remains Moscow's position (Soejima and Komaki 2012). Japanese leaders, however, have consistently refused to accept this offer, drawing attention to the fact that Shikotan and Habomai represent only 7 percent of the disputed territory (Prime Minister Noda cited in Nihon Keizai Shinbun 2012). Despite the passage of much time and considerable diplomatic effort, the sides have essentially been unable to proceed beyond this impasse.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9FWFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12","url_text":"Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27267-0","url_text":"978-1-317-27267-0"}]},{"reference":"Россия и проблема курильских островов. Тактика отстаивания или стратегия сдачи [Russia and the problem of the Kuril Islands], pravoslavie.ru","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pravoslavie.ru/analit/041116105310.htm","url_text":"Россия и проблема курильских островов. Тактика отстаивания или стратегия сдачи"}]},{"reference":"\"President Vladimir Putin held a meeting with the Cabinet members\". President of Russia. November 15, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/32146","url_text":"\"President Vladimir Putin held a meeting with the Cabinet members\""}]},{"reference":"\"Стенографический отчет о совещании с членами Правительства\". Президент России (in Russian). November 15, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/22685","url_text":"\"Стенографический отчет о совещании с членами Правительства\""}]},{"reference":"\"Япония требует отдать ей все острова Южных Курил\". Российская газета (in Russian). November 17, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://rg.ru/2004/11/17/a45615.html","url_text":"\"Япония требует отдать ей все острова Южных Курил\""}]},{"reference":"\"Пресс-конференция для российских и иностранных журналистов\". Президент России (in Russian). December 23, 2004. Retrieved October 30, 2019. 1956 Joint Declaration, which was ratified in the Soviet Union, was also ratified in Japan. So, when today you say \"we don't want two islands, we want four\", this looks somehow strange to me. Why did you ratify [the Declaration] then?","urls":[{"url":"http://kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/22757#sel=77:1:1xV,77:39:kiT","url_text":"\"Пресс-конференция для российских и иностранных журналистов\""}]}]
[{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/1956/10/20/archives/texts-of-sovietjapanese-statements-peace-declaration-trade-protocol.html?sq=Soviet-Japanese+Joint+Declaration&scp=1&st=p","external_links_name":"Texts of Soviet–Japanese Statements; Peace Declaration Trade Protocol."},{"Link":"http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/russia/territory/edition92/preface.html","external_links_name":"Compendium of Documents"},{"Link":"https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20263/v263.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Joint Declaration of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics and Japan. Signed at Moscow, on 19 October 1956\""},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3557753","external_links_name":"Available online at J-STOR"},{"Link":"http://search.japantimes.co.jp/print/opinion/eo2005/eo20050324gc.htm","external_links_name":"Northern Territories dispute highlights flawed diplomacy."},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9FWFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143","external_links_name":"Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion"},{"Link":"https://tass.com/politics/1061082","external_links_name":"\"Tokyo recognized USSR's ownership of Kuril Islands in 1956 Declaration, Lavrov says\""},{"Link":"https://www.questia.com/read/102991800/japanese-soviet-russian-relations-since-1945-difficult","external_links_name":"online"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9FWFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12","external_links_name":"Japan, Russia and their Territorial Dispute: The Northern Delusion"},{"Link":"http://www.pravoslavie.ru/analit/041116105310.htm","external_links_name":"Россия и проблема курильских островов. Тактика отстаивания или стратегия сдачи"},{"Link":"http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/32146","external_links_name":"\"President Vladimir Putin held a meeting with the Cabinet members\""},{"Link":"http://kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/22685","external_links_name":"\"Стенографический отчет о совещании с членами Правительства\""},{"Link":"https://rg.ru/2004/11/17/a45615.html","external_links_name":"\"Япония требует отдать ей все острова Южных Курил\""},{"Link":"http://kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/22757#sel=77:1:1xV,77:39:kiT","external_links_name":"\"Пресс-конференция для российских и иностранных журналистов\""},{"Link":"https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20263/v263.pdf#99","external_links_name":"Text of the declaration, from the UN website"},{"Link":"http://www.conflicts.rem33.com/images/Asia%20Pacific/NORTHERN%20TERRITO%20Text.htm","external_links_name":"South Kuriles/Northern Territories: A Stumbling-block in Russia–Japan Relations"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampersand
Ampersand
["1 Etymology","2 History","3 Similar characters","4 Writing the ampersand","5 Usage","6 Computing","6.1 Encoding and display","6.2 Programming languages","6.3 Text markup","6.4 Unix shells","6.5 Web standards","7 Typeface samples","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]
Symbol representing the word "and" (&) "&" redirects here. For other uses, see & (disambiguation). This article is about the symbol. For other uses, see Ampersand (disambiguation). This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Ampersand&﹠, ⅋, ＆, 🙰, 🙱, 🙲, 🙳, 🙴, 🙵UsageWriting systemLatin scriptTypeLogographicand IdeographicLanguage of originLatin languagePhonetic usagenoneUnicode codepointU+0026Alphabetical position(27)HistoryDevelopment𐌄𐌕ETet&Time periodc. 100 CE to presentDescendants • ⅋SistersGreek letter ϗ (ligature of κ, α and ι similarly to &)Armenian letter և (ligature of ե and ւ, pronounced /jɛv/; եւ is the Armenian word for "and");Sindhi letter, ۽Transliteration equivalentsplus sign, +Variations﹠, ⅋, ＆, 🙰, 🙱, 🙲, 🙳, 🙴, 🙵OtherOther letters commonly used with&C (etC)Writing directionLeft-to-RightThis article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between , / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. The ampersand, also known as the and sign, is the logogram &, representing the conjunction "and". It originated as a ligature of the letters of the word et (Latin for "and"). Etymology Ampersand: the sign &; the name being a corruption of 'and per se = and'; i.e. '& by itself = and'. The sign derives from the scribes' ligature for the Latin: et; in certain italic versions, the letters e and t are clearly distinguishable.— Geoffrey Glaister, Glossary of the Book Traditionally in English, when spelling aloud, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself ("A", "I", and "O") was referred to by the Latin expression per se ('by itself'), as in "per se A" or "A per se A". The character &, when used by itself as opposed to more extended forms such as &c., was similarly referred to as "and per se and". This last phrase was routinely slurred to "ampersand", and the term had entered common English usage by 1837. It has been falsely claimed that André-Marie Ampère used the symbol in his widely read publications and that people began calling the new shape "Ampère's and". History Evolution of the ampersand. Figures 1 through 6 The modern ampersand is virtually identical to that of the Carolingian minuscule. The italic ampersand, to the right, is originally a later et-ligature Et ligature in Insular script Example of ampersand based on a crossed epsilon, as might be handwritten Capital letters ampersand on a coin of 1 Makuta of 1814, Portuguese Angola. The ampersand can be traced back to the 1st century AD and the old Roman cursive, in which the letters E and T occasionally were written together to form a ligature (Evolution of the ampersand – figure 1). In the later and more flowing New Roman Cursive, ligatures of all kinds were extremely common; figures 2 and 3 from the middle of 4th century are examples of how the et-ligature could look in this script. During the later development of the Latin script leading up to Carolingian minuscule (9th century) the use of ligatures in general diminished. The et-ligature, however, continued to be used and gradually became more stylized and less revealing of its origin (figures 4–6). The modern italic type ampersand is a kind of "et" ligature that goes back to the cursive scripts developed during the Renaissance. After the advent of printing in Europe in 1455, printers made extensive use of both the italic and Roman ampersands. Since the ampersand's roots go back to Roman times, many languages that use a variation of the Latin alphabet make use of it. The ampersand often appeared as a character at the end of the Latin alphabet, as for example in Byrhtferð's list of letters from 1011. Similarly, & was regarded as the 27th letter of the English alphabet, as taught to children in the US and elsewhere. An example may be seen in M. B. Moore's 1863 book The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks. In her 1859 novel Adam Bede, George Eliot refers to this when she makes Jacob Storey say: "He thought it had only been put to finish off th' alphabet like; though ampusand would ha' done as well, for what he could see." The popular nursery rhyme Apple Pie ABC finishes with the lines "X, Y, Z, and ampersand, All wished for a piece in hand". Similar characters Bilingual Irish street sign, with parallel agus and ampersand. In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, the character ⁊ (U+204A ⁊ TIRONIAN SIGN ET) is used in place of the ampersand. This character is a survival of Tironian notes, a medieval shorthand system. This character is known as the Tironian Et in English, the agus in Irish, and the agusan in Scottish Gaelic. The logical conjunction symbol, ∧, is often pronounced "and," but is not related to the ampersand. Writing the ampersand In everyday handwriting, the ampersand is sometimes simplified in design as a large lowercase epsilon Ɛ or a reversed numeral 3, superimposed by a vertical line. The ampersand is also sometimes shown as an epsilon with a vertical line above and below it or a dot above and below it. The plus sign + (itself based on an et-ligature) is often informally used in place of an ampersand, sometimes with an added loop and resembling ɬ. Other times it is a single stroke with a diagonal line connecting the bottom to the left side. This was a version of shorthand for ampersand, and the stroke economy of this version provided ease of writing for workers while also assuring the character was distinct from other numeric or alphabetic symbols. An ampersand written with a vertical stroke An ampersand written with the vertical stroke merged into the edges A handwritten plus sign used, like the ampersand, to mean "and" Usage Ampersands are commonly seen in business names formed from a partnership of two or more people, such as Johnson & Johnson, Dolce & Gabbana, Marks & Spencer, and Tiffany & Co., as well as some abbreviations containing the word and, such as AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph), A&P (supermarkets), P&O (originally "Peninsular and Oriental", shipping and logistics company), R&D (research and development), D&B (drum and bass), D&D (Dungeons & Dragons), R&B (rhythm and blues), B&B (bed and breakfast), and P&L (profit and loss). In film credits for stories, screenplays, etc., & indicates a closer collaboration than and. The ampersand is used by the Writers Guild of America to denote two writers collaborating on a specific script, rather than one writer rewriting another's work. In screenplays, two authors joined with & collaborated on the script, while two authors joined with and worked on the script at different times and may not have consulted each other at all. In the latter case, they both contributed enough significant material to the screenplay to receive credit but did not work together. As a result, both & and and may appear in the same credit, as appropriate to how the writing proceeded. In APA style, the ampersand is used when citing sources in text such as (Jones & Jones, 2005). In the list of references, an ampersand precedes the last author's name when there is more than one author. (This does not apply to MLA style, which calls for the "and" to be spelled.) The phrase et cetera ("and the rest"), usually written as etc. can be abbreviated &c. representing the combination et + c(etera). The ampersand can be used to indicate that the "and" in a listed item is a part of the item's name and not a separator (e.g. "Rock, pop, rhythm & blues and hip hop"). The ampersand may still be used as an abbreviation for "and" in informal writing regardless of how "and" is used. Computing Encoding and display The character in Unicode is U+0026 & AMPERSAND (&amp;, &AMP;); this is inherited from the same value in ASCII. Apart from this, Unicode also has the following variants: U+FE60 ﹠ SMALL AMPERSAND (fullwidth CJK ideograph for East Asian typography) U+FF06 ＆ FULLWIDTH AMPERSAND (in block Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms) U+214B ⅋ TURNED AMPERSAND (in block Letterlike Symbols) U+1F670 🙰 SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT U+1F671 🙱 HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT U+1F672 🙲 LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT U+1F673 🙳 HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT U+1F674 🙴 HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT U+1F675 🙵 SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENT The last six of these are carryovers from the Wingdings fonts, and are meant only for backward compatibility with those fonts. On the QWERTY keyboard layout, the ampersand is ⇧ Shift+7. It is almost always available on keyboard layouts, sometimes on ⇧ Shift+6 or ⇧ Shift+8. On the AZERTY keyboard layout, & is an unmodified keystroke, positioned above A. In URLs, the ampersand must be replaced by %26 when representing a string character to avoid interpretation as a URL syntax character. Programming languages This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Ampersand" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In the 20th century, following the development of formal logic, the ampersand became a commonly used logical notation for the binary operator or sentential connective AND. This usage was adopted in computing. Many languages with syntax derived from C, including C++, Perl, and more differentiate between: & for bitwise AND (4 & 2) is zero, (4 & 5) is 4. && for short-circuit logical AND (4 && 2) is true. In C, C++, and Go, a prefix & is a unary operator denoting the address in memory of the argument, e.g. &x, &func, &a. In C++ and PHP, unary prefix & before a formal parameter of a function denotes pass-by-reference. In Pascal, the & as the first character of an identifier prevents the compiler from treating it as a keyword, thus escaping it. In Fortran, the ampersand forces the compiler to treat two lines as one. This is accomplished by placing an ampersand at the end of the first line and at the beginning of the second line. In many implementations of ALGOL 60 the ampersand denotes the tens exponent of a real number. In Common Lisp, the ampersand is the prefix for lambda list keywords. Ampersand is the string concatenation operator in many BASIC dialects, AppleScript, Lingo, HyperTalk, and FileMaker. In Ada it applies to all one-dimensional arrays, not just strings. BASIC-PLUS on the DEC PDP-11 uses the ampersand as a short form of the verb PRINT. Applesoft BASIC used the ampersand as an internal command, not intended to be used for general programming, that invoked a machine language program in the computer's ROM. In some versions of BASIC, unary suffix & denotes a variable is of type long, or 32 bits in length. The ampersand was occasionally used as a prefix to denote a hexadecimal number, such as &FF for decimal 255, for instance in BBC BASIC. (The modern convention is to use "x" as a prefix to denote hexadecimal, thus xFF.) Some other languages, such as the Monitor built into ROM on the Commodore 128, used it to indicate octal instead, a convention that spread throughout the Commodore community and is now used in the VICE emulator. In MySQL, & has dual roles. As well as a logical AND, it serves as the bitwise operator of an intersection between elements. Dyalog APL uses ampersand similarly to Unix shells, spawning a separate green thread upon application of a function. In more recent years, the ampersand has made its way into the Haskell standard library, representing flipped function application: x & f means the same thing as f x. Perl uses the ampersand as a sigil to refer to subroutines: In Perl 4 and earlier, it was effectively required to call user-defined subroutines In Perl 5, it can still be used to modify the way user-defined subroutines are called In Raku (formerly known as Perl 6), the ampersand sigil is only used when referring to a subroutine as an object, never when calling it In MASM 80x86 Assembly Language, & is the Substitution Operator, which tells the assembler to replace a macro parameter or text macro name with its actual value. Ampersand is the name of a reactive programming language, which uses relation algebra to specify information systems. Text markup In SGML, XML, and HTML, the ampersand is used to introduce an SGML entity, such as &nbsp; (for non-breaking space) or &alpha; (for the Greek letter α). The HTML and XML encoding for the ampersand character is the entity &amp;. This can create a problem known as delimiter collision when converting text into one of these markup languages. For instance, when putting URLs or other material containing ampersands into XML format files such as RSS files the & must be replaced with &amp; or they are considered not well formed, and computers will be unable to read the files correctly. SGML derived the use from IBM Generalized Markup Language, which was one of many IBM-mainframe languages to use the ampersand to signal a text substitution, eventually going back to System/360 macro assembly language. In the plain TeX markup language, the ampersand is used to mark tabstops. The ampersand itself can be applied in TeX with \&. The Computer Modern fonts replace it with an "E.T." symbol in the cmti# (text italic) fonts, so it can be entered as {\it\&} in running text when using the default (Computer Modern) fonts. In Microsoft Windows menus, labels, and other captions, the ampersand is used to denote the next letter as a keyboard shortcut (called an "Access key" by Microsoft). For instance setting a button label to "&Print" makes it display as Print and for Alt+P to be a shortcut equivalent to pressing that button. A double ampersand is needed in order to display a real ampersand. This convention originated in the first WIN32 api, and is used in Windows Forms, (but not WPF, which uses underscore _ for this purpose) and is also copied into many other toolkits on multiple operating systems. Sometimes this causes problems similar to other programs that fail to sanitize markup from user input, for instance Navision databases have trouble if this character is in either "Text" or "Code" fields. Unix shells Some Unix shells use the ampersand as a metacharacter: Some Unix shells, like the POSIX standard sh shell, use an ampersand to execute a process in the background and to duplicate file descriptors. In Bash, the ampersand can separate words, control the command history, duplicate file descriptors, perform logical operations, control jobs, and participate in regular expressions. Web standards The generic URL (Uniform Resource Locator) syntax allows for a query string to be appended to a file name in a web address so that additional information can be passed to a script; the question mark, or query mark, ?, is used to indicate the start of a query string. A query string is usually made up of a number of different name–value pairs, each separated by the ampersand symbol, &. For example, http://www.example.org/list.php?order=ascending&year=2024. Typeface samples Noto Sans - Script Ligature Et Ornament Noto Sans - Ligature Open Et Ornament The ampersand character, in the OCR-A font Italic ampersand from a 1735 book (redrawn) Albertus (typeface) sampler (1936). Two styles of ampersand are shown. Motorway (typeface) sampler (1958) Miller (typeface) sampler (1997) See also And (disambiguation) List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks Kai (abbreviation) Heta Tironian notes References ^ "The Ampersand & More" Archived 4 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine with Kory Stamper, part of the "Ask the Editor" video series at Merriam-Webster.com ^ Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall (1960). Glossary of the Book. London: George Allen & Unwin. cited in Caflisch, Max. "The ampersand". Adobe Fonts. Adobe Systems. Archived from the original on 13 January 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2012. ^ Nares, Robert (2011) . A Glossary. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9781108035996. Archived from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2013. ^ a b "The ampersand". word-detective. Archived from the original on 8 May 2008. ^ "The Ampersand & More". merriam-webster. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2012. ^ Ainger, Alfred (2 December 1871). "Amperzand". Notes and Queries. 4. 8: 468. ^ Harper, Douglas R. (20 September 2022). "ampersand". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 5 August 2023. ^ "What character was removed from the alphabet but is still used every day?". The Hot Word. Dictionary.com. 2 September 2011. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 4 September 2011. ^ "ampersand". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) (subscription required) ^ For examples of this misunderstanding, see Jessie Bedford, Elizabeth Godfrey: English Children in the Olden Time, page 22 Archived 20 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Methuen & co, 1907, p. 22; Harry Alfred Long: Personal and Family Names, page 98 Archived 19 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Hamilton, Adams & co, 1883. ^ a b Jan Tschichold: "Formenwandlung der et-Zeichen." ^ Everson, Michael; Sigurðsson, Baldur; Málstöð, Íslensk (7 June 1994). "On the status of the Latin letter þorn and of its sorting order". Evertype. Archived from the original on 24 September 2018. Retrieved 16 November 2010. ^ "The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks". Branson, Farrar & Co., Raleigh NC. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. Retrieved 16 November 2010. ^ Eliot, George. "Chapter XXI". Adam Bede. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2010 – via Project Gutenberg. ^ a b c d "A Visual Guide to the Ampersand (Infographic)". Six Revisions. 13 October 2011. Archived from the original on 15 November 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2017. ^ Cajori, Florian (1928). "Origin and meanings of the signs + and −". A History of Mathematical Notations, Vol. 1. The Open Court Company, Publishers. ^ "Ampersands". ChicagoManualOfStyle.org. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 1 April 2015. ^ Fiske, Robert Hartwell (November 2011). Robert Hartwell Fiske's Dictionary of Unendurable English: A Compendium of Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Spelling with Commentary on Lexicographers. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781451651348. Archived from the original on 20 February 2017. Retrieved 23 September 2016. ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". Writers Guild of America. Archived from the original on 26 January 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2018. ^ Trottier, David (2010). The Screenwriter's Bible (5th expanded & updated ed.). Silman-James Press. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-935247-02-9. ^ "Purdue OWL: APA Formatting and Style Guide". Owl.english.purdue.edu. Archived from the original on 30 April 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2012. ^ "Purdue OWL: MLA Formatting and Style Guide". Owl.english.purdue.edu. 9 February 2012. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2012. ^ "perlop – Perl operators and precedence". Archived from the original on 30 May 2007. Retrieved 31 May 2007. ^ "Pointers - C++ Tutorials". Archived from the original on 17 June 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2021. ^ "The Go Programming Language Specification". Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2021. ^ "Pass by reference (C++ only)". www.ibm.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021. ^ "PHP: Passing by Reference - Manual". www.php.net. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021. ^ "Fortran continuation lines". pages.mtu.edu. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 12 September 2017. ^ "3.4.1 Ordinary Lambda Lists". Common Lisp – Hyper Spec. Lisp Works. Archived from the original on 11 November 2010. Retrieved 30 August 2010. ^ "Commodore 128 Machine Language. Part 2". www.atarimagazines.com. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. ^ "MySQL :: MySQL 8.0 Reference Manual :: 12.4 Operators". dev.mysql.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021. ^ "PERL – Subroutines". Archived from the original on 21 October 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2019. ^ "What is the point of the & / ampersand sigil for function refs?". PerlMonks. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 31 May 2007. ^ "Exegesis 6". Perl.com. 7 July 2003. Archived from the original on 18 August 2007. Retrieved 31 May 2007. ^ Microsoft MASM Version 6.1 Programmer's Guide ^ "Ampersand". GitHub. Archived from the original on 31 May 2019. Retrieved 5 March 2019. ^ "HTML Compatibility Guidelines". World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 14 April 2006. Retrieved 19 April 2006. ^ Knuth, Donald (1986). The TeXbook. Addison-Wesley. p. 428. ISBN 0-201-13447-0. ^ a b How to: Create Access Keys for Windows Forms Controls Archived 3 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine, from msdn.microsoft.com ^ Fox, Brian; Ramey, Chet (28 September 2006). "UNIX Manual page: bash – GNU Bourne-Again SHell" (manpage). Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2009. ^ ""Ampersands in URI attribute values"". Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 7 June 2007. External links Look up ampersand or epershand in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ampersand. "The History of 'Ampersand'". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 27 July 2022. The Hot Word at Dictionary.com: How ampersand came from a misunderstanding "Ask the Editor: Ampersand", video at Merriam-Webster.com (2:01). Retrieved 2013-10-18 Archived 19 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine Font of 52 ampersands, designed by Frederic Goudy vteCommon logical symbols ∧  or  & and ∨ or ¬  or  ~ not → implies ⊃ implies,superset ↔  or  ≡ iff | nand ∀ universalquantification ∃ existentialquantification ⊤ true,tautology ⊥ false,contradiction ⊢ entails,proves ⊨ entails,therefore ∴ therefore ∵ because Philosophy portal Mathematics portal vteCommon punctuation and other typographical symbols       space    ,   comma    :   colon    ;   semicolon    ‐   hyphen    ’   '   apostrophe    ′   ″   ‴   prime    .   full stop    &   ampersand    @   at sign    ^   caret    /   slash    \   backslash    …   ellipsis    *   asterisk    ⁂   asterism      *  *  *      dinkus    -   hyphen-minus    ‒   –   —   dash    ⹀   ⸗   double hyphen    ?   question mark    !   exclamation mark    ‽   interrobang    ¡   ¿   inverted ! and ?    ⸮   irony punctuation    #   number sign    №   numero sign    º   ª   ordinal indicator    %   percent sign    ‰   per mille    ‱   basis point    °   degree symbol    ⌀   diameter sign    +   −   plus and minus signs    ×   multiplication sign    ÷   division sign    ~   tilde    ±   plus–minus sign    ∓   minus-plus sign    ^   caret    _   underscore    ⁀   tie    |   ¦   ‖   vertical bar    •   bullet    ·   interpunct    ©   copyright symbol    ©   copyleft    ℗   sound recording copyright    ®   registered trademark    SM   service mark symbol    TM   trademark symbol    ‘ ’   “ ”   ' '   " "   quotation mark    ‹ ›   « »   guillemet    ( )      { }   ⟨ ⟩   bracket    ”   ditto mark    †   ‡   dagger    ❧   fleuron (hedera, aldus)    ☞   manicule    ◊   ⌑   lozenge    ¶   ⸿   pilcrow (paragraph mark)    §   section mark  Version of this table as a sortable list Currency symbols Diacritics (accents) Logic symbols Math symbols Whitespace Chinese punctuation Hebrew punctuation Japanese punctuation Korean punctuation
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For other uses, see & (disambiguation).This article is about the symbol. For other uses, see Ampersand (disambiguation).This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.The ampersand, also known as the and sign, is the logogram &, representing the conjunction \"and\". It originated as a ligature of the letters of the word et (Latin for \"and\").[1]","title":"Ampersand"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"corruption","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"per se","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per_se_(terminology)"},{"link_name":"ligature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligature_(typography)"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-adobe-2"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vocative_case#English"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"per se","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/per_se"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aglossary-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worddetective-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-merriam-webster-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-worddetective-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"falsely claimed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_etymology"},{"link_name":"André-Marie Ampère","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Ampersand: the sign &; the name being a corruption of 'and per se = and'; i.e. '& by itself = and'. The sign derives from the scribes' ligature for the Latin: et; in certain italic versions, the letters e and t are clearly distinguishable.— Geoffrey Glaister, Glossary of the Book[2]Traditionally in English, when spelling aloud, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself (\"A\", \"I\", and \"O\") was referred to by the Latin expression per se ('by itself'), as in \"per se A\" or \"A per se A\".[3][4][5] The character &, when used by itself as opposed to more extended forms such as &c., was similarly referred to as \"and per se and\".[6][7] This last phrase was routinely slurred to \"ampersand\", and the term had entered common English usage by 1837.[4][8][9]It has been falsely claimed that André-Marie Ampère used the symbol in his widely read publications and that people began calling the new shape \"Ampère's and\".[10]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Historical_ampersand_evolution.svg"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tschichold-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ampersand.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Etlig.svg"},{"link_name":"Insular script","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_script"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Epsilon_Ampersand.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ampersand_on_a_1_makuta_1814_coin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Capital letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_case"},{"link_name":"Portuguese Angola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Angola"},{"link_name":"Roman cursive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_cursive"},{"link_name":"ligature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typographic_ligature"},{"link_name":"Carolingian minuscule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tschichold-11"},{"link_name":"italic type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_type"},{"link_name":"et","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/et"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing"},{"link_name":"Latin alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Byrhtferð's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrhtferth"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"English alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_alphabet"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Adam Bede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Bede"},{"link_name":"George Eliot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Eliot"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Apple Pie ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Pie_ABC"}],"text":"Evolution of the ampersand.[11] Figures 1 through 6\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe modern ampersand is virtually identical to that of the Carolingian minuscule. The italic ampersand, to the right, is originally a later et-ligature\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEt ligature in Insular script\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tExample of ampersand based on a crossed epsilon, as might be handwritten\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCapital letters ampersand on a coin of 1 Makuta of 1814, Portuguese Angola.The ampersand can be traced back to the 1st century AD and the old Roman cursive, in which the letters E and T occasionally were written together to form a ligature (Evolution of the ampersand – figure 1). In the later and more flowing New Roman Cursive, ligatures of all kinds were extremely common; figures 2 and 3 from the middle of 4th century are examples of how the et-ligature could look in this script. During the later development of the Latin script leading up to Carolingian minuscule (9th century) the use of ligatures in general diminished. The et-ligature, however, continued to be used and gradually became more stylized and less revealing of its origin (figures 4–6).[11]The modern italic type ampersand is a kind of \"et\" ligature that goes back to the cursive scripts developed during the Renaissance. After the advent of printing in Europe in 1455, printers made extensive use of both the italic and Roman ampersands. Since the ampersand's roots go back to Roman times, many languages that use a variation of the Latin alphabet make use of it.The ampersand often appeared as a character at the end of the Latin alphabet, as for example in Byrhtferð's list of letters from 1011.[12] Similarly, & was regarded as the 27th letter of the English alphabet, as taught to children in the US and elsewhere. An example may be seen in M. B. Moore's 1863 book The Dixie Primer, for the Little Folks.[13] In her 1859 novel Adam Bede, George Eliot refers to this when she makes Jacob Storey say: \"He thought it [Z] had only been put to finish off th' alphabet like; though ampusand would ha' done as well, for what he could see.\"[14] The popular nursery rhyme Apple Pie ABC finishes with the lines \"X, Y, Z, and ampersand, All wished for a piece in hand\".","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pay_and_Display_sign_with_Tironian_et_for_Irish_agus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_language"},{"link_name":"Scottish Gaelic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"TIRONIAN SIGN ET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E2%81%8A"},{"link_name":"Tironian notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tironian_notes"},{"link_name":"medieval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval"},{"link_name":"shorthand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorthand"},{"link_name":"logical conjunction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction"}],"text":"Bilingual Irish street sign, with parallel agus and ampersand.In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, the character ⁊ (U+204A ⁊ TIRONIAN SIGN ET) is used in place of the ampersand. This character is a survival of Tironian notes, a medieval shorthand system. This character is known as the Tironian Et in English, the agus in Irish, and the agusan in Scottish Gaelic.The logical conjunction symbol, ∧, is often pronounced \"and,\" but is not related to the ampersand.","title":"Similar characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"handwriting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwriting"},{"link_name":"epsilon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epsilon"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-handwriting-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-handwriting-15"},{"link_name":"plus sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus_sign"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ampersand_Handwriting_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-handwriting-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ampersand_Handwriting_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-handwriting-15"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ampersand_Handwriting_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"plus sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus_sign"}],"text":"In everyday handwriting, the ampersand is sometimes simplified in design as a large lowercase epsilon Ɛ or a reversed numeral 3, superimposed by a vertical line.[15] The ampersand is also sometimes shown as an epsilon with a vertical line above and below it or a dot above and below it.[15]The plus sign + (itself based on an et-ligature[16]) is often informally used in place of an ampersand, sometimes with an added loop and resembling ɬ.[citation needed] Other times it is a single stroke with a diagonal line connecting the bottom to the left side. This was a version of shorthand for ampersand, and the stroke economy of this version provided ease of writing for workers while also assuring the character was distinct from other numeric or alphabetic symbols.An ampersand written with a vertical stroke[15]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAn ampersand written with the vertical stroke merged into the edges[15]\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA handwritten plus sign used, like the ampersand, to mean \"and\"","title":"Writing the ampersand"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Johnson & Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_%26_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Dolce & Gabbana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolce_%26_Gabbana"},{"link_name":"Marks & Spencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marks_%26_Spencer"},{"link_name":"Tiffany & Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiffany_%26_Co."},{"link_name":"American Telephone and Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Telephone_and_Telegraph"},{"link_name":"A&P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%26P"},{"link_name":"P&O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%26O_(company)"},{"link_name":"research and development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"drum and bass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_and_bass"},{"link_name":"Dungeons & Dragons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dungeons_%26_Dragons"},{"link_name":"rhythm and blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythm_and_blues"},{"link_name":"bed and breakfast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed_and_breakfast"},{"link_name":"profit and loss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profit_and_loss"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film"},{"link_name":"screenplays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screenplay"},{"link_name":"Writers Guild of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writers_Guild_of_America"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"APA style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_style"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"MLA style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_MLA_Style_Manual"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"et cetera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et_cetera"}],"text":"Ampersands are commonly seen in business names formed from a partnership of two or more people, such as Johnson & Johnson, Dolce & Gabbana, Marks & Spencer, and Tiffany & Co., as well as some abbreviations containing the word and, such as AT&T (American Telephone and Telegraph), A&P (supermarkets), P&O (originally \"Peninsular and Oriental\", shipping and logistics company), R&D (research and development), D&B (drum and bass), D&D (Dungeons & Dragons), R&B (rhythm and blues), B&B (bed and breakfast), and P&L (profit and loss).[17][18]In film credits for stories, screenplays, etc., & indicates a closer collaboration than and. The ampersand is used by the Writers Guild of America to denote two writers collaborating on a specific script, rather than one writer rewriting another's work. In screenplays, two authors joined with & collaborated on the script, while two authors joined with and worked on the script at different times and may not have consulted each other at all.[19][20] In the latter case, they both contributed enough significant material to the screenplay to receive credit but did not work together. As a result, both & and and may appear in the same credit, as appropriate to how the writing proceeded.In APA style, the ampersand is used when citing sources in text such as (Jones & Jones, 2005). In the list of references, an ampersand precedes the last author's name when there is more than one author.[21] (This does not apply to MLA style, which calls for the \"and\" to be spelled.[22])The phrase et cetera (\"and the rest\"), usually written as etc. can be abbreviated &c. representing the combination et + c(etera).The ampersand can be used to indicate that the \"and\" in a listed item is a part of the item's name and not a separator (e.g. \"Rock, pop, rhythm & blues and hip hop\").The ampersand may still be used as an abbreviation for \"and\" in informal writing regardless of how \"and\" is used.","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfwidth_and_Fullwidth_Forms_(Unicode_block)"},{"link_name":"Letterlike Symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letterlike_Symbols"},{"link_name":"Wingdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingdings"},{"link_name":"QWERTY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QWERTY"},{"link_name":"keyboard layout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_layout"},{"link_name":"AZERTY","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZERTY"},{"link_name":"URLs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URL"},{"link_name":"URL syntax character","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Web_standards"}],"sub_title":"Encoding and display","text":"The character in Unicode is U+0026 & AMPERSAND (&amp;, &AMP;); this is inherited from the same value in ASCII.Apart from this, Unicode also has the following variants:U+FE60 ﹠ SMALL AMPERSAND (fullwidth CJK ideograph for East Asian typography)\nU+FF06 ＆ FULLWIDTH AMPERSAND (in block Halfwidth and Fullwidth Forms)\nU+214B ⅋ TURNED AMPERSAND (in block Letterlike Symbols)\nU+1F670 🙰 SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT\nU+1F671 🙱 HEAVY SCRIPT LIGATURE ET ORNAMENT\nU+1F672 🙲 LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT\nU+1F673 🙳 HEAVY LIGATURE OPEN ET ORNAMENT\nU+1F674 🙴 HEAVY AMPERSAND ORNAMENT\nU+1F675 🙵 SWASH AMPERSAND ORNAMENTThe last six of these are carryovers from the Wingdings fonts, and are meant only for backward compatibility with those fonts.On the QWERTY keyboard layout, the ampersand is ⇧ Shift+7. It is almost always available on keyboard layouts, sometimes on ⇧ Shift+6 or ⇧ Shift+8. On the AZERTY keyboard layout, & is an unmodified keystroke, positioned above A.In URLs, the ampersand must be replaced by %26 when representing a string character to avoid interpretation as a URL syntax character.","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"formal logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_logic"},{"link_name":"binary operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_operator"},{"link_name":"sentential connective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentential_connective"},{"link_name":"AND","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"bitwise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitwise_operation"},{"link_name":"short-circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_evaluation"},{"link_name":"logical AND","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction"},{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Go","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"address in memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_address"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"PHP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP"},{"link_name":"formal parameter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parameter_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(programming)"},{"link_name":"pass-by-reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_(C%2B%2B)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Pascal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"escaping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_character"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"ALGOL 60","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ALGOL_60"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Common Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Lisp"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"string concatenation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_concatenation"},{"link_name":"BASIC dialects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC_programming_language"},{"link_name":"AppleScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AppleScript"},{"link_name":"Lingo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingo_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"HyperTalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HyperTalk"},{"link_name":"FileMaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FileMaker"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"BASIC-PLUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC-PLUS"},{"link_name":"DEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"PDP-11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Applesoft BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applesoft_BASIC"},{"link_name":"machine language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_language"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"},{"link_name":"BBC BASIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_BASIC"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Monitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code_monitor"},{"link_name":"Commodore 128","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_128"},{"link_name":"octal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octal"},{"link_name":"VICE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VICE"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"MySQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQL"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Dyalog APL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyalog_APL"},{"link_name":"Unix shells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Unix_shells"},{"link_name":"green thread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_thread"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Haskell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haskell_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"function application","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_application"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"sigil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigil_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Raku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raku_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"sigil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigil_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"relation algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_algebra"},{"link_name":"information systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_system"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Programming languages","text":"In the 20th century, following the development of formal logic, the ampersand became a commonly used logical notation for the binary operator or sentential connective AND. This usage was adopted in computing.Many languages with syntax derived from C, including C++, Perl,[23] and more differentiate between:& for bitwise AND (4 & 2) is zero, (4 & 5) is 4.\n&& for short-circuit logical AND (4 && 2) is true.In C, C++,[24] and Go,[25] a prefix & is a unary operator denoting the address in memory of the argument, e.g. &x, &func, &a[3].In C++ and PHP, unary prefix & before a formal parameter of a function denotes pass-by-reference.[26][27]In Pascal, the & as the first character of an identifier prevents the compiler from treating it as a keyword, thus escaping it.In Fortran, the ampersand forces the compiler to treat two lines as one. This is accomplished by placing an ampersand at the end of the first line and at the beginning of the second line.[28]In many implementations of ALGOL 60 the ampersand denotes the tens exponent of a real number.[citation needed]In Common Lisp, the ampersand is the prefix for lambda list keywords.[29]Ampersand is the string concatenation operator in many BASIC dialects, AppleScript, Lingo, HyperTalk, and FileMaker.[citation needed] In Ada it applies to all one-dimensional arrays, not just strings.[citation needed]BASIC-PLUS on the DEC PDP-11 uses the ampersand as a short form of the verb PRINT.[citation needed]Applesoft BASIC used the ampersand as an internal command, not intended to be used for general programming, that invoked a machine language program in the computer's ROM.[citation needed]In some versions of BASIC, unary suffix & denotes a variable is of type long, or 32 bits in length.[citation needed]The ampersand was occasionally used as a prefix to denote a hexadecimal number, such as &FF for decimal 255, for instance in BBC BASIC.[citation needed] (The modern convention is to use \"x\" as a prefix to denote hexadecimal, thus xFF.) Some other languages, such as the Monitor built into ROM on the Commodore 128, used it to indicate octal instead, a convention that spread throughout the Commodore community and is now used in the VICE emulator.[30]In MySQL, & has dual roles. As well as a logical AND, it serves as the bitwise operator of an intersection between elements.[31]Dyalog APL uses ampersand similarly to Unix shells, spawning a separate green thread upon application of a function.[citation needed]In more recent years, the ampersand has made its way into the Haskell standard library, representing flipped function application: x & f means the same thing as f x.[citation needed]Perl uses the ampersand as a sigil to refer to subroutines:In Perl 4 and earlier, it was effectively required to call user-defined subroutines[32]\nIn Perl 5, it can still be used to modify the way user-defined subroutines are called[33]\nIn Raku (formerly known as Perl 6), the ampersand sigil is only used when referring to a subroutine as an object, never when calling it[34]In MASM 80x86 Assembly Language, & is the Substitution Operator, which tells the assembler to replace a macro parameter or text macro name with its actual value.[35]Ampersand is the name of a reactive programming language, which uses relation algebra to specify information systems.[36]","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SGML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGML"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"HTML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML"},{"link_name":"SGML entity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SGML_entity"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"delimiter collision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter#Delimiter_collision"},{"link_name":"RSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSS_(file_format)"},{"link_name":"IBM Generalized Markup Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Generalized_Markup_Language"},{"link_name":"System/360","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360"},{"link_name":"TeX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TeX"},{"link_name":"markup language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markup_language"},{"link_name":"tabstops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabstop"},{"link_name":"Computer Modern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Modern"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msdn-39"},{"link_name":"Alt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alt_key"},{"link_name":"Windows Forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Forms"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msdn-39"},{"link_name":"Navision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navision"}],"sub_title":"Text markup","text":"In SGML, XML, and HTML, the ampersand is used to introduce an SGML entity, such as &nbsp; (for non-breaking space) or &alpha; (for the Greek letter α). The HTML and XML encoding for the ampersand character is the entity &amp;.[37] This can create a problem known as delimiter collision when converting text into one of these markup languages. For instance, when putting URLs or other material containing ampersands into XML format files such as RSS files the & must be replaced with &amp; or they are considered not well formed, and computers will be unable to read the files correctly. SGML derived the use from IBM Generalized Markup Language, which was one of many IBM-mainframe languages to use the ampersand to signal a text substitution, eventually going back to System/360 macro assembly language.In the plain TeX markup language, the ampersand is used to mark tabstops. The ampersand itself can be applied in TeX with \\&. The Computer Modern fonts replace it with an \"E.T.\" symbol in the cmti# (text italic) fonts, so it can be entered as {\\it\\&} in running text when using the default (Computer Modern) fonts.[38]In Microsoft Windows menus, labels, and other captions, the ampersand is used to denote the next letter as a keyboard shortcut (called an \"Access key\" by Microsoft).[39] For instance setting a button label to \"&Print\" makes it display as Print and for Alt+P to be a shortcut equivalent to pressing that button. A double ampersand is needed in order to display a real ampersand. This convention originated in the first WIN32 api, and is used in Windows Forms,[39] (but not WPF, which uses underscore _ for this purpose) and is also copied into many other toolkits on multiple operating systems. Sometimes this causes problems similar to other programs that fail to sanitize markup from user input, for instance Navision databases have trouble if this character is in either \"Text\" or \"Code\" fields.","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"metacharacter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metacharacter"},{"link_name":"POSIX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POSIX"},{"link_name":"execute a process in the background","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Job_control_(Unix)"},{"link_name":"file descriptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_descriptor"},{"link_name":"Bash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)"},{"link_name":"regular expressions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regular_expression"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Unix shells","text":"Some Unix shells use the ampersand as a metacharacter:Some Unix shells, like the POSIX standard sh shell, use an ampersand to execute a process in the background and to duplicate file descriptors.In Bash, the ampersand can separate words, control the command history, duplicate file descriptors, perform logical operations, control jobs, and participate in regular expressions.[40]","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Locator"},{"link_name":"query string","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_string"},{"link_name":"question mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_mark"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"name–value pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name%E2%80%93value_pair"}],"sub_title":"Web standards","text":"The generic URL (Uniform Resource Locator) syntax allows for a query string to be appended to a file name in a web address so that additional information can be passed to a script; the question mark, or query mark, ?, is used to indicate the start of a query string.[41] A query string is usually made up of a number of different name–value pairs, each separated by the ampersand symbol, &. For example, http://www.example.org/list.php?order=ascending&year=2024.","title":"Computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NotoSans_-_Script_Ligature_Et_Ornament_-_1F670.svg"},{"link_name":"Noto Sans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noto_Sans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NotoSans_-_Ligature_Open_Et_Ornament_-_1F672.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OCR-A_char_Ampersand.svg"},{"link_name":"OCR-A font","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCR-A_font"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%26_(italic,_1735).svg"},{"link_name":"a 1735 book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Albertus_481_100_1936_(5637417032).jpg"},{"link_name":"Albertus (typeface)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albertus_(typeface)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Motorway_Typeface_-_1958_Sample.svg"},{"link_name":"Motorway (typeface)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorway_(typeface)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MillerSpecimen.svg"},{"link_name":"Miller (typeface)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller_(typeface)"}],"text":"Noto Sans - Script Ligature Et Ornament\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNoto Sans - Ligature Open Et Ornament\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe ampersand character, in the OCR-A font\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tItalic ampersand from a 1735 book (redrawn)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAlbertus (typeface) sampler (1936). Two styles of ampersand are shown.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMotorway (typeface) sampler (1958)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tMiller (typeface) sampler (1997)","title":"Typeface samples"}]
[{"image_text":"Bilingual Irish street sign, with parallel agus and ampersand.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Pay_and_Display_sign_with_Tironian_et_for_Irish_agus.jpg/170px-Pay_and_Display_sign_with_Tironian_et_for_Irish_agus.jpg"}]
[{"title":"And (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_(disambiguation)"},{"title":"List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_typographical_symbols_and_punctuation_marks"},{"title":"Kai (abbreviation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kai_(abbreviation)"},{"title":"Heta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heta"},{"title":"Tironian notes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tironian_notes"}]
[{"reference":"Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall (1960). Glossary of the Book. London: George Allen & Unwin.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Glaister","url_text":"Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/glosaryofbook0000unse","url_text":"Glossary of the Book"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_%26_Unwin","url_text":"George Allen & Unwin"}]},{"reference":"Caflisch, Max. \"The ampersand\". Adobe Fonts. Adobe Systems. Archived from the original on 13 January 2013. Retrieved 23 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130113202304/https://www.adobe.com/type/topics/theampersand.html","url_text":"\"The ampersand\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Systems","url_text":"Adobe Systems"},{"url":"https://www.adobe.com/type/topics/theampersand.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Nares, Robert (2011) [first published 1822]. A Glossary. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ISBN 9781108035996. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplified_spontaneous_emission
Amplified spontaneous emission
["1 Origins","1.1 In organic dye lasers","1.2 In disk lasers: Controversy","1.3 In self healing dye doped polymers","1.4 In high-power short-pulse laser systems","2 See also","3 References"]
Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) or superluminescence is light, produced by spontaneous emission, that has been optically amplified by the process of stimulated emission in a gain medium. It is inherent in the field of random lasers. Origins ASE is produced when a laser gain medium is pumped to produce a population inversion. Feedback of the ASE by the laser's optical cavity may produce laser operation if the lasing threshold is reached. Excess ASE is an unwanted effect in lasers, since it is not coherent, and limits the maximum gain that can be achieved in the gain medium. ASE creates serious problems in any laser with high gain and/or large size. In this case, a mechanism to absorb or extract the incoherent ASE must be provided, otherwise the excitation of the gain medium will be depleted by the incoherent ASE rather than by the desired coherent laser radiation. ASE is especially problematic in lasers with short and wide optical cavities, such as disk lasers (active mirrors). ASE can also be a desirable effect, finding use in broadband light sources. If the cavity has no optical feedback, lasing will be inhibited, resulting in a broad emission bandwidth due to the bandwidth of the gain medium. This results in low temporal coherence, offering reduced speckle noise when compared with a laser. Spatial coherence can be high, however, allowing for tight focusing of the radiation. These characteristics make such sources useful for fiber optic systems and optical coherence tomography. Examples of such sources include superluminescent diodes and doped fiber amplifiers. In organic dye lasers ASE in pulsed organic dye lasers can have very broad spectral characteristics (as much as 40–50 nm wide) and presents, as such, a serious challenge in the design and operation of tunable narrow-linewidth dye lasers. In order to suppress ASE, in favor of pure laser emission, researchers use various approaches including optimized laser cavity designs. In disk lasers: Controversy According to some publications, at the power scaling of disk lasers, the round-trip gain should be reduced, which means hardening of requirement on the background loss. Other researchers believe the existing disk lasers work far from such a limit, and the power scaling can be achieved without modification of existing laser materials. In self healing dye doped polymers In 2008, a group at Washington state university observed reversible photodegradation or simply, self healing in organic dyes like Disperse orange 11 when doped in polymers. They used amplified spontaneous emission as a probe to study self healing properties. In high-power short-pulse laser systems In high-power CPA-laser systems with a peak power of several terawatt or petawatt, e.g. the POLARIS laser system, the ASE limits the temporal intensity contrast. After the compression of the laser pulse, which is temporally stretched during the amplification, the ASE causes a quasi-continuous pedestal which is partly located at times before the compressed laser pulse. Due to the high intensities within the focal spot of up to 10^22 W/cm2 the ASE is often sufficient to significantly disturb the experiment or even make the desired laser-target interaction impossible. See also Disk laser Maser References ^ D. Kouznetsov; J.F. Bisson; K. Takaichi; K. Ueda (2005). "Single-mode solid-state laser with short wide unstable cavity". JOSA B. 22 (8): 1605–1619. Bibcode:2005JOSAB..22.1605K. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.22.001605. ^ F. J. Duarte (1990). "Narrow-linewidth pulsed dye laser oscillators". In F. J. Duarte; L. W. Hillman (eds.). Dye Laser Principles. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 133–183 and 254–259. ISBN 978-0-12-222700-4. ^ D. Kouznetsov; J.F. Bisson; J. Dong; K. Ueda (2006). "Surface loss limit of the power scaling of a thin-disk laser". JOSA B. 23 (6): 1074–1082. Bibcode:2006JOSAB..23.1074K. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.23.001074. Retrieved 2007-01-26.; ^ A. Giesen; H. Hügel; A. Voss; K. Wittig; U. Brauch; H. Opower (1994). "Scalable concept for diode-pumped high-power solid-state lasers". Applied Physics B. 58 (5): 365–372. Bibcode:1994ApPhB..58..365G. doi:10.1007/BF01081875. S2CID 121158745. ^ http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/catalog/ProductDetail.do?D7=0&N5=SEARCH_CONCAT_PNO%7CBRAND_KEY&N4=217093%7CSIAL&N25=0&QS=ON&F=SPEC Archived January 19, 2012, at the Wayback Machine ^ Natnael B. Embaye, Shiva K. Ramini, and Mark G. Kuzyk, J. Chem. Phys. 129, 054504 (2008) https://arxiv.org/abs/0808.3346 ^ Keppler, Sebastian; Sävert, Alexander; Körner, Jörg; Hornung, Marco; Liebetrau, Hartmut; Hein, Joachim; Kaluza, Malte Christoph (2016-03-01). "The generation of amplified spontaneous emission in high-power CPA laser systems". Laser & Photonics Reviews. 10 (2): 264–277. Bibcode:2016LPRv...10..264K. doi:10.1002/lpor.201500186. ISSN 1863-8899. PMC 4845653. PMID 27134684. vteLasers List of laser articles List of laser types List of laser applications Laser acronyms Types of lasers Chemical laser Dye laser Bubble Liquid-crystal Gas laser Carbon dioxide Excimer Helium–neon Ion Nitrogen Free-electron laser Laser diode Solid-state laser Er:YAG Nd:YAG Raman Ruby Ti-sapphire X-ray laser Laser physics Active laser medium Amplified spontaneous emission Continuous wave Laser ablation Laser linewidth Lasing threshold Population inversion Ultrashort pulse Laser optics Beam expander Beam homogenizer Chirped pulse amplification Gain-switching Gaussian beam Injection seeder Laser beam profiler M squared Mode locking Multiple-prism grating laser oscillator Optical amplifier Optical cavity Optical isolator Output coupler Q-switching Category
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Feedback of the ASE by the laser's optical cavity may produce laser operation if the lasing threshold is reached. Excess ASE is an unwanted effect in lasers, since it is not coherent, and limits the maximum gain that can be achieved in the gain medium. ASE creates serious problems in any laser with high gain and/or large size. In this case, a mechanism to absorb or extract the incoherent ASE must be provided, otherwise the excitation of the gain medium will be depleted by the incoherent ASE rather than by the desired coherent laser radiation. ASE is especially problematic in lasers with short and wide optical cavities, such as disk lasers (active mirrors).[1]ASE can also be a desirable effect, finding use in broadband light sources. If the cavity has no optical feedback, lasing will be inhibited, resulting in a broad emission bandwidth due to the bandwidth of the gain medium. This results in low temporal coherence, offering reduced speckle noise when compared with a laser. Spatial coherence can be high, however, allowing for tight focusing of the radiation. These characteristics make such sources useful for fiber optic systems and optical coherence tomography. Examples of such sources include superluminescent diodes and doped fiber amplifiers.","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dye lasers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye_laser"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"In organic dye lasers","text":"ASE in pulsed organic dye lasers can have very broad spectral characteristics (as much as 40–50 nm wide) and presents, as such, a serious challenge in the design and operation of tunable narrow-linewidth dye lasers. In order to suppress ASE, in favor of pure laser emission, researchers use various approaches including optimized laser cavity designs.[2]","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"power scaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_scaling"},{"link_name":"disk lasers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_laser"},{"link_name":"round-trip gain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-trip_gain"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"In disk lasers: Controversy","text":"According to some publications, at the\npower scaling of disk lasers, the round-trip gain should be reduced,[3] which means hardening[clarification needed] of requirement on the background loss. Other researchers believe the existing disk lasers work far from such a limit, and the power scaling can be achieved without modification of existing laser materials.[4]","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"photodegradation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photodegradation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"In self healing dye doped polymers","text":"In 2008, a group at Washington state university observed reversible photodegradation or simply, self healing in organic dyes like Disperse orange 11[5] when doped in polymers. They used amplified spontaneous emission as a probe to study self healing properties.[6]","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirped_pulse_amplification"},{"link_name":"POLARIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=POLARIS_Laser&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"In high-power short-pulse laser systems","text":"In high-power CPA-laser systems with a peak power of several terawatt or petawatt, e.g. the POLARIS laser system, the ASE limits the temporal intensity contrast. After the compression of the laser pulse, which is temporally stretched during the amplification, the ASE causes a quasi-continuous pedestal which is partly located at times before the compressed laser pulse.[7] Due to the high intensities within the focal spot of up to 10^22 W/cm2 the ASE is often sufficient to significantly disturb the experiment or even make the desired laser-target interaction impossible.","title":"Origins"}]
[]
[{"title":"Disk laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_laser"},{"title":"Maser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maser"}]
[{"reference":"D. Kouznetsov; J.F. Bisson; K. Takaichi; K. Ueda (2005). \"Single-mode solid-state laser with short wide unstable cavity\". JOSA B. 22 (8): 1605–1619. Bibcode:2005JOSAB..22.1605K. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.22.001605.","urls":[{"url":"http://josab.osa.org/abstract.cfm?id=84730","url_text":"\"Single-mode solid-state laser with short wide unstable cavity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JOSA_B","url_text":"JOSA B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JOSAB..22.1605K","url_text":"2005JOSAB..22.1605K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSAB.22.001605","url_text":"10.1364/JOSAB.22.001605"}]},{"reference":"F. J. Duarte (1990). \"Narrow-linewidth pulsed dye laser oscillators\". In F. J. Duarte; L. W. Hillman (eds.). Dye Laser Principles. Boston: Academic Press. pp. 133–183 and 254–259. ISBN 978-0-12-222700-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._J._Duarte","url_text":"F. J. Duarte"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_Press","url_text":"Academic Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-222700-4","url_text":"978-0-12-222700-4"}]},{"reference":"D. Kouznetsov; J.F. Bisson; J. Dong; K. Ueda (2006). \"Surface loss limit of the power scaling of a thin-disk laser\". JOSA B. 23 (6): 1074–1082. Bibcode:2006JOSAB..23.1074K. doi:10.1364/JOSAB.23.001074. Retrieved 2007-01-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://josab.osa.org/abstract.cfm?id=90157","url_text":"\"Surface loss limit of the power scaling of a thin-disk laser\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JOSA_B","url_text":"JOSA B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006JOSAB..23.1074K","url_text":"2006JOSAB..23.1074K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1364%2FJOSAB.23.001074","url_text":"10.1364/JOSAB.23.001074"}]},{"reference":"A. Giesen; H. Hügel; A. Voss; K. Wittig; U. Brauch; H. Opower (1994). \"Scalable concept for diode-pumped high-power solid-state lasers\". Applied Physics B. 58 (5): 365–372. Bibcode:1994ApPhB..58..365G. doi:10.1007/BF01081875. S2CID 121158745.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_Physics_B","url_text":"Applied Physics B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ApPhB..58..365G","url_text":"1994ApPhB..58..365G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01081875","url_text":"10.1007/BF01081875"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121158745","url_text":"121158745"}]},{"reference":"Keppler, Sebastian; Sävert, Alexander; Körner, Jörg; Hornung, Marco; Liebetrau, Hartmut; Hein, Joachim; Kaluza, Malte Christoph (2016-03-01). \"The generation of amplified spontaneous emission in high-power CPA laser systems\". Laser & Photonics Reviews. 10 (2): 264–277. Bibcode:2016LPRv...10..264K. doi:10.1002/lpor.201500186. ISSN 1863-8899. PMC 4845653. PMID 27134684.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4845653","url_text":"\"The generation of amplified spontaneous emission in high-power CPA laser systems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016LPRv...10..264K","url_text":"2016LPRv...10..264K"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Flpor.201500186","url_text":"10.1002/lpor.201500186"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1863-8899","url_text":"1863-8899"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4845653","url_text":"4845653"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27134684","url_text":"27134684"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika_MK-52
Elektronika MK-52
["1 Architecture","1.1 ROM","2 Basic operations","2.1 Bitwise binary operations","3 Programming","3.1 Saving to EEPROM","4 Additional information","4.1 Error message","4.2 Games","4.3 Use in outer space","5 Bugs","6 References","7 External links","7.1 Emulators","8 Sources"]
This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (August 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Elektronika MK-52 programmable calculator. Elektronika MK52, Электроника МК-52, calculator, Period 1983-1991, ROMː512 B, RAMː 15 registers, 105 program steps, Displayː VFD, 8 + 2 characters, Size: 78 x 212 x 35 mm, Weight: 250 g, 4 x AA battery Elektronika MK-52 Calculator PCB The Elektronika MK-52 (Russian: Электро́ника МК-52) is an RPN-programmable calculator manufactured in the Soviet Union from 1983 to 1992 at the Quasar and Kvadr plants in Ukraine. It belongs to the third generation of Soviet programmable calculators. Its original selling price was 115 rubles. The MK-52 is a backwards compatible improvement to the Elektronika MK-61, the main changes being the addition of an internal non-volatile EEPROM module for permanent data storage, a diagnostic slot, and a slot for separately sold ROM modules. The machine code and functionality of the MK-52 and MK-61 calculators were extensions of the earlier MK-54, B3-34, and B3-21 Elektronika calculators. The MK-52 is the only calculator known to have internal storage in the form of an EEPROM module. As with many Soviet calculators, the MK-52 has a number of undocumented functions. In November 1988, the MK-52 went into space on the Soyuz TM-7 spacecraft, where it could have been used as a backup to the onboard computers. Architecture The MK-52 has 105 locations of volatile program memory, an internal EEPROM module (with 512 bytes of memory), and 15 7-byte registers. It uses four AA-size battery cells or can be plugged into a power adapter. It has a relatively dim, ten-digit ИЛЦ2-12/8Л green vacuum fluorescent display; these ten digits are apportioned into an 8 digit mantissa and a 2 digit exponent. The MK-52 has an expansion port to which various ROM modules can be attached. Its system clock speed is approximately 75 kHz (derived from a К745ГФ3-2 four-phase clock generator chip), and it weighs approximately 400 grams. The MK-52 is the first Soviet micro-calculator with non-volatile memory; this is provided by a КР1601РР1 EEPROM, with a capacity of 4 kilobits and capable of 10,000 rewrites, ensuring security for programs and working memory when powered off. This memory is capable of storing up to 512 1-byte program words (or the contents of 72 7-byte registers) and exchanging its contents with the calculator's RAM. The calculator is fully compatible with the second-generation models (B3-34 and MK-54), using the same command system and machine codes. On average, a program that takes all 105 steps of program memory and 15 registers on the MC-52 will be equivalent in capability to approximately 140-150 steps and 18 registers on the B3-34. Additionally, the MC-52 has an extended set of commands that can allocate integer and fractional parts of numbers, search for absolute and maximum values of numbers, and perform certain logical operations. ROM In addition, you can connect an external ROM which is a memory expansion unit with stored games and mathematical programs, produced by the manufacturer, that constitute the user library. Manufacturers have produced 4 types of ROM cartridges, three of them containing various mathematical functions, and one, the BRP-4, containing game programs: BRP-2 "Astro" (Russian: БРП-2 "Астро"), with a set of programs for navigational tasks, information about which was published in issue 12, of 1988, of the Russian-language monthly magazine Морском сборнике (Marine Digest); BRP-3 (Russian: БРП-3), containing 60 programs for solving mathematical problems. In 1988, 15,200 units of this ROM were manufactured, and were sold at a price of 16 rubles; BRP-4 (Russian: БРП-4) was produced in 1989, containing game programs; GRP "Geo". Another expansion port was used for diagnostics during manufacture; this port could also be used to connect the calculator to external peripherals. Basic operations The MK-52 has two main modes of operation: automatic mode and programming mode. General calculations and operations are performed in automatic mode, while programs are fed as input in programming mode. The keystroke sequence F+/-/ switches the MK-52 to automatic mode, while F+ВП switches it to programming mode. Manual calculations in automatic mode are in accordance with Reverse Polish Notation logic. For example, to evaluate 2+3, the following keystrokes are required: 2 + В↑ + 3 + +. Bitwise binary operations The MK-52 is fully capable of performing Boolean operations on binary numbers. The following example demonstrates the OR logical operation on the binary numbers 111000 and 100001: Binary numbers are input into the calculator as hexadecimal numbers prepended by an 8. First, the operator must divide the numbers into groups of four digits, adding leading zeros if necessary, e.g. splitting 111000 into groups of four gives 0011 and 1000. The equivalent hexadecimal values of these two four-digit binary numbers are 3 and 8, respectively, which equal hexadecimal 38. Similarly, 100001 is equivalent to hexadecimal 21. So, the numbers 8.38 and 8.21 are entered into the MK-52 and the OR operation is performed on them. The OR operation is achieved by pressing K+/-/. The result displayed should be 8.39, which translates into binary 0011 and 1001, and, hence, the binary number 111001, which is the result. The following list details the MK-52's graphical representation of hexadecimal numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, -, L, C, Г, E, (blank). Normal hexadecimal representation is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Programming The MK-52's programming commands are typed into the MK-52 in programming mode and are then executed. The MK-52 is fully capable of being programmed to manage memory and to use both conditional and unconditional branching. In programming mode, the screen displays information about the program in memory, represented by two hexadecimal-digit operation codes. For example, if 10 01 0E 03 is displayed, then this means that 0E is stored at program step 00, 01 is stored at program step 01, 10 is stored at program step 02, and the machine is prompting for data to be input, to be stored at program step 03. Saving to EEPROM Before entering a program to volatile memory with the intention of saving this program to EEPROM memory, the EEPROM program space to be saved to must be cleared first, which clears the volatile memory as well as the selected area of the EEPROM memory. Each program step requires 1 byte of memory and each data register requires 7 bytes of memory. When clearing, reading, or writing to the EEPROM memory, the address and range are specified by a six-digit number, preceded by a non-zero number, in automatic mode: e.g. 1aaaadd specifies that dd bytes are to be stored starting at memory address aaaa. A two-position data/program switch controls whether data (from the registers) or program memory is transferred; a three-position switch is used to select read, write, and clear operations. Additional information The Elektronika MK-52 originally sold for 115 rubles. It was produced in a variety of colorways, including black and grey, turquoise and blue, white and grey, and orange. As typical for Soviet electronics, technical schematics were provided for the MK-52 when it was purchased, facilitating user modification and repair of the machine. Elektronika MK-52 schematics Error message MK-52 displaying ЕГГОГ When an error was encountered on the machine, the display produced a message similar to the English word "error". The word, written in this fashion, cut down on the number of display segments used to display the error message; however, this spelling, read as Cyrillic, would instead be pronounced "eggog". Games There is a host of games available for the MK-52. The MK-52's undocumented functions tend to be heavily used in the games due to their ability to make unusual calculations and produce specialized displays. A simple example of the modification of the display is accomplished by the repeated squaring of 1×1050 (and ignoring error messages). Use in outer space In November 1988, the MK-52 went into space on the Soyuz TM-7 spacecraft, where it could have been used to calculate the trajectory of landing in the event of an onboard computer failure. Bugs There is currently only 1 known bug in the MK-52: the MAX function returns zero if one of its two arguments is zero. References ^ a b "Elektronika MK-52". elektronika.su. Retrieved 2021-07-21. ^ a b "Elektronika MK-54". R/S Programmable Calculators. Viktor T. Toth. Retrieved 1 July 2017. ^ "Elektronika MK-61/52". gtello.pagesperso-orange.fr. Retrieved 2021-07-21. ^ Frolov, Sergei. "Undocumented functions of Soviet Calculators". www.leningrad.su. Retrieved 2017-02-06. ^ a b c "Elektronika MK-52: The MK-61 big brother?". www.hpmuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-10-12. External links Russian to English translation of the MK-52's keyboard Museum of Soviet Calculators on the Web (MOSCOW) Sergei Frolov's "Soviet Calculators Collection" Website detailing programmable calculators More advanced programming techniques Command reference Alfred Klomp's page on "Hacking the MK-61" More 'EGGOG's Games etc for the MK-52 and compatibles 250 games for MK-52, MK-61 MK-Compiler easy programming on the MK-61 and MK-52. MK-54 Emulators Here you can download an emulator of all Soviet Programmable Calculators Emulator description page Sources
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Its original selling price was 115 rubles.[2]The MK-52 is a backwards compatible improvement to the Elektronika MK-61, the main changes being the addition of an internal non-volatile EEPROM module for permanent data storage, a diagnostic slot, and a slot for separately sold ROM modules.[3] The machine code and functionality of the MK-52 and MK-61 calculators were extensions of the earlier MK-54,[2] B3-34, and B3-21 Elektronika calculators. The MK-52 is the only calculator known to have internal storage in the form of an EEPROM module. As with many Soviet calculators, the MK-52 has a number of undocumented functions.[4]In November 1988, the MK-52 went into space on the Soyuz TM-7 spacecraft, where it could have been used as a backup to the onboard computers.[1]","title":"Elektronika MK-52"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"volatile program memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memory"},{"link_name":"vacuum fluorescent display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_fluorescent_display"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"mantissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significand"},{"link_name":"exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponent"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"EEPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-5"},{"link_name":"RAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory"}],"text":"The MK-52 has 105 locations of volatile program memory, an internal EEPROM module (with 512 bytes of memory), and 15 7-byte registers. It uses four AA-size battery cells or can be plugged into a power adapter. It has a relatively dim, ten-digit ИЛЦ2-12/8Л green vacuum fluorescent display;[5] these ten digits are apportioned into an 8 digit mantissa and a 2 digit exponent. The MK-52 has an expansion port to which various ROM modules can be attached. Its system clock speed is approximately 75 kHz (derived from a К745ГФ3-2 four-phase clock generator chip[5]), and it weighs approximately 400 grams.The MK-52 is the first Soviet micro-calculator with non-volatile memory; this is provided by a КР1601РР1 EEPROM,[5] with a capacity of 4 kilobits and capable of 10,000 rewrites, ensuring security for programs and working memory when powered off. This memory is capable of storing up to 512 1-byte program words (or the contents of 72 7-byte registers) and exchanging its contents with the calculator's RAM.The calculator is fully compatible with the second-generation models (B3-34 and MK-54), using the same command system and machine codes. On average, a program that takes all 105 steps of program memory and 15 registers on the MC-52 will be equivalent in capability to approximately 140-150 steps and 18 registers on the B3-34. Additionally, the MC-52 has an extended set of commands that can allocate integer and fractional parts of numbers, search for absolute and maximum values of numbers, and perform certain logical operations.","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"ROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"Морском сборнике","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA"}],"sub_title":"ROM","text":"In addition, you can connect an external ROM which is a memory expansion unit with stored games and mathematical programs, produced by the manufacturer, that constitute the user library. Manufacturers have produced 4 types of ROM cartridges, three of them containing various mathematical functions, and one, the BRP-4, containing game programs:BRP-2 \"Astro\" (Russian: БРП-2 \"Астро\"), with a set of programs for navigational tasks, information about which was published in issue 12, of 1988, of the Russian-language monthly magazine Морском сборнике (Marine Digest);BRP-3 (Russian: БРП-3), containing 60 programs for solving mathematical problems. In 1988, 15,200 units of this ROM were manufactured, and were sold at a price of 16 rubles;BRP-4 (Russian: БРП-4) was produced in 1989, containing game programs;GRP \"Geo\".Another expansion port was used for diagnostics during manufacture; this port could also be used to connect the calculator to external peripherals.","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reverse Polish Notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_Polish_notation"}],"text":"The MK-52 has two main modes of operation: automatic mode and programming mode. General calculations and operations are performed in automatic mode, while programs are fed as input in programming mode. The keystroke sequence F+/-/ switches the MK-52 to automatic mode, while F+ВП switches it to programming mode.Manual calculations in automatic mode are in accordance with Reverse Polish Notation logic. For example, to evaluate 2+3, the following keystrokes are required: 2 + В↑ + 3 + +.","title":"Basic operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boolean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"OR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logical_dis-junction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"logical operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_operation"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"}],"sub_title":"Bitwise binary operations","text":"The MK-52 is fully capable of performing Boolean operations on binary numbers. The following example demonstrates the OR logical operation on the binary numbers 111000 and 100001:Binary numbers are input into the calculator as hexadecimal numbers prepended by an 8.First, the operator must divide the numbers into groups of four digits, adding leading zeros if necessary, e.g. splitting 111000 into groups of four gives 0011 and 1000. The equivalent hexadecimal values of these two four-digit binary numbers are 3 and 8, respectively, which equal hexadecimal 38.Similarly, 100001 is equivalent to hexadecimal 21.So, the numbers 8.38 and 8.21 are entered into the MK-52 and the OR operation is performed on them. The OR operation is achieved by pressing K+/-/.The result displayed should be 8.39, which translates into binary 0011 and 1001, and, hence, the binary number 111001, which is the result.The following list details the MK-52's graphical representation of hexadecimal numbers:\n0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, -, L, C, Г, E, (blank). Normal hexadecimal representation is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.","title":"Basic operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"conditional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality"},{"link_name":"unconditional branching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconditional_branching"}],"text":"The MK-52's programming commands are typed into the MK-52 in programming mode and are then executed. The MK-52 is fully capable of being programmed to manage memory and to use both conditional and unconditional branching.In programming mode, the screen displays information about the program in memory, represented by two hexadecimal-digit operation codes. For example, if 10 01 0E 03 is displayed, then this means that 0E is stored at program step 00, 01 is stored at program step 01, 10 is stored at program step 02, and the machine is prompting for data to be input, to be stored at program step 03.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"volatile memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_memory"},{"link_name":"EEPROM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM"},{"link_name":"byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"}],"sub_title":"Saving to EEPROM","text":"Before entering a program to volatile memory with the intention of saving this program to EEPROM memory, the EEPROM program space to be saved to must be cleared first, which clears the volatile memory as well as the selected area of the EEPROM memory.Each program step requires 1 byte of memory and each data register requires 7 bytes of memory.When clearing, reading, or writing to the EEPROM memory, the address and range are specified by a six-digit number, preceded by a non-zero number, in automatic mode: e.g. 1aaaadd specifies that dd bytes are to be stored starting at memory address aaaa. A two-position data/program switch controls whether data (from the registers) or program memory is transferred; a three-position switch is used to select read, write, and clear operations.","title":"Programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rubles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_ruble"},{"link_name":"colorways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/colorway"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MK-52_schematics.png"}],"text":"The Elektronika MK-52 originally sold for 115 rubles. It was produced in a variety of colorways, including black and grey, turquoise and blue, white and grey, and orange. As typical for Soviet electronics, technical schematics were provided for the MK-52 when it was purchased, facilitating user modification and repair of the machine.Elektronika MK-52 schematics","title":"Additional information"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Elektronika_MK_52_with_ERROR.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_script"}],"sub_title":"Error message","text":"MK-52 displaying ЕГГОГWhen an error was encountered on the machine, the display produced a message similar to the English word \"error\". The word, written in this fashion, cut down on the number of display segments used to display the error message; however, this spelling, read as Cyrillic, would instead be pronounced \"eggog\".","title":"Additional information"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Games","text":"There is a host of games available for the MK-52. The MK-52's undocumented functions tend to be heavily used in the games due to their ability to make unusual calculations and produce specialized displays. A simple example of the modification of the display is accomplished by the repeated squaring of 1×1050 (and ignoring error messages).","title":"Additional information"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soyuz TM-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_TM-7"}],"sub_title":"Use in outer space","text":"In November 1988, the MK-52 went into space on the Soyuz TM-7 spacecraft, where it could have been used to calculate the trajectory of landing in the event of an onboard computer failure.","title":"Additional information"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"There is currently only 1 known bug in the MK-52: the MAX function returns zero if one of its two arguments is zero.","title":"Bugs"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Sources"}]
[{"image_text":"Elektronika MK-52 programmable calculator.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Elektronika_MK-52.JPG/220px-Elektronika_MK-52.JPG"},{"image_text":"Elektronika MK52, Электроника МК-52, calculator, Period 1983-1991, ROMː512 B, RAMː 15 registers, 105 program steps, Displayː VFD, 8 + 2 characters, Size: 78 x 212 x 35 mm, Weight: 250 g, 4 x AA battery","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Elektronika_mk52.jpg/220px-Elektronika_mk52.jpg"},{"image_text":"Elektronika MK-52 Calculator PCB","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Elektronika_MK-52_Calculator_PCB.JPG/220px-Elektronika_MK-52_Calculator_PCB.JPG"},{"image_text":"Elektronika MK-52 schematics","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e3/MK-52_schematics.png/220px-MK-52_schematics.png"},{"image_text":"MK-52 displaying ЕГГОГ","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Elektronika_MK_52_with_ERROR.jpg/220px-Elektronika_MK_52_with_ERROR.jpg"}]
null
[{"reference":"\"Elektronika MK-52\". elektronika.su. Retrieved 2021-07-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://elektronika.su/en/calculators/elektronika-mk-52/","url_text":"\"Elektronika MK-52\""}]},{"reference":"\"Elektronika MK-54\". R/S Programmable Calculators. Viktor T. Toth. Retrieved 1 July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rskey.org/mk54","url_text":"\"Elektronika MK-54\""}]},{"reference":"\"Elektronika MK-61/52\". gtello.pagesperso-orange.fr. Retrieved 2021-07-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://gtello.pagesperso-orange.fr/elektronika_e.htm","url_text":"\"Elektronika MK-61/52\""}]},{"reference":"Frolov, Sergei. \"Undocumented functions of Soviet Calculators\". www.leningrad.su. Retrieved 2017-02-06.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.leningrad.su/b334/undocale.htm","url_text":"\"Undocumented functions of Soviet Calculators\""}]},{"reference":"\"Elektronika MK-52: The MK-61 big brother?\". www.hpmuseum.org. Retrieved 2022-10-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-2345.html","url_text":"\"Elektronika MK-52: The MK-61 big brother?\""}]}]
[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elektronika_MK-52&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elektronika_MK-52&action=edit","external_links_name":"help improve it"},{"Link":"https://elektronika.su/en/calculators/elektronika-mk-52/","external_links_name":"\"Elektronika MK-52\""},{"Link":"http://www.rskey.org/mk54","external_links_name":"\"Elektronika MK-54\""},{"Link":"https://gtello.pagesperso-orange.fr/elektronika_e.htm","external_links_name":"\"Elektronika MK-61/52\""},{"Link":"http://www.leningrad.su/b334/undocale.htm","external_links_name":"\"Undocumented functions of Soviet Calculators\""},{"Link":"https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-2345.html","external_links_name":"\"Elektronika MK-52: The MK-61 big brother?\""},{"Link":"http://www.rskey.org/detail.asp?manufacturer=Elektronika&model=MK-52","external_links_name":"Russian to English translation of the MK-52's keyboard"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130630093345/http://www.taswegian.com/MOSCOWx/mk-52.html","external_links_name":"Museum of Soviet Calculators on the Web (MOSCOW)"},{"Link":"http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=157","external_links_name":"Sergei Frolov's \"Soviet Calculators Collection\""},{"Link":"http://www.rskey.org/detail.asp?manufacturer=Elektronika&model=MK-52","external_links_name":"Website detailing programmable calculators"},{"Link":"http://members.tripod.com/GregEscov/psch.htm","external_links_name":"More advanced programming techniques"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100726124201/http://www.thimet.de/calccollection/Calculators/Elektronika-MK-61/CmdRef.html","external_links_name":"Command reference"},{"Link":"http://www.alfredklomp.com/mk-61/","external_links_name":"Alfred Klomp's page on \"Hacking the MK-61\""},{"Link":"http://members.tripod.com/GregEscov/bignums.htm","external_links_name":"More 'EGGOG's"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000105134203/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hall/5525/index.html","external_links_name":"Games etc for the MK-52 and compatibles"},{"Link":"http://lordbss.pp.ru/pmk.html","external_links_name":"250 games for MK-52, MK-61"},{"Link":"http://gtello.pagesperso-orange.fr/elektronika_e.htm","external_links_name":"MK-Compiler"},{"Link":"http://www.rskey.org/mk54","external_links_name":"MK-54"},{"Link":"http://www.emulator3000.org/Calculators3000/Calculators3000.rar","external_links_name":"Here you can download an emulator of all Soviet Programmable Calculators"},{"Link":"http://www.emulator3000.org/c3.htm","external_links_name":"Emulator description page"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands
Insular Government of the Philippine Islands
["1 History","1.1 Jones Law","1.2 Road to commonwealth status","2 Governor-general","2.1 Governor Harrison","3 Resident commissioners","4 See also","5 References","5.1 Bibliography","6 Further reading","7 Notes"]
1902–1935 U.S. territory of the Philippines Insular Governmentof the Philippine IslandsIslas Filipinas Estadounidenses (Spanish)1902–1935 Flag of the United StatesFlag of the Philippines(1920–1935) Coat of arms(1905–1935) Anthems: "Hail, Columbia" (until 1931)"The Star-Spangled Banner"(from 1931)"The Philippine Hymn" 1921 map of the Philippine IslandsStatusUnincorporated and organized United States territoryCapitaland largest cityManilaOfficial languagesEnglish • SpanishCommon languagesPhilippine languages • HokkienReligion (1910)78.7% Catholicism21.3% other (including Indigenous Philippine folk religions and Islam)Demonym(s)FilipinoPhilippine Islander(uncommon)Philippine(used for certain common nouns)GovernmentDevolved presidential dependencyPresident • 1902–1909 Theodore Roosevelt• 1909–1913 William Howard Taft• 1913–1921 Woodrow Wilson• 1921–1923 Warren G. Harding• 1923–1929 Calvin Coolidge• 1929–1933 Herbert Hoover• 1933–1935 Franklin D. Roosevelt Governor-General • 1902–1904 William Howard Taft• 1913–1921 Francis B. Harrison• 1921–1927 Leonard Wood• 1927-1929 Henry L. Stimson• 1929–1932 Dwight F. Davis• 1933–1935 Frank Murphy LegislaturePhilippine Legislature• Upper housePhilippine Commission(1902–1916)Senate(1916–1935)• Lower housePhilippine Assembly(1907–1916)House of Representatives(1916–1935)History • Philippine Organic Act July 1, 1902• Jones Law August 29, 1916• Tydings–McDuffie Act November 15, 1935 Area1903297,916 km2 (115,026 sq mi)1918296,296 km2 (114,401 sq mi)Population• 1903 7,635,426• 1918 10,350,640 CurrencyPhilippine peso (₱)Time zoneUTC+08:00 (PST)Driving sideleft Preceded by Succeeded by U.S. Military Government of the Philippine Islands First Philippine Republic Commonwealth of the Philippines The Insular Government of the Philippine Islands (Spanish: Islas Filipinas Estadounidenses) was an unincorporated territory of the United States that was established in 1902 and was reorganized in 1935 in preparation for later independence. The Insular Government was preceded by the United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands and was followed by the Commonwealth of the Philippines. The Philippines were acquired from Spain by the United States in 1898 following the Spanish–American War. Resistance led to the Philippine–American War, in which the United States suppressed the nascent First Philippine Republic. In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, which organized the government and served as its basic law. This act provided for a governor-general appointed by the president of the United States, as well as a bicameral Philippine Legislature with the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house and a fully elected, fully Filipino elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly. The Internal Revenue Law of 1904 provided for general internal revenue taxes, documentary taxes and transfer of livestock. A wide variety of revenue stamps were issued in denominations ranging from one centavo to 20,000 pesos. The term "insular" refers to the fact that the government operated under the authority of the Bureau of Insular Affairs. Puerto Rico also had an insular government at this time. From 1901 to 1922, the U.S. Supreme Court wrestled with the constitutional status of these governments in the Insular Cases. In Dorr v. United States (1904), the court ruled that Filipinos did not have a constitutional right to trial by jury. In the Philippines itself, the term "insular" had limited usage. On banknotes, postage stamps, and the coat of arms, the government referred to itself simply as the "Philippine Islands". The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was replaced in 1916 by the Jones Law, which ended the Philippine Commission and provided for both houses of the Philippine Legislature to be elected. In 1935, the Insular Government was replaced by the Commonwealth. Commonwealth status was intended to last ten years, during which the country would be prepared for independence. History Main article: History of the Philippines (1898–1946) The Insular Government evolved from the Taft Commission, or Second Philippine Commission, appointed on March 16, 1900. This group was headed by William Howard Taft, and was granted legislative powers by President William McKinley in September 1900. The commission created a judicial system, an educational system, a civil service, and a legal code. The legality of these actions was contested until the passage of the Spooner Amendment in 1901, which granted the U.S. president authority to govern the Philippines. This revenue stamp for the Philippine Islands was issued in 1930.The Insular Government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. On July 4, 1901, Taft was appointed "civil governor", who also named his cabinet at his inaugural address. Military Governor Adna Chaffee retained authority in disturbed areas. On July 4, 1902, the office of military governor was abolished, and Taft became the first U.S. governor-general of the Philippine Islands. The Philippine Organic Act disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. In 1904, Taft negotiated the purchase of 390,000 acres (160,000 ha) of church property for $7.5 million. Despite this, the Insular Government failed to investigate the land titles of the friars' and restore them to the patrimony of the Filipinos. The Insular Government then established a land titling system for these lands, but due to a small surveyor staff, a lot of parcels of land remained untitled. Two years after the completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house. The 1909 U.S. Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act provided for free trade with the Philippines. Every year from 1907, the Philippine Assembly (and later the Philippine Legislature) passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence. Jones Law Philippine nationalists led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña enthusiastically endorsed the draft Jones Bill of 1912, which provided for Philippine independence after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too-rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause the Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed a Congress controlled by Democrats in 1916 with a later date of independence. The Democratic Party in the United States had strongly opposed acquisitions of the Philippines in the first place, and increasingly became committed to independence. The election of Democrat Woodrow Wilson, who advocated a constitutional government in the Philippines as a step towards independence, in 1912 opened up the opportunity. He appointed Francis Burton Harrison as governor, and Harrison replaced mainlanders with Filipinos in the bureaucracy. At his departure in 1921, of the 13,757 government bureaucrats, 13,143 were Filipinos; they occupied 56 of the top 69 positions. This poster advertises the passage of the Jones Law The Jones Law, or Philippine Autonomy Act, replaced the Organic Act. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government. The law maintained an appointed governor-general, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature to replace the elected Philippine Assembly (lower house); it replaced the appointive Philippine Commission (upper house) with an elected senate. Filipino activists suspended the independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States and the Allies of World War I against the German Empire. After the war, they resumed their independence drive with great vigour. On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a "Declaration of Purposes", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States. The "Declaration of Purposes" referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. American Governor-General Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine Legislature as to a stable government. The Philippine Legislature funded an independence mission to the United States in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in America with and presented their case to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. U.S. president Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. is to grant Philippine independence. Neither Congress nor Warren G. Harding, Wilson's successor as president, acted on Wilson's recommendation. In 1921, President Harding sent William Cameron Forbes and Leonard Wood as heads of the Wood-Forbes Commission to investigate conditions in the Philippines. The Commission concluded that Filipinos were not yet ready for independence from the United States, a finding that was widely criticized in the Philippines. Road to commonwealth status After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931, 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. president Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings–McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946. The Tydings–McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a constitution for a ten-year "transitional period" as the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence. On May 5, 1934, the Philippines Legislature passed an act setting the election of convention delegates. Governor-General Frank Murphy designated July 10 as the election date, and the Convention held its inaugural session on July 30. The completed draft Constitution was approved by the Convention on February 8, 1935, approved by U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, and ratified by popular vote on May 14. The first election under the new 1935 constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth was established. Governor-general Main article: Governor-General of the Philippines William Howard Taft was the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands On July 4, 1901, executive authority over the islands was transferred to the president of the Philippine Commission, who had the title of "civil governor"—a position appointed by the president of the United States and approved by the United States Senate. For the first year a military governor, Adna Chaffee, ruled parts of the country still resisting American rule, concurrent with civil governor William Howard Taft. Disagreements between the two were not uncommon. The following year, on July 4, 1902, the civil governor became the sole executive authority of the islands. Chaffee remained as Commander of the Philippine Division until September 30, 1902. The title was changed to "Governor-General" in 1905 by Act of Congress (Public 43 – February 6, 1905). Governor Harrison Harrison in 1913 Francis Burton Harrison was Governor-General from 1913 to 1921 under President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat. He advocated for and oversaw the process of Filipinization, or the transfer of authority to Filipinos in the United States territory's Insular Government to better prepare for independence. He was governor-general during the passages of the Philippine Autonomy Act, otherwise known as the Jones Act, which converted the partially elected Philippine Legislature with the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house and the elected Philippine Assembly as the lower house, to a fully elected Philippine Legislature with the Philippine Senate replacing the now-dissolved Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly renamed the House of Representatives of the Philippines. Despite the length of his tenure as governor-general he vetoed only five bills, the least number by any American governor-general in the Philippines. His pro-Filipino stance made him a popular figure in the Philippines but also the object of criticism of conservative Americans who viewed his liberal governance as not supportive enough of U.S. interests. Under his administration, the Governor-General's Spanish-era mansion called Malacañang Palace was expanded with the construction of an executive building. When he left the Philippines, Harrison lived in Scotland until being recalled to the Philippines in 1934 during a period of transition from an unincorporated territory of the United States to the Commonwealth of the Philippines. In 1921, Republican president Warren G. Harding sent William Cameron Forbes and Leonard Wood as heads of the Wood-Forbes Commission to investigate conditions in the Philippines. The Commission concluded that Filipinos were not yet ready for independence from the United States, a finding that was widely criticized in the Philippines. On November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth government was inaugurated. The office of President of the Philippines was created to replace the Governor-General as Chief Executive, taking over many of the former's duties. The American Governor-General then became known as the High Commissioner to the Philippines. Resident commissioners Main article: Resident Commissioner of the Philippines From the passage of the Organic Act until independence, the Philippine Islands were represented in the United States House of Representatives by two, and then one, resident commissioners of the Philippines. Similar to delegates and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, they were nonvoting members of Congress. See also History of the Philippines (1898–1946) United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands First Philippine Republic Second Philippine Republic Commonwealth of the Philippines References ^ "Act No. 2928, March 26, 1920". March 26, 1920 – via Official Gazette of the Philippine Government. ^ "The Global Catholic Population". February 13, 2013. ^ a b Brewer, Isaac Williams (1906). Notes on the vital statistics of the Philippine census of 1903. [Philadelphia. p. 1. ^ a b Census of the Philippine Islands taken under the direction of the Philippine Legislature in the year 1918. University of Connecticut Libraries. Manila, Bureau of printing. 1920.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) ^ Section 60 of the Revised Motor Vehicle Law, Act No. 3992 "Drive on Left Side of Road. — Unless a different cause of action is required in the interest of the safety and security of life, person, or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of operation in compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or guiding an animal drawn vehicle on a highway shall pass to the left when meeting persons or vehicles coming toward him, and to the right when overtaking persons or vehicles going the same direction, and, when turning to the right in going from one highway into another, every vehicle shall be conducted to the left of the center of the intersection of the highways." ^ This form of the name appeared in the titles of U.S. Supreme Court cases, but was otherwise rarely used. See Costas v. Insular Government of the Philippine Islands, 221 U.S. 623, 1911. The Administrative Code of the Philippine Islands of 1917 gives the formal name of the state as either "Insular Government" or "Government of the Philippine Islands" (p. 5). ^ see, for example, the Spanish version of Law No. 1290, as published in Leyes públicas aprobadas por la Comisión en Filipinas durante el periodo del 1 de Septiembre de 1904 al 31 de Agosto de 1905 comprende desde la ley no. 1226 hasta la no. 1381, inclusive ^ Ooi 2004, p. 387. ^ Zaide 1994, p. 319. ^ Roosevelt, Franklin D (November 14, 1935), Proclamation 2148 on the Establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, The American Presidency Project, University of California at Santa Barbara, This Proclamation shall be effective upon its promulgation at Manila, Philippine Islands, on November 15, 1935, by the Secretary of War of the United States of America, who is hereby designated as my representative for that purpose. ^ a b "Insular Cases," Dictionary of American History, 2003. ^ Escalante, Rene R. (2007). The Bearer of Pax Americana: The Philippine Career of William H. Taft, 1900–1903. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 978-971-10-1166-6. ^ Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). "United States Rule". Philippines: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress. ^ "July 4 Gives Civil Rule to the Filipinos". Chicago Tribune. Manila. July 4, 1901. Archived from the original on April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2017. ^ Ellis 2008, p. 2163 ^ "American President A Reference Resource Archived 2013-08-07 at the Wayback Machine", Miller Center, University of Virginia ^ Corpuz, Onofre (1997). An Economic History of the Philippines. ^ Stanley D. Solvick, "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50.3 (1963): 424–442 online. ^ Wong Kwok Chu, "The Jones Bills 1912–16: A Reappraisal of Filipino Views on Independence", Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 1982 13(2): 252–269 ^ Roy Watson Curry, "Woodrow Wilson and Philippine Policy." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 41.3 (1954): 435-452. online ^ Tony Smith, America's mission call in the United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century (1994) pp 44-46. ^ Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 (Jones Law) ^ Zaide 1994, p. 312 Ch.24 ^ Zaide 1994, pp. 312–313 Ch.24 ^ H. W. Brands, Bound to empire: the United States and the Philippines (Oxford UP, 1992) pp 104-118. ^ Zaide 1994, p. 313 ^ Kalaw 1921, pp. 144–146 ^ "The Philippines, 1898–1946". History, Art & archives. U.S. Government House of Representatives. Retrieved September 20, 2022. ^ a b "W. Cameron Forbes for Envoy to Japan; Bostonian Selected by President Hoover to Succeed W.R. Castle Jr.; Forbes was in Philippines; Served There as Vice Governor and Governor General Under Roosevelt and Taft," New York Times. June 3, 1930. ^ a b Jones, O. Garfield (September 28, 1921), "What Wood and Forbes Have Done In The Philippines", The Outlook, 129: 133–135, retrieved July 30, 2009 ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Wood-Forbes Mission" ^ Zaide 1994, pp. 314–315 Ch.24 ^ Zaide 1994, pp. 315–319 Ch.24 ^ Elliott (1917), p. 4 ^ Tanner (1901), p. 383 ^ a b Elliott (1917), p. 509 ^ Philippine Academy of Social Sciences (1967). Philippine social sciences and humanities review. pp. 40. ^ Brands, 1992. pp 107-131. ^ Jose, Ricardo Trota. (2004). "Harrison, Francis Burton (1873–1957) – Champion of Filipinization". In Ooi Keat Gin (Ed.), Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 563–564. ISBN 1-57607-770-5. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Wood-Forbes Mission" Bibliography Brands, H. W. Bound to Empire: The United States and the Philippines (1992) excerpt Casambre, Napoleon J. (August 1969). "The Response to Harrison's Administration in the Philippines, 1913-1921" (PDF). Asian Studies. 7 (2): 156–170. Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991–1996). "United States Rule". Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8. Elliott, Charles Burke (1917). The Philippines: To the End of the Commission Government, a Study in Tropical Democracy. The Bobbs-Merrill Company. Ellis, Edward S. (2008). Library of American History from the Discovery of America to the Present Time. Lightning Source Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-4437-7649-3. Kalaw, Maximo M. (March 2007) . The Present Government of the Philippines. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4067-4636-5. Morison, Elting E. Turmoil and Tradition: A Study of the Life and Times of Henry L. Stimson. (1960) pp 280–298. online Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. Onorato, Michael Paul (1970). "Governor General Francis Burton Harrison and His Administration: A Reappraisal". Philippine Studies. 18 (1): 178–186. ISSN 2244-1093. Seekins, Donald M. (1993), "The First Phase of United States Rule, 1898–1935", in Dolan, Ronald E. (ed.), Philippines: A Country Study (4th ed.), Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress Smith, Tony. America's mission call in the United States and the worldwide struggle for democracy in the twentieth century (1994) pp 37–59. Stimson, Henry L. and McGeorge Bundy. On Active Services in Peace and War. (1948) pp 117–154. online Zaide, Sonia M. (1994). The Philippines: A Unique Nation. All-Nations Publishing Co. ISBN 971-642-071-4. Further reading Philippines. Civil Service Board (1906). Annual Report of the Philippine Civil Service Board to the Civil Governor of the Philippine Islands, Issue 5. Contributors United States. Philippine Commission (1900–1916), United States. Bureau of Insular Affairs. Bureau of Public Printing. ISBN 9715501680. Retrieved April 24, 2014. Notes ^ The Philippines belonged to, but were not a part of, the United States. See the page for the Insular Cases for more information. ^ Among Chinese Filipinos vteTerritories of the United States Organic act Organized incorporated territories Territorial evolution Thirteen Colonies U.S. territorial sovereignty Northwest (1787–1803) Southwest (1790–1796) Mississippi (1798–1817) Indiana (1800–1816) Orleans (1804–1812) Louisiana/Missouri (1805–1821) Michigan (1805–1837) Illinois (1809–1818) Alabama (1817–1819) Arkansas (1819–1836) Florida (1822–1845) Oklahoma Indian Territory 1834–1907 Panhandle 1850–1890 Territory 1890–1907 Wisconsin (1836–1848) Iowa (1838–1846) Oregon (1848–1859) Minnesota (1849–1858) New Mexico Provisional 1846–1850 Territory 1850–1912 Utah (1850–1896) Washington (1853–1889) Kansas (1854–1861) Nebraska (1854–1867) Nevada (1861–1864) Colorado (1861–1876) Dakota (1861–1889) Idaho (1863–1890) Arizona (1863–1912) Montana (1864–1889) Alaska Department 1867–1884 District 1884–1912 Territory 1912–1959 Wyoming (1868–1890) Hawaii (1900–1959) Unincorporated territories Guam (1898–present) Philippines Military 1898–1901 Insular 1901–1935 Commonwealth 1935–1946 Puerto Rico (1898–present) American Samoa (1899–present) Panama Canal Zone (1903–1979) U.S. Virgin Islands (1917–present) Northern Mariana Islands (1986–present) United Nations trust territories and other inhabited territories governed by the United States Ryukyu Islands Military 1945–1950 Civil 1950–1972 Bonin Islands (1945–1968) Volcano Islands (1945–1968) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1947–1994) American Concession in Shanghai (1848–1863) American concession of Tianjin (1860–1901) Guano Islands Act claims and other uninhabited islands Phoenix Islands (1856–1979) Roncador Bank (1856–1981) Serrana Bank (1856–1981) Baker Island (1857–present) Jarvis Island (1858–present) Johnston Atoll (1858–present) Navassa Island (1858–present) Kingman Reef (1860–present) Swan Islands (1863–1972) Howland Island (1867–present) Midway Atoll (1867–present) Quita Sueño Bank (1869–1981) Palmyra Atoll (1898–present) Wake Island (1899–present) Corn Islands (1914–1971) Category Commons vteTheodore Roosevelt 26th President of the United States (1901–1909) 25th Vice President of the United States (1901) 33rd Governor of New York (1899–1900) Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897–1898) New York City Police Commissioner (1895–1897) Presidency(timeline) First inauguration historic site Second inauguration Foreign policy "Square Deal" Booker T. Washington dinner Conservation Newlands Reclamation Act Transfer Act of 1905 Antiquities Act Pelican Island Devils Tower National Monument Muir Woods National Monument United States Forest Service, United States Reclamation Service National Wildlife Refuge System Roosevelt Arch Conference of Governors Northern Securities Company breakup court case Coal strike of 1902 Pure Food and Drug Act Food and Drug Administration Meat Inspection Act Expediting Act Elkins Act Hepburn Act Aldrich–Vreeland Act Tillman Act of 1907 Federal Employers Liability Act Kinkaid Act Big stick ideology Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty Panama Canal Zone Panama Canal Venezuelan crisis Roosevelt Corollary Occupation of Cuba Russo-Japanese War Treaty of Portsmouth 1906 Nobel Peace Prize Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 Army War College Roosevelt Hall College football meetings Bureau of Investigation Department of Commerce and Labor Bureau of Corporations Keep Commission Inland Waterways Commission Bureau of the Census Great White Fleet Perdicaris affair Cabinet White House West Wing State of the Union Address, 1901 1906 1908 White House desk Federal judiciary appointments Otherevents Spanish–American War Rough Riders Battle of Las Guasimas Battle of San Juan Hill "Bull Moose" Progressive Party New Nationalism Assassination attempt Boone and Crockett Club Smithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition "River of Doubt" Amazonian expedition Life andhomes Birthplace, boyhood home replica Sagamore Hill Home and Museum Maltese Cross Cabin Elkhorn Ranch Pine Knot cabin Gravesite Writingsand speeches Theodore Roosevelt bibliography The Naval War of 1812 (1882 book) "The Strenuous Life" (1899 speech) League to Enforce Peace "Citizenship in a Republic" (1910 speech) "Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual" (1912 post-assassination-attempt speech) Theodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book) The Forum magazine articles Theodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia Archival collections Elections 1898 New York state election Republican National Convention: 1900 1904 1912 1916 United States presidential elections: 1900 1904 1912 Legacy Bibliography Mount Rushmore Theodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library White House Roosevelt Room Theodore Roosevelt National Park Theodore Roosevelt Wilderness Theodore Roosevelt Island Roosevelt National Forest Roosevelt Park (San Antonio) Roosevelt Study Center Theodore Roosevelt Association Mount Rushmore Anniversary coins Statues New York City Portland, Oregon Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Park Monument Assemblage Theodore Roosevelt Monument Roosevelt Memorial, Portland, Oregon Proposed presidential library Theodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse Roosevelt River Theodore Roosevelt Bridge Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Bridge Theodore Roosevelt Award USS Theodore Roosevelt (1906, 1961, 1984) Roosevelt Road U.S. postage stamps Popularculture Teddy bear "Speak softly, and carry a big stick" Books Films Terrible Teddy, the Grizzly King, 1901 film Roosevelt in Africa, 1910 documentary The Rough Riders, 1927 film Teddy, the Rough Rider, 1940 film Rough Riders, 1997 miniseries The Roosevelts, 2014 documentary Theodore Roosevelt, 2022 miniseries Elkhorn, 2024 series Related Political positions "Bully pulpit" Ananias Club "Nature fakers" League to Enforce Peace A Guest of Honor "Muckraker" "Roosevelt Republican" Barnes vs. Roosevelt libel trial Family Alice Hathaway Lee (first wife) Edith Kermit Carow (second wife) Alice Lee Roosevelt (daughter) Theodore Roosevelt III (son) Kermit Roosevelt (son) Ethel Carow Roosevelt (daughter) Archibald Roosevelt (son) Quentin Roosevelt (son) Theodore Roosevelt IV (grandson) Cornelius V. S. Roosevelt III (grandson) Quentin Roosevelt II (grandson) Kermit Roosevelt Jr. (grandson) Joseph Willard Roosevelt (grandson) Edith Roosevelt Derby (granddaughter) Theodora Roosevelt (granddaughter) Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (father) Martha Bulloch Roosevelt (mother) Anna "Bamie" Roosevelt (sister) Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother) Corinne Roosevelt (sister) Cornelius Roosevelt (grandfather) James Stephens Bulloch (grandfather) James Alfred Roosevelt (uncle) Robert Barnhill Roosevelt Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece) Gracie Hall Roosevelt (nephew) Pete (dog) ← William McKinley William Howard Taft → ← Garret Hobart Category vteWilliam Howard Taft 10th Chief Justice of the United States (1921–1930) 27th President of the United States (1909–1913) 3rd Provisional Governor of Cuba (1904) 42nd United States Secretary of War (1904–1908) Governor-General of the Philippines (1901–1904) 6th Solicitor General of the United States (1890–1892) Presidency(timeline) 1909 inauguration Dollar diplomacy Income Tax amendment Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act Weeks Act Federal Corrupt Practices Act Wireless Ship Act of 1910 Apportionment Act of 1911 North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 Mann–Elkins Act Radio Act of 1912 Defense Secrets Act of 1911 Pinchot–Ballinger controversy Commission on Economy and Efficiency U.S. occupation of Nicaragua United States Chamber of Commerce Ceremonial first pitch State of the Union Address 1912 Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court First Oval Office Chief Justice,Supreme Court Supreme Court career Judiciary Act of 1925 Creation of the Supreme Court Building Taft Court cases Other actions Taft Commission Insular Government of the Philippine Islands Philippines Civil Governor, 1901–1904 Taft–Katsura agreement 1906–1909 Occupation of Cuba League to Enforce Peace National War Labor Board Life and legacy Early life Birthplace, home, and historic site Woodbury Point Taft Bridge Bibliography U.S. Postage stamps Taft, Montana High school (New York City Chicago Los Angeles San Antonio) Elections 1908 Republican National Convention 1908 U.S. presidential election 1912 Republican National Convention 1912 U.S. presidential election Family Helen Herron Taft (wife) Robert Alphonso Taft (son) Helen Taft Manning (daughter) Charles Phelps Taft II (son) William Howard Taft III (grandson) Robert Alphonso Taft Jr. (grandson) Seth Taft (grandson) Alphonso Taft (father) Louise Taft (mother) Charles Phelps Taft (brother) Henry Waters Taft (brother) Horace Dutton Taft (brother) Peter Rawson Taft (paternal grandfather) Related Billy Possum Progressive Era Pauline Wayne (cow) Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries) Theodore Roosevelt (2022 miniseries) ← Theodore Roosevelt Woodrow Wilson → Category vteWoodrow Wilson 28th President of the United States (1913–1921) 34th Governor of New Jersey (1911–1913) 13th President of Princeton University (1902–1910) Presidency(timeline) Transition 1913 inauguration 1917 inauguration Roosevelt desk Judicial appointments Supreme Court nominees Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination Cabinet 1919 Nobel Peace Prize 19th Amendment Silent Sentinels Woman Suffrage Procession State of the Union Address 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1920 Foreign policy Wilsonianism Bryan–Chamorro Treaty (1914) Occupation of Haiti (1915–1934) Occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924) Army Appropriations Act of 1916 Council of National Defense Philippine Autonomy Act (1916) World War I 1917–1918; entry campaigns home front Committee on Public Information Four Minute Men Fourteen Points The Inquiry American Commission to Negotiate Peace Armistice of 11 November 1918 Espionage Act of 1917 Immigration Act of 1917 Selective Service Act of 1917 Immigration Act of 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 National War Labor Board (1918) Sedition Act of 1918 Wartime Measure Act of 1918 Paris Peace Conference 1919–1920; Racial Equality Proposal Pueblo speech (1919) Treaty of Versailles 1919; Big Four League of Nations 1920; charter Wilsonian Armenia (1920) New Freedom Federal racial segregation Federal Reserve Act 1913; Federal Reserve Newlands Labor Act 1913; Board of Mediation and Conciliation Raker Act (1913) Revenue Act of 1913 Federal income tax Rivers and Harbors Acts 1913 1914 1915 1916 Sabath Act (1913) Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 Cotton Futures Act of 1914 Cutter Service Act (1914) Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act (1914) Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 Federal Trade Commission Glacier National Park Act of 1914 Legislative Reference Service (1914) Smith–Lever Act of 1914 War Risk Insurance Act (1914) Locomotive Inspection Act (1915) National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1915) Occupancy Permits Act (1915) Adamson Act (1916) Brush Disposal Act of 1916 Cotton Futures Act of 1916 Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 Federal Employees' Compensation Act (1916) Federal Farm Loan Act 1916; Farm Credit System Federal Farm Loan Board Flag Day (1916) Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916 Keating–Owen Act (1916) National Park Service Organic Act 1916; National Park Service Revenue Act of 1916 Rural Post Roads Act of 1916 Smith Act (1916) Stock-Raising Homestead Act (1916) United States Grain Standards Act of 1916 Warehouse Act of 1916 Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916 Flood Control Act of 1917 Smith–Hughes Act 1917; U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education United States Railroad Administration 1917; USRA standard War Revenue Act of 1917 Revenue Act of 1918 Acadia National Park Act of 1919 Grand Canyon Park Act of 1919 Red Summer (1919) Wheat Price Guarantee Act (1919) Esch–Cummins Act 1920; Railroad Labor Board Federal Power Act 1920; Federal Power Commission Merchant Marine Act of 1920 Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 Life Birthplace and Presidential Library papers and manuscripts Boyhood home in Georgia Boyhood home in South Carolina Princeton University president Summer White House (Harlakenden Shadow Lawn) Woodrow Wilson House Gravesite Books Congressional Government (1900) When a Man Comes to Himself (1901) The New Freedom (1913) Elections 1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election 1912 Democratic National Convention 1912 U.S. presidential election 1916 Democratic National Convention 1916 U.S. presidential election Legacy(memorials) Bibliography Woodrow Wilson Awards Woodrow Wilson Foundation Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars The Wilson Quarterly Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs High schools Woodrow Wilson Junior College Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial Woodrow Wilson (Austin statue) Wilson Square (Warsaw) Woodrow Wilson Monument (Prague) Woodrow Wilson Bridge Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation U.S. Postage stamps U.S. Currency Popularculture Wilson (1944 film) Profiles in Courage (1965 series) Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries) Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century (2002 documentary) Wilson (2013 book) Suffs (2022 musical) Family Ellen Axson Wilson (wife, 1885–1914, death) Edith Bolling Wilson (wife, 1915–1924) Margaret Wilson (daughter, acting first lady) Jessie Wilson Sayre (daughter) Eleanor Wilson McAdoo (daughter) Francis Sayre Jr. (grandson) Joseph Ruggles Wilson (father) James Wilson (grandfather) Helen Woodrow Bones (cousin, secretary) William McAdoo (son-in-law) Related Progressive Era Jefferson Literary and Debating Society Woodrow Wilson and race ← William Howard Taft Warren G. Harding → Category vteCalvin Coolidge 30th President of the United States (1923–1929) 29th Vice President of the United States (1921–1923) 48th Governor of Massachusetts (1919–1921) Life Early life and family history Boyhood home and first inauguration site gravesite Calvin Coolidge House Early career and marriage Lieutenant Governor and Governor of Massachusetts Boston police strike (1919) Vice Presidency Retirement and death Presidential Library and Museum Presidency(timeline) First inauguration Second inauguration Industry and trade Taxation (Revenue Act of 1924, Revenue Act of 1926, Revenue Act of 1928) Allegheny National Forest Civil rights (Indian Citizenship Act of 1924) Immigration Act of 1924 Clarke–McNary Act Oil Pollution Act of 1924 World War Adjusted Compensation Act (1924) Opposition to farm subsidies (McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill) Judiciary Act of 1925 Federal Corrupt Practices Act Amendments of 1925 Railway Labor Act Passport Act of 1926 Flood control (Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, Flood Control Act of 1928) State of the Union Addresses (1926 1927) "I do not choose to run" (1927) Radio Act of 1927 Federal Radio Commission Equal-time rule McFadden Act (1927) Brave Little State of Vermont speech (1928) McSweeney-McNary Act of 1928 Migratory Bird Conservation Act Reed–Jenkins Act Foreign policy (Banana Wars, United States occupation of Nicaragua (1912–1933), United States occupation of Haiti (1915–1934), United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924), Washington Naval Treaty (1922), Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928) Presidential transition of Herbert Hoover Cabinet Judicial appointments Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination Elections 1918 Massachusetts gubernatorial election 1919 Massachusetts gubernatorial election 1920 Republican National Convention 1920 United States presidential election 1924 Republican National Convention 1924 United States presidential election Books The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge (1929) Public image Things named after Coolidge Sesquicentennial half dollar U.S. postage stamps Coolidge effect SS President Coolidge Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries) Family Grace Coolidge (wife) John Coolidge (son) John Calvin Coolidge Sr. (father) Calvin Galusha Coolidge (grandfather) Arthur Brown, Olympia Brown, Charles A. Coolidge (cousins) Marcus A. Coolidge, Arthur W. Coolidge, Martha Coolidge, Carlos Coolidge (distant relations) Edmund Rice (ancestor) Rob Roy (family dog) Rebecca (pet raccoon) ← Warren G. Harding Herbert Hoover → ← Thomas R. Marshall Charles G. Dawes → Category vteHerbert Hoover 31st President of the United States (1929–1933) 3rd United States Secretary of Commerce (1921–1928) Presidency(timeline) Transition Inauguration Foreign policy Hoover Dam Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929 Federal Farm Board Reapportionment Act of 1929 Wall Street Crash of 1929 Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act National anthem Economy Act of 1932 Revenue Act of 1932 Mexican Repatriation Federal Home Loan Bank Act Federal Home Loan Bank Board Federal Home Loan Banks Hooverville Bonus Army Banana Wars U.S. occupation of Nicaragua U.S. occupation of Haiti London Naval Treaty Hoover Moratorium Stimson Doctrine Cabinet Medicine Ball Cabinet Hooverball State of the Union Address, 1929 1930 Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt Judicial appointments Supreme Court Executive Orders Hoover desk Other events Sons of Gwalia mine Zinc Corporation Commission for Relief in Belgium University Foundation Belgian American Educational Foundation American Relief Administration Russian Famine Relief Act U.S. Food Administration Commission for Polish Relief Finnish Relief Fund Hoover Commission Life Early life Birthplace and childhood home National Historic Site Hoover–Minthorn House Lou Henry Hoover House Rapidan Camp Legacy Bibliography Presidential Library, Museum, and gravesite Hoover Institution Library and Archives Hoover Tower Hoover Institution Herbert C. Hoover Building U.S. Postage stamp Hoover Medal Hoover Chair Hoover Field Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries) The Angel of Pennsylvania Avenue (1996 film) Books Freedom Betrayed English translation of De re metallica Elections Republican National Convention, 1920 1928 1932 1940 1928 United States presidential election 1932 Family Lou Henry Hoover (wife) Herbert Hoover Jr. (son) Allan Hoover (son) Margaret Hoover (great-granddaughter) ← Calvin Coolidge Franklin D. Roosevelt → Category vteFranklin D. Roosevelt 32nd President of the United States (1933–1945) 44th Governor of New York (1929–1932) Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1920) New York State Senator (1911–1913) Presidency(timeline) Transition Inaugurations (1st 2nd 3rd 4th) First and second terms Third and fourth terms Foreign policy New Deal overview New Deal coalition First 100 days Second New Deal Federal Emergency Relief Administration Civilian Conservation Corps Agricultural Adjustment Act Emergency Banking Act Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1944 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act Tennessee Valley Authority National Labor Relations Act of 1935 National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 Public Works Administration National Recovery Administration Works Progress Administration National Youth Administration Social Security Act Aid to Families with Dependent Children Communications Act of 1934 Federal Communications Commission Securities and Exchange Commission Monetary gold ownership Gold Reserve Act Silver seizure Record on civil rights Defense industry non-discrimination Fair Employment Practice Committee Indian Reorganization Act Executive Orders 9066, 9102 War Relocation Authority Japanese American internment German-American internment Italian-American internment Brownlow Committee Executive Office of the President G.I. Bill of Rights Cullen–Harrison Act Roerich Pact Four Freedoms Four Freedoms Monument Black Cabinet Jefferson's Birthday holiday Jefferson Memorial Judicial Court-Packing Bill Cannabis policy Federal Judicial appointments Supreme Court Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination Cabinet "Brain Trust" March of Dimes Modern Oval Office Official car Criticism Executive Orders Presidential Proclamations Presidentialforeign policy Banana Wars U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933 U.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934 Good Neighbor Policy (1933–1945) Montevideo Convention (1933) Second London Naval Treaty (1936) ABCD line (1940) Export Control Act Four Policemen Destroyers-for-bases deal Lend-Lease 1940 Selective Service Act Hull note Atlantic Charter (1941) Military history of the United States during World War II Home front during World War II Combined Munitions Assignments Board War Production Board Declaration by United Nations (1942) Dumbarton Oaks Conference World War II conferences Quebec Agreement Europe first Morgenthau Plan support Presidentialspeeches 1932 Acceptance speech Commonwealth Club Address Madison Square Garden speech "Four Freedoms" Day of Infamy speech Arsenal of Democracy "...is fear itself" Fireside chats "Look to Norway" Quarantine Speech "The More Abundant Life" State of the Union Address (1934 1938 1939 1940 1941 (Four Freedoms) 1944 (Second Bill of Rights) 1945) Other events Early life, education, career Warm Springs Institute Governorship of New York Business Plot Assassination attempt Elections 1928 New York state election 1930 Democratic National Convention, 1920 1924 1932 1936 1940 1944 1920 United States presidential election 1932 theme song 1936 1940 1944 Life and homes Early life and education Groton School Springwood birthplace, home, and gravesite Adams House FDR Suite Campobello home Paralytic illness Top Cottage Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia Legacy Bibliography Statues Presidential Library and Museum Roosevelt Institute Roosevelt Institute Campus Network Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial Roosevelt Island Four Freedoms Park White House Roosevelt Room Roosevelt Institute for American Studies USS Franklin D. Roosevelt USS Roosevelt Four Freedoms Award Four Freedoms paintings Unfinished portrait U.S. Postage stamps Roosevelt dime I'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical Films The Roosevelt Story 1947 Sunrise at Campobello 1960 Eleanor and Franklin 1976, The White House Years 1977 Backstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries World War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries Warm Springs 2005 Hyde Park on Hudson 2012 The Roosevelts 2014 documentary The First Lady 2022 miniseries FDR 2023 miniseries Other namesakes Family (Roosevelt • Delano) Eleanor Roosevelt (wife) Anna Roosevelt Halsted (daughter) James Roosevelt II (son) Elliott Roosevelt (son) Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (son) John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (son) James Roosevelt I (father) Sara Ann Delano (mother) James Roosevelt Roosevelt (half-brother) Isaac Roosevelt (grandfather) Warren Delano Jr. (grandfather) Fala (family dog) Major (family dog) ← Herbert Hoover Harry S. Truman → Category
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SCC-8"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"established in 1902","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Organic_Act_(1902)"},{"link_name":"reorganized in 1935","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOoi2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidQKgraWbb7yoCdq15novemberpgPA387_387]-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaide1994319-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"Spanish–American War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"Philippine–American War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"First Philippine Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Philippine_Republic"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Philippine Organic Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Organic_Act_(1902)"},{"link_name":"governor-general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"president of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Philippine Legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Legislature"},{"link_name":"Philippine Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Commission"},{"link_name":"upper house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house"},{"link_name":"lower house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_house"},{"link_name":"Philippine Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Assembly"},{"link_name":"revenue stamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenue_stamp"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Insular Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Insular_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"insular government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Government_of_Porto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Insular Cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Cases"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-insularcases-13"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-insularcases-13"},{"link_name":"Jones Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)"}],"text":"The Insular Government of the Philippine Islands[6] (Spanish: Islas Filipinas Estadounidenses[7]) was an unincorporated territory of the United States that was established in 1902 and was reorganized in 1935 in preparation for later independence.[8][9][10] The Insular Government was preceded by the United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands and was followed by the Commonwealth of the Philippines.The Philippines were acquired from Spain by the United States in 1898 following the Spanish–American War. Resistance led to the Philippine–American War, in which the United States suppressed the nascent First Philippine Republic. In 1902, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Organic Act, which organized the government and served as its basic law. This act provided for a governor-general appointed by the president of the United States, as well as a bicameral Philippine Legislature with the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house and a fully elected, fully Filipino elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly. The Internal Revenue Law of 1904 provided for general internal revenue taxes, documentary taxes and transfer of livestock. A wide variety of revenue stamps were issued in denominations ranging from one centavo to 20,000 pesos.The term \"insular\" refers to the fact that the government operated under the authority of the Bureau of Insular Affairs. Puerto Rico also had an insular government at this time. From 1901 to 1922, the U.S. Supreme Court wrestled with the constitutional status of these governments in the Insular Cases.[11] In Dorr v. United States (1904), the court ruled that Filipinos did not have a constitutional right to trial by jury.[11] In the Philippines itself, the term \"insular\" had limited usage. On banknotes, postage stamps, and the coat of arms, the government referred to itself simply as the \"Philippine Islands\".The 1902 Philippine Organic Act was replaced in 1916 by the Jones Law, which ended the Philippine Commission and provided for both houses of the Philippine Legislature to be elected. In 1935, the Insular Government was replaced by the Commonwealth. Commonwealth status was intended to last ten years, during which the country would be prepared for independence.","title":"Insular Government of the Philippine Islands"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Taft Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taft_Commission"},{"link_name":"William Howard Taft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft"},{"link_name":"William McKinley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McKinley"},{"link_name":"Spooner Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spooner_Amendment"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internal_Revenue_Stamps_of_the_Philippine_Island_1930-1937_14.JPG"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-uslc-16-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Adna Chaffee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adna_Chaffee"},{"link_name":"governor-general of the Philippine Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Philippine Organic Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Organic_Act_(1902)"},{"link_name":"disestablished","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disestablishment"},{"link_name":"Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"state religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_religion"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Philippine Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Assembly"},{"link_name":"lower house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_house"},{"link_name":"bicameral legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameralism"},{"link_name":"Philippine Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Commission"},{"link_name":"upper house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house"},{"link_name":"Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Payne%E2%80%93Aldrich_Tariff_Act"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Philippine Legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Legislature"}],"text":"The Insular Government evolved from the Taft Commission, or Second Philippine Commission, appointed on March 16, 1900. This group was headed by William Howard Taft, and was granted legislative powers by President William McKinley in September 1900. The commission created a judicial system, an educational system, a civil service, and a legal code. The legality of these actions was contested until the passage of the Spooner Amendment in 1901, which granted the U.S. president authority to govern the Philippines.[12]This revenue stamp for the Philippine Islands was issued in 1930.The Insular Government saw its mission as one of tutelage, preparing the Philippines for eventual independence.[13] On July 4, 1901, Taft was appointed \"civil governor\", who also named his cabinet at his inaugural address.[14] Military Governor Adna Chaffee retained authority in disturbed areas. On July 4, 1902, the office of military governor was abolished, and Taft became the first U.S. governor-general of the Philippine Islands.[15]The Philippine Organic Act disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. In 1904, Taft negotiated the purchase of 390,000 acres (160,000 ha) of church property for $7.5 million.[16] Despite this, the Insular Government failed to investigate the land titles of the friars' and restore them to the patrimony of the Filipinos. The Insular Government then established a land titling system for these lands, but due to a small surveyor staff, a lot of parcels of land remained untitled.[17]Two years after the completion and publication of a census, a general election was conducted for the choice of delegates to a popular assembly. An elected Philippine Assembly was convened in 1907 as the lower house of a bicameral legislature, with the Philippine Commission as the upper house. The 1909 U.S. Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act provided for free trade with the Philippines.[18] Every year from 1907, the Philippine Assembly (and later the Philippine Legislature) passed resolutions expressing the Filipino desire for independence.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Philippine nationalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipino_nationalism"},{"link_name":"Manuel L. Quezon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel_L._Quezon"},{"link_name":"Sergio Osmeña","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergio_Osme%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"Jones Bill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)"},{"link_name":"Philippine independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_Day_(Philippines)"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Woodrow Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Francis Burton Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Burton_Harrison"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Jones Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)"},{"link_name":"Jones Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Allies of World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I"},{"link_name":"German Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Empire"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zaide1994ch24pp312-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zaide1994ch24pp312-313-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Manila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila"},{"link_name":"Newton D. Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton_D._Baker"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zaide1994ch24p313-28"},{"link_name":"Woodrow Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kalaw1921pp144-146-29"},{"link_name":"Warren G. Harding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_G._Harding"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"William Cameron Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cameron_Forbes"},{"link_name":"Leonard Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Wood"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1930-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones_133%E2%80%93135-32"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"Jones Law","text":"Philippine nationalists led by Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmeña enthusiastically endorsed the draft Jones Bill of 1912, which provided for Philippine independence after eight years, but later changed their views, opting for a bill which focused less on time than on the conditions of independence. The nationalists demanded complete and absolute independence to be guaranteed by the United States, since they feared that too-rapid independence from American rule without such guarantees might cause the Philippines to fall into Japanese hands. The Jones Bill was rewritten and passed a Congress controlled by Democrats in 1916 with a later date of independence.[19] The Democratic Party in the United States had strongly opposed acquisitions of the Philippines in the first place, and increasingly became committed to independence. The election of Democrat Woodrow Wilson, who advocated a constitutional government in the Philippines as a step towards independence, in 1912 opened up the opportunity.[20] He appointed Francis Burton Harrison as governor, and Harrison replaced mainlanders with Filipinos in the bureaucracy. At his departure in 1921, of the 13,757 government bureaucrats, 13,143 were Filipinos; they occupied 56 of the top 69 positions.[21]This poster advertises the passage of the Jones LawThe Jones Law, or Philippine Autonomy Act, replaced the Organic Act. Its preamble stated that the eventual independence of the Philippines would be American policy, subject to the establishment of a stable government. The law maintained an appointed governor-general, but established a bicameral Philippine Legislature to replace the elected Philippine Assembly (lower house); it replaced the appointive Philippine Commission (upper house) with an elected senate.[22]Filipino activists suspended the independence campaign during the First World War and supported the United States and the Allies of World War I against the German Empire. After the war, they resumed their independence drive with great vigour.[23] On March 17, 1919, the Philippine Legislature passed a \"Declaration of Purposes\", which stated the inflexible desire of the Filipino people to be free and sovereign. A Commission of Independence was created to study ways and means of attaining liberation ideal. This commission recommended the sending of an independence mission to the United States.[24] The \"Declaration of Purposes\" referred to the Jones Law as a veritable pact, or covenant, between the American and Filipino peoples whereby the United States promised to recognize the independence of the Philippines as soon as a stable government should be established. American Governor-General Harrison had concurred in the report of the Philippine Legislature as to a stable government.[25]The Philippine Legislature funded an independence mission to the United States in 1919. The mission departed Manila on February 28 and met in America with and presented their case to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker.[26] U.S. president Woodrow Wilson, in his 1921 farewell message to Congress, certified that the Filipino people had performed the condition imposed on them as a prerequisite to independence, declaring that, this having been done, the duty of the U.S. is to grant Philippine independence.[27] Neither Congress nor Warren G. Harding, Wilson's successor as president, acted on Wilson's recommendation.[28] In 1921, President Harding sent William Cameron Forbes and Leonard Wood as heads of the Wood-Forbes Commission to investigate conditions in the Philippines.[29][30] The Commission concluded that Filipinos were not yet ready for independence from the United States, a finding that was widely criticized in the Philippines.[31]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Herbert Hoover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Hoover"},{"link_name":"Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hare%E2%80%93Hawes%E2%80%93Cutting_Act"},{"link_name":"Philippine Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"Tydings–McDuffie Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tydings%E2%80%93McDuffie_Act"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zaide1994ch24pp314-315-34"},{"link_name":"constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935_Constitution_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"Frank Murphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Murphy"},{"link_name":"Franklin Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zaide1994ch24pp315-319-35"}],"sub_title":"Road to commonwealth status","text":"After the first independence mission, public funding of such missions was ruled illegal. Subsequent independence missions in 1922, 1923, 1930, 1931, 1932, and two missions in 1933 were funded by voluntary contributions. Numerous independence bills were submitted to the U.S. Congress, which passed the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Bill on December 30, 1932. U.S. president Herbert Hoover vetoed the bill on January 13, 1933. Congress overrode the veto on January 17, and the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act became U.S. law. The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. The law also required the Philippine Senate to ratify the law. Quezon urged the Philippine Senate to reject the bill, which it did. Quezon himself led the twelfth independence mission to Washington to secure a better independence act. The result was the Tydings–McDuffie Act of 1934 which was very similar to the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act except in minor details. The Tydings–McDuffie Act was ratified by the Philippine Senate. The law provided for the granting of Philippine independence by 1946.[32]The Tydings–McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a constitution for a ten-year \"transitional period\" as the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence. On May 5, 1934, the Philippines Legislature passed an act setting the election of convention delegates. Governor-General Frank Murphy designated July 10 as the election date, and the Convention held its inaugural session on July 30. The completed draft Constitution was approved by the Convention on February 8, 1935, approved by U.S. president Franklin Roosevelt on March 23, and ratified by popular vote on May 14. The first election under the new 1935 constitution was held on September 17, and on November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth was established.[33]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:William_Howard_Taft.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Howard Taft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft"},{"link_name":"United States Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Adna Chaffee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adna_Chaffee"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-End-38"},{"link_name":"Philippine Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Division_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-End-38"}],"text":"William Howard Taft was the first civil governor of the Philippine IslandsOn July 4, 1901, executive authority over the islands was transferred to the president of the Philippine Commission, who had the title of \"civil governor\"—a position appointed by the president of the United States and approved by the United States Senate. For the first year a military governor, Adna Chaffee, ruled parts of the country still resisting American rule, concurrent with civil governor William Howard Taft.[34] Disagreements between the two were not uncommon.[35] The following year, on July 4, 1902, the civil governor became the sole executive authority of the islands.[36] Chaffee remained as Commander of the Philippine Division until September 30, 1902.[37]The title was changed to \"Governor-General\" in 1905 by Act of Congress (Public 43 – February 6, 1905).[36]","title":"Governor-general"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Francis_Burton_Harrison,_seated.jpg"},{"link_name":"Francis Burton Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Burton_Harrison"},{"link_name":"United States territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_territory"},{"link_name":"Insular Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Government"},{"link_name":"Philippine Autonomy Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Autonomy_Act"},{"link_name":"Philippine Legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Legislature"},{"link_name":"Philippine Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Commission"},{"link_name":"upper house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house"},{"link_name":"Philippine Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Assembly"},{"link_name":"lower house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_house"},{"link_name":"Philippine Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Senate"},{"link_name":"House of Representatives of the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Representatives_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Malacañang Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaca%C3%B1ang_Palace"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"unincorporated territory of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_territory_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"Warren G. Harding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_G._Harding"},{"link_name":"William Cameron Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Cameron_Forbes"},{"link_name":"Leonard Wood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Wood"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt1930-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones_133%E2%80%93135-32"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"President of the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Philippines"},{"link_name":"Chief Executive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_(government)"},{"link_name":"High Commissioner to the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Commissioner_to_the_Philippines"}],"sub_title":"Governor Harrison","text":"Harrison in 1913Francis Burton Harrison was Governor-General from 1913 to 1921 under President Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat. He advocated for and oversaw the process of Filipinization, or the transfer of authority to Filipinos in the United States territory's Insular Government to better prepare for independence. He was governor-general during the passages of the Philippine Autonomy Act, otherwise known as the Jones Act, which converted the partially elected Philippine Legislature with the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house and the elected Philippine Assembly as the lower house, to a fully elected Philippine Legislature with the Philippine Senate replacing the now-dissolved Philippine Commission and the Philippine Assembly renamed the House of Representatives of the Philippines.[38]Despite the length of his tenure as governor-general he vetoed only five bills, the least number by any American governor-general in the Philippines.[citation needed] His pro-Filipino stance made him a popular figure in the Philippines but also the object of criticism of conservative Americans who viewed his liberal governance as not supportive enough of U.S. interests.[39]Under his administration, the Governor-General's Spanish-era mansion called Malacañang Palace was expanded with the construction of an executive building. When he left the Philippines, Harrison lived in Scotland until being recalled to the Philippines in 1934 during a period of transition from an unincorporated territory of the United States to the Commonwealth of the Philippines.In 1921, Republican president Warren G. Harding sent William Cameron Forbes and Leonard Wood as heads of the Wood-Forbes Commission to investigate conditions in the Philippines.[29][30] The Commission concluded that Filipinos were not yet ready for independence from the United States, a finding that was widely criticized in the Philippines.[40]On November 15, 1935, the Commonwealth government was inaugurated. The office of President of the Philippines was created to replace the Governor-General as Chief Executive, taking over many of the former's duties. The American Governor-General then became known as the High Commissioner to the Philippines.","title":"Governor-general"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Commissioner_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"nonvoting members of Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonvoting_members_of_Congress"}],"text":"From the passage of the Organic Act until independence, the Philippine Islands were represented in the United States House of Representatives by two, and then one, resident commissioners of the Philippines. Similar to delegates and the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico, they were nonvoting members of Congress.","title":"Resident commissioners"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Annual Report of the Philippine Civil Service Board to the Civil Governor of the Philippine Islands, Issue 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JK4yAQAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9715501680","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9715501680"}],"text":"Philippines. Civil Service Board (1906). Annual Report of the Philippine Civil Service Board to the Civil Governor of the Philippine Islands, Issue 5. Contributors United States. Philippine Commission (1900–1916), United States. Bureau of Insular Affairs. Bureau of Public Printing. ISBN 9715501680. Retrieved April 24, 2014.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Insular Cases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Cases#Background"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Chinese Filipinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Filipino"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Territories of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Organic act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_act"},{"link_name":"Organized incorporated territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_regions_of_the_United_States#Former_organized_territories"},{"link_name":"Territorial evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Thirteen Colonies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies"},{"link_name":"U.S. territorial sovereignty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty"},{"link_name":"Northwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Territory"},{"link_name":"Southwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwest_Territory"},{"link_name":"Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Territory"},{"link_name":"Indiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana_Territory"},{"link_name":"Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_Orleans"},{"link_name":"Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Territory"},{"link_name":"Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missouri_Territory"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan_Territory"},{"link_name":"Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois_Territory"},{"link_name":"Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alabama_Territory"},{"link_name":"Arkansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkansas_Territory"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida_Territory"},{"link_name":"Indian Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Territory"},{"link_name":"Panhandle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_Panhandle"},{"link_name":"Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma_Territory"},{"link_name":"Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_Territory"},{"link_name":"Iowa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_Territory"},{"link_name":"Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_Territory"},{"link_name":"Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Territory"},{"link_name":"Provisional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._provisional_government_of_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory"},{"link_name":"Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah_Territory"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Territory"},{"link_name":"Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_Territory"},{"link_name":"Nebraska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebraska_Territory"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_Territory"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_Territory"},{"link_name":"Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dakota_Territory"},{"link_name":"Idaho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idaho_Territory"},{"link_name":"Arizona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Territory"},{"link_name":"Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana_Territory"},{"link_name":"Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Wyoming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyoming_Territory"},{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii"},{"link_name":"Unincorporated 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home","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Campobello_International_Park"},{"link_name":"Paralytic illness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralytic_illness_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Top Cottage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_Cottage"},{"link_name":"Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_White_House"},{"link_name":"Bibliography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Statues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_statues_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Presidential Library and Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Presidential_Library_and_Museum"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt Institute Campus Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_Campus_Network"},{"link_name":"Franklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt_Memorial"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Island"},{"link_name":"Four Freedoms Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Four_Freedoms_Park"},{"link_name":"White House Roosevelt Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Room"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt Institute for American Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_Institute_for_American_Studies"},{"link_name":"USS Franklin D. Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_(CV-42)"},{"link_name":"USS Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Roosevelt_(DDG-80)"},{"link_name":"Four Freedoms Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Freedoms_Award"},{"link_name":"Four Freedoms paintings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Freedoms_(Rockwell)"},{"link_name":"Unfinished portrait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfinished_portrait_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"U.S. Postage stamps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt dime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_dime"},{"link_name":"I'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%27d_Rather_Be_Right"},{"link_name":"The Roosevelt Story 1947","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Roosevelt_Story"},{"link_name":"Sunrise at Campobello 1960","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunrise_at_Campobello"},{"link_name":"Eleanor and Franklin 1976,","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin_(miniseries)"},{"link_name":"The White House Years 1977","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_and_Franklin:_The_White_House_Years"},{"link_name":"Backstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House"},{"link_name":"World War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II:_When_Lions_Roared"},{"link_name":"Warm Springs 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warm_Springs_(film)"},{"link_name":"Hyde Park on Hudson 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyde_Park_on_Hudson"},{"link_name":"The Roosevelts 2014 documentary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Roosevelts_(miniseries)"},{"link_name":"The First Lady 2022 miniseries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_First_Lady_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"FDR 2023 miniseries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDR_(miniseries)"},{"link_name":"Other namesakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Franklin_D._Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosevelt_family"},{"link_name":"Delano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delano_family"},{"link_name":"Eleanor Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Anna Roosevelt Halsted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Roosevelt_Halsted"},{"link_name":"James Roosevelt II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Elliott Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Roosevelt_(general)"},{"link_name":"Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt_Jr."},{"link_name":"John Aspinwall Roosevelt II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Aspinwall_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"James Roosevelt I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Roosevelt_I"},{"link_name":"Sara Ann Delano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"James Roosevelt Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Roosevelt_Roosevelt"},{"link_name":"Isaac Roosevelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Roosevelt_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"Warren Delano Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Delano_Jr."},{"link_name":"Fala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fala_(dog)"},{"link_name":"Major","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_(Franklin_D._Roosevelt%27s_dog)"},{"link_name":"← Herbert Hoover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Hoover"},{"link_name":"Harry S. Truman →","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_S._Truman"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Franklin_D._Roosevelt"}],"text":"^ The Philippines \nbelonged to, but were not a part of, the United States. See the page for the Insular Cases for more information.\n\n^ Among Chinese FilipinosvteTerritories of the United States\nOrganic act\nOrganized incorporated territories\nTerritorial evolution\nThirteen Colonies\nU.S. territorial sovereignty\n\nNorthwest (1787–1803)\nSouthwest (1790–1796)\nMississippi (1798–1817)\nIndiana (1800–1816)\nOrleans (1804–1812)\nLouisiana/Missouri (1805–1821)\nMichigan (1805–1837)\nIllinois (1809–1818)\nAlabama (1817–1819)\nArkansas (1819–1836)\nFlorida (1822–1845)\nOklahoma\nIndian Territory 1834–1907\nPanhandle 1850–1890\nTerritory 1890–1907\nWisconsin (1836–1848)\nIowa (1838–1846)\nOregon (1848–1859)\nMinnesota (1849–1858)\nNew Mexico\nProvisional 1846–1850\nTerritory 1850–1912\nUtah (1850–1896)\nWashington (1853–1889)\nKansas (1854–1861)\nNebraska (1854–1867)\nNevada (1861–1864)\nColorado (1861–1876)\nDakota (1861–1889)\nIdaho (1863–1890)\nArizona (1863–1912)\nMontana (1864–1889)\nAlaska\nDepartment 1867–1884\nDistrict 1884–1912\nTerritory 1912–1959\nWyoming (1868–1890)\nHawaii (1900–1959)\n\nUnincorporated territories\n\nGuam (1898–present)\nPhilippines\nMilitary 1898–1901\nInsular 1901–1935\nCommonwealth 1935–1946\nPuerto Rico (1898–present)\nAmerican Samoa (1899–present)\nPanama Canal Zone (1903–1979)\nU.S. Virgin Islands (1917–present)\nNorthern Mariana Islands (1986–present)\n\nUnited Nations trust territories and other inhabited territories governed by the United States\n\nRyukyu Islands\nMilitary 1945–1950\nCivil 1950–1972\nBonin Islands (1945–1968)\nVolcano Islands (1945–1968)\nTrust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1947–1994)\nAmerican Concession in Shanghai (1848–1863)\nAmerican concession of Tianjin (1860–1901)\n\nGuano Islands Act claims and other uninhabited islands\n\nPhoenix Islands (1856–1979)\nRoncador Bank (1856–1981)\nSerrana Bank (1856–1981)\nBaker Island (1857–present)\nJarvis Island (1858–present)\nJohnston Atoll (1858–present)\nNavassa Island (1858–present)\nKingman Reef (1860–present)\nSwan Islands (1863–1972)\nHowland Island (1867–present)\nMidway Atoll (1867–present)\nQuita Sueño Bank (1869–1981)\nPalmyra Atoll (1898–present)\nWake Island (1899–present)\nCorn Islands (1914–1971)\n\n Category\n CommonsvteTheodore Roosevelt\n26th President of the United States (1901–1909)\n25th Vice President of the United States (1901)\n33rd Governor of New York (1899–1900)\nAssistant Secretary of the Navy (1897–1898)\nNew York City Police Commissioner (1895–1897)\nPresidency(timeline)\nFirst inauguration\nhistoric site\nSecond inauguration\nForeign policy\n\"Square Deal\"\nBooker T. Washington dinner\nConservation\nNewlands Reclamation Act\nTransfer Act of 1905\nAntiquities Act\nPelican Island\nDevils Tower National Monument\nMuir Woods National Monument\nUnited States Forest Service, \nUnited States Reclamation Service\nNational Wildlife Refuge System\nRoosevelt Arch\nConference of Governors\nNorthern Securities Company breakup\ncourt case\nCoal strike of 1902\nPure Food and Drug Act\nFood and Drug Administration\nMeat Inspection Act\nExpediting Act\nElkins Act\nHepburn Act\nAldrich–Vreeland Act\nTillman Act of 1907\nFederal Employers Liability Act\nKinkaid Act\nBig stick ideology\nHay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty\nPanama Canal Zone\nPanama Canal\nVenezuelan crisis\nRoosevelt Corollary\nOccupation of Cuba\nRusso-Japanese War\nTreaty of Portsmouth\n1906 Nobel Peace Prize\nGentlemen's Agreement of 1907 \nArmy War College\nRoosevelt Hall\nCollege football meetings\nBureau of Investigation \nDepartment of Commerce and Labor\nBureau of Corporations\nKeep Commission\nInland Waterways Commission\nBureau of the Census\nGreat White Fleet\nPerdicaris affair \nCabinet\nWhite House West Wing\nState of the Union Address, 1901\n1906\n1908\nWhite House desk\nFederal judiciary appointments\nOtherevents\nSpanish–American War\nRough Riders\nBattle of Las Guasimas\nBattle of San Juan Hill\n\"Bull Moose\" Progressive Party\nNew Nationalism\nAssassination attempt\nBoone and Crockett Club \nSmithsonian–Roosevelt African Expedition\n\"River of Doubt\" Amazonian expedition\nLife andhomes\nBirthplace, boyhood home replica\nSagamore Hill Home and Museum\nMaltese Cross Cabin\nElkhorn Ranch\nPine Knot cabin\nGravesite\nWritingsand speeches\nTheodore Roosevelt bibliography\nThe Naval War of 1812 (1882 book)\n\"The Strenuous Life\" (1899 speech)\nLeague to Enforce Peace\n\"Citizenship in a Republic\" (1910 speech)\n\"Progressive Cause Greater Than Any Individual\" (1912 post-assassination-attempt speech)\nTheodore Roosevelt: An Autobiography (1913 book)\nThe Forum magazine articles\nTheodore Roosevelt Cyclopedia\nArchival collections\nElections\n1898 New York state election\nRepublican National Convention: 1900\n1904\n1912\n1916\nUnited States presidential elections: 1900\n1904\n1912\nLegacy\nBibliography\nMount Rushmore\nTheodore Roosevelt Center and Digital Library\nWhite House Roosevelt Room\nTheodore Roosevelt National Park\nTheodore Roosevelt Wilderness\nTheodore Roosevelt Island\nRoosevelt National Forest\nRoosevelt Park (San Antonio)\nRoosevelt Study Center \nTheodore Roosevelt Association\nMount Rushmore Anniversary coins\nStatues\nNew York City\nPortland, Oregon\nTheodore Roosevelt Memorial Park\nMonument Assemblage\nTheodore Roosevelt Monument\nRoosevelt Memorial, Portland, Oregon\nProposed presidential library\nTheodore Roosevelt United States Courthouse\nRoosevelt River \nTheodore Roosevelt Bridge\nTheodore Roosevelt Memorial Bridge\nTheodore Roosevelt Award\nUSS Theodore Roosevelt (1906, 1961, 1984)\nRoosevelt Road\nU.S. postage stamps\nPopularculture\nTeddy bear\n\"Speak softly, and carry a big stick\"\nBooks\nFilms\nTerrible Teddy, the Grizzly King, 1901 film\nRoosevelt in Africa, 1910 documentary\nThe Rough Riders, 1927 film\nTeddy, the Rough Rider, 1940 film\nRough Riders, 1997 miniseries\nThe Roosevelts, 2014 documentary\nTheodore Roosevelt, 2022 miniseries\nElkhorn, 2024 series\nRelated\nPolitical positions\n\"Bully pulpit\"\nAnanias Club\n\"Nature fakers\"\nLeague to Enforce Peace\nA Guest of Honor\n\"Muckraker\"\n\"Roosevelt Republican\"\nBarnes vs. Roosevelt libel trial\nFamily\nAlice Hathaway Lee (first wife)\nEdith Kermit Carow (second wife)\nAlice Lee Roosevelt (daughter)\nTheodore Roosevelt III (son)\nKermit Roosevelt (son)\nEthel Carow Roosevelt (daughter)\nArchibald Roosevelt (son)\nQuentin Roosevelt (son)\nTheodore Roosevelt IV (grandson)\nCornelius V. S. Roosevelt III (grandson)\nQuentin Roosevelt II (grandson)\nKermit Roosevelt Jr. (grandson)\nJoseph Willard Roosevelt (grandson)\nEdith Roosevelt Derby (granddaughter)\nTheodora Roosevelt (granddaughter)\nTheodore Roosevelt Sr. (father)\nMartha Bulloch Roosevelt (mother)\nAnna \"Bamie\" Roosevelt (sister)\nElliott Bulloch Roosevelt (brother)\nCorinne Roosevelt (sister)\nCornelius Roosevelt (grandfather)\nJames Stephens Bulloch (grandfather)\nJames Alfred Roosevelt (uncle)\nRobert Barnhill Roosevelt\nAnna Eleanor Roosevelt (niece)\nGracie Hall Roosevelt (nephew)\nPete (dog)\n\n← William McKinley\nWilliam Howard Taft →\n← Garret Hobart\n CategoryvteWilliam Howard Taft\n10th Chief Justice of the United States (1921–1930)\n27th President of the United States (1909–1913)\n3rd Provisional Governor of Cuba (1904)\n42nd United States Secretary of War (1904–1908)\nGovernor-General of the Philippines (1901–1904)\n6th Solicitor General of the United States (1890–1892)\nPresidency(timeline)\n1909 inauguration\nDollar diplomacy\nIncome Tax amendment\nPayne–Aldrich Tariff Act\nWeeks Act\nFederal Corrupt Practices Act\nWireless Ship Act of 1910\nApportionment Act of 1911\nNorth Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911\nMann–Elkins Act\nRadio Act of 1912\nDefense Secrets Act of 1911\nPinchot–Ballinger controversy\nCommission on Economy and Efficiency\nU.S. occupation of Nicaragua\nUnited States Chamber of Commerce\nCeremonial first pitch\nState of the Union Address 1912\nCabinet\nJudicial appointments\nSupreme Court\nFirst Oval Office\nChief Justice,Supreme Court\nSupreme Court career\nJudiciary Act of 1925\nCreation of the Supreme Court Building\nTaft Court cases\nOther actions\nTaft Commission\nInsular Government of the Philippine Islands\nPhilippines Civil Governor, 1901–1904\nTaft–Katsura agreement\n1906–1909 Occupation of Cuba\nLeague to Enforce Peace\nNational War Labor Board\nLife and legacy\nEarly life\nBirthplace, home, and historic site\nWoodbury Point\nTaft Bridge\nBibliography\nU.S. Postage stamps\nTaft, Montana\nHigh school (New York City\nChicago\nLos Angeles\nSan Antonio)\nElections\n1908 Republican National Convention\n1908 U.S. presidential election\n1912 Republican National Convention\n1912 U.S. presidential election\nFamily\nHelen Herron Taft (wife)\nRobert Alphonso Taft (son)\nHelen Taft Manning (daughter)\nCharles Phelps Taft II (son)\nWilliam Howard Taft III (grandson)\nRobert Alphonso Taft Jr. (grandson)\nSeth Taft (grandson)\nAlphonso Taft (father)\nLouise Taft (mother)\nCharles Phelps Taft (brother)\nHenry Waters Taft (brother)\nHorace Dutton Taft (brother)\nPeter Rawson Taft (paternal grandfather)\nRelated\nBilly Possum\nProgressive Era\nPauline Wayne (cow)\nBackstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)\nTheodore Roosevelt (2022 miniseries)\n\n← Theodore Roosevelt\nWoodrow Wilson →\n CategoryvteWoodrow Wilson\n28th President of the United States (1913–1921)\n34th Governor of New Jersey (1911–1913)\n13th President of Princeton University (1902–1910)\nPresidency(timeline)\nTransition\n1913 inauguration\n1917 inauguration\nRoosevelt desk\nJudicial appointments\nSupreme Court nominees\nLouis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination\nCabinet\n1919 Nobel Peace Prize\n19th Amendment\nSilent Sentinels\nWoman Suffrage Procession\nState of the Union Address 1913\n1914\n1915\n1916\n1917\n1918\n1920\nForeign policy\nWilsonianism\nBryan–Chamorro Treaty (1914)\nOccupation of Haiti (1915–1934)\nOccupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)\nArmy Appropriations Act of 1916\nCouncil of National Defense\nPhilippine Autonomy Act (1916)\nWorld War I\n1917–1918; entry\ncampaigns\nhome front\nCommittee on Public Information\nFour Minute Men\nFourteen Points\nThe Inquiry\nAmerican Commission to Negotiate Peace\nArmistice of 11 November 1918\nEspionage Act of 1917\nImmigration Act of 1917\nSelective Service Act of 1917\nImmigration Act of 1918\nMigratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918\nNational War Labor Board (1918)\nSedition Act of 1918\nWartime Measure Act of 1918\nParis Peace Conference\n1919–1920; Racial Equality Proposal\nPueblo speech (1919)\nTreaty of Versailles\n1919; Big Four\nLeague of Nations\n1920; charter\nWilsonian Armenia (1920)\nNew Freedom\nFederal racial segregation\nFederal Reserve Act\n1913; Federal Reserve\nNewlands Labor Act\n1913; Board of Mediation and Conciliation\nRaker Act (1913)\nRevenue Act of 1913\nFederal income tax\nRivers and Harbors Acts\n1913\n1914\n1915\n1916\nSabath Act (1913)\nClayton Antitrust Act of 1914\nCotton Futures Act of 1914\nCutter Service Act (1914)\nEmergency Internal Revenue Tax Act (1914)\nFederal Trade Commission Act of 1914\nFederal Trade Commission\nGlacier National Park Act of 1914\nLegislative Reference Service (1914)\nSmith–Lever Act of 1914\nWar Risk Insurance Act (1914)\nLocomotive Inspection Act (1915)\nNational Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (1915)\nOccupancy Permits Act (1915)\nAdamson Act (1916)\nBrush Disposal Act of 1916\nCotton Futures Act of 1916\nFederal Aid Road Act of 1916\nFederal Employees' Compensation Act (1916)\nFederal Farm Loan Act\n1916; Farm Credit System\nFederal Farm Loan Board\nFlag Day (1916)\nFraudulent Advertising Act of 1916\nKeating–Owen Act (1916)\nNational Park Service Organic Act\n1916; National Park Service\nRevenue Act of 1916\nRural Post Roads Act of 1916\nSmith Act (1916)\nStock-Raising Homestead Act (1916)\nUnited States Grain Standards Act of 1916\nWarehouse Act of 1916\nWildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916\nFlood Control Act of 1917\nSmith–Hughes Act\n1917; U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education\nUnited States Railroad Administration\n1917; USRA standard\nWar Revenue Act of 1917\nRevenue Act of 1918\nAcadia National Park Act of 1919\nGrand Canyon Park Act of 1919\nRed Summer (1919)\nWheat Price Guarantee Act (1919)\nEsch–Cummins Act\n1920; Railroad Labor Board\nFederal Power Act\n1920; Federal Power Commission\nMerchant Marine Act of 1920\nMineral Leasing Act of 1920\n\nLife\nBirthplace and Presidential Library\npapers and manuscripts\nBoyhood home in Georgia\nBoyhood home in South Carolina\nPrinceton University president\nSummer White House (Harlakenden\nShadow Lawn)\nWoodrow Wilson House\nGravesite\nBooks\nCongressional Government (1900)\nWhen a Man Comes to Himself (1901)\nThe New Freedom (1913)\nElections\n1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election\n1912 Democratic National Convention\n1912 U.S. presidential election\n1916 Democratic National Convention\n1916 U.S. presidential election\nLegacy(memorials)\nBibliography\nWoodrow Wilson Awards\nWoodrow Wilson Foundation\nWoodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars\nThe Wilson Quarterly\nWoodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs\nHigh schools\nWoodrow Wilson Junior College\nCelestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial\nWoodrow Wilson (Austin statue)\nWilson Square (Warsaw)\nWoodrow Wilson Monument (Prague)\nWoodrow Wilson Bridge\nWoodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation\nU.S. Postage stamps\nU.S. Currency\nPopularculture\nWilson (1944 film)\nProfiles in Courage (1965 series)\nBackstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)\nWoodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century (2002 documentary)\nWilson (2013 book)\nSuffs (2022 musical)\nFamily\nEllen Axson Wilson (wife, 1885–1914, death)\nEdith Bolling Wilson (wife, 1915–1924)\nMargaret Wilson (daughter, acting first lady)\nJessie Wilson Sayre (daughter)\nEleanor Wilson McAdoo (daughter)\nFrancis Sayre Jr. (grandson)\nJoseph Ruggles Wilson (father)\nJames Wilson (grandfather)\nHelen Woodrow Bones (cousin, secretary)\nWilliam McAdoo (son-in-law)\nRelated\nProgressive Era\nJefferson Literary and Debating Society\nWoodrow Wilson and race\n\n← William Howard Taft\nWarren G. Harding →\n CategoryvteCalvin Coolidge\n30th President of the United States (1923–1929)\n29th Vice President of the United States (1921–1923)\n48th Governor of Massachusetts (1919–1921)\nLife\nEarly life and family history\nBoyhood home and first inauguration site\ngravesite\nCalvin Coolidge House\nEarly career and marriage\nLieutenant Governor and Governor of Massachusetts\nBoston police strike (1919)\nVice Presidency\nRetirement and death\nPresidential Library and Museum\nPresidency(timeline)\nFirst inauguration\nSecond inauguration\nIndustry and trade\nTaxation (Revenue Act of 1924, Revenue Act of 1926, Revenue Act of 1928)\nAllegheny National Forest\nCivil rights (Indian Citizenship Act of 1924)\nImmigration Act of 1924\nClarke–McNary Act\nOil Pollution Act of 1924\nWorld War Adjusted Compensation Act (1924)\nOpposition to farm subsidies (McNary–Haugen Farm Relief Bill)\nJudiciary Act of 1925\nFederal Corrupt Practices Act Amendments of 1925\nRailway Labor Act\nPassport Act of 1926\nFlood control (Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, Flood Control Act of 1928)\nState of the Union Addresses (1926\n1927)\n\"I do not choose to run\" (1927)\nRadio Act of 1927\nFederal Radio Commission\nEqual-time rule\nMcFadden Act (1927)\nBrave Little State of Vermont speech (1928)\nMcSweeney-McNary Act of 1928\nMigratory Bird Conservation Act\nReed–Jenkins Act\nForeign policy (Banana Wars, United States occupation of Nicaragua (1912–1933), United States occupation of Haiti (1915–1934), United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924), Washington Naval Treaty (1922), Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928)\nPresidential transition of Herbert Hoover\nCabinet\nJudicial appointments\nHarlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination\nElections\n1918 Massachusetts gubernatorial election\n1919 Massachusetts gubernatorial election\n1920 Republican National Convention\n1920 United States presidential election\n1924 Republican National Convention\n1924 United States presidential election\nBooks\nThe Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge (1929)\nPublic image\nThings named after Coolidge\nSesquicentennial half dollar\nU.S. postage stamps\nCoolidge effect\nSS President Coolidge\nBackstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)\nFamily\nGrace Coolidge (wife)\nJohn Coolidge (son)\nJohn Calvin Coolidge Sr. (father)\nCalvin Galusha Coolidge (grandfather)\nArthur Brown, Olympia Brown, Charles A. Coolidge (cousins)\nMarcus A. Coolidge, Arthur W. Coolidge, Martha Coolidge, Carlos Coolidge (distant relations)\nEdmund Rice (ancestor)\nRob Roy (family dog)\nRebecca (pet raccoon)\n\n← Warren G. Harding\nHerbert Hoover →\n← Thomas R. Marshall\nCharles G. Dawes →\n CategoryvteHerbert Hoover\n31st President of the United States (1929–1933)\n3rd United States Secretary of Commerce (1921–1928)\nPresidency(timeline)\nTransition\nInauguration\nForeign policy\nHoover Dam\nAgricultural Marketing Act of 1929\nFederal Farm Board\nReapportionment Act of 1929\nWall Street Crash of 1929\nSmoot–Hawley Tariff Act\nNational anthem\nEconomy Act of 1932\nRevenue Act of 1932\nMexican Repatriation\nFederal Home Loan Bank Act\nFederal Home Loan Bank Board\nFederal Home Loan Banks\nHooverville\nBonus Army\nBanana Wars\nU.S. occupation of Nicaragua\nU.S. occupation of Haiti\nLondon Naval Treaty\nHoover Moratorium\nStimson Doctrine\nCabinet\nMedicine Ball Cabinet\nHooverball\nState of the Union Address, 1929\n1930\nPresidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt\nJudicial appointments\nSupreme Court\nExecutive Orders\nHoover desk\nOther events\nSons of Gwalia mine\nZinc Corporation\nCommission for Relief in Belgium\nUniversity Foundation\nBelgian American Educational Foundation\nAmerican Relief Administration\nRussian Famine Relief Act\nU.S. Food Administration\nCommission for Polish Relief\nFinnish Relief Fund\nHoover Commission\nLife\nEarly life\nBirthplace and childhood home National Historic Site\nHoover–Minthorn House\nLou Henry Hoover House\nRapidan Camp\nLegacy\nBibliography\nPresidential Library, Museum, and gravesite\nHoover Institution Library and Archives\nHoover Tower\nHoover Institution\nHerbert C. Hoover Building\nU.S. Postage stamp\nHoover Medal\nHoover Chair\nHoover Field\nBackstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)\nThe Angel of Pennsylvania Avenue (1996 film)\nBooks\nFreedom Betrayed\nEnglish translation of De re metallica\nElections\nRepublican National Convention, 1920\n1928\n1932\n1940\n1928 United States presidential election\n1932\nFamily\nLou Henry Hoover (wife)\nHerbert Hoover Jr. (son)\nAllan Hoover (son)\nMargaret Hoover (great-granddaughter)\n\n← Calvin Coolidge\nFranklin D. Roosevelt →\n CategoryvteFranklin D. Roosevelt\n32nd President of the United States (1933–1945)\n44th Governor of New York (1929–1932)\nAssistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1920)\nNew York State Senator (1911–1913)\nPresidency(timeline)\nTransition\nInaugurations (1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th)\nFirst and second terms\nThird and fourth terms\nForeign policy\nNew Deal\noverview\nNew Deal coalition\nFirst 100 days\nSecond New Deal\nFederal Emergency Relief Administration\nCivilian Conservation Corps\nAgricultural Adjustment Act\nEmergency Banking Act\nFederal-Aid Highway Act of 1944\nFish and Wildlife Coordination Act\nTennessee Valley Authority\nNational Labor Relations Act of 1935\nNational Industrial Recovery Act of 1933\nPublic Works Administration\nNational Recovery Administration\nWorks Progress Administration\nNational Youth Administration\nSocial Security Act\nAid to Families with Dependent Children\nCommunications Act of 1934\nFederal Communications Commission\nSecurities and Exchange Commission\nMonetary gold ownership\nGold Reserve Act\nSilver seizure\nRecord on civil rights\nDefense industry non-discrimination\nFair Employment Practice Committee\nIndian Reorganization Act\nExecutive Orders 9066, 9102\nWar Relocation Authority\nJapanese American internment\nGerman-American internment\nItalian-American internment\nBrownlow Committee\nExecutive Office of the President\nG.I. Bill of Rights\nCullen–Harrison Act\nRoerich Pact\nFour Freedoms\nFour Freedoms Monument\nBlack Cabinet\nJefferson's Birthday holiday\nJefferson Memorial\nJudicial Court-Packing Bill\nCannabis policy\nFederal Judicial appointments\nSupreme Court\nHarlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination\nWiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination\nCabinet\n\"Brain Trust\"\nMarch of Dimes\nModern Oval Office\nOfficial car\nCriticism\nExecutive Orders\nPresidential Proclamations\nPresidentialforeign policy\nBanana Wars\nU.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933\nU.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934\nGood Neighbor Policy (1933–1945)\nMontevideo Convention (1933)\nSecond London Naval Treaty (1936)\nABCD line (1940)\nExport Control Act\nFour Policemen\nDestroyers-for-bases deal\nLend-Lease\n1940 Selective Service Act\nHull note\nAtlantic Charter (1941)\nMilitary history of the United States during World War II\nHome front during World War II\nCombined Munitions Assignments Board\nWar Production Board\nDeclaration by United Nations (1942)\nDumbarton Oaks Conference\nWorld War II conferences\nQuebec Agreement\nEurope first\nMorgenthau Plan support\nPresidentialspeeches\n1932 Acceptance speech\nCommonwealth Club Address\nMadison Square Garden speech\n\"Four Freedoms\"\nDay of Infamy speech\nArsenal of Democracy\n\"...is fear itself\"\nFireside chats\n\"Look to Norway\"\nQuarantine Speech\n\"The More Abundant Life\"\nState of the Union Address (1934\n1938\n1939\n1940\n1941 (Four Freedoms)\n1944 (Second Bill of Rights)\n1945)\nOther events\nEarly life, education, career\nWarm Springs Institute\nGovernorship of New York\nBusiness Plot\nAssassination attempt\nElections\n1928 New York state election\n1930\nDemocratic National Convention, 1920\n1924\n1932\n1936\n1940\n1944\n1920 United States presidential election\n1932\ntheme song\n1936\n1940\n1944\nLife and homes\nEarly life and education\nGroton School\nSpringwood birthplace, home, and gravesite\nAdams House\nFDR Suite\nCampobello home\nParalytic illness\nTop Cottage\nLittle White House, Warm Springs, Georgia\nLegacy\nBibliography\nStatues\nPresidential Library and Museum\nRoosevelt Institute\nRoosevelt Institute Campus Network\nFranklin Delano Roosevelt Foundation\nFranklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial\nRoosevelt Island\nFour Freedoms Park\nWhite House Roosevelt Room\nRoosevelt Institute for American Studies\nUSS Franklin D. Roosevelt\nUSS Roosevelt\nFour Freedoms Award\nFour Freedoms paintings\nUnfinished portrait\nU.S. Postage stamps\nRoosevelt dime\nI'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical\nFilms\nThe Roosevelt Story 1947\nSunrise at Campobello 1960\nEleanor and Franklin 1976, The White House Years 1977\nBackstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries\nWorld War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries\nWarm Springs 2005\nHyde Park on Hudson 2012\nThe Roosevelts 2014 documentary\nThe First Lady 2022 miniseries\nFDR 2023 miniseries\nOther namesakes\nFamily (Roosevelt • Delano)\nEleanor Roosevelt (wife)\nAnna Roosevelt Halsted (daughter)\nJames Roosevelt II (son)\nElliott Roosevelt (son)\nFranklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (son)\nJohn Aspinwall Roosevelt II (son)\nJames Roosevelt I (father)\nSara Ann Delano (mother)\nJames Roosevelt Roosevelt (half-brother)\nIsaac Roosevelt (grandfather)\nWarren Delano Jr. (grandfather)\nFala (family dog)\nMajor (family dog)\n\n← Herbert Hoover\nHarry S. Truman →\n Category","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"This revenue stamp for the Philippine Islands was issued in 1930.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Internal_Revenue_Stamps_of_the_Philippine_Island_1930-1937_14.JPG/220px-Internal_Revenue_Stamps_of_the_Philippine_Island_1930-1937_14.JPG"},{"image_text":"This poster advertises the passage of the Jones Law","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg/150px-Jones_Law_poster_Philippines_1916.jpeg"},{"image_text":"William Howard Taft was the first civil governor of the Philippine Islands","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/William_Howard_Taft.jpg/150px-William_Howard_Taft.jpg"},{"image_text":"Harrison in 1913","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Francis_Burton_Harrison%2C_seated.jpg/250px-Francis_Burton_Harrison%2C_seated.jpg"}]
[{"title":"History of the Philippines (1898–1946)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1898%E2%80%931946)"},{"title":"United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Military_Government_of_the_Philippine_Islands"},{"title":"First Philippine Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Philippine_Republic"},{"title":"Second Philippine Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Philippine_Republic"},{"title":"Commonwealth of the Philippines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_the_Philippines"}]
[{"reference":"\"Act No. 2928, March 26, 1920\". March 26, 1920 – via Official Gazette of the Philippine Government.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1920/03/26/act-no-2928-march-26-1920/","url_text":"\"Act No. 2928, March 26, 1920\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Global Catholic Population\". February 13, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pewforum.org/2013/02/13/the-global-catholic-population","url_text":"\"The Global Catholic Population\""}]},{"reference":"Brewer, Isaac Williams (1906). Notes on the vital statistics of the Philippine census of 1903. [Philadelphia. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/notesonvitalstat00brew","url_text":"Notes on the vital statistics of the Philippine census of 1903"}]},{"reference":"Census of the Philippine Islands taken under the direction of the Philippine Legislature in the year 1918. University of Connecticut Libraries. Manila, Bureau of printing. 1920.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/censusofphilippi01phil/page/n99/mode/2up","url_text":"Census of the Philippine Islands taken under the direction of the Philippine Legislature in the year 1918"}]},{"reference":"Roosevelt, Franklin D (November 14, 1935), Proclamation 2148 on the Establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, The American Presidency Project, University of California at Santa Barbara, This Proclamation shall be effective upon its promulgation at Manila, Philippine Islands, on November 15, 1935, by the Secretary of War of the United States of America, who is hereby designated as my representative for that purpose.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14980","url_text":"Proclamation 2148 on the Establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines"}]},{"reference":"Escalante, Rene R. (2007). The Bearer of Pax Americana: The Philippine Career of William H. Taft, 1900–1903. Quezon City, Philippines: New Day Publishers. p. 91. ISBN 978-971-10-1166-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=obZwAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"The Bearer of Pax Americana: The Philippine Career of William H. Taft, 1900–1903"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-971-10-1166-6","url_text":"978-971-10-1166-6"}]},{"reference":"Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). \"United States Rule\". Philippines: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress.","urls":[{"url":"http://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm","url_text":"\"United States Rule\""},{"url":"http://countrystudies.us/philippines/","url_text":"Philippines: A Country Study"}]},{"reference":"\"July 4 Gives Civil Rule to the Filipinos\". Chicago Tribune. Manila. July 4, 1901. Archived from the original on April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 9, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170410214058/http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1901/07/04/page/1/article/july-4-gives-civil-rule-to-the-filipinos/","url_text":"\"July 4 Gives Civil Rule to the Filipinos\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Tribune","url_text":"Chicago Tribune"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manila","url_text":"Manila"},{"url":"http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1901/07/04/page/1/article/july-4-gives-civil-rule-to-the-filipinos","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Corpuz, Onofre (1997). An Economic History of the Philippines.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The Philippines, 1898–1946\". History, Art & archives. U.S. Government House of Representatives. Retrieved September 20, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://history.house.gov/Exhibitions-and-Publications/APA/Historical-Essays/Exclusion-and-Empire/The-Philippines/","url_text":"\"The Philippines, 1898–1946\""}]},{"reference":"Jones, O. Garfield (September 28, 1921), \"What Wood and Forbes Have Done In The Philippines\", The Outlook, 129: 133–135, retrieved July 30, 2009","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=sVroBrOJL64C&pg=PA133","url_text":"\"What Wood and Forbes Have Done In The Philippines\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Outlook_(New_York)","url_text":"The Outlook"}]},{"reference":"Philippine Academy of Social Sciences (1967). Philippine social sciences and humanities review. pp. 40.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6qVHAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Philippine social sciences and humanities review"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6qVHAQAAIAAJ&q=%22adna+Chaffee+relinquished+his+post%22","url_text":"40"}]},{"reference":"Casambre, Napoleon J. (August 1969). \"The Response to Harrison's Administration in the Philippines, 1913-1921\" (PDF). Asian Studies. 7 (2): 156–170.","urls":[{"url":"https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-07-02-1969/casambre-response-harrisons-administration-philippines.pdf","url_text":"\"The Response to Harrison's Administration in the Philippines, 1913-1921\""}]},{"reference":"Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991–1996). \"United States Rule\". Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0748-8.","urls":[{"url":"http://countrystudies.us/philippines/16.htm","url_text":"\"United States Rule\""},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/philippinescount00dola","url_text":"Philippines: A Country Study"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8444-0748-8","url_text":"0-8444-0748-8"}]},{"reference":"Elliott, Charles Burke (1917). The Philippines: To the End of the Commission Government, a Study in Tropical Democracy. The Bobbs-Merrill Company.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydp6RAAACAAJ","url_text":"The Philippines: To the End of the Commission Government, a Study in Tropical Democracy"}]},{"reference":"Ellis, Edward S. (2008). Library of American History from the Discovery of America to the Present Time. Lightning Source Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-4437-7649-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=phT0ympWgeQC","url_text":"Library of American History from the Discovery of America to the Present Time"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4437-7649-3","url_text":"978-1-4437-7649-3"}]},{"reference":"Kalaw, Maximo M. (March 2007) [1921]. The Present Government of the Philippines. Read Books. ISBN 978-1-4067-4636-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=0_62j7vjAqsC","url_text":"The Present Government of the Philippines"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4067-4636-5","url_text":"978-1-4067-4636-5"}]},{"reference":"Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC","url_text":"Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-770-2","url_text":"978-1-57607-770-2"}]},{"reference":"Onorato, Michael Paul (1970). \"Governor General Francis Burton Harrison and His Administration: A Reappraisal\". Philippine Studies. 18 (1): 178–186. ISSN 2244-1093.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/issue/view/152/showToc","url_text":"\"Governor General Francis Burton Harrison and His Administration: A Reappraisal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2244-1093","url_text":"2244-1093"}]},{"reference":"Seekins, Donald M. (1993), \"The First Phase of United States Rule, 1898–1935\", in Dolan, Ronald E. (ed.), Philippines: A Country Study (4th ed.), Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress","urls":[{"url":"http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ph0026)","url_text":"\"The First Phase of United States Rule, 1898–1935\""},{"url":"http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/phtoc.html","url_text":"Philippines: A Country Study"}]},{"reference":"Zaide, Sonia M. (1994). The Philippines: A Unique Nation. All-Nations Publishing Co. ISBN 971-642-071-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/971-642-071-4","url_text":"971-642-071-4"}]},{"reference":"Philippines. Civil Service Board (1906). Annual Report of the Philippine Civil Service Board to the Civil Governor of the Philippine Islands, Issue 5. Contributors United States. Philippine Commission (1900–1916), United States. Bureau of Insular Affairs. Bureau of Public Printing. ISBN 9715501680. Retrieved April 24, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JK4yAQAAMAAJ","url_text":"Annual Report of the Philippine Civil Service Board to the Civil Governor of the Philippine Islands, Issue 5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9715501680","url_text":"9715501680"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_prototyping
Digital prototyping
["1 History of Digital Prototyping","2 Digital Prototyping and PLM","3 Digital Prototyping Workflow","3.1 Conceptual Design","3.2 Engineering","3.3 Manufacturing","3.4 Customer Involvement","3.5 Marketing","3.6 Connecting Data and Teams","4 Digital Prototyping and Sustainability","5 References"]
Not to be confused with Rapid prototyping. Digital Prototyping gives conceptual design, engineering, manufacturing, and sales and marketing departments the ability to virtually explore a complete product before it's built. Industrial designers, manufacturers, and engineers use Digital Prototyping to design, iterate, optimize, validate, and visualize their products digitally throughout the product development process. Innovative digital prototypes can be created via CAutoD through intelligent and near-optimal iterations, meeting multiple design objectives (such as maximised output, energy efficiency, highest speed and cost-effectiveness), identifying multiple figures of merit, and reducing development gearing and time-to-market. Marketers also use Digital Prototyping to create photorealistic renderings and animations of products prior to manufacturing. Companies often adopt Digital Prototyping with the goal of improving communication between product development stakeholders, getting products to market faster, and facilitating product innovation. Digital Prototyping goes beyond simply creating product designs in 3D. It gives product development teams a way to assess the operation of moving parts, to determine whether or not the product will fail, and see how the various product components interact with subsystems—either pneumatic or electric. By simulating and validating the real-world performance of a product design digitally, manufacturers often can reduce the number of physical prototypes they need to create before a product can be manufactured, reducing the cost and time needed for physical prototyping. Many companies use Digital Prototyping in place of, or as a complement to, physical prototyping. Digital Prototyping changes the traditional product development cycle from design>build>test>fix to design>analyze>test>build. Instead of needing to build multiple physical prototypes and then testing them to see if they'll work, companies can conduct testing digitally throughout the process by using Digital Prototyping, reducing the number of physical prototypes needed to validate the design. Studies show that by using Digital Prototyping to catch design problems up front, manufacturers experience fewer change orders downstream. Because the geometry in digital prototypes is highly accurate, companies can check interferences to avoid assembly issues that generate change orders in the testing and manufacturing phases of development. Companies can also perform simulations in early stages of the product development cycle, so they avoid failure modes during testing or manufacturing phases. With a Digital Prototyping approach, companies can digitally test a broader range of their product's performance. They can also test design iterations quickly to assess whether they're over- or under-designing components. Research from the Aberdeen Group shows that manufacturers that use Digital Prototyping build half the number of physical prototypes as the average manufacturer, get to market 58 days faster than average, and experience 48 percent lower prototyping costs. History of Digital Prototyping The concept of Digital Prototyping has been around for over a decade, particularly since software companies such as Autodesk, PTC, Siemens PLM (formerly UGS), and Dassault began offering computer-aided design (CAD) software capable of creating accurate 3D models. It may even be argued that the product lifecycle management (PLM) approach was the harbinger of Digital Prototyping. PLM is an integrated, information-driven approach to a product's lifecycle, from development to disposal. A major aspect of PLM is coordinating and managing product data among all software, suppliers, and team members involved in the product's lifecycle. Companies use a collection of software tools and methods to integrate people, data, and processes to support singular steps in the product's lifecycle or to manage the product's lifecycle from beginning to end. PLM often includes product visualization to facilitate collaboration and understanding among the internal and external teams that participate in some aspect of a product's lifecycle. While the concept of Digital Prototyping has been a longstanding goal for manufacturing companies for some time, it's only recently that Digital Prototyping has become a reality for small-to-midsize manufacturers that cannot afford to implement complex and expensive PLM solutions. Digital Prototyping and PLM Large manufacturing companies rely on PLM to link otherwise unconnected, siloed activities, such as concept development, design, engineering, manufacturing, sales, and marketing. PLM is a fully integrated approach to product development that requires investments in application software, implementation, and integration with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, as well as end-user training and a sophisticated IT staff to manage the technology. PLM solutions are highly customized and complex to implement, often requiring a complete replacement of existing technology. Because of the high expense and IT expertise required to purchase, deploy, and run a PLM solution, many small-to-midsized manufacturers cannot implement PLM. Digital Prototyping is a viable alternative to PLM for these small-to-midsized manufacturers. Like PLM, Digital Prototyping seeks to link otherwise unconnected, siloed activities, such as concept development, design, engineering, manufacturing, sales, and marketing. However, unlike PLM, Digital Prototyping does not support the entire product development process from conception to disposal, but rather focuses on the design-to-manufacture portion of the process. The realm of Digital Prototyping ends when the digital product and the engineering bill of materials are complete. Digital Prototyping aims to resolve many of the same issues as PLM without involving a highly customized, all-encompassing software deployment. With Digital Prototyping, a company may choose to address one need at a time, making the approach more pervasive as its business grows. Other differences between Digital Prototyping and PLM include: Digital Prototyping involves fewer participants than PLM. Digital Prototyping has a less complex process for collecting, managing, and sharing data. Manufacturers can keep product development activities separate from operations management with Digital Prototyping. Digital Prototyping solutions don't need to be integrated with ERP (but can be), customer relationship management (CRM), and project and portfolio management (PPM) software. Digital Prototyping Workflow A Digital Prototyping workflow involves using a single digital model throughout the design process to bridge the gaps that typically exist between workgroups such as industrial design, engineering, manufacturing, sales, and marketing. Product development can be broken into the following general phases at most manufacturing companies: Conceptual Design Engineering Manufacturing Customer Involvement Marketing Communications Conceptual Design The conceptual design phase involves taking customer input or market requirements and data to create a product design. In a Digital Prototyping workflow, designers work digitally, from the very first sketch, throughout the conceptual design phase. They capture their designs digitally, and then share that data with the engineering team using a common file format. The industrial design data is then incorporated into the digital prototype to ensure technical feasibility. In a Digital Prototyping workflow, designers and their teams review digital design data via high-quality digital imagery or renderings to make informed product design decisions. Designers may create and visualize several iterations of design, changing things like materials or color schemes, before a concept is finalized. Engineering During the engineering phase of the Digital Prototyping workflow, engineers create the product's 3D model (the digital prototype), integrating design data developed during the conceptual design phase. Teams also add electrical systems design data to the digital prototype while it's being developed, and evaluate how different systems interact. At this stage of the workflow, all data related to the product's development is fully integrated into the digital prototype. Working with mechanical, electrical, and industrial design data, companies engineer every last product detail in the engineering phase of the workflow. At this point, the digital prototype is a fully realistic digital model of the complete product. Engineers test and validate the digital prototype throughout their design process to make the best possible design decisions and avoid costly mistakes. Using the digital prototype, engineers can: Perform integrated calculations, and stress, deflection, and motion simulations to validate designs Test how moving parts will work and interact Evaluate different solutions to motion problems Test how the design functions under real-world constraints Conduct stress analysis to analyze material selection and displacement Verify the strength of a part By incorporating integrated calculations, stress, deflection, and motion simulations into the Digital Prototyping workflow, companies can speed development cycles by minimizing physical prototyping phases. By implementing a digital prototype of a partially or fully automated vehicle and its sensor suite into a dynamic co-simulation of traffic flow and vehicle dynamics, a novel toolchain methodology comprising virtual testing is available for the development of automated driving functions by the automotive industry. Also during the engineering phase of the Digital Prototyping workflow, engineers create documentation required by the production team. Manufacturing In a Digital Prototyping workflow, manufacturing teams are involved early in the design process. This input helps engineers and manufacturing experts work together on the digital prototype throughout the design process to ensure that the product can be produced cost effectively. Manufacturing teams can see the product exactly as it's intended, and provide input on manufacturability. Companies can perform molding simulations on digital prototypes for plastic part and injection molds to test the manufacturability of their designs, identifying potential manufacturing defects before they cut mold tooling. Digital Prototyping also enables product teams to share detailed assembly instructions digitally with manufacturing teams. While paper assembly drawings can be confusing, 3D visualizations of digital prototypes are unambiguous. This early and clear collaboration between manufacturing and engineering teams helps minimize manufacturing problems on the shop floor. Finally, manufacturers can use Digital Prototyping to visualize and simulate factory-floor layouts and production lines. They can check for interferences to detect potential issues such as space constraints and equipment collisions. Customer Involvement Customers are involved throughout the Digital Prototyping workflow. Rather than waiting for a physical prototype to be complete, companies that use Digital Prototyping bring customers into the product development process early. They show customers realistic renderings and animations of the product's digital prototype so they'll know what the product looks like and how it will function. This early customer involvement helps companies get sign-off up front, so they don't waste time designing, engineering, and manufacturing a product that doesn't fulfill the customer's expectations. Marketing Using 3D CAD data from the digital prototype, companies can create realistic visualizations, renderings, and animations to market products in print, on the web, in catalogues, or in television commercials. Without needing to produce expensive physical prototypes and conduct photo shoots, companies can create virtual photography and cinematography nearly indistinguishable from reality. One aspect of this is creating the illumination environment for the subject, an area of new development. Realistic visualizations not only help marketing communications, but the sales process as well. Companies can respond to requests for proposals and bid on projects without building physical prototypes, using visualizations to show the potential customer what the end product will be like. In addition, visualizations can help companies bid more accurately by making it more likely that everyone has the same expectations about the end product. Companies can also use visualizations to facilitate the review process once they've secured the business. Reviewers can interact with digital prototypes in realistic environments, allowing for the validation of design decisions early in the product development process. Connecting Data and Teams To support a Digital Prototyping workflow, companies use data management tools to coordinate all teams at every stage in the workflow, streamline design revisions and automate release processes for digital prototypes, and manage engineering bills of materials. These data management tools connect all workgroups to critical Digital Prototyping data. Digital Prototyping and Sustainability Companies increasingly use Digital Prototyping to understand sustainability factors in new product designs, and to help meet customer requirements for sustainable products and processes. They minimize material use by assessing multiple design scenarios to determine the optimal amount and type of material required to meet product specifications. In addition, by reducing the number of physical prototypes required, manufacturers can trim down their material waste. Digital Prototyping can also help companies reduce the carbon footprint of their products. For example, WinWinD, a company that creates innovative wind turbines, uses Digital Prototyping to optimize the energy production of wind-power turbines for varying wind conditions. Furthermore, the rich product data supplied by Digital Prototyping can help companies demonstrate conformance with the growing number of product-related environmental regulations and voluntary sustainability standards. References ^ Aberdeen Group, “The Transition from 2D Drafting to 3D Modeling Benchmark Report,” September 2006, p. 6. ^ "Ideenmanagement Software" (in German). Ivan Jovic. Archived from the original on 2015-11-15. Retrieved June 3, 2020. ^ Jeff Rowe, “Virtual Reality,” Cadalyst, March 2, 2006. ^ Aberdeen Group, “The Transition from 2D Drafting to 3D Modeling Benchmark Report,” September 2006, p. 7. ^ a b Aberdeen Group, “Complementary Digital and Physical Prototyping Strategies: Avoiding the Product Development Crunch,” February 2008, p. 11. ^ Aberdeen Group, “The Transition from 2D Drafting to 3D Modeling Benchmark Report,” September 2006. ^ John Teresko, “The PLM Revolution,” IndustryWeek, February 1, 2004. ^ "Management of Innovation". University of Toronto. Archived from the original on 2019-10-01. Retrieved June 3, 2020. ^ a b IDC, “Digital Prototyping: Autodesk Strengthens Competitiveness of Worldwide SMB Manufacturers,” October 2008. ^ Jeff Rowe, “Autodesk Acquires ALGOR,” MCADCafe, January 12, 2009. ^ Hallerbach, Sven; Xia, Yiqun; Eberle, Ulrich; Koester, Frank (3 April 2018). "Simulation-based Identification of Critical Scenarios for Cooperative and Automated Vehicles". SAE Technical Paper 2018-01-1066. Retrieved 23 December 2018. ^ Rapid Prototyping of Digital Systems. James O. Hamblen, Michael D. Furman. 8 May 2007. ISBN 9780306470516. Retrieved June 3, 2020. ^ In Hope Neal’s October 17, 2008 Manufacturing Business Technology article, “Smart product design: it’s getting easier to be green,” she writes, “Digital prototyping can help prevent overbuilding by helping designers create virtual prototypes of products they are developing so they can see how they will work under real-world conditions. This can minimize material requirements.” ^ See the Sustainability Report at Autodesk.com.
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rapid prototyping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_prototyping"},{"link_name":"Industrial designers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_designers"},{"link_name":"CAutoD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAutoD"},{"link_name":"photorealistic renderings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorealistic_rendering"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ivan_Jovic-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-complementary-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-complementary-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Rapid prototyping.Digital Prototyping gives conceptual design, engineering, manufacturing, and sales and marketing departments the ability to virtually explore a complete product before it's built. Industrial designers, manufacturers, and engineers use Digital Prototyping to design, iterate, optimize, validate, and visualize their products digitally throughout the product development process. Innovative digital prototypes can be created via CAutoD through intelligent and near-optimal iterations, meeting multiple design objectives (such as maximised output, energy efficiency, highest speed and cost-effectiveness), identifying multiple figures of merit, and reducing development gearing and time-to-market. Marketers also use Digital Prototyping to create photorealistic renderings and animations of products prior to manufacturing. Companies often adopt Digital Prototyping with the goal of improving communication between product development stakeholders, getting products to market faster, and facilitating product innovation.Digital Prototyping goes beyond simply creating product designs in 3D. It gives product development teams a way to assess the operation of moving parts, to determine whether or not the product will fail, and see how the various product components interact with subsystems—either pneumatic or electric. By simulating and validating the real-world performance of a product design digitally, manufacturers often can reduce the number of physical prototypes they need to create before a product can be manufactured, reducing the cost and time needed for physical prototyping.[1] Many companies use Digital Prototyping in place of, or as a complement to, physical prototyping.[2]Digital Prototyping changes the traditional product development cycle from design>build>test>fix to design>analyze>test>build.[3] Instead of needing to build multiple physical prototypes and then testing them to see if they'll work, companies can conduct testing digitally throughout the process by using Digital Prototyping, reducing the number of physical prototypes needed to validate the design. Studies show that by using Digital Prototyping to catch design problems up front, manufacturers experience fewer change orders downstream.[4] Because the geometry in digital prototypes is highly accurate, companies can check interferences to avoid assembly issues that generate change orders in the testing and manufacturing phases of development.[5] Companies can also perform simulations in early stages of the product development cycle, so they avoid failure modes during testing or manufacturing phases. With a Digital Prototyping approach, companies can digitally test a broader range of their product's performance.[5] They can also test design iterations quickly to assess whether they're over- or under-designing components.Research from the Aberdeen Group shows that manufacturers that use Digital Prototyping build half the number of physical prototypes as the average manufacturer, get to market 58 days faster than average, and experience 48 percent lower prototyping costs.[6]","title":"Digital prototyping"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"product lifecycle management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_lifecycle_management"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-University_of_Toronto-8"}],"text":"The concept of Digital Prototyping has been around for over a decade, particularly since software companies such as Autodesk, PTC, Siemens PLM (formerly UGS), and Dassault began offering computer-aided design (CAD) software capable of creating accurate 3D models.It may even be argued that the product lifecycle management (PLM) approach was the harbinger of Digital Prototyping. PLM is an integrated, information-driven approach to a product's lifecycle, from development to disposal.[7] A major aspect of PLM is coordinating and managing product data among all software, suppliers, and team members involved in the product's lifecycle. Companies use a collection of software tools and methods to integrate people, data, and processes to support singular steps in the product's lifecycle or to manage the product's lifecycle from beginning to end.[8] PLM often includes product visualization to facilitate collaboration and understanding among the internal and external teams that participate in some aspect of a product's lifecycle.While the concept of Digital Prototyping has been a longstanding goal for manufacturing companies for some time, it's only recently that Digital Prototyping has become a reality for small-to-midsize manufacturers that cannot afford to implement complex and expensive PLM solutions.","title":"History of Digital Prototyping"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idc-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idc-9"}],"text":"Large manufacturing companies rely on PLM to link otherwise unconnected, siloed activities, such as concept development, design, engineering, manufacturing, sales, and marketing. PLM is a fully integrated approach to product development that requires investments in application software, implementation, and integration with enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems, as well as end-user training and a sophisticated IT staff to manage the technology. PLM solutions are highly customized and complex to implement, often requiring a complete replacement of existing technology. Because of the high expense and IT expertise required to purchase, deploy, and run a PLM solution, many small-to-midsized manufacturers cannot implement PLM.Digital Prototyping is a viable alternative to PLM for these small-to-midsized manufacturers. Like PLM, Digital Prototyping seeks to link otherwise unconnected, siloed activities, such as concept development, design, engineering, manufacturing, sales, and marketing. However, unlike PLM, Digital Prototyping does not support the entire product development process from conception to disposal, but rather focuses on the design-to-manufacture portion of the process. The realm of Digital Prototyping ends when the digital product and the engineering bill of materials are complete.[9] Digital Prototyping aims to resolve many of the same issues as PLM without involving a highly customized, all-encompassing software deployment. With Digital Prototyping, a company may choose to address one need at a time, making the approach more pervasive as its business grows. Other differences between Digital Prototyping and PLM include:Digital Prototyping involves fewer participants than PLM.\nDigital Prototyping has a less complex process for collecting, managing, and sharing data.\nManufacturers can keep product development activities separate from operations management with Digital Prototyping.\nDigital Prototyping solutions don't need to be integrated with ERP (but can be), customer relationship management (CRM), and project and portfolio management (PPM) software.[9]","title":"Digital Prototyping and PLM"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"A Digital Prototyping workflow involves using a single digital model throughout the design process to bridge the gaps that typically exist between workgroups such as industrial design, engineering, manufacturing, sales, and marketing. Product development can be broken into the following general phases at most manufacturing companies:Conceptual Design\nEngineering\nManufacturing\nCustomer Involvement\nMarketing Communications","title":"Digital Prototyping Workflow"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Conceptual Design","text":"The conceptual design phase involves taking customer input or market requirements and data to create a product design. In a Digital Prototyping workflow, designers work digitally, from the very first sketch, throughout the conceptual design phase. They capture their designs digitally, and then share that data with the engineering team using a common file format. The industrial design data is then incorporated into the digital prototype to ensure technical feasibility.In a Digital Prototyping workflow, designers and their teams review digital design data via high-quality digital imagery or renderings to make informed product design decisions. Designers may create and visualize several iterations of design, changing things like materials or color schemes, before a concept is finalized.","title":"Digital Prototyping Workflow"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Engineering","text":"During the engineering phase of the Digital Prototyping workflow, engineers create the product's 3D model (the digital prototype), integrating design data developed during the conceptual design phase. Teams also add electrical systems design data to the digital prototype while it's being developed, and evaluate how different systems interact. At this stage of the workflow, all data related to the product's development is fully integrated into the digital prototype. Working with mechanical, electrical, and industrial design data, companies engineer every last product detail in the engineering phase of the workflow. At this point, the digital prototype is a fully realistic digital model of the complete product.Engineers test and validate the digital prototype throughout their design process to make the best possible design decisions and avoid costly mistakes. Using the digital prototype, engineers can:Perform integrated calculations, and stress, deflection, and motion simulations to validate designs\nTest how moving parts will work and interact\nEvaluate different solutions to motion problems\nTest how the design functions under real-world constraints\nConduct stress analysis to analyze material selection and displacement\nVerify the strength of a partBy incorporating integrated calculations, stress, deflection, and motion simulations into the Digital Prototyping workflow, companies can speed development cycles by minimizing physical prototyping phases.[10] By implementing a digital prototype of a partially or fully automated vehicle and its sensor suite into a dynamic co-simulation of traffic flow and vehicle dynamics, a novel toolchain methodology comprising virtual testing is available for the development of automated driving functions by the automotive industry.[11]Also during the engineering phase of the Digital Prototyping workflow, engineers create documentation required by the production team.","title":"Digital Prototyping Workflow"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Manufacturing","text":"In a Digital Prototyping workflow, manufacturing teams are involved early in the design process. This input helps engineers and manufacturing experts work together on the digital prototype throughout the design process to ensure that the product can be produced cost effectively. Manufacturing teams can see the product exactly as it's intended, and provide input on manufacturability. Companies can perform molding simulations on digital prototypes for plastic part and injection molds to test the manufacturability of their designs, identifying potential manufacturing defects before they cut mold tooling.Digital Prototyping also enables product teams to share detailed assembly instructions digitally with manufacturing teams. While paper assembly drawings can be confusing, 3D visualizations of digital prototypes are unambiguous. This early and clear collaboration between manufacturing and engineering teams helps minimize manufacturing problems on the shop floor.Finally, manufacturers can use Digital Prototyping to visualize and simulate factory-floor layouts and production lines. They can check for interferences to detect potential issues such as space constraints and equipment collisions.","title":"Digital Prototyping Workflow"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Customer Involvement","text":"Customers are involved throughout the Digital Prototyping workflow. Rather than waiting for a physical prototype to be complete, companies that use Digital Prototyping bring customers into the product development process early. They show customers realistic renderings and animations of the product's digital prototype so they'll know what the product looks like and how it will function. This early customer involvement helps companies get sign-off up front, so they don't waste time designing, engineering, and manufacturing a product that doesn't fulfill the customer's expectations.","title":"Digital Prototyping Workflow"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Marketing","text":"Using 3D CAD data from the digital prototype, companies can create realistic visualizations, renderings, and animations to market products in print, on the web, in catalogues, or in television commercials. Without needing to produce expensive physical prototypes and conduct photo shoots, companies can create virtual photography and cinematography nearly indistinguishable from reality. One aspect of this is creating the illumination environment for the subject, an area of new development.Realistic visualizations not only help marketing communications, but the sales process as well. Companies can respond to requests for proposals and bid on projects without building physical prototypes, using visualizations to show the potential customer what the end product will be like. In addition, visualizations can help companies bid more accurately by making it more likely that everyone has the same expectations about the end product. Companies can also use visualizations to facilitate the review process once they've secured the business. Reviewers can interact with digital prototypes in realistic environments, allowing for the validation of design decisions early in the product development process.","title":"Digital Prototyping Workflow"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Google_Books-12"}],"sub_title":"Connecting Data and Teams","text":"To support a Digital Prototyping workflow, companies use data management tools to coordinate all teams at every stage in the workflow, streamline design revisions and automate release processes for digital prototypes, and manage engineering bills of materials. These data management tools connect all workgroups to critical Digital Prototyping data.[12]","title":"Digital Prototyping Workflow"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Companies increasingly use Digital Prototyping to understand sustainability factors in new product designs, and to help meet customer requirements for sustainable products and processes. They minimize material use by assessing multiple design scenarios to determine the optimal amount and type of material required to meet product specifications.[13] In addition, by reducing the number of physical prototypes required, manufacturers can trim down their material waste.Digital Prototyping can also help companies reduce the carbon footprint of their products. For example, WinWinD, a company that creates innovative wind turbines, uses Digital Prototyping to optimize the energy production of wind-power turbines for varying wind conditions.[14] Furthermore, the rich product data supplied by Digital Prototyping can help companies demonstrate conformance with the growing number of product-related environmental regulations and voluntary sustainability standards.","title":"Digital Prototyping and Sustainability"}]
[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_timing_diagram
Digital timing diagram
["1 Diagram convention","2 Example: SPI bus timing","3 Software","4 References","5 External links"]
Diagram that shows events over time This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Digital timing diagram" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A digital timing diagram represents a set of signals in the time domain. A timing diagram can contain many rows, usually one of them being the clock. It is a tool commonly used in digital electronics, hardware debugging, and digital communications. Besides providing an overall description of the timing relationships, the digital timing diagram can help find and diagnose digital logic hazards. Diagram convention Most timing diagrams use the following conventions: Higher value is a logic one Lower value is a logic zero A slot showing a high and low is an either-or (such as on a data line) A Z indicates high impedance A greyed out slot is a don't-care or indeterminate. Example: SPI bus timing A timing diagram for the Serial Peripheral Interface Bus The timing diagram example on the right describes the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus. Most SPI master nodes can set the clock polarity (CPOL) and clock phase (CPHA) with respect to the data. This timing diagram shows the clock for both values of CPOL and the values for the two data lines (MISO & MOSI) for each value of CPHA. Note that when CPHA=1, then the data is delayed by one-half clock cycle. SPI operates in the following way: The master determines an appropriate CPOL & CPHA value The master pulls down the slave select (SS) line for a specific slave chip The master clocks SCK at a specific frequency During each of the eight clock cycles, the transfer is full duplex: The master writes on the MOSI line and reads the MISO line The slave writes on the MISO line and reads the MOSI line When finished the master can continue with another byte transfer or pull SS high to end the transfer When a slave's SS line is high, both its MISO and MOSI line should be high impedance to avoid disrupting a transfer to a different slave. Before SS being pulled low, the MISO & MOSI lines are indicated with a "z" for high impedance. Also, before the SS is pulled low, the "cycle #" row is meaningless and is shown greyed out. Note that for CPHA=1, the MISO & MOSI lines are undefined until after the first clock edge and are also shown greyed out before that. A more typical timing diagram has just a single clock and numerous data lines. Software The following diagram software may be used to draw timing diagrams: PlantUML Timing Diagrammer References ^ a b "Timing Diagram". PlantUML. 2024. Retrieved 10 February 2023. ^ "TimingDiagrammer". GitHub. Retrieved 10 February 2023. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Digital timing diagrams. Wavedrom is an online timing diagram editor. Timing Diagrammer has a Windows binary. vteDigital electronicsComponents Transistor Resistor Inductor Capacitor Printed electronics Printed circuit board Electronic circuit Flip-flop Memory cell Combinational logic Sequential logic Logic gate Boolean circuit Integrated circuit (IC) Hybrid integrated circuit (HIC) Mixed-signal integrated circuit Three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC) Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) Erasable programmable logic device (EPLD) Macrocell array Programmable logic array (PLA) Programmable logic device (PLD) Programmable Array Logic (PAL) Generic Array Logic (GAL) Complex programmable logic device (CPLD) Field-programmable gate array (FPGA) Field-programmable object array (FPOA) Application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) Theory Digital signal Boolean algebra Logic synthesis Logic in computer science Computer architecture Digital signal Digital signal processing Circuit minimization Switching circuit theory Gate equivalent Design Logic synthesis Place and route Placement Routing Transaction-level modeling Register-transfer level Hardware description language High-level synthesis Formal equivalence checking Synchronous logic Asynchronous logic Finite-state machine Hierarchical state machine Applications Computer hardware Hardware acceleration Digital audio radio Digital photography Digital telephone Digital video cinematography television Electronic literature Design issues Metastability Runt pulse
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ptd24-1"},{"link_name":"hazards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazard_(logic)"}],"text":"A digital timing diagram represents a set of signals in the time domain.[1] A timing diagram can contain many rows, usually one of them being the clock. It is a tool commonly used in digital electronics, hardware debugging, and digital communications. Besides providing an overall description of the timing relationships, the digital timing diagram can help find and diagnose digital logic hazards.","title":"Digital timing diagram"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"high impedance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_impedance"},{"link_name":"don't-care","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%27t-care_(logic)"}],"text":"Most timing diagrams use the following conventions:Higher value is a logic one\nLower value is a logic zero\nA slot showing a high and low is an either-or (such as on a data line)\nA Z indicates high impedance\nA greyed out slot is a don't-care or indeterminate.","title":"Diagram convention"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SPI_timing_diagram2.svg"},{"link_name":"Serial Peripheral Interface Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bus"},{"link_name":"Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bus"},{"link_name":"slave select","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_select"},{"link_name":"full duplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_duplex"},{"link_name":"byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"}],"text":"A timing diagram for the Serial Peripheral Interface BusThe timing diagram example on the right describes the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) Bus.\nMost SPI master nodes can set the clock polarity (CPOL) and clock phase (CPHA) with respect to the data.\nThis timing diagram shows the clock for both values of CPOL and the values for the two data lines (MISO & MOSI) for each value of CPHA.\nNote that when CPHA=1, then the data is delayed by one-half clock cycle.SPI operates in the following way:The master determines an appropriate CPOL & CPHA value\nThe master pulls down the slave select (SS) line for a specific slave chip\nThe master clocks SCK at a specific frequency\nDuring each of the eight clock cycles, the transfer is full duplex:\nThe master writes on the MOSI line and reads the MISO line\nThe slave writes on the MISO line and reads the MOSI line\nWhen finished the master can continue with another byte transfer or pull SS high to end the transferWhen a slave's SS line is high, both its MISO and MOSI line should be high impedance to avoid disrupting a transfer to a different slave.\nBefore SS being pulled low, the MISO & MOSI lines are indicated with a \"z\" for high impedance.\nAlso, before the SS is pulled low, the \"cycle #\" row is meaningless and is shown greyed out.Note that for CPHA=1, the MISO & MOSI lines are undefined until after the first clock edge and are also shown greyed out before that.A more typical timing diagram has just a single clock and numerous data lines.","title":"Example: SPI bus timing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PlantUML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PlantUML"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ptd24-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gh24-2"}],"text":"The following diagram software may be used to draw timing diagrams:PlantUML[1]\nTiming Diagrammer[2]","title":"Software"}]
[{"image_text":"A timing diagram for the Serial Peripheral Interface Bus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/SPI_timing_diagram2.svg/400px-SPI_timing_diagram2.svg.png"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Timing Diagram\". PlantUML. 2024. Retrieved 10 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://plantuml.com/timing-diagram","url_text":"\"Timing Diagram\""}]},{"reference":"\"TimingDiagrammer\". GitHub. Retrieved 10 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/hacksterous/TimingDiagrammer","url_text":"\"TimingDiagrammer\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_video_processing
Video processing
["1 Video processor","2 References"]
In electronics engineering, video processing is a particular case of signal processing, in particular image processing, which often employs video filters and where the input and output signals are video files or video streams. Video processing techniques are used in television sets, VCRs, DVDs, video codecs, video players, video scalers and other devices. For example—commonly only design and video processing is different in TV sets of different manufactures. Video processor Video processors are often combined with video scalers to create a video processor that improves the apparent definition of video signals. They perform the following tasks: deinterlacing aspect ratio control digital zoom and pan brightness/contrast/hue/saturation/sharpness/gamma adjustments frame rate conversion and inverse-telecine color point conversion (601 to 709 or 709 to 601) color space conversion (YPBPR/YCBCR to RGB or RGB to YPBPR/YCBCR) mosquito noise reduction block noise reduction detail enhancement edge enhancement motion compensation primary and secondary color calibration (including hue/saturation/luminance controls independently for each) These can either be in chip form, or as a stand-alone unit to be placed between a source device (like a DVD player or set-top-box) and a display with less-capable processing. The most widely recognized video processor companies in the market are: Genesis Microchip (with the FLI chipset – was Genesis Microchip, STMicroelectronics completes acquisition of Genesis Microchip on January 25, 2008) Sigma Designs (with the VXP chipset – was Gennum, Sigma Designs purchased the Image Processing group from Gennum on February 8, 2008, Sigma Designs is now part of Silicon Labs) Integrated Device Technology (with the HQV chipset and Teranex system products – was Silicon Optix, IDT purchased SO on October 21, 2008, IDT is now part of Renesas) Silicon Image (with the VRS chipset and DVDO system products - was Anchor Bay Technologies, Silicon Image purchased ABT on February 10, 2011) All of these companies' chips are in devices ranging from DVD upconverting players (for Standard Definition) to HD DVD/Blu-ray Disc players and set-top boxes, to displays like plasmas, DLP (both front and rear projection), LCD (both flat-panels and projectors), and LCOS/"SXRD". Their chips are also becoming more available in stand alone devices (see "External links" below for links to a few of these). References Bovik, Al (ed.). Handbook of Image and Video Processing. San Diego: Academic Press, 2000. ISBN 0-12-119790-5. Wang, Yao, Jörn Ostermann, and Ya-Qin Zhang. Video Processing and Communications. Signal Processing Series. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2002. ISBN 0-13-017547-1. vteVideo processingPost-processing Deblocking Resizing Comparison Deinterlacing Denoising Deflicking Special processing Film colorization (tinting) Color grading Film look Super-resolution imaging Video matting Uncompressed Pixel art scaling Telecine vteBroadcast video formatsTelevisionAnalog405 lines System A 525 lines System M Color systems: NTSC, NTSC-J, Clear-Vision, PAL-M B-MAC 625 lines System B, C, D, G, H, I, K, L, N Color systems: PAL, PAL-N, PALplus, SECAM MAC 819 lines System E, F 1125 lines MUSE 1250 lines HD-MAC Audio BTSC (MTS) EIAJ NICAM SAP Sound-in-Syncs Zweikanalton (A2/IGR) Hidden signals Captioning CGMS-A EPG GCR PDC Teletext VBI VEIL VIT VITC WSS XDS Historical Pre-1940 Mechanical television 180-line 343-line 375-line 441-line 455-line 567-line Field-sequential color system OSKM DigitalInterlaced SDTV 480i 576i HDTV 1080i Progressive LDTV 1seg 240p 288p EDTV 480p 576p HDTV 720p 1080p UHDTV 4K 8K MPEG-2 Video ATSC DVB DVB 3D-TV ISDB DTMB ABS-S AVS CMMB AVS+ DTMB ABS-S MPEG-4 Visual MobaHo! MPEG-4 AVC ATSC A/72 CMMB DMB DTMB DVB SBTVD 1seg MobaHo! AVS2 ABS-S MPEG-H HEVC ATSC 3.0 DVB HD DMB ISDB-S3 DTMB Audio AC-3 (5.1) AC-4 DTS DRA MPEG-1 Audio Layer II MPEG Multichannel PCM LPCM AAC HE-AAC MPEG-H 3D Audio Hidden signals AFD Broadcast flag Captioning CPCM EPG Teletext ^ a b Also used in China's DVB-S/S2 network. ^ a b Defunct. Technical issues 14:9 compromise Broadcast-safe Digital cinema (DCI) Display motion blur Moving image formats MPEG transport stream Reverse Standards Conversion Standards conversion Television transmitter Test card Video on demand Video processing Widescreen signaling Templates (Analogue TV Topics) Authority control databases: National Czech Republic
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[]
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_matrix
Diode matrix
["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
2-D grid of wires where data is represented by the presence or absence of diodes at nodes A diode matrix is a two-dimensional grid of wires: each "intersection" wherein one-row crosses over another has either a diode connecting them, or the wires are isolated from each other. It is one of the popular techniques for implementing a read-only memory. A diode matrix is used as the control store or microprogram in many early computers. A logically equivalent transistor matrix is still used as the control store or microprogram or 'decode ROM' in many modern microprocessors. A single row of the diode matrix (or transistor matrix) is activated at any one instant. Charge flows through each diode connected to that row. That activates the column corresponding to each row. The only activated control signals during that instant were those whose corresponding column wire was connected with a diode to that row. History A diode matrix ROM was used in many computers in the 1960s and 70s, as well as electronic desk calculators and keyboard matrix circuits for computer terminals. A keyboard matrix circuit has a very similar grid of diodes, but is used differently. The microsequencer of many early computers, perhaps starting with the Whirlwind I, simply activated each row of the diode matrix in sequence, and after the last row was activated, started over again with the first row. The technique of microprogramming as first described by Maurice Wilkes in terms of a second diode matrix added to a diode matrix control store. Later computers used a variety of alternative implementations of the control store, but eventually returned to a diode matrix or transistor matrix. A person would microprogram the control store on such early computers by manually attaching diodes to selected intersections of the word lines and bit lines. In schematic diagrams, the word lines are usually horizontal, and the bit lines are usually vertical. The control store on some minicomputers was one or more programmable logic array chips. The "blank" PLA from the chip manufacturer came with a diode matrix or transistor matrix with a diode (or transistor) at every intersection. A person would microprogram the control store on these computers by destroying the unwanted connections at selected intersections. Some modern microprocessors and ASICs use a diode matrix or transistor matrix control store. Typically a blank grid is designed with a diode (or transistor) at every intersection, and then a mask is prepared that leaves out the unwanted connections at selected intersections. When reverse engineering integrated circuits that include such a mask-programmed decode ROM, one of the key steps is to take photographs of that ROM with enough resolution to separate each intersection site and enough color depth to distinguish between the "connected" and "not connected" intersections. Since the control store is in the critical path of computer execution, a fast control store is an important part of a fast computer. For a while the control store was many times faster than program memory, allowing a long, complicated sequence of steps through the control store per instruction fetch, leading to what is now called complex instruction set computing. Later techniques for fast instruction cache sped that cache up to the point that the control store was only a few times faster than the instruction cache, leading to fewer and eventually only one step through the control store per instruction fetch in reduced instruction set computing. See also Diode logic References ^ Watson, William J. (1959). TEAM — A Transistorized Electron Adding Machine (PDF) (MSc). Oklahoma State University. 452878. ^ a b Smotherman, Mark (2022) . "A Brief History of Microprogramming". ^ visual6502.org ^ Skorobogato, Sergei P. (2001). "Copy Protection in Modern Microcontrollers". Cambridge University. External links Photo of DEC M792 Diode Matrix used as boot ROM for PDP-11 computer Photo of Telefunken diode matrix in the collection of Computer History Museum
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"read-only memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory#Historical_examples"},{"link_name":"control store","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_store"},{"link_name":"microprogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprogram"}],"text":"A diode matrix is a two-dimensional grid of wires: each \"intersection\" wherein one-row crosses over another has either a diode connecting them, or the wires are isolated from each other.It is one of the popular techniques for implementing a read-only memory. A diode matrix is used as the control store or microprogram in many early computers. A logically equivalent transistor matrix is still used as the control store or microprogram or 'decode ROM' in many modern microprocessors.A single row of the diode matrix (or transistor matrix) is activated at any one instant.\nCharge flows through each diode connected to that row. That activates the column corresponding to each row. The only activated control signals during that instant were those whose corresponding column wire was connected with a diode to that row.","title":"Diode matrix"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator"},{"link_name":"keyboard matrix circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_matrix_circuit"},{"link_name":"computer terminals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_terminal"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"microsequencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsequencer"},{"link_name":"Whirlwind I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whirlwind_I"},{"link_name":"microprogramming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprogramming"},{"link_name":"Maurice Wilkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Wilkes"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smotherman-2"},{"link_name":"word","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)"},{"link_name":"bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"minicomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"programmable logic array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_logic_array"},{"link_name":"ASICs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIC"},{"link_name":"reverse engineering integrated circuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_engineering#Reverse_engineering_of_integrated_circuits/smart_cards"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"complex instruction set computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_instruction_set_computing"},{"link_name":"reduced instruction set computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computing"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smotherman-2"}],"text":"A diode matrix ROM was used in many computers in the 1960s and 70s, as well as electronic desk calculators and keyboard matrix circuits for computer terminals. A keyboard matrix circuit has a very similar grid of diodes, but is used differently.[1]The microsequencer of many early computers, perhaps starting with the Whirlwind I, simply activated each row of the diode matrix in sequence, and after the last row was activated, started over again with the first row.The technique of microprogramming as first described by Maurice Wilkes in terms of a second diode matrix added to a diode matrix control store.[2] Later computers used a variety of alternative implementations of the control store, but eventually returned to a diode matrix or transistor matrix. A person would microprogram the control store on such early computers by manually attaching diodes to selected intersections of the word lines and bit lines. In schematic diagrams, the word lines are usually horizontal, and the bit lines are usually vertical.The control store on some minicomputers was one or more programmable logic array chips. The \"blank\" PLA from the chip manufacturer came with a diode matrix or transistor matrix with a diode (or transistor) at every intersection. A person would microprogram the control store on these computers by destroying the unwanted connections at selected intersections.Some modern microprocessors and ASICs use a diode matrix or transistor matrix control store. Typically a blank grid is designed with a diode (or transistor) at every intersection, and then a mask is prepared that leaves out the unwanted connections at selected intersections. When reverse engineering integrated circuits that include such a mask-programmed decode ROM, one of the key steps is to take photographs of that ROM with enough resolution to separate each intersection site and enough color depth to distinguish between the \"connected\" and \"not connected\" intersections.[3][4]Since the control store is in the critical path of computer execution, a fast control store is an important part of a fast computer. For a while the control store was many times faster than program memory, allowing a long, complicated sequence of steps through the control store per instruction fetch, leading to what is now called complex instruction set computing. Later techniques for fast instruction cache sped that cache up to the point that the control store was only a few times faster than the instruction cache, leading to fewer and eventually only one step through the control store per instruction fetch in reduced instruction set computing.[2]","title":"History"}]
[]
[{"title":"Diode logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_logic"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation
Amplitude modulation
["1 Foundation","1.1 Shift keying","1.2 Analog telephony","1.3 Amplitude reference","2 ITU type designations","3 History","3.1 Continuous waves","3.2 Early technologies","3.3 Vacuum tubes","3.4 Single-sideband","4 Analysis","5 Spectrum","6 Power and spectrum efficiency","7 Modulation index","8 Modulation methods","8.1 Low-level generation","8.2 High-level generation","9 Demodulation methods","10 See also","11 References","12 Bibliography","13 External links"]
Radio modulation via wave amplitude Figure 1: An audio signal (top) may be carried by a carrier signal using AM or FM methods. Passband modulation Analog modulation AM FM PM QAM SM SSB Digital modulation ASK APSK CPM FSK MFSK MSK OOK PPM PSK QAM SC-FDE TCM WDM Hierarchical modulation QAM WDM Spread spectrum CSS DSSS FHSS THSS See also Capacity-approaching codes Demodulation Line coding Modem AnM PoM PAM PCM PDM PWM ΔΣM OFDM FDM Multiplexing vte Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting messages with a radio wave. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the wave is varied in proportion to that of the message signal, such as an audio signal. This technique contrasts with angle modulation, in which either the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, as in frequency modulation, or its phase, as in phase modulation. AM was the earliest modulation method used for transmitting audio in radio broadcasting. It was developed during the first quarter of the 20th century beginning with Roberto Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden's radiotelephone experiments in 1900. This original form of AM is sometimes called double-sideband amplitude modulation (DSBAM), because the standard method produces sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency. Single-sideband modulation uses bandpass filters to eliminate one of the sidebands and possibly the carrier signal, which improves the ratio of message power to total transmission power, reduces power handling requirements of line repeaters, and permits better bandwidth utilization of the transmission medium. AM remains in use in many forms of communication in addition to AM broadcasting: shortwave radio, amateur radio, two-way radios, VHF aircraft radio, citizens band radio, and in computer modems in the form of QAM. Foundation In electronics, telecommunications and mechanics, modulation means varying some aspect of a continuous wave carrier signal with an information-bearing modulation waveform, such as an audio signal which represents sound, or a video signal which represents images. In this sense, the carrier wave, which has a much higher frequency than the message signal, carries the information. At the receiving station, the message signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by demodulation. In general form, a modulation process of a sinusoidal carrier wave may be described by the following equation: m ( t ) = A ( t ) ⋅ cos ⁡ ( ω t + ϕ ( t ) ) {\displaystyle m(t)=A(t)\cdot \cos(\omega t+\phi (t))\,} . A(t) represents the time-varying amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave and the cosine-term is the carrier at its angular frequency ω {\displaystyle \omega } , and the instantaneous phase deviation ϕ ( t ) {\displaystyle \phi (t)} . This description directly provides the two major groups of modulation, amplitude modulation and angle modulation. In angle modulation, the term A(t) is constant and the second term of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal. Angle modulation provides two methods of modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation. In amplitude modulation, the angle term is held constant and the first term, A(t), of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal. The modulating message signal may be analog in nature, or it may be a digital signal, in which case the technique is generally called amplitude-shift keying. For example, in AM radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency signal has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before transmission. The message signal determines the envelope of the transmitted waveform. In the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. Standard AM is thus sometimes called "double-sideband amplitude modulation" (DSBAM). A disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques, not only standard AM, is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal proportion to the signal. Increasing the received signal-to-noise ratio, say, by a factor of 10 (a 10 decibel improvement), thus would require increasing the transmitter power by a factor of 10. This is in contrast to frequency modulation (FM) and digital radio where the effect of such noise following demodulation is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well above the threshold for reception. For this reason AM broadcast is not favored for music and high fidelity broadcasting, but rather for voice communications and broadcasts (sports, news, talk radio etc.). AM is also inefficient in power usage; at least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal. The carrier signal contains none of the original information being transmitted (voice, video, data, etc.). However its presence provides a simple means of demodulation using envelope detection, providing a frequency and phase reference to extract the modulation from the sidebands. In some modulation systems based on AM, a lower transmitter power is required through partial or total elimination of the carrier component, however receivers for these signals are more complex because they must provide a precise carrier frequency reference signal (usually as shifted to the intermediate frequency) from a greatly reduced "pilot" carrier (in reduced-carrier transmission or DSB-RC) to use in the demodulation process. Even with the carrier totally eliminated in double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, carrier regeneration is possible using a Costas phase-locked loop. This does not work for single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (SSB-SC), leading to the characteristic "Donald Duck" sound from such receivers when slightly detuned. Single-sideband AM is nevertheless used widely in amateur radio and other voice communications because it has power and bandwidth efficiency (cutting the RF bandwidth in half compared to standard AM). On the other hand, in medium wave and short wave broadcasting, standard AM with the full carrier allows for reception using inexpensive receivers. The broadcaster absorbs the extra power cost to greatly increase potential audience. Shift keying A simple form of digital amplitude modulation which can be used for transmitting binary data is on–off keying, the simplest form of amplitude-shift keying, in which ones and zeros are represented by the presence or absence of a carrier. On–off keying is likewise used by radio amateurs to transmit Morse code where it is known as continuous wave (CW) operation, even though the transmission is not strictly "continuous." A more complex form of AM, quadrature amplitude modulation is now more commonly used with digital data, while making more efficient use of the available bandwidth. Analog telephony A simple form of amplitude modulation is the transmission of speech signals from a traditional analog telephone set using a common battery local loop. The direct current provided by the central office battery is a carrier with a frequency of 0 Hz. It is modulated by a microphone (transmitter) in the telephone set according to the acoustic signal from the speaker. The result is a varying amplitude direct current, whose AC-component is the speech signal extracted at the central office for transmission to another subscriber. Amplitude reference An additional function provided by the carrier in standard AM, but which is lost in either single or double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, is that it provides an amplitude reference. In the receiver, the automatic gain control (AGC) responds to the carrier so that the reproduced audio level stays in a fixed proportion to the original modulation. On the other hand, with suppressed-carrier transmissions there is no transmitted power during pauses in the modulation, so the AGC must respond to peaks of the transmitted power during peaks in the modulation. This typically involves a so-called fast attack, slow decay circuit which holds the AGC level for a second or more following such peaks, in between syllables or short pauses in the program. This is very acceptable for communications radios, where compression of the audio aids intelligibility. However it is absolutely undesired for music or normal broadcast programming, where a faithful reproduction of the original program, including its varying modulation levels, is expected. ITU type designations In 1982, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designated the types of amplitude modulation: Designation Description A3E double-sideband a full-carrier – the basic amplitude modulation scheme R3E single-sideband reduced-carrier H3E single-sideband full-carrier J3E single-sideband suppressed-carrier B8E independent-sideband emission C3F vestigial-sideband Lincompex linked compressor and expander (a submode of any of the above ITU Emission Modes) History One of the crude pre-vacuum tube AM transmitters, a Telefunken arc transmitter from 1906. The carrier wave is generated by 6 electric arcs in the vertical tubes, connected to a tuned circuit. Modulation is done by the large carbon microphone (cone shape) in the antenna lead. One of the first vacuum tube AM radio transmitters, built by Meissner in 1913 with an early triode tube by Robert von Lieben. He used it in a historic 36 km (24 mi) voice transmission from Berlin to Nauen, Germany. Compare its small size with above transmitter. Amplitude modulation was used in experiments of multiplex telegraph and telephone transmission in the late 1800s. However, the practical development of this technology is identified with the period between 1900 and 1920 of radiotelephone transmission, that is, the effort to send audio signals by radio waves. The first radio transmitters, called spark gap transmitters, transmitted information by wireless telegraphy, using pulses of the carrier wave to spell out text messages in Morse code. They could not transmit audio because the carrier consisted of strings of damped waves, pulses of radio waves that declined to zero, and sounded like a buzz in receivers. In effect they were already amplitude modulated. Continuous waves The first AM transmission was made by Canadian-born American researcher Reginald Fessenden on 23 December 1900 using a spark gap transmitter with a specially designed high frequency 10 kHz interrupter, over a distance of one mile (1.6 km) at Cobb Island, Maryland, US. His first transmitted words were, "Hello. One, two, three, four. Is it snowing where you are, Mr. Thiessen?". The words were barely intelligible above the background buzz of the spark. Fessenden was a significant figure in the development of AM radio. He was one of the first researchers to realize, from experiments like the above, that the existing technology for producing radio waves, the spark transmitter, was not usable for amplitude modulation, and that a new kind of transmitter, one that produced sinusoidal continuous waves, was needed. This was a radical idea at the time, because experts believed the impulsive spark was necessary to produce radio frequency waves, and Fessenden was ridiculed. He invented and helped develop one of the first continuous wave transmitters – the Alexanderson alternator, with which he made what is considered the first AM public entertainment broadcast on Christmas Eve, 1906. He also discovered the principle on which AM is based, heterodyning, and invented one of the first detectors able to rectify and receive AM, the electrolytic detector or "liquid baretter", in 1902. Other radio detectors invented for wireless telegraphy, such as the Fleming valve (1904) and the crystal detector (1906) also proved able to rectify AM signals, so the technological hurdle was generating AM waves; receiving them was not a problem. Early technologies Early experiments in AM radio transmission, conducted by Fessenden, Valdemar Poulsen, Ernst Ruhmer, Quirino Majorana, Charles Herrold, and Lee de Forest, were hampered by the lack of a technology for amplification. The first practical continuous wave AM transmitters were based on either the huge, expensive Alexanderson alternator, developed 1906–1910, or versions of the Poulsen arc transmitter (arc converter), invented in 1903. The modifications necessary to transmit AM were clumsy and resulted in very low quality audio. Modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna or ground wire; its varying resistance varied the current to the antenna. The limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones; many of the microphones were water-cooled. Vacuum tubes The 1912 discovery of the amplifying ability of the Audion tube, invented in 1906 by Lee de Forest, solved these problems. The vacuum tube feedback oscillator, invented in 1912 by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner, was a cheap source of continuous waves and could be easily modulated to make an AM transmitter. Modulation did not have to be done at the output but could be applied to the signal before the final amplifier tube, so the microphone or other audio source didn't have to modulate a high-power radio signal. Wartime research greatly advanced the art of AM modulation, and after the war the availability of cheap tubes sparked a great increase in the number of radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. The vacuum tube was responsible for the rise of AM broadcasting around 1920, the first electronic mass communication medium. Amplitude modulation was virtually the only type used for radio broadcasting until FM broadcasting began after World War II. At the same time as AM radio began, telephone companies such as AT&T were developing the other large application for AM: sending multiple telephone calls through a single wire by modulating them on separate carrier frequencies, called frequency division multiplexing. Single-sideband In 1915, John Renshaw Carson formulated the first mathematical description of amplitude modulation, showing that a signal and carrier frequency combined in a nonlinear device creates a sideband on both sides of the carrier frequency. Passing the modulated signal through another nonlinear device can extract the original baseband signal. His analysis also showed that only one sideband was necessary to transmit the audio signal, and Carson patented single-sideband modulation (SSB) on 1 December 1915. This advanced variant of amplitude modulation was adopted by AT&T for longwave transatlantic telephone service beginning 7 January 1927. After WW-II, it was developed for military aircraft communication. Analysis Illustration of amplitude modulation The carrier wave (sine wave) of frequency fc and amplitude A is expressed by c ( t ) = A sin ⁡ ( 2 π f c t ) {\displaystyle c(t)=A\sin(2\pi f_{c}t)\,} . The message signal, such as an audio signal that is used for modulating the carrier, is m(t), and has a frequency fm, much lower than fc: m ( t ) = M cos ⁡ ( 2 π f m t + ϕ ) = A m cos ⁡ ( 2 π f m t + ϕ ) {\displaystyle m(t)=M\cos \left(2\pi f_{m}t+\phi \right)=Am\cos \left(2\pi f_{m}t+\phi \right)\,} , where m is the amplitude sensitivity, M is the amplitude of modulation. If m < 1, (1 + m(t)/A) is always positive for undermodulation. If m > 1 then overmodulation occurs and reconstruction of message signal from the transmitted signal would lead in loss of original signal. Amplitude modulation results when the carrier c(t) is multiplied by the positive quantity (1 + m(t)/A): y ( t ) = [ 1 + m ( t ) A ] c ( t ) = [ 1 + m cos ⁡ ( 2 π f m t + ϕ ) ] A sin ⁡ ( 2 π f c t ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}y(t)&=\leftc(t)\\&=\leftA\sin \left(2\pi f_{c}t\right)\end{aligned}}} In this simple case m is identical to the modulation index, discussed below. With m = 0.5 the amplitude modulated signal y(t) thus corresponds to the top graph (labelled "50% Modulation") in figure 4. Using prosthaphaeresis identities, y(t) can be shown to be the sum of three sine waves: y ( t ) = A sin ⁡ ( 2 π f c t ) + 1 2 A m [ sin ⁡ ( 2 π [ f c + f m ] t + ϕ ) + sin ⁡ ( 2 π [ f c − f m ] t − ϕ ) ] . {\displaystyle y(t)=A\sin(2\pi f_{c}t)+{\frac {1}{2}}Am\leftt+\phi \right)+\sin \left(2\pi \leftt-\phi \right)\right].\,} Therefore, the modulated signal has three components: the carrier wave c(t) which is unchanged in frequency, and two sidebands with frequencies slightly above and below the carrier frequency fc. Spectrum Figure 2: Double-sided spectra of baseband and AM signals. A useful modulation signal m(t) is usually more complex than a single sine wave, as treated above. However, by the principle of Fourier decomposition, m(t) can be expressed as the sum of a set of sine waves of various frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Carrying out the multiplication of 1 + m(t) with c(t) as above, the result consists of a sum of sine waves. Again, the carrier c(t) is present unchanged, but each frequency component of m at fi has two sidebands at frequencies fc + fi and fc – fi. The collection of the former frequencies above the carrier frequency is known as the upper sideband, and those below constitute the lower sideband. The modulation m(t) may be considered to consist of an equal mix of positive and negative frequency components, as shown in the top of figure 2. One can view the sidebands as that modulation m(t) having simply been shifted in frequency by fc as depicted at the bottom right of figure 2. Figure 3: The spectrogram of an AM voice broadcast shows the two sidebands (green) on either side of the carrier (red) with time proceeding in the vertical direction. The short-term spectrum of modulation, changing as it would for a human voice for instance, the frequency content (horizontal axis) may be plotted as a function of time (vertical axis), as in figure 3. It can again be seen that as the modulation frequency content varies, an upper sideband is generated according to those frequencies shifted above the carrier frequency, and the same content mirror-imaged in the lower sideband below the carrier frequency. At all times, the carrier itself remains constant, and of greater power than the total sideband power. Power and spectrum efficiency The RF bandwidth of an AM transmission (refer to figure 2, but only considering positive frequencies) is twice the bandwidth of the modulating (or "baseband") signal, since the upper and lower sidebands around the carrier frequency each have a bandwidth as wide as the highest modulating frequency. Although the bandwidth of an AM signal is narrower than one using frequency modulation (FM), it is twice as wide as single-sideband techniques; it thus may be viewed as spectrally inefficient. Within a frequency band, only half as many transmissions (or "channels") can thus be accommodated. For this reason analog television employs a variant of single-sideband (known as vestigial sideband, somewhat of a compromise in terms of bandwidth) in order to reduce the required channel spacing. Another improvement over standard AM is obtained through reduction or suppression of the carrier component of the modulated spectrum. In figure 2 this is the spike in between the sidebands; even with full (100%) sine wave modulation, the power in the carrier component is twice that in the sidebands, yet it carries no unique information. Thus there is a great advantage in efficiency in reducing or totally suppressing the carrier, either in conjunction with elimination of one sideband (single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission) or with both sidebands remaining (double sideband suppressed carrier). While these suppressed carrier transmissions are efficient in terms of transmitter power, they require more sophisticated receivers employing synchronous detection and regeneration of the carrier frequency. For that reason, standard AM continues to be widely used, especially in broadcast transmission, to allow for the use of inexpensive receivers using envelope detection. Even (analog) television, with a (largely) suppressed lower sideband, includes sufficient carrier power for use of envelope detection. But for communications systems where both transmitters and receivers can be optimized, suppression of both one sideband and the carrier represent a net advantage and are frequently employed. A technique used widely in broadcast AM transmitters is an application of the Hapburg carrier, first proposed in the 1930s but impractical with the technology then available. During periods of low modulation the carrier power would be reduced and would return to full power during periods of high modulation levels. This has the effect of reducing the overall power demand of the transmitter and is most effective on speech type programmes. Various trade names are used for its implementation by the transmitter manufacturers from the late 80's onwards. Modulation index The AM modulation index is a measure based on the ratio of the modulation excursions of the RF signal to the level of the unmodulated carrier. It is thus defined as: m = p e a k   v a l u e   o f   m ( t ) A = M A {\displaystyle m={\frac {\mathrm {peak\ value\ of\ } m(t)}{A}}={\frac {M}{A}}} where M {\displaystyle M\,} and A {\displaystyle A\,} are the modulation amplitude and carrier amplitude, respectively; the modulation amplitude is the peak (positive or negative) change in the RF amplitude from its unmodulated value. Modulation index is normally expressed as a percentage, and may be displayed on a meter connected to an AM transmitter. So if m = 0.5 {\displaystyle m=0.5} , carrier amplitude varies by 50% above (and below) its unmodulated level, as is shown in the first waveform, below. For m = 1.0 {\displaystyle m=1.0} , it varies by 100% as shown in the illustration below it. With 100% modulation the wave amplitude sometimes reaches zero, and this represents full modulation using standard AM and is often a target (in order to obtain the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio) but mustn't be exceeded. Increasing the modulating signal beyond that point, known as overmodulation, causes a standard AM modulator (see below) to fail, as the negative excursions of the wave envelope cannot become less than zero, resulting in distortion ("clipping") of the received modulation. Transmitters typically incorporate a limiter circuit to avoid overmodulation, and/or a compressor circuit (especially for voice communications) in order to still approach 100% modulation for maximum intelligibility above the noise. Such circuits are sometimes referred to as a vogad. However it is possible to talk about a modulation index exceeding 100%, without introducing distortion, in the case of double-sideband reduced-carrier transmission. In that case, negative excursions beyond zero entail a reversal of the carrier phase, as shown in the third waveform below. This cannot be produced using the efficient high-level (output stage) modulation techniques (see below) which are widely used especially in high power broadcast transmitters. Rather, a special modulator produces such a waveform at a low level followed by a linear amplifier. What's more, a standard AM receiver using an envelope detector is incapable of properly demodulating such a signal. Rather, synchronous detection is required. Thus double-sideband transmission is generally not referred to as "AM" even though it generates an identical RF waveform as standard AM as long as the modulation index is below 100%. Such systems more often attempt a radical reduction of the carrier level compared to the sidebands (where the useful information is present) to the point of double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission where the carrier is (ideally) reduced to zero. In all such cases the term "modulation index" loses its value as it refers to the ratio of the modulation amplitude to a rather small (or zero) remaining carrier amplitude. Figure 4: Modulation depth. In the diagram, the unmodulated carrier has an amplitude of 1. Modulation methods Anode (plate) modulation. A tetrode's plate and screen grid voltage is modulated via an audio transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias; both the input and output are tuned circuits with inductive coupling. Modulation circuit designs may be classified as low- or high-level (depending on whether they modulate in a low-power domain—followed by amplification for transmission—or in the high-power domain of the transmitted signal). Low-level generation In modern radio systems, modulated signals are generated via digital signal processing (DSP). With DSP many types of AM are possible with software control (including DSB with carrier, SSB suppressed-carrier and independent sideband, or ISB). Calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a digital-to-analog converter, typically at a frequency less than the desired RF-output frequency. The analog signal must then be shifted in frequency and linearly amplified to the desired frequency and power level (linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion). This low-level method for AM is used in many Amateur Radio transceivers. AM may also be generated at a low level, using analog methods described in the next section. High-level generation High-power AM transmitters (such as those used for AM broadcasting) are based on high-efficiency class-D and class-E power amplifier stages, modulated by varying the supply voltage. Older designs (for broadcast and amateur radio) also generate AM by controlling the gain of the transmitter's final amplifier (generally class-C, for efficiency). The following types are for vacuum tube transmitters (but similar options are available with transistors): Plate modulation In plate modulation, the plate voltage of the RF amplifier is modulated with the audio signal. The audio power requirement is 50 percent of the RF-carrier power. Heising (constant-current) modulation RF amplifier plate voltage is fed through a choke (high-value inductor). The AM modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor, so the modulator tube diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range. This system has a low power efficiency. Control grid modulation The operating bias and gain of the final RF amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid. This method requires little audio power, but care must be taken to reduce distortion. Clamp tube (screen grid) modulation The screen-grid bias may be controlled through a clamp tube, which reduces voltage according to the modulation signal. It is difficult to approach 100-percent modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system. Doherty modulation One tube provides the power under carrier conditions and another operates only for positive modulation peaks. Overall efficiency is good, and distortion is low. Outphasing modulation Two tubes are operated in parallel, but partially out of phase with each other. As they are differentially phase modulated their combined amplitude is greater or smaller. Efficiency is good and distortion low when properly adjusted. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-duration modulation (PDM) A highly efficient high voltage power supply is applied to the tube plate. The output voltage of this supply is varied at an audio rate to follow the program. This system was pioneered by Hilmer Swanson and has a number of variations, all of which achieve high efficiency and sound quality. Digital methods The Harris Corporation obtained a patent for synthesizing a modulated high-power carrier wave from a set of digitally selected low-power amplifiers, running in phase at the same carrier frequency. The input signal is sampled by a conventional audio analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and fed to a digital exciter, which modulates overall transmitter output power by switching a series of low-power solid-state RF amplifiers on and off. The combined output drives the antenna system. Demodulation methods The simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope detector. Another type of demodulator, the product detector, can provide better-quality demodulation with additional circuit complexity. See also AM stereo Shortwave radio Amplitude modulation signalling system (AMSS) Modulation sphere Types of radio emissions Airband DSB-SC References ^ "Father Landell de Moura : Radio Broadcasting Pioneer : FABIO S. FLOSI : UNICAMP – University of Campinas, State of São Paulo" (PDF). Aminharadio.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2018. ^ AT&T, Telecommunication Transmission Engineering, Volume 1—Principles, 2nd Edition, Bell Center for Technical Education (1977) ^ AT&T, Engineering and Operations in the Bell System (1984) p.211 ^ a b c d Bray, John (2002). Innovation and the Communications Revolution: From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet. Inst. of Electrical Engineers. pp. 59, 61–62. ISBN 0852962185. ^ Atul P. Godse; U. A. Bakshi (2009). Communication Engineering. Technical Publications. p. 36. ISBN 978-81-8431-089-4. ^ Silver, Ward, ed. (2011). "Ch. 15 DSP and Software Radio Design". The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (Eighty-eighth ed.). American Radio Relay League. ISBN 978-0-87259-096-0. ^ Silver, Ward, ed. (2011). "Ch. 14 Transceivers". The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (Eighty-eighth ed.). American Radio Relay League. ISBN 978-0-87259-096-0. ^ Frederick H. Raab; et al. (May 2003). "RF and Microwave Power Amplifier and Transmitter Technologies – Part 2". High Frequency Design: 22ff. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2017. ^ Laurence Gray and Richard Graham (1961). Radio Transmitters. McGraw-Hill. pp. 141ff. ^ Cavell, Garrison C. Ed. (2018). National Association of Broadcasters Engineering Handbook, 11th Ed. Routledge. pp. 1099ff. ^ US 4580111, Swanson, Hilmer, "Amplitude modulation using digitally selected carrier amplifiers", published 1986-04-01, assigned to Harris Corp  Bibliography Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (81st ed.), pp. 15.1–15.36. Newington: ARRL. ISBN 0-87259-196-4. External links Amplitude Modulation by Jakub Serych, Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Amplitude Modulation, by S Sastry. Amplitude Modulation, an introduction by Federation of American Scientists. Amplitude Modulation tutorial including related topics of modulators, demodulators, etc... 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[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amfm3-en-de.gif"},{"link_name":"carrier signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_signal"},{"link_name":"modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation"},{"link_name":"radio wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave"},{"link_name":"amplitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude"},{"link_name":"audio signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal"},{"link_name":"angle modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_modulation"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"frequency modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation"},{"link_name":"phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(waves)"},{"link_name":"phase modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_modulation"},{"link_name":"Roberto Landell de Moura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Landell_de_Moura"},{"link_name":"Reginald Fessenden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden"},{"link_name":"radiotelephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelephone"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Single-sideband modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-sideband_modulation"},{"link_name":"power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)"},{"link_name":"AM broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"shortwave radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortwave_radio"},{"link_name":"amateur radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio"},{"link_name":"two-way radios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-way_radio"},{"link_name":"VHF aircraft radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airband"},{"link_name":"citizens band radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizens_band_radio"},{"link_name":"modems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"QAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAM"}],"text":"Figure 1: An audio signal (top) may be carried by a carrier signal using AM or FM methods.Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting messages with a radio wave. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the wave is varied in proportion to that of the message signal, such as an audio signal. This technique contrasts with angle modulation, in which either the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, as in frequency modulation, or its phase, as in phase modulation.AM was the earliest modulation method used for transmitting audio in radio broadcasting. It was developed during the first quarter of the 20th century beginning with Roberto Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden's radiotelephone experiments in 1900.[1] This original form of AM is sometimes called double-sideband amplitude modulation (DSBAM), because the standard method produces sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency. Single-sideband modulation uses bandpass filters to eliminate one of the sidebands and possibly the carrier signal, which improves the ratio of message power to total transmission power, reduces power handling requirements of line repeaters, and permits better bandwidth utilization of the transmission medium.AM remains in use in many forms of communication in addition to AM broadcasting: shortwave radio, amateur radio, two-way radios, VHF aircraft radio, citizens band radio, and in computer modems in the form of QAM.","title":"Amplitude modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"telecommunications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication"},{"link_name":"mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanic"},{"link_name":"modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation"},{"link_name":"continuous wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave"},{"link_name":"carrier signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_signal"},{"link_name":"audio signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_signal"},{"link_name":"video signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_signal"},{"link_name":"demodulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulation"},{"link_name":"sinusoidal carrier wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"angular frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_frequency"},{"link_name":"angle modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle_modulation"},{"link_name":"frequency modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation"},{"link_name":"phase modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_modulation"},{"link_name":"amplitude-shift keying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"envelope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_(waves)"},{"link_name":"frequency domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_domain"},{"link_name":"carrier frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_frequency"},{"link_name":"sidebands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideband"},{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noise_(radio)"},{"link_name":"electromagnetic interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interference"},{"link_name":"signal-to-noise ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio"},{"link_name":"decibel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel"},{"link_name":"frequency modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation"},{"link_name":"digital radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_radio"},{"link_name":"high fidelity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_fidelity"},{"link_name":"talk radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk_radio"},{"link_name":"envelope detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_detector"},{"link_name":"intermediate frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate_frequency"},{"link_name":"reduced-carrier transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduced-carrier_transmission"},{"link_name":"double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-sideband_suppressed-carrier_transmission"},{"link_name":"Costas phase-locked loop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costas_loop"},{"link_name":"single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-sideband_suppressed-carrier_transmission"},{"link_name":"amateur radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio"},{"link_name":"medium wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medium_wave"},{"link_name":"short wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_wave"}],"text":"In electronics, telecommunications and mechanics, modulation means varying some aspect of a continuous wave carrier signal with an information-bearing modulation waveform, such as an audio signal which represents sound, or a video signal which represents images. In this sense, the carrier wave, which has a much higher frequency than the message signal, carries the information. At the receiving station, the message signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by demodulation.In general form, a modulation process of a sinusoidal carrier wave may be described by the following equation:[2]m\n (\n t\n )\n =\n A\n (\n t\n )\n ⋅\n cos\n ⁡\n (\n ω\n t\n +\n ϕ\n (\n t\n )\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle m(t)=A(t)\\cdot \\cos(\\omega t+\\phi (t))\\,}\n \n.A(t) represents the time-varying amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave and the cosine-term is the carrier at its angular frequency \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n, and the instantaneous phase deviation \n \n \n \n ϕ\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi (t)}\n \n. This description directly provides the two major groups of modulation, amplitude modulation and angle modulation. In angle modulation, the term A(t) is constant and the second term of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal. Angle modulation provides two methods of modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation.In amplitude modulation, the angle term is held constant and the first term, A(t), of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal.The modulating message signal may be analog in nature, or it may be a digital signal, in which case the technique is generally called amplitude-shift keying.For example, in AM radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency signal has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before transmission. The message signal determines the envelope of the transmitted waveform. In the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. Standard AM is thus sometimes called \"double-sideband amplitude modulation\" (DSBAM).A disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques, not only standard AM, is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal proportion to the signal. Increasing the received signal-to-noise ratio, say, by a factor of 10 (a 10 decibel improvement), thus would require increasing the transmitter power by a factor of 10. This is in contrast to frequency modulation (FM) and digital radio where the effect of such noise following demodulation is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well above the threshold for reception. For this reason AM broadcast is not favored for music and high fidelity broadcasting, but rather for voice communications and broadcasts (sports, news, talk radio etc.).AM is also inefficient in power usage; at least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal. The carrier signal contains none of the original information being transmitted (voice, video, data, etc.). However its presence provides a simple means of demodulation using envelope detection, providing a frequency and phase reference to extract the modulation from the sidebands. In some modulation systems based on AM, a lower transmitter power is required through partial or total elimination of the carrier component, however receivers for these signals are more complex because they must provide a precise carrier frequency reference signal (usually as shifted to the intermediate frequency) from a greatly reduced \"pilot\" carrier (in reduced-carrier transmission or DSB-RC) to use in the demodulation process. Even with the carrier totally eliminated in double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, carrier regeneration is possible using a Costas phase-locked loop. This does not work for single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (SSB-SC), leading to the characteristic \"Donald Duck\" sound from such receivers when slightly detuned. Single-sideband AM is nevertheless used widely in amateur radio and other voice communications because it has power and bandwidth efficiency (cutting the RF bandwidth in half compared to standard AM). On the other hand, in medium wave and short wave broadcasting, standard AM with the full carrier allows for reception using inexpensive receivers. The broadcaster absorbs the extra power cost to greatly increase potential audience.","title":"Foundation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"binary data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_data"},{"link_name":"on–off keying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%E2%80%93off_keying"},{"link_name":"ones and zeros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"Morse code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"},{"link_name":"quadrature amplitude modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAM"}],"sub_title":"Shift keying","text":"A simple form of digital amplitude modulation which can be used for transmitting binary data is on–off keying, the simplest form of amplitude-shift keying, in which ones and zeros are represented by the presence or absence of a carrier. On–off keying is likewise used by radio amateurs to transmit Morse code where it is known as continuous wave (CW) operation, even though the transmission is not strictly \"continuous.\" A more complex form of AM, quadrature amplitude modulation is now more commonly used with digital data, while making more efficient use of the available bandwidth.","title":"Foundation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Analog telephony","text":"A simple form of amplitude modulation is the transmission of speech signals from a traditional analog telephone set using a common battery local loop.[3] The direct current provided by the central office battery is a carrier with a frequency of 0 Hz. It is modulated by a microphone (transmitter) in the telephone set according to the acoustic signal from the speaker. The result is a varying amplitude direct current, whose AC-component is the speech signal extracted at the central office for transmission to another subscriber.","title":"Foundation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"automatic gain control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_gain_control"},{"link_name":"compression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_range_compression"}],"sub_title":"Amplitude reference","text":"An additional function provided by the carrier in standard AM, but which is lost in either single or double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, is that it provides an amplitude reference. In the receiver, the automatic gain control (AGC) responds to the carrier so that the reproduced audio level stays in a fixed proportion to the original modulation. On the other hand, with suppressed-carrier transmissions there is no transmitted power during pauses in the modulation, so the AGC must respond to peaks of the transmitted power during peaks in the modulation. This typically involves a so-called fast attack, slow decay circuit which holds the AGC level for a second or more following such peaks, in between syllables or short pauses in the program. This is very acceptable for communications radios, where compression of the audio aids intelligibility. However it is absolutely undesired for music or normal broadcast programming, where a faithful reproduction of the original program, including its varying modulation levels, is expected.","title":"Foundation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Telecommunication Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union"}],"text":"In 1982, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designated the types of amplitude modulation:","title":"ITU type designations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Telefunken_arc_radiotelephone.jpg"},{"link_name":"arc transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_converter"},{"link_name":"tuned circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuned_circuit"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Meissner_radiotelephone_transmitter.jpg"},{"link_name":"vacuum tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bray-4"},{"link_name":"radiotelephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelephone"},{"link_name":"spark gap transmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spark_gap_transmitter"},{"link_name":"wireless telegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_telegraphy"},{"link_name":"Morse code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_code"},{"link_name":"damped waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damped_wave"}],"text":"One of the crude pre-vacuum tube AM transmitters, a Telefunken arc transmitter from 1906. The carrier wave is generated by 6 electric arcs in the vertical tubes, connected to a tuned circuit. Modulation is done by the large carbon microphone (cone shape) in the antenna lead.One of the first vacuum tube AM radio transmitters, built by Meissner in 1913 with an early triode tube by Robert von Lieben. He used it in a historic 36 km (24 mi) voice transmission from Berlin to Nauen, Germany. Compare its small size with above transmitter.Amplitude modulation was used in experiments of multiplex telegraph and telephone transmission in the late 1800s.[4] However, the practical development of this technology is identified with the period between 1900 and 1920 of radiotelephone transmission, that is, the effort to send audio signals by radio waves. The first radio transmitters, called spark gap transmitters, transmitted information by wireless telegraphy, using pulses of the carrier wave to spell out text messages in Morse code. They could not transmit audio because the carrier consisted of strings of damped waves, pulses of radio waves that declined to zero, and sounded like a buzz in receivers. In effect they were already amplitude modulated.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reginald Fessenden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Fessenden"},{"link_name":"interrupter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induction_coil"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"sinusoidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusoidal"},{"link_name":"continuous waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave"},{"link_name":"Alexanderson alternator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexanderson_alternator"},{"link_name":"heterodyning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterodyne"},{"link_name":"detectors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detector_(radio)"},{"link_name":"rectify","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rectifier"},{"link_name":"electrolytic detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytic_detector"},{"link_name":"Fleming valve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fleming_valve"},{"link_name":"crystal detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_detector"}],"sub_title":"Continuous waves","text":"The first AM transmission was made by Canadian-born American researcher Reginald Fessenden on 23 December 1900 using a spark gap transmitter with a specially designed high frequency 10 kHz interrupter, over a distance of one mile (1.6 km) at Cobb Island, Maryland, US. His first transmitted words were, \"Hello. One, two, three, four. Is it snowing where you are, Mr. Thiessen?\". The words were barely intelligible above the background buzz of the spark.[citation needed]Fessenden was a significant figure in the development of AM radio. He was one of the first researchers to realize, from experiments like the above, that the existing technology for producing radio waves, the spark transmitter, was not usable for amplitude modulation, and that a new kind of transmitter, one that produced sinusoidal continuous waves, was needed. This was a radical idea at the time, because experts believed the impulsive spark was necessary to produce radio frequency waves, and Fessenden was ridiculed. He invented and helped develop one of the first continuous wave transmitters – the Alexanderson alternator, with which he made what is considered the first AM public entertainment broadcast on Christmas Eve, 1906. He also discovered the principle on which AM is based, heterodyning, and invented one of the first detectors able to rectify and receive AM, the electrolytic detector or \"liquid baretter\", in 1902. Other radio detectors invented for wireless telegraphy, such as the Fleming valve (1904) and the crystal detector (1906) also proved able to rectify AM signals, so the technological hurdle was generating AM waves; receiving them was not a problem.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Valdemar Poulsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdemar_Poulsen"},{"link_name":"Ernst Ruhmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Ruhmer"},{"link_name":"Quirino Majorana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quirino_Majorana"},{"link_name":"Charles Herrold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Herrold"},{"link_name":"Lee de Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest"},{"link_name":"amplification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier"},{"link_name":"transmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"Alexanderson alternator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexanderson_alternator"},{"link_name":"Poulsen arc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poulsen_arc"},{"link_name":"carbon microphone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_microphone"}],"sub_title":"Early technologies","text":"Early experiments in AM radio transmission, conducted by Fessenden, Valdemar Poulsen, Ernst Ruhmer, Quirino Majorana, Charles Herrold, and Lee de Forest, were hampered by the lack of a technology for amplification. The first practical continuous wave AM transmitters were based on either the huge, expensive Alexanderson alternator, developed 1906–1910, or versions of the Poulsen arc transmitter (arc converter), invented in 1903. The modifications necessary to transmit AM were clumsy and resulted in very low quality audio. Modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna or ground wire; its varying resistance varied the current to the antenna. The limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones; many of the microphones were water-cooled.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Audion tube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audion_tube"},{"link_name":"Lee de Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_de_Forest"},{"link_name":"feedback oscillator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feedback_oscillator"},{"link_name":"Edwin Armstrong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Armstrong"},{"link_name":"Alexander Meissner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Meissner"},{"link_name":"continuous waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_wave"},{"link_name":"modulated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation"},{"link_name":"AM broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"mass communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_communication"},{"link_name":"radio broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"FM broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"telephone companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_company"},{"link_name":"AT&T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation"},{"link_name":"carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_signal"},{"link_name":"frequency division multiplexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_division_multiplexing"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bray-4"}],"sub_title":"Vacuum tubes","text":"The 1912 discovery of the amplifying ability of the Audion tube, invented in 1906 by Lee de Forest, solved these problems. The vacuum tube feedback oscillator, invented in 1912 by Edwin Armstrong and Alexander Meissner, was a cheap source of continuous waves and could be easily modulated to make an AM transmitter. Modulation did not have to be done at the output but could be applied to the signal before the final amplifier tube, so the microphone or other audio source didn't have to modulate a high-power radio signal. Wartime research greatly advanced the art of AM modulation, and after the war the availability of cheap tubes sparked a great increase in the number of radio stations experimenting with AM transmission of news or music. The vacuum tube was responsible for the rise of AM broadcasting around 1920, the first electronic mass communication medium. Amplitude modulation was virtually the only type used for radio broadcasting until FM broadcasting began after World War II.At the same time as AM radio began, telephone companies such as AT&T were developing the other large application for AM: sending multiple telephone calls through a single wire by modulating them on separate carrier frequencies, called frequency division multiplexing.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Renshaw Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Renshaw_Carson"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bray-4"},{"link_name":"single-sideband modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-sideband_modulation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bray-4"},{"link_name":"longwave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longwave"}],"sub_title":"Single-sideband","text":"In 1915, John Renshaw Carson formulated the first mathematical description of amplitude modulation, showing that a signal and carrier frequency combined in a nonlinear device creates a sideband on both sides of the carrier frequency. Passing the modulated signal through another nonlinear device can extract the original baseband signal.[4] His analysis also showed that only one sideband was necessary to transmit the audio signal, and Carson patented single-sideband modulation (SSB) on 1 December 1915.[4] This advanced variant of amplitude modulation was adopted by AT&T for longwave transatlantic telephone service beginning 7 January 1927. After WW-II, it was developed for military aircraft communication.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illustration_of_Amplitude_Modulation.png"},{"link_name":"sine wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave"},{"link_name":"modulation index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Modulation_index"},{"link_name":"prosthaphaeresis identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosthaphaeresis#The_identities"},{"link_name":"sidebands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sideband"}],"text":"Illustration of amplitude modulationThe carrier wave (sine wave) of frequency fc and amplitude A is expressed byc\n (\n t\n )\n =\n A\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n c\n \n \n t\n )\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c(t)=A\\sin(2\\pi f_{c}t)\\,}\n \n.The message signal, such as an audio signal that is used for modulating the carrier, is m(t), and has a frequency fm, much lower than fc:m\n (\n t\n )\n =\n M\n cos\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n m\n \n \n t\n +\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n =\n A\n m\n cos\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n m\n \n \n t\n +\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle m(t)=M\\cos \\left(2\\pi f_{m}t+\\phi \\right)=Am\\cos \\left(2\\pi f_{m}t+\\phi \\right)\\,}\n \n,where m is the amplitude sensitivity, M is the amplitude of modulation. If m < 1, (1 + m(t)/A) is always positive for undermodulation. If m > 1 then overmodulation occurs and reconstruction of message signal from the transmitted signal would lead in loss of original signal. Amplitude modulation results when the carrier c(t) is multiplied by the positive quantity (1 + m(t)/A):y\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n 1\n +\n \n \n \n m\n (\n t\n )\n \n A\n \n \n \n ]\n \n c\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n [\n \n 1\n +\n m\n cos\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n m\n \n \n t\n +\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n \n ]\n \n A\n sin\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n c\n \n \n t\n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}y(t)&=\\left[1+{\\frac {m(t)}{A}}\\right]c(t)\\\\&=\\left[1+m\\cos \\left(2\\pi f_{m}t+\\phi \\right)\\right]A\\sin \\left(2\\pi f_{c}t\\right)\\end{aligned}}}In this simple case m is identical to the modulation index, discussed below. With m = 0.5 the amplitude modulated signal y(t) thus corresponds to the top graph (labelled \"50% Modulation\") in figure 4.Using prosthaphaeresis identities, y(t) can be shown to be the sum of three sine waves:y\n (\n t\n )\n =\n A\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n π\n \n f\n \n c\n \n \n t\n )\n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n A\n m\n \n [\n \n sin\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n [\n \n \n f\n \n c\n \n \n +\n \n f\n \n m\n \n \n \n ]\n \n t\n +\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n +\n sin\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n 2\n π\n \n [\n \n \n f\n \n c\n \n \n −\n \n f\n \n m\n \n \n \n ]\n \n t\n −\n ϕ\n \n )\n \n \n ]\n \n .\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle y(t)=A\\sin(2\\pi f_{c}t)+{\\frac {1}{2}}Am\\left[\\sin \\left(2\\pi \\left[f_{c}+f_{m}\\right]t+\\phi \\right)+\\sin \\left(2\\pi \\left[f_{c}-f_{m}\\right]t-\\phi \\right)\\right].\\,}Therefore, the modulated signal has three components: the carrier wave c(t) which is unchanged in frequency, and two sidebands with frequencies slightly above and below the carrier frequency fc.","title":"Analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AM_spectrum.svg"},{"link_name":"Fourier decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_decomposition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AM_signal.jpg"},{"link_name":"spectrogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrogram"}],"text":"Figure 2: Double-sided spectra of baseband and AM signals.A useful modulation signal m(t) is usually more complex than a single sine wave, as treated above. However, by the principle of Fourier decomposition, m(t) can be expressed as the sum of a set of sine waves of various frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Carrying out the multiplication of 1 + m(t) with c(t) as above, the result consists of a sum of sine waves. Again, the carrier c(t) is present unchanged, but each frequency component of m at fi has two sidebands at frequencies fc + fi and fc – fi. The collection of the former frequencies above the carrier frequency is known as the upper sideband, and those below constitute the lower sideband. The modulation m(t) may be considered to consist of an equal mix of positive and negative frequency components, as shown in the top of figure 2. One can view the sidebands as that modulation m(t) having simply been shifted in frequency by fc as depicted at the bottom right of figure 2.Figure 3: The spectrogram of an AM voice broadcast shows the two sidebands (green) on either side of the carrier (red) with time proceeding in the vertical direction.The short-term spectrum of modulation, changing as it would for a human voice for instance, the frequency content (horizontal axis) may be plotted as a function of time (vertical axis), as in figure 3. It can again be seen that as the modulation frequency content varies, an upper sideband is generated according to those frequencies shifted above the carrier frequency, and the same content mirror-imaged in the lower sideband below the carrier frequency. At all times, the carrier itself remains constant, and of greater power than the total sideband power.","title":"Spectrum"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"baseband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseband"},{"link_name":"frequency modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation"},{"link_name":"single-sideband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-sideband"},{"link_name":"vestigial sideband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestigial_sideband"},{"link_name":"single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-sideband_suppressed-carrier_transmission"},{"link_name":"double sideband suppressed carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_sideband_suppressed_carrier"},{"link_name":"synchronous detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_detector"},{"link_name":"envelope detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_detector"},{"link_name":"reduced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_carrier_control"}],"text":"The RF bandwidth of an AM transmission (refer to figure 2, but only considering positive frequencies) is twice the bandwidth of the modulating (or \"baseband\") signal, since the upper and lower sidebands around the carrier frequency each have a bandwidth as wide as the highest modulating frequency. Although the bandwidth of an AM signal is narrower than one using frequency modulation (FM), it is twice as wide as single-sideband techniques; it thus may be viewed as spectrally inefficient. Within a frequency band, only half as many transmissions (or \"channels\") can thus be accommodated. For this reason analog television employs a variant of single-sideband (known as vestigial sideband, somewhat of a compromise in terms of bandwidth) in order to reduce the required channel spacing.Another improvement over standard AM is obtained through reduction or suppression of the carrier component of the modulated spectrum. In figure 2 this is the spike in between the sidebands; even with full (100%) sine wave modulation, the power in the carrier component is twice that in the sidebands, yet it carries no unique information. Thus there is a great advantage in efficiency in reducing or totally suppressing the carrier, either in conjunction with elimination of one sideband (single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission) or with both sidebands remaining (double sideband suppressed carrier). While these suppressed carrier transmissions are efficient in terms of transmitter power, they require more sophisticated receivers employing synchronous detection and regeneration of the carrier frequency. For that reason, standard AM continues to be widely used, especially in broadcast transmission, to allow for the use of inexpensive receivers using envelope detection. Even (analog) television, with a (largely) suppressed lower sideband, includes sufficient carrier power for use of envelope detection. But for communications systems where both transmitters and receivers can be optimized, suppression of both one sideband and the carrier represent a net advantage and are frequently employed.A technique used widely in broadcast AM transmitters is an application of the Hapburg carrier, first proposed in the 1930s but impractical with the technology then available. During periods of low modulation the carrier power would be reduced and would return to full power during periods of high modulation levels. This has the effect of reducing the overall power demand of the transmitter and is most effective on speech type programmes. Various trade names are used for its implementation by the transmitter manufacturers from the late 80's onwards.","title":"Power and spectrum efficiency"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signal-to-noise ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio"},{"link_name":"overmodulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overmodulation"},{"link_name":"distortion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distortion"},{"link_name":"limiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limiter"},{"link_name":"compressor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_range_compression"},{"link_name":"vogad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vogad"},{"link_name":"double-sideband reduced-carrier transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-sideband_reduced-carrier_transmission"},{"link_name":"broadcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast"},{"link_name":"linear amplifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_amplifier"},{"link_name":"envelope detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_detector"},{"link_name":"double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-sideband_suppressed-carrier_transmission"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amplitude_Modulated_Wave-hm-64.svg"}],"text":"The AM modulation index is a measure based on the ratio of the modulation excursions of the RF signal to the level of the unmodulated carrier. It is thus defined as:m\n =\n \n \n \n \n p\n e\n a\n k\n  \n v\n a\n l\n u\n e\n  \n o\n f\n  \n \n m\n (\n t\n )\n \n A\n \n \n =\n \n \n M\n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle m={\\frac {\\mathrm {peak\\ value\\ of\\ } m(t)}{A}}={\\frac {M}{A}}}where \n \n \n \n M\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M\\,}\n \n and \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\,}\n \n are the modulation amplitude and carrier amplitude, respectively; the modulation amplitude is the peak (positive or negative) change in the RF amplitude from its unmodulated value. Modulation index is normally expressed as a percentage, and may be displayed on a meter connected to an AM transmitter.So if \n \n \n \n m\n =\n 0.5\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m=0.5}\n \n, carrier amplitude varies by 50% above (and below) its unmodulated level, as is shown in the first waveform, below. For \n \n \n \n m\n =\n 1.0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m=1.0}\n \n, it varies by 100% as shown in the illustration below it. With 100% modulation the wave amplitude sometimes reaches zero, and this represents full modulation using standard AM and is often a target (in order to obtain the highest possible signal-to-noise ratio) but mustn't be exceeded. Increasing the modulating signal beyond that point, known as overmodulation, causes a standard AM modulator (see below) to fail, as the negative excursions of the wave envelope cannot become less than zero, resulting in distortion (\"clipping\") of the received modulation. Transmitters typically incorporate a limiter circuit to avoid overmodulation, and/or a compressor circuit (especially for voice communications) in order to still approach 100% modulation for maximum intelligibility above the noise. Such circuits are sometimes referred to as a vogad.However it is possible to talk about a modulation index exceeding 100%, without introducing distortion, in the case of double-sideband reduced-carrier transmission. In that case, negative excursions beyond zero entail a reversal of the carrier phase, as shown in the third waveform below. This cannot be produced using the efficient high-level (output stage) modulation techniques (see below) which are widely used especially in high power broadcast transmitters. Rather, a special modulator produces such a waveform at a low level followed by a linear amplifier. What's more, a standard AM receiver using an envelope detector is incapable of properly demodulating such a signal. Rather, synchronous detection is required. Thus double-sideband transmission is generally not referred to as \"AM\" even though it generates an identical RF waveform as standard AM as long as the modulation index is below 100%. Such systems more often attempt a radical reduction of the carrier level compared to the sidebands (where the useful information is present) to the point of double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission where the carrier is (ideally) reduced to zero. In all such cases the term \"modulation index\" loses its value as it refers to the ratio of the modulation amplitude to a rather small (or zero) remaining carrier amplitude.Figure 4: Modulation depth. In the diagram, the unmodulated carrier has an amplitude of 1.","title":"Modulation index"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ammodstage.png"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Anode (plate) modulation. A tetrode's plate and screen grid voltage is modulated via an audio transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias; both the input and output are tuned circuits with inductive coupling.Modulation circuit designs may be classified as low- or high-level (depending on whether they modulate in a low-power domain—followed by amplification for transmission—or in the high-power domain of the transmitted signal).[5]","title":"Modulation methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital signal processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processing"},{"link_name":"digital-to-analog converter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital-to-analog_converter"},{"link_name":"linearly amplified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_amplifier"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Low-level generation","text":"In modern radio systems, modulated signals are generated via digital signal processing (DSP). With DSP many types of AM are possible with software control (including DSB with carrier, SSB suppressed-carrier and independent sideband, or ISB). Calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a digital-to-analog converter, typically at a frequency less than the desired RF-output frequency. The analog signal must then be shifted in frequency and linearly amplified to the desired frequency and power level (linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion).[6]\nThis low-level method for AM is used in many Amateur Radio transceivers.[7]AM may also be generated at a low level, using analog methods described in the next section.","title":"Modulation methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"transmitters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"AM broadcasting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_broadcasting"},{"link_name":"class-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class-D_amplifier"},{"link_name":"power amplifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_amplifier"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"choke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choke_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"Doherty modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doherty_amplifier"},{"link_name":"Outphasing modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampliphase"},{"link_name":"Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-duration modulation (PDM)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation"},{"link_name":"Hilmer Swanson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilmer_Swanson"},{"link_name":"Harris Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"High-level generation","text":"High-power AM transmitters (such as those used for AM broadcasting) are based on high-efficiency class-D and class-E power amplifier stages, modulated by varying the supply voltage.[8]Older designs (for broadcast and amateur radio) also generate AM by controlling the gain of the transmitter's final amplifier (generally class-C, for efficiency). The following types are for vacuum tube transmitters (but similar options are available with transistors):[9][10]Plate modulation\nIn plate modulation, the plate voltage of the RF amplifier is modulated with the audio signal. The audio power requirement is 50 percent of the RF-carrier power.\nHeising (constant-current) modulation\nRF amplifier plate voltage is fed through a choke (high-value inductor). The AM modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor, so the modulator tube diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range. This system has a low power efficiency.\nControl grid modulation\nThe operating bias and gain of the final RF amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid. This method requires little audio power, but care must be taken to reduce distortion.\nClamp tube (screen grid) modulation\nThe screen-grid bias may be controlled through a clamp tube, which reduces voltage according to the modulation signal. It is difficult to approach 100-percent modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system.\nDoherty modulation\nOne tube provides the power under carrier conditions and another operates only for positive modulation peaks. Overall efficiency is good, and distortion is low.\nOutphasing modulation\nTwo tubes are operated in parallel, but partially out of phase with each other. As they are differentially phase modulated their combined amplitude is greater or smaller. Efficiency is good and distortion low when properly adjusted.\nPulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-duration modulation (PDM)\nA highly efficient high voltage power supply is applied to the tube plate. The output voltage of this supply is varied at an audio rate to follow the program. This system was pioneered by Hilmer Swanson and has a number of variations, all of which achieve high efficiency and sound quality.\nDigital methods\nThe Harris Corporation obtained a patent for synthesizing a modulated high-power carrier wave from a set of digitally selected low-power amplifiers, running in phase at the same carrier frequency.[11][citation needed] The input signal is sampled by a conventional audio analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and fed to a digital exciter, which modulates overall transmitter output power by switching a series of low-power solid-state RF amplifiers on and off. The combined output drives the antenna system.","title":"Modulation methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"envelope detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_detector"},{"link_name":"product detector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_detector"}],"text":"The simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope detector. Another type of demodulator, the product detector, can provide better-quality demodulation with additional circuit complexity.","title":"Demodulation methods"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-87259-196-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87259-196-4"}],"text":"Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (81st ed.), pp. 15.1–15.36. Newington: ARRL. ISBN 0-87259-196-4.","title":"Bibliography"}]
[{"image_text":"Figure 1: An audio signal (top) may be carried by a carrier signal using AM or FM methods.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Amfm3-en-de.gif/250px-Amfm3-en-de.gif"},{"image_text":"One of the crude pre-vacuum tube AM transmitters, a Telefunken arc transmitter from 1906. The carrier wave is generated by 6 electric arcs in the vertical tubes, connected to a tuned circuit. Modulation is done by the large carbon microphone (cone shape) in the antenna lead.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telefunken_arc_radiotelephone.jpg/220px-Telefunken_arc_radiotelephone.jpg"},{"image_text":"One of the first vacuum tube AM radio transmitters, built by Meissner in 1913 with an early triode tube by Robert von Lieben. He used it in a historic 36 km (24 mi) voice transmission from Berlin to Nauen, Germany. Compare its small size with above transmitter.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Meissner_radiotelephone_transmitter.jpg/220px-Meissner_radiotelephone_transmitter.jpg"},{"image_text":"Illustration of amplitude modulation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Illustration_of_Amplitude_Modulation.png/391px-Illustration_of_Amplitude_Modulation.png"},{"image_text":"Figure 2: Double-sided spectra of baseband and AM signals.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/AM_spectrum.svg/400px-AM_spectrum.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Figure 3: The spectrogram of an AM voice broadcast shows the two sidebands (green) on either side of the carrier (red) with time proceeding in the vertical direction.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/AM_signal.jpg/200px-AM_signal.jpg"},{"image_text":"Figure 4: Modulation depth. In the diagram, the unmodulated carrier has an amplitude of 1.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Amplitude_Modulated_Wave-hm-64.svg/400px-Amplitude_Modulated_Wave-hm-64.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Anode (plate) modulation. A tetrode's plate and screen grid voltage is modulated via an audio transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias; both the input and output are tuned circuits with inductive coupling.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ammodstage.png/300px-Ammodstage.png"}]
[{"title":"AM stereo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM_stereo"},{"title":"Shortwave radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortwave_radio"},{"title":"Amplitude modulation signalling system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation_signalling_system"},{"title":"Modulation sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation_sphere"},{"title":"Types of radio emissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_radio_emissions"},{"title":"Airband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airband"},{"title":"DSB-SC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-sideband_suppressed-carrier_transmission"}]
[{"reference":"\"Father Landell de Moura : Radio Broadcasting Pioneer : FABIO S. FLOSI : UNICAMP – University of Campinas, State of São Paulo\" (PDF). Aminharadio.com. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aminharadio.com/radio/files/Artigo-Revista-PCP-USA.pdf","url_text":"\"Father Landell de Moura : Radio Broadcasting Pioneer : FABIO S. FLOSI : UNICAMP – University of Campinas, State of São Paulo\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aminharadio.com/radio/files/Artigo-Revista-PCP-USA.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bray, John (2002). Innovation and the Communications Revolution: From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet. Inst. of Electrical Engineers. pp. 59, 61–62. ISBN 0852962185.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3h7R36Y0yFUC&pg=PA61","url_text":"Innovation and the Communications Revolution: From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0852962185","url_text":"0852962185"}]},{"reference":"Atul P. Godse; U. A. Bakshi (2009). Communication Engineering. Technical Publications. p. 36. ISBN 978-81-8431-089-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=coQ6ac-fh6QC&pg=PA36","url_text":"Communication Engineering"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-8431-089-4","url_text":"978-81-8431-089-4"}]},{"reference":"Silver, Ward, ed. (2011). \"Ch. 15 DSP and Software Radio Design\". The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (Eighty-eighth ed.). American Radio Relay League. ISBN 978-0-87259-096-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87259-096-0","url_text":"978-0-87259-096-0"}]},{"reference":"Silver, Ward, ed. (2011). \"Ch. 14 Transceivers\". The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (Eighty-eighth ed.). American Radio Relay League. ISBN 978-0-87259-096-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87259-096-0","url_text":"978-0-87259-096-0"}]},{"reference":"Frederick H. Raab; et al. (May 2003). \"RF and Microwave Power Amplifier and Transmitter Technologies – Part 2\". High Frequency Design: 22ff. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scribd.com/doc/8616046/RF-Power-Amplifier-and-Transmitter-Technologies-Part2","url_text":"\"RF and Microwave Power Amplifier and Transmitter Technologies – Part 2\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160306164053/https://www.scribd.com/doc/8616046/RF-Power-Amplifier-and-Transmitter-Technologies-Part2","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Laurence Gray and Richard Graham (1961). Radio Transmitters. McGraw-Hill. pp. 141ff.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Cavell, Garrison C. Ed. (2018). National Association of Broadcasters Engineering Handbook, 11th Ed. Routledge. pp. 1099ff.","urls":[]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netsh
netsh
["1 Overview","2 References","3 Further reading","4 External links"]
Command-line utility netshDeveloper(s)MicrosoftInitial releaseFebruary 17, 2000; 24 years ago (2000-02-17)Operating systemMicrosoft WindowsTypeCommandLicenseProprietary commercial softwareWebsitedocs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/networking/technologies/netsh/netsh  In computing, netsh, or network shell, is a command-line utility included in Microsoft's Windows NT line of operating systems beginning with Windows 2000. It allows local or remote configuration of network devices such as the interface. Overview A common use of netsh is to reset the TCP/IP stack to default, known-good parameters, a task that in Windows 98 required reinstallation of the TCP/IP adapter. netsh, among many other things, also allows the user to change the IP address on their machine. Starting from Windows Vista, one can also edit wireless settings (for example, SSID) using netsh. netsh can also be used to read information from the IPv6 stack. The command netsh winsock reset can be used to reset TCP/IP problems when communicating with a networked device. References ^ "MS-DOS and Windows command line netsh command". ^ "Using Netsh". Further reading Frisch, Æleen (2001). Windows 2000 Commands Pocket Reference. O'Reilly. ISBN 978-0-596-00148-3. Stanek, William R. (2008). Windows Command-Line Administrator's Pocket Consultant, 2nd Edition. Microsoft Press. ISBN 978-0735622623. External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Guide to Windows Commands Using Netsh from Microsoft TechNet Netsh Commands for Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) in Windows Server 2008 R2 (includes Windows 7), from Microsoft TechNet. Topic not covered in "Using netsh". online tool to build address bind commands netsh commands supported by Windows Vista, 7 and Server 2008 (output of "netsh ?") Windows Server 2008 R2 and Windows Server 2008 Netsh Technical Reference (chm) vteWindows command-line programs and shell builtins COMMAND.COM Command Prompt Windows PowerShell Recovery Console File system navigation cd (chdir) dir popd pushd tree File management attrib cacls cipher compact copy del (erase) deltree icacls mkdir (md) mklink move openfiles recover ren (rename) replace rmdir (rd) robocopy takeown xcopy Archiving expand extrac32 extract makecab pax tar Disk management chkdsk convert defrag diskcomp diskcopy diskpart diskraid diskshadow drvspace fdisk format fsutil label manage-bde refsutil subst scandisk sys vol vssadmin Processes at exit kill powercfg runas sc schtasks shutdown start taskkill tasklist Registry assoc ftype reg regini regsvr32 User environment chcp cmdkey date graftabl mode path set setver setx time title ver where whoami File contents comp edit edlin fc find findstr print type Scripting choice clip cscript doskey echo for forfiles goto if more pause prompt rem timeout Networking arp bitsadmin curl getmac hostname ipconfig nbtstat net netsh netstat nslookup PathPing ping rpcping route scp setspn sftp ssh ssh-add ssh-agent ssh-keygen ssh-keyscan tracert winrm winrs Maintenance and care auditpol dispdiag driverquery eventcreate eventtriggers logman mofcomp msiexec ntbackup pnpunattend pnputil REAgentC relog sfc sxstrace systeminfo tracerpt typeperf w32tm WBAdmin wecutil wevtutil winmgmt winsat wmic Boot management bcdedit bootcfg bootsect fixboot fixmbr Software development debug exe2bin QBasic Miscellaneous break cls dism dpath gpresult gpupdate help MSCDEX pentnt tpmtool tpmvscmgr wsl List of DOS commands Environment variables Windows Support Tools vteMicrosoft Windows components APIs Architecture 9x NT Booting process Games Managementtools App Installer Command Prompt Control Panel Device Manager Disk Cleanup Drive Optimizer Driver Verifier DirectX Diagnostic Tool Event Viewer IExpress Management Console Netsh Performance Monitor Recovery Console Resource Monitor Settings Sysprep System Configuration System File Checker System Information System Policy Editor System Restore Task Manager Windows Error Reporting Windows Ink Windows Installer PowerShell Windows Update Windows Insider WinRE WMI Apps 3D Viewer Clock Calculator Calendar Camera Character Map Clipchamp Cortana Edge Fax and Scan Feedback Hub Get Help Magnifier Mail Maps Messaging Media Player 2022 Movies & TV Mobility Center Money Narrator Notepad OneDrive OneNote Paint Paint 3D People Phone Link Photos Quick Assist Remote Desktop Connection Snipping Tool Speech Recognition Skype Sports Start Sticky Notes Store Tips Voice Recorder Weather WordPad Xbox Shell Action Center Aero AutoPlay AutoRun ClearType Explorer Search Indexing Service IFilter Saved search Namespace Special folder Start menu Taskbar Task View Windows Spotlight Windows XP visual styles Services Service Control Manager BITS CLFS Multimedia Class Scheduler Shadow Copy Task Scheduler Error Reporting Wireless Zero Configuration File systems CDFS DFS exFAT IFS FAT NTFS Hard link links Mount Point Reparse point TxF EFS ReFS UDF Server Active Directory Domains DNS Group Policy Roaming user profiles Folder redirection Distributed Transaction Coordinator MSMQ Windows Media Services Active DRM Services IIS WSUS SharePoint Network Access Protection PWS DFS Replication Print Services for UNIX Remote Desktop Services Remote Differential Compression Remote Installation Services Windows Deployment Services System Resource Manager Hyper-V Server Core Architecture Boot Manager Console CSRSS Desktop Window Manager Portable Executable EXE DLL Enhanced Write Filter Graphics Device Interface Hardware Abstraction Layer I/O request packet Imaging Format Kernel Transaction Manager Library files Logical Disk Manager LSASS MinWin NTLDR Ntoskrnl.exe Object Manager Open XML Paper Specification Registry Resource Protection Security Account Manager Server Message Block Shadow Copy SMSS System Idle Process USER WHEA Winlogon WinUSB Security Security and Maintenance AppLocker BitLocker Credential Guard Data Execution Prevention Defender Family features Kernel Patch Protection Mandatory Integrity Control Protected Media Path User Account Control User Interface Privilege Isolation Windows Firewall Compatibility COMMAND.COM Windows Subsystem for Linux WoW64 API Active Scripting WSH VBScript JScript COM ActiveX ActiveX Document COM Structured storage DCOM OLE OLE Automation Transaction Server DirectX Native .NET Universal Windows Platform WinAPI Windows Mixed Reality Windows Runtime WinUSB Games Solitaire Collection Surf DiscontinuedGames 3D Pinball Chess Titans FreeCell Hearts InkBall Hold 'Em Purble Place Spider Solitaire Solitaire Tinker Apps ActiveMovie Anytime Upgrade Address Book Backup and Restore Cardfile CardSpace CD Player Chat Contacts Desktop Gadgets Diagnostics DriveSpace DVD Maker Easy Transfer Fax Food & Drink Groove Music Help and Support Center Health & Fitness HyperTerminal Imaging Internet Explorer Journal Make Compatible Media Center Meeting Space Messaging Messenger Mobile Device Center Movie Maker MSN Dial-up NetMeeting NTBackup Outlook Express Pay Phone Companion Photo Gallery Photo Viewer Program Manager Steps Recorder Syskey Travel WinHelp Write Others Games for Windows ScanDisk File Protection Media Control Interface MS-DOS 7 Next-Generation Secure Computing Base POSIX subsystem HPFS Interix Video for Windows Virtual DOS machine Windows on Windows Windows SideShow Windows Services for UNIX Windows System Assessment Tool Windows To Go WinFS Spun off toMicrosoft Store DVD Player File Manager Hover! Mahjong Minesweeper  Category  List This Microsoft Windows article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_of_Concerned_Anthropologists
Network of Concerned Anthropologists
["1 Beliefs","2 References","3 External links"]
The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guidelines for companies and organizations. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.Find sources: "Network of Concerned Anthropologists" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The Network of Concerned Anthropologists (NCA) is a group of anthologists that formed in 2007 for the purpose of protesting the Iraq War. Beliefs The group believed that anthropologists should not participate in any work involving the War on Terror, due to believing it is unethical and that the US presence in Iraq was illegitimate. The founding members of the Network of Concerned Anthropologists include Catherine Besteman, Andrew Bickford, Greg Feldman, Gustaaf Houtman, Roberto Gonzalez, Hugh Gusterson, Jean Jackson, Kanhong Lin, Catherine Lutz, David Price, and David Vine. References ^ Weinberger, Sharon. "When Anthropologists Go to War (Against the Military)". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2024-02-28. ^ "Petitioners Urge Anthropologists to Stop Working With Pentagon in Iraq War". chronicle.com. 2007-11-19. Retrieved 2024-02-27. ^ The Counter-Counterinsurgency Manual. Prickly Paradigm Press. 2009. External links Website of the Network of Concerned Anthropologists Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National France BnF data United States This article relating to anthropology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This organization-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropathology
Neuropathology
["1 Methodology","2 Focus of specialization","2.1 In the US system","2.2 In the UK/Canadian/Commonwealth system","3 Prominent historical and current figures","4 Progress","5 Journals","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]
Study of disease of nervous system tissue This article needs more reliable medical references for verification or relies too heavily on primary sources. Please review the contents of the article and add the appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Neuropathology" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2018) Micrograph of a vasculitic neuropathy. Plastic embedded. Toluidine blue stain. Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either small surgical biopsies or whole-body autopsies. Neuropathologists usually work in a department of anatomic pathology, but work closely with the clinical disciplines of neurology, and neurosurgery, which often depend on neuropathology for a diagnosis. Neuropathology also relates to forensic pathology because brain disease or brain injury can be related to cause of death. Neuropathology should not be confused with neuropathy, which refers to disorders of the nerves themselves (usually in the peripheral nervous system) rather than the tissues. In neuropathology, the branches of the specializations of nervous system as well as the tissues come together into one field of study. Methodology The work of the neuropathologist consists largely of examining autopsy or biopsy tissue from the brain and spinal cord to aid in diagnosis of disease. In addition to brain and spinal cord, tissues of the eyes, nerves, muscles, and tumors are examined. A biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by radiologic imaging, the imaging in turn driven by presenting signs and symptoms of a patient. CT and MRI scans are also used to discover lesions in the patient. As for autopsies, the work of the neuropathologist is to make post-mortem diagnosis of diseases such as dementia, Parkinson's disease and other conditions that affect the central nervous system. Tissue samples are researched within the lab for diagnosis, and in forensic investigations to clarify the cause of death. Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This pathology test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional sural nerve biopsy test as less invasive. It is used to identify painful small fiber neuropathies. Neuropathologists work in hospital labs and clinics, universities, or with the government depending on the situation. They often do not work with patients but only with medical professionals or other officials behind the scene. They research using information given to them by other neurologists and/ or physicians. Neuropathologists may also research in coroner's or morgue offices for forensic projects. The ultimate goal of neuropathologists is to find the medical issue and then formulate a timeline in which to cure the patient's tissue. Focus of specialization In many English-speaking countries neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. In contrast, there are a number of independent university chairs in neuropathology and even institutes of neuropathology in German-speaking countries due to a different historical background. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist is a consultant for other physicians. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken and sent to the neuropathologist, who examines it using a microscope or certain molecular methods to make a definitive diagnosis. Many neuropathologists in Europe have a background in the clinical neurosciences (neurology, psychiatry) as well as pathology. In the US system Neuropathologists are physicians with a Doctor of Medicine (MD) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree. They must finish either 3 or 4 years of an anatomical pathology residency followed by 2 years of a neuropathology fellowship and be certified by the American Board of Pathology in both anatomical and neuropathology. This is less specialized neuropathology training than in most other countries. It is also quite common for neuropathologists to have a Ph.D. in a related field. Neuropathologists must have strong communication abilities as they must analyze results and be able to explain the results to patients and/ or physicians (in paper or verbally). In the UK/Canadian/Commonwealth system Neuropathologists are medically qualified practitioners who are registered with the General Medical Council in the UK. A postgraduate qualification in neuropathology is obtained through training and an examination overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists UK. A neuropathologist has training in anatomic pathology followed by training in relation to diagnosis of diseases of the nervous system and muscle. The training in other European and commonwealth countries is similar. In Canada, Neuropathologists complete a 5-year Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada Neuropathology residency including a year of clinical medicine and a year of anatomical pathology. It is quite common for neuropathologists to have PhDs in a related field. In addition to examining central nervous system tissue, the neuropathologist usually is assigned the task of examining muscle and peripheral nerve biopsies. Muscle biopsies are taken to aid in the diagnosis of muscle diseases (such as polymyositis, mitochondrial myopathy, etc.). Peripheral nerve is assessed to help work up patients with suspected peripheral neuropathies secondary to such conditions as vasculitis and amyloidosis. Neuropathology is a heavily research-oriented field. Prominent historical and current figures Santiago Ramon y Cajal is considered one of the founders of modern neuroanatomy. Alois Alzheimer, the person after whom Alzheimer's disease is named, is considered an important early contributor to the field. There are many neuropathologists around the world who have made important clinical and research contributions toward our understanding of diseases that specifically affect the brain (degenerative diseases, multiple sclerosis, stroke, brain tumors, trauma and neuromuscular diseases). The majority are members of the International Society of Neuropathology (ISN). For neuropathologists practicing within the United States of America please refer to the Membership Directory available through the American Association of Neuropathologists (AANP) website. There are also Membership Directories available for many of the neuropathology societies that exist in other specific countries and/or regions of the world (British, European, Canadian... etc.). Progress A European Board Examination in Neuropathology which emphasizes the importance of proper training in the neurosciences is currently being established (www.euro-cns.org). The most recent international congress of neuropathology was held in Tokyo, Japan, in September 2018. Journals Academic neuropathology is served by several specialist neuropathology journals. Acta Neuropathologica is the neuropathology journal with the highest impact factor. Some journals are sponsored by national or international neuropathology associations: Brain Pathology is the official journal of the International Society of Neuropathology, Neuropathology & Applied Neurobiology is sponsored by the British Neuropathological Society, the Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology is the official journal of the American Association of Neuropathologists (AANP) and "Neuropathology" is the official journal of the Japanese Society of Neuropathology. References ^ "Neuropathology". UPMC. Retrieved 4 October 2020. ^ elevationweb.org. "American Board of Pathology". www.abpath.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2018. ^ "Acta Neuropathologica". springer.com. Archived from the original on 9 April 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2018. Further reading Neuropathology and iron, in Hider, Robert C.; Kong, Xiaole (2013). "Chapter 8. Iron: Effect of Overload and Deficiency". In Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K. O. Sigel (ed.). Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 229–294. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_8. PMID 24470094. External links American Association of Neuropathologists British Neuropathological Society EuroCNS European Confederation of Neuropathological Societies International Society of Neuropathology Blog by neuropathologist Brian E. Moore, MD Web site by Dimitri Agamanolis, M.D. wiseGEEK vteMedicineSpecialtiesandsubspecialtiesSurgery Cardiac surgery Cardiothoracic surgery Endocrine surgery Eye surgery General surgery Colorectal surgery Digestive system surgery Neurosurgery Oral and maxillofacial surgery Orthopedic surgery Hand surgery Otolaryngology ENT Pediatric surgery Plastic surgery Reproductive surgery Surgical oncology Transplant surgery Trauma surgery Urology Andrology Vascular surgery Internalmedicine Allergy / Immunology Angiology Cardiology Endocrinology Gastroenterology Hepatology Geriatrics Hematology Hospital medicine Infectious diseases Nephrology Oncology Pulmonology Rheumatology Obstetrics andgynaecology Gynaecology Gynecologic oncology Maternal–fetal medicine Obstetrics Reproductive endocrinology and infertility Urogynecology Diagnostic Radiology Interventional radiology Neuroradiology Nuclear medicine Pathology Anatomical Clinical pathology Clinical chemistry Cytopathology Medical microbiology Transfusion medicine Other Addiction medicine Adolescent medicine Anesthesiology Obstetric anesthesiology Neurosurgical anesthesiology Aviation medicine Dermatology Disaster medicine Diving medicine Emergency medicine Mass gathering medicine Evolutionary medicine Family medicine / General practice Hospital medicine Intensive care medicine Medical genetics Narcology Neurology Clinical neurophysiology Occupational medicine Ophthalmology Oral medicine Pain management Palliative care Pediatrics Neonatology Phlebology Physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R) Preventive medicine Prison healthcare Psychiatry Addiction psychiatry Radiation oncology Reproductive medicine Sexual medicine Venereology Sleep medicine Sports medicine Transplantation medicine Tropical medicine Travel medicine Medicaleducation Medical school Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery Bachelor of Medical Sciences Master of Medicine Master of Surgery Doctor of Medicine Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine MD–PhD Medical Scientist Training Program Related topics Alternative medicine Allied health Molecular oncology Nanomedicine Personalized medicine Public health Rural health Therapy Traditional medicine Veterinary medicine Physician Chief physician History of medicine Category Commons Wikiproject Portal Outline vteNeuroscience Outline History Basicscience Behavioral epigenetics Behavioral genetics Brain mapping Brain-reading Cellular neuroscience Computational neuroscience Connectomics Imaging genetics Integrative neuroscience Molecular neuroscience Neural decoding Neural engineering Neuroanatomy Neurobiology Neurochemistry Neuroendocrinology Neurogenetics Neuroinformatics Neurometrics Neuromorphology Neurophysics Neurophysiology Systems neuroscience Clinicalneuroscience Behavioral neurology Clinical neurophysiology Epileptology Neurocardiology Neuroepidemiology Neurogastroenterology Neuroimmunology Neurointensive care Neurology Neuro-oncology Neuro-ophthalmology Neuropathology Neuropharmacology Neuroprosthetics Neuropsychiatry Neuroradiology Neurorehabilitation Neurosurgery Neurotology Neurovirology Nutritional neuroscience Psychiatry Cognitiveneuroscience Affective neuroscience Behavioral neuroscience Chronobiology Molecular cellular cognition Motor control Neurolinguistics Neuropsychology Sensory neuroscience Social cognitive neuroscience Interdisciplinaryfields Consumer neuroscience Cultural neuroscience Educational neuroscience Evolutionary neuroscience Global neurosurgery Neuroanthropology Neural engineering Neurobiotics Neurocriminology Neuroeconomics Neuroepistemology Neuroesthetics Neuroethics Neuroethology Neurohistory Neurolaw Neuromarketing Neuromorphic engineering Neurophenomenology Neurophilosophy Neuropolitics Neurorobotics Neurotheology Paleoneurobiology Social neuroscience Concepts Brain–computer interface Development of the nervous system Neural network (artificial) Neural network (biological) Detection theory Intraoperative neurophysiological monitoring Neurochip Neurodegenerative disease Neurodevelopmental disorder Neurodiversity Neurogenesis Neuroimaging Neuroimmune system Neuromanagement Neuromodulation Neuroplasticity Neurotechnology Neurotoxin Category Commons Authority control databases: National Germany Japan Czech Republic
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vasculitic_neuropathy_-_plastics_-_low_mag.jpg"},{"link_name":"Micrograph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrograph"},{"link_name":"vasculitic neuropathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasculitic_neuropathy"},{"link_name":"Toluidine blue stain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toluidine_blue_stain"},{"link_name":"disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease"},{"link_name":"biopsies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsy"},{"link_name":"autopsies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy"},{"link_name":"anatomic pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomic_pathology"},{"link_name":"neurology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology"},{"link_name":"neurosurgery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurosurgery"},{"link_name":"forensic pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_pathology"},{"link_name":"cause of death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_of_death"},{"link_name":"neuropathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropathy"},{"link_name":"peripheral nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system"}],"text":"Micrograph of a vasculitic neuropathy. Plastic embedded. Toluidine blue stain.Neuropathology is the study of disease of nervous system tissue, usually in the form of either small surgical biopsies or whole-body autopsies. Neuropathologists usually work in a department of anatomic pathology, but work closely with the clinical disciplines of neurology, and neurosurgery, which often depend on neuropathology for a diagnosis. Neuropathology also relates to forensic pathology because brain disease or brain injury can be related to cause of death. Neuropathology should not be confused with neuropathy, which refers to disorders of the nerves themselves (usually in the peripheral nervous system) rather than the tissues. In neuropathology, the branches of the specializations of nervous system as well as the tissues come together into one field of study.","title":"Neuropathology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"autopsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy"},{"link_name":"biopsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsy"},{"link_name":"brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain"},{"link_name":"spinal cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord"},{"link_name":"diagnosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"CT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CT_scan"},{"link_name":"MRI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging"},{"link_name":"autopsies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autopsy"},{"link_name":"dementia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dementia"},{"link_name":"Parkinson's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"Epidermal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis_(skin)"},{"link_name":"nerve fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nerve_fiber"}],"text":"The work of the neuropathologist consists largely of examining autopsy or biopsy tissue from the brain and spinal cord to aid in diagnosis of disease.[1] In addition to brain and spinal cord, tissues of the eyes, nerves, muscles, and tumors are examined. A biopsy is usually requested after a mass is detected by radiologic imaging, the imaging in turn driven by presenting signs and symptoms of a patient. CT and MRI scans are also used to discover lesions in the patient. As for autopsies, the work of the neuropathologist is to make post-mortem diagnosis of diseases such as dementia, Parkinson's disease and other conditions that affect the central nervous system. Tissue samples are researched within the lab for diagnosis, and in forensic investigations to clarify the cause of death.Biopsies can also consist of the skin. Epidermal nerve fiber density testing (ENFD) is a more recently developed neuropathology test in which a punch skin biopsy is taken to identify small fiber neuropathies by analyzing the nerve fibers of the skin. This pathology test is becoming available in select labs as well as many universities; it replaces the traditional sural nerve biopsy test as less invasive. It is used to identify painful small fiber neuropathies.Neuropathologists work in hospital labs and clinics, universities, or with the government depending on the situation. They often do not work with patients but only with medical professionals or other officials behind the scene. They research using information given to them by other neurologists and/ or physicians. Neuropathologists may also research in coroner's or morgue offices for forensic projects. The ultimate goal of neuropathologists is to find the medical issue and then formulate a timeline in which to cure the patient's tissue.","title":"Methodology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anatomical pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_pathology"},{"link_name":"biopsy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopsy"},{"link_name":"nervous tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_tissue"}],"text":"In many English-speaking countries neuropathology is considered a subfield of anatomical pathology. In contrast, there are a number of independent university chairs in neuropathology and even institutes of neuropathology in German-speaking countries due to a different historical background. A physician who specializes in neuropathology, usually by completing a fellowship after a residency in anatomical or general pathology, is called a neuropathologist. In day-to-day clinical practice, a neuropathologist is a consultant for other physicians. If a disease of the nervous system is suspected, and the diagnosis cannot be made by less invasive methods, a biopsy of nervous tissue is taken and sent to the neuropathologist, who examines it using a microscope or certain molecular methods to make a definitive diagnosis.Many neuropathologists in Europe have a background in the clinical neurosciences (neurology, psychiatry) as well as pathology.","title":"Focus of specialization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doctor of Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine"},{"link_name":"Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine"},{"link_name":"American Board of Pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Pathology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy"}],"sub_title":"In the US system","text":"Neuropathologists are physicians with a Doctor of Medicine (MD) or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree. They must finish either 3 or 4 years of an anatomical pathology residency followed by 2 years of a neuropathology fellowship and be certified by the American Board of Pathology[2] in both anatomical and neuropathology. This is less specialized neuropathology training than in most other countries. It is also quite common for neuropathologists to have a Ph.D. in a related field. Neuropathologists must have strong communication abilities as they must analyze results and be able to explain the results to patients and/ or physicians (in paper or verbally).","title":"Focus of specialization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"General Medical Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Medical_Council"},{"link_name":"Royal College of Pathologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_College_of_Pathologists"},{"link_name":"polymyositis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymyositis"},{"link_name":"vasculitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasculitis"},{"link_name":"amyloidosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyloidosis"}],"sub_title":"In the UK/Canadian/Commonwealth system","text":"Neuropathologists are medically qualified practitioners who are registered with the General Medical Council in the UK. A postgraduate qualification in neuropathology is obtained through training and an examination overseen by the Royal College of Pathologists UK. A neuropathologist has training in anatomic pathology followed by training in relation to diagnosis of diseases of the nervous system and muscle. \nThe training in other European and commonwealth countries is similar.\nIn Canada, Neuropathologists complete a 5-year Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada Neuropathology residency including a year of clinical medicine and a year of anatomical pathology. \nIt is quite common for neuropathologists to have PhDs in a related field.In addition to examining central nervous system tissue, the neuropathologist usually is assigned the task of examining muscle and peripheral nerve biopsies. Muscle biopsies are taken to aid in the diagnosis of muscle diseases (such as polymyositis, mitochondrial myopathy, etc.). Peripheral nerve is assessed to help work up patients with suspected peripheral neuropathies secondary to such conditions as vasculitis and amyloidosis.Neuropathology is a heavily research-oriented field.","title":"Focus of specialization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santiago Ramon y Cajal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ramon_y_Cajal"},{"link_name":"Alois Alzheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alois_Alzheimer"},{"link_name":"Alzheimer's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"degenerative diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease"},{"link_name":"multiple sclerosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis"},{"link_name":"stroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke"},{"link_name":"brain tumors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_tumor"},{"link_name":"trauma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury"},{"link_name":"neuromuscular diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuromuscular_disease"}],"text":"Santiago Ramon y Cajal is considered one of the founders of modern neuroanatomy. Alois Alzheimer, the person after whom Alzheimer's disease is named, is considered an important early contributor to the field.There are many neuropathologists around the world who have made important clinical and research contributions toward our understanding of diseases that specifically affect the brain (degenerative diseases, multiple sclerosis, stroke, brain tumors, trauma and neuromuscular diseases). The majority are members of the International Society of Neuropathology (ISN). For neuropathologists practicing within the United States of America please refer to the Membership Directory available through the American Association of Neuropathologists (AANP) website. There are also Membership Directories available for many of the neuropathology societies that exist in other specific countries and/or regions of the world (British, European, Canadian... etc.).","title":"Prominent historical and current figures"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"A European Board Examination in Neuropathology which emphasizes the importance of proper training in the neurosciences is currently being established (www.euro-cns.org). The most recent international congress of neuropathology was held in Tokyo, Japan, in September 2018.","title":"Progress"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acta Neuropathologica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acta_Neuropathologica"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Brain Pathology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Pathology"},{"link_name":"Neuropathology & Applied Neurobiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropathology_%26_Applied_Neurobiology"},{"link_name":"British Neuropathological Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Neuropathological_Society"},{"link_name":"Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Neuropathology_%26_Experimental_Neurology"},{"link_name":"American Association of Neuropathologists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Association_of_Neuropathologists"}],"text":"Academic neuropathology is served by several specialist neuropathology journals. Acta Neuropathologica is the neuropathology journal with the highest impact factor.[3] Some journals are sponsored by national or international neuropathology associations: Brain Pathology is the official journal of the International Society of Neuropathology, Neuropathology & Applied Neurobiology is sponsored by the British Neuropathological Society, the Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology is the official journal of the American Association of Neuropathologists (AANP) and \"Neuropathology\" is the official journal of the Japanese Society of Neuropathology.","title":"Journals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-7500-8_8"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"24470094","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24470094"}],"text":"Neuropathology and iron, in Hider, Robert C.; Kong, Xiaole (2013). \"Chapter 8. Iron: Effect of Overload and Deficiency\". In Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K. O. Sigel (ed.). Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 229–294. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_8. PMID 24470094.","title":"Further reading"}]
[{"image_text":"Micrograph of a vasculitic neuropathy. Plastic embedded. Toluidine blue stain.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Vasculitic_neuropathy_-_plastics_-_low_mag.jpg/220px-Vasculitic_neuropathy_-_plastics_-_low_mag.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Neuropathology\". UPMC. Retrieved 4 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.upmc.com/services/pathology/diagnostic-services/anatomic/neuropathology","url_text":"\"Neuropathology\""}]},{"reference":"elevationweb.org. \"American Board of Pathology\". www.abpath.org. Archived from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.abpath.org/","url_text":"\"American Board of Pathology\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180322123956/http://abpath.org/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Acta Neuropathologica\". springer.com. Archived from the original on 9 April 2018. Retrieved 9 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.springer.com/medicine/pathology/journal/401","url_text":"\"Acta Neuropathologica\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180409233719/https://www.springer.com/medicine/pathology/journal/401","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hider, Robert C.; Kong, Xiaole (2013). \"Chapter 8. Iron: Effect of Overload and Deficiency\". In Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K. O. Sigel (ed.). Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 229–294. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_8. PMID 24470094.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-7500-8_8","url_text":"10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24470094","url_text":"24470094"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Buddha_of_Nara
Tōdai-ji
["1 History","1.1 Origins","1.2 Role in early Japanese Buddhism","1.3 Decline","2 Architecture","2.1 Initial construction","2.2 Reconstructions post-Nara Period","2.3 Dimensions of the Daibutsu","3 Temple precincts and gardens","4 Japanese national treasures","5 Major historical events","6 In popular culture","7 International outreach","8 Gallery","9 See also","10 Notes","11 External links"]
Coordinates: 34°41′21″N 135°50′23″E / 34.68917°N 135.83972°E / 34.68917; 135.83972Japanese Buddhist temple in Nara Tōdai-ji東大寺Great Buddha Hall (daibutsuden), a National TreasureReligionAffiliationKegonDeityBirushana-butsu (Vairocana Buddha)LocationLocation Japan 1 Zōshi-chō, Nara, Nara PrefectureCountryJapanGeographic coordinates34°41′21″N 135°50′23″E / 34.68917°N 135.83972°E / 34.68917; 135.83972ArchitectureFounderEmperor ShōmuDate establishedEarly 8th centuryCompleted1709; 315 years ago (1709) (Reconstruction)Websitewww.todaiji.or.jp Tōdai-ji (東大寺, Todaiji temple, "Eastern Great Temple") is a Buddhist temple complex that was once one of the powerful Seven Great Temples, located in the city of Nara, Japan. Though it was originally founded in the year 738 CE, Tōdai-ji was not opened until the year 752 CE. The construction of the temple was an attempt to imitate Chinese temples from the much-admired Tang dynasty. The temple has undergone several reconstructions since then, with the most significant reconstruction (that of the Great Buddha Hall) taking place in 1709. Its Great Buddha Hall (大仏殿 Daibutsuden) houses the world's largest bronze statue of the Buddha Vairocana, known in Japanese as Daibutsu (大仏). The temple also serves as the Japanese headquarters of the Kegon school of Buddhism. The temple is a listed UNESCO World Heritage Site as one of the "Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara", together with seven other sites including temples, shrines and places in the city of Nara. History A model of the garan of Tōdai-ji at the time of its foundation, seen from the north side, a part of 1/1000 scale model of Heijōkyō held by Nara City Hall. Map of the Tōdai-ji complex with a number of buildings that do not exist anymore, such as the two pagodas, and the library, lecture hall, refectory, and monks' quarters behind the main hall Origins Record of temple lands in Echizen Province in 757 (ICP); as head of the national network of Provincial Temples, Tōdai-ji's privileges included a large network of tax-exempt estates Emperor Shomu (r. 724–749) ordered the monk-architect Roben to build a temple at Nara between 728 and 749. This decree represented an attempt to imitate Chinese temples from the much-admired Tang dynasty. Todaiji is well-known for the Nara Daibutsu, also known as "The Great Buddha of Nara," which is an image of the Buddha Birushana. The current Buddha was repaired after suffering significant damage in 1692. Under the leadership of Abbot Shunjobo Chogen (1121–1206), numerous structures at Todaiji were rebuilt in 1180 in the fashion of the Southern Song dynasty of China. During the Tenpyō era, Japan suffered from a series of disasters and epidemics. It was after experiencing these problems that Emperor Shōmu issued an edict in 741 to promote the construction of provincial temples throughout the nation. Later in 743 during the Tenpyō era the Emperor commissioned the Daibutsu to be built in 743. Tōdai-ji (still Kinshōsen-ji at the time) was appointed as the provincial temple of Yamato Province and the head of all the provincial temples. With the alleged coup d'état by Nagaya in 729, a major outbreak of smallpox around 735–737, worsened by several consecutive years of poor crops, followed by a rebellion led by Fujiwara no Hirotsugu in 740, the country was in a chaotic situation. Emperor Shōmu had been forced to move the capital four times, indicating a certain level of instability during this period. Role in early Japanese Buddhism Tōdai-ji"Tōdai-ji" in kanjiJapanese nameKanji東大寺TranscriptionsRomanizationTōdai-ji According to legend, the monk Gyōki went to Ise Grand Shrine to reconcile Shinto with Buddhism. He spent seven days and nights reciting sutras until the oracle declared Vairocana Buddha compatible with worship of the sun goddess Amaterasu.A Model of the Kondo (Great Buddha Hall) at the time of foundation. The original hall was larger than the one built after it. Under the Ritsuryō system of government in the Nara period, Buddhism was heavily regulated by the state through the Sōgō (僧綱, Office of Priestly Affairs). During this time, Tōdai-ji served as the central administrative temple for the provincial temples and for the six Buddhist schools in Japan at the time: the Hossō, Kegon, Jōjitsu, Sanron, Ritsu and Kusha. Letters dating from this time also show that all six Buddhist schools had offices at Tōdai-ji, complete with administrators, shrines and their own library. The Great South Gate (nandaimon), a National Treasure (13th century) Japanese Buddhism during this time still maintained the lineage of the Vinaya and all officially licensed monks were required to take their ordination under the Vinaya at Tōdai-ji. In 754 CE, ordination was given by Ganjin, who arrived in Japan after traveling over 12 years and six attempts of crossing the sea from China, to Empress Kōken, former Emperor Shōmu and others. Later Buddhist monks, including Kūkai and Saichō received their ordination here as well. During Kūkai's administration of the Sōgō, additional ordination ceremonies were added to Tōdai-ji, including the ordination of the Bodhisattva Precepts from the Brahma Net Sutra and the esoteric Precepts, or Samaya, from Kukai's own newly established Shingon school of Buddhism. Kūkai added an Abhiseka Hall to use for initiating monks of the six Nara schools into the esoteric teachings by 829 CE. Decline As the center of power in Japanese Buddhism shifted away from Nara to Mount Hiei and the Tendai sect, and when the centre of political power in Japan moved from the emperor's capital to the shōgun's base in Kamakura in the aftermath of the Genpei war, Tōdai-ji's role in maintaining authority declined. In later generations, the Vinaya lineage also died out, despite repeated attempts to revive it; thus no more ordination ceremonies take place at Tōdai-ji. Architecture Initial construction The belfry at Tōdai-ji In 743, Emperor Shōmu issued a law stating that the people should become directly involved with the establishment of new Buddhist temples throughout Japan. The Emperor believed that such piety would inspire Buddha to protect his country from further disaster. Gyōki, with his pupils, traveled the provinces asking for donations. According to records kept by Tōdai-ji, more than 2,600,000 people in total helped construct the Great Buddha and its Hall, contributing rice, wood, metal, cloth, or labour, with 350,000 working directly on the statue's construction. The 16 m (52 ft) high statue was built through eight castings over three years, the head and neck being cast together as a separate element. The making of the statue was started first in Shigaraki. After enduring multiple fires and earthquakes, the construction was eventually resumed in Nara in 745, and the Buddha was finally completed in 751. A year later, in 752, the eye-opening ceremony was held with an attendance of 10,000 monks and 4,000 dancers to celebrate the completion of the Buddha. The Indian priest Bodhisena performed the eye-opening for Emperor Shōmu. The project cost Japan greatly, as the statue used much of Japan's bronze and relied entirely on imported gold. 48 lacquered cinnabar pillars, 1.5 m in diameter and 30 m long, support the blue tiled roof of the Daibutsu-den. Maps that include some of the original structures of Tōdai-ji are rare, though some still exist today. Some of these structures include, the two pagodas, the library, lecture hall, refectory, and the monk's quarters located behind the main hall. Tōdai-ji functioned not only as a place of worship and Buddhist practice, but as a place of higher learning and study. Much of what contemporaries now know about the original layout of the temple comes from the writings of monks who lived and studied there. The original complex contained two 100 m pagodas, making them some of the tallest structures at the time. They were located on either side of the complex, one on the western (西塔) and one on the eastern side (東塔). The pagodas themselves were surrounded by a walled courtyard with four gates. These were destroyed by an earthquake. One of the sōrin finials survived and is standing at the spot where one of the pagodas used to stand. The Shōsōin was its storehouse, and now contains many artifacts from the Tenpyō period of Japanese history. Reconstructions post-Nara Period A model of the Kondo that was rebuilt in the Kamakura period The Great Buddha (Daibutsu) in the main hall The Great Buddha Hall (Daibutsuden) has been rebuilt twice after fire. The current building was finished in 1709, and although immense—57 metres (187 ft) long, 50 metres (160 ft) wide and 49 metres (161 ft) high—it is actually 30% smaller than its predecessor, being reduced from 11 to 7 bays wide due to lack of funds. Until 1998, it was the world's largest wooden building. It has been surpassed by modern structures, such as the Japanese baseball stadium Odate Jukai Dome, amongst others. The Great Buddha statue has been recast several times for various reasons, including earthquake damage. The current hands of the statue were made in the Momoyama Period (1568–1615), and the head was made in the Edo period (1615–1867). The existing Nandaimon (Great South Gate) was constructed at the end of the 12th century based on Daibutsuyō style, after the original gate was destroyed by a typhoon during the Heian period. The dancing figures of the Nio, the two 8.5-metre-tall (28 ft) guardians at the Nandaimon, were built around the same time by the artists Unkei, Kaikei, and their workshop staff. The Nio are an A-un pair known as Ungyo, which by tradition has a facial expression with a closed mouth, and Agyo, which has an open mouthed expression. The two figures were closely evaluated and extensively restored by a team of art conservators between 1988 and 1993. Until then, these sculptures had never before been moved from the niches in which they were originally installed. This complex preservation project, costing $4.7 million, involved a restoration team of 15 experts from the National Treasure Repairing Institute in Kyoto. Dimensions of the Daibutsu The temple gives the following dimensions for the statue: Height: 14.98 m (49 ft 2 in) Face: 5.33 m (17 ft 6 in) Eyes: 1.02 m (3 ft 4 in) Nose: 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) Ears: 2.54 m (8 ft 4 in) The statue's shoulders are 28 meters across and there are 960 six curls atop its head. The Birushana Buddha's golden halo is 27 m (87 ft) in diameter with 16 images each 2.4 m (8 ft) tall. Recently, using x-rays, a human tooth, along with pearls, mirrors, swords, and jewels were discovered inside of the knee of the Great Buddha; these are believed to be the relics of Emperor Shomu. The statue weighs 500 tonnes (550 short tons). Temple precincts and gardens South Gate utilized in Isuien Garden. Various buildings of the Tōdai-ji have been incorporated within the overall aesthetic intention of the gardens' design. Adjacent villas are today considered part of Tōdai-ji. Some of these structures are now open to the public. Over the centuries, the buildings and gardens have evolved together as to become an integral part of an organic and living temple community. The Tōdai-ji Culture Center opened on October 10, 2011, comprising a museum to exhibit the many sculptures and other treasures enshrined in the various temple halls, along with a library and research centre, storage facility, and auditorium. Japanese national treasures Main article: List of Cultural Properties of Tōdai-ji The architectural master-works are classified as: National treasures Romaji Kanji Kon-dō (Daibutsuden) 金堂 (大仏殿) Nandaimon 南大門 Kaizan-dō 開山堂 Shōrō 鐘楼 Hokke-dō (Sangatsu-dō) 法華堂 (三月堂) Nigatsu-dō 二月堂 Tegaimon 転害門 Major historical events The temple originally had two large pagodas on either side of the complex, which used to be among the tallest structures of its time. 728: Kinshōsen-ji, the forerunner of Tōdai-ji, is established as a gesture of appeasement for the troubled spirit of Prince Motoi. 741: Emperor Shōmu calls for nationwide establishment of provincial temples, and Kinshōsen-ji appointed as the head provincial temple of Yamato. 743: The Emperor commands that a very large Buddha image statue shall be built—the Daibutsu or Great Buddha—and initial work is begun at Shigaraki-no-miya. 745: The capital returns to Heijō-kyō, construction of the Great Buddha resumes in Nara. Usage of the name Tōdai-ji appears on record. 752: The Eye-opening Ceremony celebrating the completion of the Great Buddha held. 855: The head of the great statue of the Buddha Vairocana suddenly fell to the ground; and gifts from the pious throughout the empire were collected to create another, more well-seated head for the restored Daibutsu. In popular culture Matsuo Bashō refers to the Great Buddha statue in a haiku (1689–1670): 初雪や / いつ大仏 / の柱立. "First snow!/ When Buddha's great statue/ pillar-erection" And, "First snow and / there stands the great Buddha / a pillar of strength" Tōdai-ji has been used as a location in several Japanese films and television dramas. It was also used in the 1950s John Wayne movie The Barbarian and the Geisha when Nandaimon, the Great South Gate, doubled as a city's gates. On May 20, 1994, the international music festival The Great Music Experience was held at Tōdai-ji, supported by UNESCO. Performers included the Tokyo New Philharmonic Orchestra, X Japan, INXS, Jon Bon Jovi, Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan, Tomoyasu Hotei, Roger Taylor, classic Japanese drummers, and a Buddhist monk choir. This event, organized by British producer Tony Hollingsworth, was simultaneously broadcast in 55 countries on May 22 and 23, 1994. The 2007 animation series Mononoke (モノノ怪), which is a spin-off of the 2006 horror anthology series Ayakashi: Samurai Horror Tales, references the Tōdai-ji, particularly the treasure room Shōsōin, in Episodes 8 and 9. The Tōdai-ji is used as the Japanese wonder in Age of Empires II. The Tōdai-ji is the subject of the 2003 novella "A Mountain to the North, A Lake to the South, Paths to the West, A River to the East" ("Északról hegy, Délről tó, Nyugatról utak, Keletről folyó") by László Krasznahorkai. International outreach Following the catastrophic Notre-Dame de Paris fire in April 2019, Japanese authorities declared plans to expand fire prevention measures at several historic locations, including Tōdai-ji in Nara, partly by hiring new, younger employees in a context where temple and shrine staff are aging. Custodians of Todaiji temple also installed a donation box, stating "Let's Rebuild Notre Dame Cathedral", in the hallway behind the Great Buddha statue.  In June 2019, a sign next to the box, in Japanese and English, explained why Tōdai-ji, as headquarters of the Kegon sect of Buddhism, was soliciting funds in this way. The English version declared, "Todai-ji temple has been reconstructed every time it burned down by big fires thanks to the significant effort of many people.  We sincerely express our deepest sympathy for the tragedy that hit the Notre-Dame de Paris. Going beyond the creed, we would like to ask everyone for your support to reconstruct the cathedral." Gallery Guardian figure, Tōdai-ji. The Tengai-mon is also a National Treasure (8th century). Hokke-dō is also a National Treasure (8th century). Nigatsu-dō is also a National Treasure (17th century). Daibutsu; Note caretaker standing at base for scale. Stone Jizō from grounds of Tōdai-ji. Komokuten, one of the pair of guardians in the Daibutsuden Bishamonten watching over Tōdai-ji and its precincts. Bronze bell Shuni-e held March 1 to 14 in Nigatsu-dō. Onigawara roof tiles Bodhisattvas incised on Lotus Petal of the throne of the main Buddha, 8th century. Incised image on Lotus Petal of the throne of the main Buddha, 8th century. Relief of a Bodhisattva playing a flute on the temple's 8th century Octagonal Lantern. Sōrin Agyo, one of two great gate guardians within Nandaimon, was created by Unkei, Kaikei, and other sculptors in 1203 The main hall, with festival decorations A supporting post in the Daibutsuden has a hole said to be the same size as one of the Daibutsu's nostrils. Legend has it that those who pass through it will be blessed with enlightenment in their next life. Shaka at Birth (National Treasure) Gakko Bosatsu TAMONTEN Vajirapani Shukongoshin Fukukensaku Kwannon of Hokkedo Kokūzō Bosatsu Nyoirin-kannon Wooden Binzuru (healer) sculpture at Todai-ji temple See also Japan portalReligion portalArchitecture portal For an explanation of terms concerning Japanese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhist art, and Japanese Buddhist temple architecture, see the Glossary of Japanese Buddhism. Kanjin#Kanjinshoku of Todai-ji Kōtoku-in, location of the Kamakura Great Buddha List of National Treasures of Japan (ancient documents) List of National Treasures of Japan (archaeological materials) List of National Treasures of Japan (crafts-others) List of National Treasures of Japan (paintings) List of National Treasures of Japan (sculptures) List of National Treasures of Japan (temples) List of National Treasures of Japan (writings) List of tallest structures built before the 20th century Nanto Shichi Daiji, Seven Great Temples of Nanto Old Government Buildings (Wellington), New Zealand – second-largest wooden building in the world Ostankino Palace, third-largest wooden building in the world Shōhō-ji, location of the Gifu Great Buddha Siege of Nara Tamukeyama Hachiman Shrine, Shinto shrine near the temple precincts Tourism in Japan Tōdai-ji Hachiman Notes ^ "Todaiji". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 7, 2019. ^ Farris, William Wayne (1985). Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900. Harvard University Press. pp. 84 ff. ISBN 0-674-69005-2. ^ Hall, John Whitney; Mass, Jeffrey P (1974). Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History. Stanford University Press. pp. 97 ff. ISBN 0-8047-1510-6. ^ a b c d William E. Deal (2006). Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan. Facts On File, Incorporated. pp. 216–217. ISBN 0-8160-5622-6. ^ William E. Deal (2006). Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan. Infobase. pp. 216–217. ISBN 0-8160-5622-6. ^ Jien, 1155–1225. (1979). The future and the past : a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219. Brown, Delmer Myers, 1909–, Ishida, Ichirō, 1913–2006., 石田, 一良(1913–2006). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520034600. OCLC 5145872.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Kohn, George C. (2002). Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Checkmark Books. p. 213. ISBN 978-0816048939. ^ Hall, John W., et al., eds. (1988). The Cambridge history of Japan, pp. 398–400. ^ Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 22. ^ a b Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. pp. 35, 55. ISBN 0-231-11286-6. ^ Hakeda, Yoshito S. (1972). Kūkai and His Major Works. Columbia University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-231-05933-7. ^ Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. pp. 35, 55. ISBN 0-231-11286-6. ^ NARA Prefecture. "1300年前に海を渡ってきた文化は奈良から日本各地へと広まった" . The general Supervisor of the Giant Buddha is a craftsman from Baekje, In the construction of Todai-ji Temple, a craftsman from Silla was in charge of the general supervision. And The stone lion making was of the craftsman from Southern Song. like this Many Chinese and Korean and those descendants contributed to the construction of Todai-ji Temple and the construction of the Giant Buddha. ^ a b "Official Tōdai-ji Homepage" (in Japanese). Retrieved March 11, 2007. ^ Huffman, James L. (2010). Japan in World History. New York: Oxford University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ The same record keeps track of some prominent persons, among many others, being involved in the construction. E.g. Kuninaka-no-muraji Kimimaro, whose grandfather was an immigrant from the Baekje Kingdom on the Korean peninsula, is believed to have directed the construction of the Great Buddha and the Hall. Takechi-no-sanekuni is believed to have directed the sculpture part. ^ The height of the original Buddha. ^ Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 286. ^ Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 34. ISBN 0-253-20390-2. ^ Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 89.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 33,40. ISBN 0-253-20390-2. ^ お探しのページは移動もしくは削除されてしまった可能性があります ^ お探しのページは移動もしくは削除されてしまった可能性があります ^ "Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved August 15, 2012. ^ Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (JAANUS), "Niou" (仁王); "A un" (阿吽), 2001, retrieved 2011-04-14. ^ Sterngold, James. "Japan Restores Old Temple Gods". The New York Times. December 28, 1991, retrieved 2011-04-14; excerpt, "The Nio are known as Ungyo, which by tradition has a closed mouth, and Agyo, which has an open mouth. The figures, which appear in some form in many Buddhist temples, are powerful bare-chested gods, wielding heavy cudgels to ward off evil spirits. Ungyo was restored first. The more delicate parts were removed, including the long ribbon streaming from its top knot. Then the statue was swathed in thick layers of cotton, laid on its back and rolled slowly to a large metal shed built for the conservation. Ungyo was replaced this year and then Agyo was removed to the shed for restoration, a process that is likely to take two years." ^ "大仏さまの大きさ". Archived from the original on February 19, 2012. ^ Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 94.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 89.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Ruppert, Brian D. (2000). Jewel in the Ashes: Buddha Relics and Power in Medieval Japan. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 61–62. ISBN 0-674-00245-8. ^ "Todaiji unveils museum to show ancient treasures". The Japan Times. October 12, 2011. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved April 20, 2012. Alt URL ^ 東大寺総合文化センター (in Japanese). Tōdai-ji. Retrieved April 20, 2012. ^ "Nara's Todaiji Cultural Center Completed". Nagata Acoustics. February 25, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2012. ^ Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 141–142. ^ Titsingh, Isaac. (134). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 72; Brown, p. 273. ^ Titsingh, pp. 72–73. ^ Titsingh, p. 74; Varley, p. 142 n59. ^ Titsingh, p. 114; Brown, p. 286. ^ Basho, Matsuo (February 2012). Basho's Haiku: Selected Poems of Matsuo Basho. ISBN 9780791484654. ^ "WordPress.com". WordPress.com. ^ Nippon.com (April 22, 2019). "Notre Dame Fire Heightens Vigilance at Historic Sites in Japan". Nippon.com. Retrieved June 23, 2019. ^ "В столице остается все меньше деревянных зданий". Newstube.ru. Retrieved August 15, 2012. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tōdai-ji. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Buddhist temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_temple"},{"link_name":"Seven Great Temples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanto_Shichi_Daiji"},{"link_name":"Nara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara,_Nara"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Vairocana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vairocana"},{"link_name":"Daibutsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daibutsu"},{"link_name":"Kegon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kegon"},{"link_name":"World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site"},{"link_name":"Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historic_Monuments_of_Ancient_Nara"}],"text":"Japanese Buddhist temple in NaraTōdai-ji (東大寺, Todaiji temple, \"Eastern Great Temple\") is a Buddhist temple complex that was once one of the powerful Seven Great Temples, located in the city of Nara, Japan. Though it was originally founded in the year 738 CE, Tōdai-ji was not opened until the year 752 CE. The construction of the temple was an attempt to imitate Chinese temples from the much-admired Tang dynasty. The temple has undergone several reconstructions since then, with the most significant reconstruction (that of the Great Buddha Hall) taking place in 1709.[1] Its Great Buddha Hall (大仏殿 Daibutsuden) houses the world's largest bronze statue of the Buddha Vairocana, known in Japanese as Daibutsu (大仏). The temple also serves as the Japanese headquarters of the Kegon school of Buddhism. The temple is a listed UNESCO World Heritage Site as one of the \"Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara\", together with seven other sites including temples, shrines and places in the city of Nara.","title":"Tōdai-ji"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:200730_Model_of_the_garan_of_Todaiji_seen_from_north_side.jpg"},{"link_name":"Heijōkyō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heij%C5%8Dky%C5%8D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plan_of_Todaiji.svg"}],"text":"A model of the garan of Tōdai-ji at the time of its foundation, seen from the north side, a part of 1/1000 scale model of Heijōkyō held by Nara City Hall.Map of the Tōdai-ji complex with a number of buildings that do not exist anymore, such as the two pagodas, and the library, lecture hall, refectory, and monks' quarters behind the main hall","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%9D%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AF%BA%E8%B6%8A%E5%89%8D%E5%9B%BD%E6%A1%91%E5%8E%9F%E5%BA%84%E5%88%B8%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89.jpg"},{"link_name":"Echizen Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echizen_Province"},{"link_name":"ICP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Important_Cultural_Properties_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Provincial Temples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincial_temple"},{"link_name":"tax-exempt estates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Den"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-William-4"},{"link_name":"Tang dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-William-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-William-4"},{"link_name":"Southern Song dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Song_dynasty"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-William-4"},{"link_name":"Tenpyō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenpy%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shōmu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Sh%C5%8Dmu"},{"link_name":"provincial temples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provincial_temple"},{"link_name":"Tenpyō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenpy%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Daibutsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daibutsu"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Yamato Province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamato_Province"},{"link_name":"Nagaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagaya"},{"link_name":"major outbreak of smallpox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/735%E2%80%93737_Japanese_smallpox_epidemic"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kohn-7"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shōmu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Sh%C5%8Dmu"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Origins","text":"Record of temple lands in Echizen Province in 757 (ICP); as head of the national network of Provincial Temples, Tōdai-ji's privileges included a large network of tax-exempt estates[2][3]Emperor Shomu (r. 724–749) ordered the monk-architect Roben to build a temple at Nara between 728 and 749.[4] This decree represented an attempt to imitate Chinese temples from the much-admired Tang dynasty.[5] Todaiji is well-known for the Nara Daibutsu, also known as \"The Great Buddha of Nara,\" which is an image of the Buddha Birushana.[4] The current Buddha was repaired after suffering significant damage in 1692.[4] Under the leadership of Abbot Shunjobo Chogen (1121–1206), numerous structures at Todaiji were rebuilt in 1180 in the fashion of the Southern Song dynasty of China.[4]During the Tenpyō era, Japan suffered from a series of disasters and epidemics. It was after experiencing these problems that Emperor Shōmu issued an edict in 741 to promote the construction of provincial temples throughout the nation. Later in 743 during the Tenpyō era the Emperor commissioned the Daibutsu to be built in 743.[6] Tōdai-ji (still Kinshōsen-ji at the time) was appointed as the provincial temple of Yamato Province and the head of all the provincial temples. With the alleged coup d'état by Nagaya in 729, a major outbreak of smallpox around 735–737,[7] worsened by several consecutive years of poor crops, followed by a rebellion led by Fujiwara no Hirotsugu in 740, the country was in a chaotic situation. Emperor Shōmu had been forced to move the capital four times, indicating a certain level of instability during this period.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gyōki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C5%8Dki"},{"link_name":"Ise Grand Shrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ise_Grand_Shrine"},{"link_name":"Amaterasu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaterasu"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:200604_Model_of_Todaiji_Kondo_of_its_foundation.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ritsuryō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ritsury%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Nara period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nara_period"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abe-10"},{"link_name":"six Buddhist schools in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan#Nara_Period"},{"link_name":"Hossō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_character_school"},{"link_name":"Kegon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kegon"},{"link_name":"Jōjitsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satyasiddhi"},{"link_name":"Sanron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanlun"},{"link_name":"Ritsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)"},{"link_name":"Kusha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusha_(Buddhism)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abe-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji16st3200.jpg"},{"link_name":"National Treasure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Treasures_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Vinaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinaya"},{"link_name":"Ganjin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganjin"},{"link_name":"Empress Kōken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_K%C5%8Dken"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shōmu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Sh%C5%8Dmu"},{"link_name":"Kūkai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%ABkai"},{"link_name":"Saichō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saich%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hakeda22-11"},{"link_name":"Bodhisattva Precepts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva_vows"},{"link_name":"Brahma Net Sutra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmajala_Sutra_(Mahayana)"},{"link_name":"Samaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaya"},{"link_name":"Shingon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingon"},{"link_name":"Abhiseka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abhiseka"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abe2-12"}],"sub_title":"Role in early Japanese Buddhism","text":"According to legend, the monk Gyōki went to Ise Grand Shrine to reconcile Shinto with Buddhism. He spent seven days and nights reciting sutras until the oracle declared Vairocana Buddha compatible with worship of the sun goddess Amaterasu.[9]A Model of the Kondo (Great Buddha Hall) at the time of foundation. The original hall was larger than the one built after it.Under the Ritsuryō system of government in the Nara period, Buddhism was heavily regulated by the state through the Sōgō (僧綱, Office of Priestly Affairs). During this time, Tōdai-ji served as the central administrative temple for the provincial temples[10] and for the six Buddhist schools in Japan at the time: the Hossō, Kegon, Jōjitsu, Sanron, Ritsu and Kusha. Letters dating from this time also show that all six Buddhist schools had offices at Tōdai-ji, complete with administrators, shrines and their own library.[10]The Great South Gate (nandaimon), a National Treasure (13th century)Japanese Buddhism during this time still maintained the lineage of the Vinaya and all officially licensed monks were required to take their ordination under the Vinaya at Tōdai-ji. In 754 CE, ordination was given by Ganjin, who arrived in Japan after traveling over 12 years and six attempts of crossing the sea from China, to Empress Kōken, former Emperor Shōmu and others. Later Buddhist monks, including Kūkai and Saichō received their ordination here as well.[11] During Kūkai's administration of the Sōgō, additional ordination ceremonies were added to Tōdai-ji, including the ordination of the Bodhisattva Precepts from the Brahma Net Sutra and the esoteric Precepts, or Samaya, from Kukai's own newly established Shingon school of Buddhism. Kūkai added an Abhiseka Hall to use for initiating monks of the six Nara schools into the esoteric teachings[12] by 829 CE.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mount Hiei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Hiei"},{"link_name":"Tendai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tendai"},{"link_name":"shōgun's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shogun"},{"link_name":"Kamakura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamakura,_Kanagawa"},{"link_name":"Genpei war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genpei_war"}],"sub_title":"Decline","text":"As the center of power in Japanese Buddhism shifted away from Nara to Mount Hiei and the Tendai sect, and when the \ncentre of political power in Japan moved from the emperor's\ncapital to the shōgun's base in Kamakura in the aftermath of the Genpei war, Tōdai-ji's role in maintaining authority declined. In later generations, the Vinaya lineage also died out, despite repeated attempts to revive it; thus no more ordination ceremonies take place at Tōdai-ji.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji_shoro.jpg"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shōmu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Sh%C5%8Dmu"},{"link_name":"Gyōki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gy%C5%8Dki"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-official-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Shigaraki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigaraki,_Shiga"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-official-14"},{"link_name":"eye-opening ceremony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhiseka"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Bodhisena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisena"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shōmu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Sh%C5%8Dmu"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"pagodas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagoda"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"sōrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Drin"},{"link_name":"Shōsōin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Ds%C5%8Din"},{"link_name":"Tenpyō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenpy%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Japanese history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Japan"}],"sub_title":"Initial construction","text":"The belfry at Tōdai-jiIn 743, Emperor Shōmu issued a law stating that the people should become directly involved with the establishment of new Buddhist temples throughout Japan. The Emperor believed that such piety would inspire Buddha to protect his country from further disaster. Gyōki, with his pupils, traveled the provinces asking for donations. According to records kept by Tōdai-ji, more than 2,600,000 people in total helped construct the Great Buddha and its Hall, contributing[13] rice, wood, metal, cloth, or labour, with 350,000 working directly on the statue's construction.[14][15][16] The 16 m (52 ft)[17] high statue was built through eight castings over three years, the head and neck being cast together as a separate element.[18] The making of the statue was started first in Shigaraki. After enduring multiple fires and earthquakes, the construction was eventually resumed in Nara in 745,[14] and the Buddha was finally completed in 751. A year later, in 752, the eye-opening ceremony was held with an attendance of 10,000 monks and 4,000 dancers to celebrate the completion of the Buddha.[19] The Indian priest Bodhisena performed the eye-opening for Emperor Shōmu. The project cost Japan greatly, as the statue used much of Japan's bronze and relied entirely on imported gold.[20] 48 lacquered cinnabar pillars, 1.5 m in diameter and 30 m long, support the blue tiled roof of the Daibutsu-den.[21]Maps that include some of the original structures of Tōdai-ji are rare, though some still exist today. Some of these structures include, the two pagodas, the library, lecture hall, refectory, and the monk's quarters located behind the main hall. Tōdai-ji functioned not only as a place of worship and Buddhist practice, but as a place of higher learning and study. Much of what contemporaries now know about the original layout of the temple comes from the writings of monks who lived and studied there.The original complex contained two 100 m pagodas, making them some of the tallest structures at the time. They were located on either side of the complex, one on the western (西塔) and one on the eastern side (東塔).[22] The pagodas themselves were surrounded by a walled courtyard with four gates.[23] These were destroyed by an earthquake. One of the sōrin finials survived and is standing at the spot where one of the pagodas used to stand.The Shōsōin was its storehouse, and now contains many artifacts from the Tenpyō period of Japanese history.","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji_Nara_models_(4)_(retouched).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daibutsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daibutsu"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Odate Jukai Dome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odate_Jukai_Dome"},{"link_name":"recast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting"},{"link_name":"Momoyama Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azuchi%E2%80%93Momoyama_period"},{"link_name":"Edo period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edo_period"},{"link_name":"Daibutsuyō style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daibutsuy%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Nio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nio_(Buddhism)"},{"link_name":"Unkei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unkei"},{"link_name":"Kaikei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaikei"},{"link_name":"A-un","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A-un"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"National Treasure Repairing Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Treasure_Repairing_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Reconstructions post-Nara Period","text":"A model of the Kondo that was rebuilt in the Kamakura periodThe Great Buddha (Daibutsu) in the main hallThe Great Buddha Hall (Daibutsuden) has been rebuilt twice after fire. The current building was finished in 1709, and although immense—57 metres (187 ft) long, 50 metres (160 ft) wide and 49 metres (161 ft) high—it is actually 30% smaller than its predecessor, being reduced from 11 to 7 bays wide due to lack of funds. Until 1998, it was the world's largest wooden building.[24] It has been surpassed by modern structures, such as the Japanese baseball stadium Odate Jukai Dome, amongst others. The Great Buddha statue has been recast several times for various reasons, including earthquake damage. The current hands of the statue were made in the Momoyama Period (1568–1615), and the head was made in the Edo period (1615–1867).The existing Nandaimon (Great South Gate) was constructed at the end of the 12th century based on Daibutsuyō style, after the original gate was destroyed by a typhoon during the Heian period. The dancing figures of the Nio, the two 8.5-metre-tall (28 ft) guardians at the Nandaimon, were built around the same time by the artists Unkei, Kaikei, and their workshop staff. The Nio are an A-un pair known as Ungyo, which by tradition has a facial expression with a closed mouth, and Agyo, which has an open mouthed expression.[25] The two figures were closely evaluated and extensively restored by a team of art conservators between 1988 and 1993. Until then, these sculptures had never before been moved from the niches in which they were originally installed. This complex preservation project, costing $4.7 million, involved a restoration team of 15 experts from the National Treasure Repairing Institute in Kyoto.[26]","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Emperor Shomu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Shomu"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Dimensions of the Daibutsu","text":"The temple gives the following dimensions for the statue:[27]Height: 14.98 m (49 ft 2 in)\nFace: 5.33 m (17 ft 6 in)\nEyes: 1.02 m (3 ft 4 in)\nNose: 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in)\nEars: 2.54 m (8 ft 4 in)The statue's shoulders are 28 meters across and there are 960 six curls atop its head.[28] The Birushana Buddha's golden halo is 27 m (87 ft) in diameter with 16 images each 2.4 m (8 ft) tall.[29]Recently, using x-rays, a human tooth, along with pearls, mirrors, swords, and jewels were discovered inside of\nthe knee of the Great Buddha; these are believed to be the relics of Emperor Shomu.[30]The statue weighs 500 tonnes (550 short tons).","title":"Architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Isuien_Garden_and_the_South_Gate_of_the_T%C5%8Ddai-ji.jpg"},{"link_name":"Isuien Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isuien_Garden"},{"link_name":"many sculptures and other treasures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cultural_Properties_of_T%C5%8Ddai-ji#Sculptures"},{"link_name":"various temple halls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cultural_Properties_of_T%C5%8Ddai-ji#Structures"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"South Gate utilized in Isuien Garden.Various buildings of the Tōdai-ji have been incorporated within the overall aesthetic intention of the gardens' design. Adjacent villas are today considered part of Tōdai-ji. Some of these structures are now open to the public.Over the centuries, the buildings and gardens have evolved together as to become an integral part of an organic and living temple community.The Tōdai-ji Culture Center opened on October 10, 2011, comprising a museum to exhibit the many sculptures and other treasures enshrined in the various temple halls, along with a library and research centre, storage facility, and auditorium.[31][32][33]","title":"Temple precincts and gardens"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The architectural master-works are classified as:","title":"Japanese national treasures"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji_model_pagoda_(retouched).jpg"},{"link_name":"pagodas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagoda"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Daibutsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daibutsu"},{"link_name":"Shigaraki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigaraki"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Heijō-kyō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heij%C5%8D_Ky%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"The temple originally had two large pagodas on either side of the complex, which used to be among the tallest structures of its time.728: Kinshōsen-ji, the forerunner of Tōdai-ji, is established as a gesture of appeasement for the troubled spirit of Prince Motoi.\n741: Emperor Shōmu calls for nationwide establishment of provincial temples,[34] and Kinshōsen-ji appointed as the head provincial temple of Yamato.\n743: The Emperor commands that a very large Buddha image statue shall be built—the Daibutsu or Great Buddha—and initial work is begun at Shigaraki-no-miya.[35]\n745: The capital returns to Heijō-kyō, construction of the Great Buddha resumes in Nara. Usage of the name Tōdai-ji appears on record.[36]\n752: The Eye-opening Ceremony celebrating the completion of the Great Buddha held.[37]\n855: The head of the great statue of the Buddha Vairocana suddenly fell to the ground; and gifts from the pious throughout the empire were collected to create another, more well-seated head for the restored Daibutsu.[38]","title":"Major historical events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Matsuo Bashō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matsuo_Bash%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"haiku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiku"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"John Wayne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wayne"},{"link_name":"The Barbarian and the Geisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Barbarian_and_the_Geisha"},{"link_name":"The Great Music Experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Music_Experience"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"X Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X_Japan"},{"link_name":"INXS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INXS"},{"link_name":"Jon Bon Jovi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Bon_Jovi"},{"link_name":"Joni Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joni_Mitchell"},{"link_name":"Bob Dylan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Dylan"},{"link_name":"Tomoyasu Hotei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomoyasu_Hotei"},{"link_name":"Roger Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Meddows_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Japanese drummers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiko"},{"link_name":"Tony Hollingsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Hollingsworth"},{"link_name":"Mononoke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mononoke_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Ayakashi: Samurai Horror Tales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayakashi:_Samurai_Horror_Tales"},{"link_name":"Shōsōin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C5%8Ds%C5%8Din"},{"link_name":"Age of Empires II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Empires_II"},{"link_name":"László Krasznahorkai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Krasznahorkai"}],"text":"Matsuo Bashō refers to the Great Buddha statue in a haiku (1689–1670):\n初雪や / いつ大仏 / の柱立.\n\"First snow!/ When Buddha's great statue/ pillar-erection\"[39]\nAnd,\n\"First snow and / there stands the great Buddha / a pillar of strength\"[40]Tōdai-ji has been used as a location in several Japanese films and television dramas. It was also used in the 1950s John Wayne movie The Barbarian and the Geisha when Nandaimon, the Great South Gate, doubled as a city's gates.On May 20, 1994, the international music festival The Great Music Experience was held at Tōdai-ji, supported by UNESCO. Performers included the Tokyo New Philharmonic Orchestra, X Japan, INXS, Jon Bon Jovi, Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan, Tomoyasu Hotei, Roger Taylor, classic Japanese drummers, and a Buddhist monk choir. This event, organized by British producer Tony Hollingsworth, was simultaneously broadcast in 55 countries on May 22 and 23, 1994.The 2007 animation series Mononoke (モノノ怪), which is a spin-off of the 2006 horror anthology series Ayakashi: Samurai Horror Tales, references the Tōdai-ji, particularly the treasure room Shōsōin, in Episodes 8 and 9.The Tōdai-ji is used as the Japanese wonder in Age of Empires II.The Tōdai-ji is the subject of the 2003 novella \"A Mountain to the North, A Lake to the South, Paths to the West, A River to the East\" (\"Északról hegy, Délről tó, Nyugatról utak, Keletről folyó\") by László Krasznahorkai.","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Notre-Dame de Paris fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris_fire"},{"link_name":"aging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Kegon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kegon"}],"text":"Following the catastrophic Notre-Dame de Paris fire in April 2019, Japanese authorities declared plans to expand fire prevention measures at several historic locations, including Tōdai-ji in Nara, partly by hiring new, younger employees in a context where temple and shrine staff are aging.[41] Custodians of Todaiji temple also installed a donation box, stating \"Let's Rebuild Notre Dame Cathedral\", in the hallway behind the Great Buddha statue.  In June 2019, a sign next to the box, in Japanese and English, explained why Tōdai-ji, as headquarters of the Kegon sect of Buddhism, was soliciting funds in this way. The English version declared, \"Todai-ji temple has been reconstructed every time it burned down by big fires thanks to the significant effort of many people.  We sincerely express our deepest sympathy for the tragedy that hit the Notre-Dame de Paris. Going beyond the creed, we would like to ask everyone for your support to reconstruct the cathedral.\"","title":"International outreach"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Guardian_figure,_Todai-ji,_Nara.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tengaimon_Gate.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaraTodaiji0252.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji07s3200.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T%C5%8Ddai-ji.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daibutsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daibutsu"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Statuette_from_grounds_of_T%C5%8Ddai-ji.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Komokuten_-_temple_Todai-ji_-_Nara.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tamonten-Bishamonten_-_temple_Todai-ji_-_Nara.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bishamonten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toudai-ji_bonsyou.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji_Syunie_Nara_JPN_001.JPG"},{"link_name":"Nigatsu-dō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigatsu-d%C5%8D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Onigawara_3_kaidan-in_JPN.jpg"},{"link_name":"Onigawara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onigawara"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu_Incised_Images0.JPG"},{"link_name":"Bodhisattvas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattvas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu_Incised_Images1.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ONJYO_BOSATSU_Todaiji.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji_sorin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sōrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%8Drin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nio_guardians_by_Unkei_in_Nara.jpg"},{"link_name":"Unkei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unkei"},{"link_name":"Kaikei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaikei"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji02s3200.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaraTodaijiL0219.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shaka_at_birth_basin.JPG"},{"link_name":"Shaka at Birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaka_at_Birth_(T%C5%8Ddai-ji)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji_Gakko_Bosatsu.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TAMONTEN_KAIDANIN_Todaiji.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vajirapani_Shukongoshin_Todaiji2.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Todaiji_Monaster_Fukukensaku_Kwannon_of_Hokkedo_(232).jpg"},{"link_name":"Fukukensaku Kwannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nara,_todai-ji_05.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nyoirin-kannon_(11140621175).jpg"},{"link_name":"Nyoirin-kannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanyin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Binzuru_at_Todai-ji_in_Nara.jpg"}],"text":"Guardian figure, Tōdai-ji.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Tengai-mon is also a National Treasure (8th century).\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tHokke-dō is also a National Treasure (8th century).\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNigatsu-dō is also a National Treasure (17th century).\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDaibutsu; Note caretaker standing at base for scale.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tStone Jizō from grounds of Tōdai-ji.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKomokuten, one of the pair of guardians in the Daibutsuden\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBishamonten watching over Tōdai-ji and its precincts.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBronze bell\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShuni-e held March 1 to 14 in Nigatsu-dō.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tOnigawara roof tiles\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBodhisattvas incised on Lotus Petal of the throne of the main Buddha, 8th century.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIncised image on Lotus Petal of the throne of the main Buddha, 8th century.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRelief of a Bodhisattva playing a flute on the temple's 8th century Octagonal Lantern.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSōrin\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAgyo, one of two great gate guardians within Nandaimon, was created by Unkei, Kaikei, and other sculptors in 1203\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe main hall, with festival decorations\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA supporting post in the Daibutsuden has a hole said to be the same size as one of the Daibutsu's nostrils. Legend has it that those who pass through it will be blessed with enlightenment in their next life.\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tShaka at Birth (National Treasure)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tGakko Bosatsu\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTAMONTEN\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tVajirapani Shukongoshin\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFukukensaku Kwannon of Hokkedo\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tKokūzō Bosatsu\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNyoirin-kannon\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWooden Binzuru (healer) sculpture at Todai-ji temple","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Todaiji\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldhistory.org/Todaiji/"},{"link_name":"World History Encyclopedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=5dmxY_HIWp8C&pg=PA84"},{"link_name":"Harvard University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-674-69005-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-69005-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Hall, John Whitney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Whitney_Hall"},{"link_name":"Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=J-tO9pOjzmsC&pg=PA97"},{"link_name":"Stanford University 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original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111012a7.html"},{"link_name":"Alt URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//buddhistartnews.wordpress.com/2011/10/23/todaiji-unveils-museum-to-show-ancient-treasures/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-32"},{"link_name":"東大寺総合文化センター","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//culturecenter.todaiji.or.jp/index.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"\"Nara's Todaiji Cultural Center Completed\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nagata.co.jp/e_news/news1102-e.html"},{"link_name":"Nagata Acoustics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagata_Acoustics"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-36"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-37"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-39"},{"link_name":"Basho's Haiku: Selected Poems of Matsuo Basho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=V0LQ0DSJ2tcC&q=matsuo+basho+great+buddha+first+snow&pg=PA230"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780791484654","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791484654"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"\"WordPress.com\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//wordpress.com/post/matsuobashohaiku.home.blog/26"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"},{"link_name":"\"Notre Dame Fire Heightens Vigilance at Historic Sites in Japan\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nippon.com/en/news/yjj2019041901003/notre-dame-fire-heightens-vigilance-at-historical-sites-in-japan.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-42"},{"link_name":"\"В столице остается все меньше деревянных зданий\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.newstube.ru/media/v-stolice-ostaetsya-vse-men%27she-derevyannyx-zdanij"}],"text":"^ \"Todaiji\". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 7, 2019.\n\n^ Farris, William Wayne (1985). Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900. Harvard University Press. pp. 84 ff. ISBN 0-674-69005-2.\n\n^ Hall, John Whitney; Mass, Jeffrey P (1974). Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History. Stanford University Press. pp. 97 ff. ISBN 0-8047-1510-6.\n\n^ a b c d William E. Deal (2006). Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan. Facts On File, Incorporated. pp. 216–217. ISBN 0-8160-5622-6.\n\n^ William E. Deal (2006). Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan. Infobase. pp. 216–217. ISBN 0-8160-5622-6.\n\n^ Jien, 1155–1225. (1979). The future and the past : a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219. Brown, Delmer Myers, 1909–, Ishida, Ichirō, 1913–2006., 石田, 一良(1913–2006). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520034600. OCLC 5145872.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)\n\n^ Kohn, George C. (2002). Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Checkmark Books. p. 213. ISBN 978-0816048939.\n\n^ Hall, John W., et al., eds. (1988). The Cambridge history of Japan, pp. 398–400.\n\n^ Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 22.\n\n^ a b Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. pp. 35, 55. ISBN 0-231-11286-6.\n\n^ Hakeda, Yoshito S. (1972). Kūkai and His Major Works. Columbia University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-231-05933-7.\n\n^ Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. pp. 35, 55. ISBN 0-231-11286-6.\n\n^ NARA Prefecture. \"1300年前に海を渡ってきた文化は奈良から日本各地へと広まった\" [The culture that crossed the sea 1300 years ago spread to Japan]. The general Supervisor of the Giant Buddha is a craftsman from Baekje, In the construction of Todai-ji Temple, a craftsman from Silla was in charge of the general supervision. And The stone lion making was of the craftsman from Southern Song. like this Many Chinese and Korean and those descendants contributed to the construction of Todai-ji Temple and the construction of the Giant Buddha.\n\n^ a b \"Official Tōdai-ji Homepage\" (in Japanese). Retrieved March 11, 2007.\n\n^ Huffman, James L. (2010). Japan in World History. New York: Oxford University Press.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\n\n^ The same record keeps track of some prominent persons, among many others, being involved in the construction. E.g. Kuninaka-no-muraji Kimimaro, whose grandfather was an immigrant from the Baekje Kingdom on the Korean peninsula, is believed to have directed the construction of the Great Buddha and the Hall. Takechi-no-sanekuni is believed to have directed the sculpture part.\n\n^ The height of the original Buddha.\n\n^ Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 286.\n\n^ Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 34. ISBN 0-253-20390-2.\n\n^ Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 89.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\n\n^ Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 33,40. ISBN 0-253-20390-2.\n\n^ お探しのページは移動もしくは削除されてしまった可能性があります\n\n^ お探しのページは移動もしくは削除されてしまった可能性があります\n\n^ \"Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara – UNESCO World Heritage Centre\". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved August 15, 2012.\n\n^ Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System (JAANUS), \"Niou\" (仁王); \"A un\" (阿吽), 2001, retrieved 2011-04-14.\n\n^ Sterngold, James. \"Japan Restores Old Temple Gods\". The New York Times. December 28, 1991, retrieved 2011-04-14; excerpt, \"The Nio are known as Ungyo, which by tradition has a closed mouth, and Agyo, which has an open mouth. The figures, which appear in some form in many Buddhist temples, are powerful bare-chested gods, wielding heavy cudgels to ward off evil spirits. Ungyo was restored first. The more delicate parts were removed, including the long ribbon streaming from its top knot. Then the statue was swathed in thick layers of cotton, laid on its back and rolled slowly to a large metal shed built for the conservation. Ungyo was replaced this year and then Agyo was removed to the shed for restoration, a process that is likely to take two years.\"\n\n^ \"大仏さまの大きさ\". Archived from the original on February 19, 2012.\n\n^ Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 94.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\n\n^ Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 89.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)\n\n^ Ruppert, Brian D. (2000). Jewel in the Ashes: Buddha Relics and Power in Medieval Japan. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 61–62. ISBN 0-674-00245-8.\n\n^ \"Todaiji unveils museum to show ancient treasures\". The Japan Times. October 12, 2011. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved April 20, 2012. Alt URL\n\n^ 東大寺総合文化センター [Tōdaiji Culture Center] (in Japanese). Tōdai-ji. Retrieved April 20, 2012.\n\n^ \"Nara's Todaiji Cultural Center Completed\". Nagata Acoustics. February 25, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2012.\n\n^ Varley, H. Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, pp. 141–142.\n\n^ Titsingh, Isaac. (134). Annales des empereurs du japon, p. 72; Brown, p. 273.\n\n^ Titsingh, pp. 72–73.\n\n^ Titsingh, p. 74; Varley, p. 142 n59.\n\n^ Titsingh, p. 114; Brown, p. 286.\n\n^ Basho, Matsuo (February 2012). Basho's Haiku: Selected Poems of Matsuo Basho. ISBN 9780791484654.\n\n^ \"WordPress.com\". WordPress.com.\n\n^ Nippon.com (April 22, 2019). \"Notre Dame Fire Heightens Vigilance at Historic Sites in Japan\". Nippon.com. Retrieved June 23, 2019.\n\n^ \"В столице остается все меньше деревянных зданий\". Newstube.ru. Retrieved August 15, 2012.","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"A model of the garan of Tōdai-ji at the time of its foundation, seen from the north side, a part of 1/1000 scale model of Heijōkyō held by Nara City Hall.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/200730_Model_of_the_garan_of_Todaiji_seen_from_north_side.jpg/260px-200730_Model_of_the_garan_of_Todaiji_seen_from_north_side.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of the Tōdai-ji complex with a number of buildings that do not exist anymore, such as the two pagodas, and the library, lecture hall, refectory, and monks' quarters behind the main hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Plan_of_Todaiji.svg/220px-Plan_of_Todaiji.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Record of temple lands in Echizen Province in 757 (ICP); as head of the national network of Provincial Temples, Tōdai-ji's privileges included a large network of tax-exempt estates[2][3]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/%E6%9D%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AF%BA%E8%B6%8A%E5%89%8D%E5%9B%BD%E6%A1%91%E5%8E%9F%E5%BA%84%E5%88%B8%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89.jpg/220px-%E6%9D%B1%E5%A4%A7%E5%AF%BA%E8%B6%8A%E5%89%8D%E5%9B%BD%E6%A1%91%E5%8E%9F%E5%BA%84%E5%88%B8%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Model of the Kondo (Great Buddha Hall) at the time of foundation. The original hall was larger than the one built after it.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/200604_Model_of_Todaiji_Kondo_of_its_foundation.jpg/260px-200604_Model_of_Todaiji_Kondo_of_its_foundation.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Great South Gate (nandaimon), a National Treasure (13th century)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Todaiji16st3200.jpg/220px-Todaiji16st3200.jpg"},{"image_text":"The belfry at Tōdai-ji","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Todaiji_shoro.jpg/220px-Todaiji_shoro.jpg"},{"image_text":"A model of the Kondo that was rebuilt in the Kamakura period","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Todaiji_Nara_models_%284%29_%28retouched%29.jpg/220px-Todaiji_Nara_models_%284%29_%28retouched%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Great Buddha (Daibutsu) in the main hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg/220px-NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg"},{"image_text":"South Gate utilized in Isuien Garden.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Isuien_Garden_and_the_South_Gate_of_the_T%C5%8Ddai-ji.jpg/150px-Isuien_Garden_and_the_South_Gate_of_the_T%C5%8Ddai-ji.jpg"},{"image_text":"The temple originally had two large pagodas on either side of the complex, which used to be among the tallest structures of its time.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Todaiji_model_pagoda_%28retouched%29.jpg/170px-Todaiji_model_pagoda_%28retouched%29.jpg"}]
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[{"reference":"\"Todaiji\". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved April 7, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/Todaiji/","url_text":"\"Todaiji\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia","url_text":"World History Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"Farris, William Wayne (1985). Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900. Harvard University Press. pp. 84 ff. ISBN 0-674-69005-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5dmxY_HIWp8C&pg=PA84","url_text":"Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press","url_text":"Harvard University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-69005-2","url_text":"0-674-69005-2"}]},{"reference":"Hall, John Whitney; Mass, Jeffrey P (1974). Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History. Stanford University Press. pp. 97 ff. ISBN 0-8047-1510-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Whitney_Hall","url_text":"Hall, John Whitney"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=J-tO9pOjzmsC&pg=PA97","url_text":"Medieval Japan: Essays in Institutional History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University_Press","url_text":"Stanford University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1510-6","url_text":"0-8047-1510-6"}]},{"reference":"William E. Deal (2006). Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan. Facts On File, Incorporated. pp. 216–217. ISBN 0-8160-5622-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/handbooktolifein0000deal/page/216/mode/2up","url_text":"Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5622-6","url_text":"0-8160-5622-6"}]},{"reference":"William E. Deal (2006). Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan. Infobase. pp. 216–217. ISBN 0-8160-5622-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OKr3XPabVQIC","url_text":"Handbook to Life in Medieval & early Modern Japan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5622-6","url_text":"0-8160-5622-6"}]},{"reference":"Jien, 1155–1225. (1979). The future and the past : a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219. Brown, Delmer Myers, 1909–, Ishida, Ichirō, 1913–2006., 石田, 一良(1913–2006). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520034600. OCLC 5145872.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520034600","url_text":"0520034600"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/5145872","url_text":"5145872"}]},{"reference":"Kohn, George C. (2002). Encyclopedia of Plague and Pestilence: From Ancient Times to the Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Checkmark Books. p. 213. ISBN 978-0816048939.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816048939","url_text":"978-0816048939"}]},{"reference":"Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 22.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. pp. 35, 55. ISBN 0-231-11286-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11286-6","url_text":"0-231-11286-6"}]},{"reference":"Hakeda, Yoshito S. (1972). Kūkai and His Major Works. Columbia University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-231-05933-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-05933-7","url_text":"0-231-05933-7"}]},{"reference":"Abe, Ryuichi (1999). The Weaving of Mantra: Kukai and the Construction of Esoteric Buddhist Discourse. Columbia University Press. pp. 35, 55. ISBN 0-231-11286-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11286-6","url_text":"0-231-11286-6"}]},{"reference":"NARA Prefecture. \"1300年前に海を渡ってきた文化は奈良から日本各地へと広まった\" [The culture that crossed the sea 1300 years ago spread to Japan]. The general Supervisor of the Giant Buddha is a craftsman from Baekje, In the construction of Todai-ji Temple, a craftsman from Silla was in charge of the general supervision. And The stone lion making was of the craftsman from Southern Song. like this Many Chinese and Korean and those descendants contributed to the construction of Todai-ji Temple and the construction of the Giant Buddha.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pref.nara.jp/koho/kenmindayori/tayori/t2010/tayori2208/tyu_kan_yukari2208.htm","url_text":"\"1300年前に海を渡ってきた文化は奈良から日本各地へと広まった\""}]},{"reference":"\"Official Tōdai-ji Homepage\" (in Japanese). Retrieved March 11, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.todaiji.or.jp/","url_text":"\"Official Tōdai-ji Homepage\""}]},{"reference":"Huffman, James L. (2010). Japan in World History. New York: Oxford University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 34. ISBN 0-253-20390-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20390-2","url_text":"0-253-20390-2"}]},{"reference":"Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 89.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japanitsarchitec00dres","url_text":"Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japanitsarchitec00dres/page/89","url_text":"89"}]},{"reference":"Mino, Yutaka (1986). The Great Eastern Temple: Treasures of Japanese Buddhist Art From Tōdai-Ji. Garland Publishing Inc. p. 33,40. ISBN 0-253-20390-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20390-2","url_text":"0-253-20390-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara – UNESCO World Heritage Centre\". Whc.unesco.org. Retrieved August 15, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/870","url_text":"\"Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara – UNESCO World Heritage Centre\""}]},{"reference":"\"大仏さまの大きさ\". Archived from the original on February 19, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120219172210/http://www.todaiji.or.jp/index/info/faq/d-ookisa.html","url_text":"\"大仏さまの大きさ\""},{"url":"http://www.todaiji.or.jp/index/info/faq/d-ookisa.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 94.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japanitsarchitec00dres","url_text":"Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japanitsarchitec00dres/page/94","url_text":"94"}]},{"reference":"Dresser, Christopher (1882). Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures. New York and London. p. 89.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japanitsarchitec00dres","url_text":"Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Art Manufactures"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/japanitsarchitec00dres/page/89","url_text":"89"}]},{"reference":"Ruppert, Brian D. (2000). Jewel in the Ashes: Buddha Relics and Power in Medieval Japan. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 61–62. ISBN 0-674-00245-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/jewelinashesbudd00rupp/page/61","url_text":"Jewel in the Ashes: Buddha Relics and Power in Medieval Japan"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/jewelinashesbudd00rupp/page/61","url_text":"61–62"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00245-8","url_text":"0-674-00245-8"}]},{"reference":"\"Todaiji unveils museum to show ancient treasures\". The Japan Times. October 12, 2011. Archived from the original on August 4, 2012. Retrieved April 20, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120804181332/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111012a7.html","url_text":"\"Todaiji unveils museum to show ancient treasures\""},{"url":"http://www.japantimes.co.jp/text/nn20111012a7.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"東大寺総合文化センター [Tōdaiji Culture Center] (in Japanese). Tōdai-ji. Retrieved April 20, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://culturecenter.todaiji.or.jp/index.html","url_text":"東大寺総合文化センター"}]},{"reference":"\"Nara's Todaiji Cultural Center Completed\". Nagata Acoustics. February 25, 2011. Retrieved April 20, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nagata.co.jp/e_news/news1102-e.html","url_text":"\"Nara's Todaiji Cultural Center Completed\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagata_Acoustics","url_text":"Nagata Acoustics"}]},{"reference":"Basho, Matsuo (February 2012). Basho's Haiku: Selected Poems of Matsuo Basho. ISBN 9780791484654.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=V0LQ0DSJ2tcC&q=matsuo+basho+great+buddha+first+snow&pg=PA230","url_text":"Basho's Haiku: Selected Poems of Matsuo Basho"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791484654","url_text":"9780791484654"}]},{"reference":"\"WordPress.com\". WordPress.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://wordpress.com/post/matsuobashohaiku.home.blog/26","url_text":"\"WordPress.com\""}]},{"reference":"Nippon.com (April 22, 2019). \"Notre Dame Fire Heightens Vigilance at Historic Sites in Japan\". Nippon.com. Retrieved June 23, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nippon.com/en/news/yjj2019041901003/notre-dame-fire-heightens-vigilance-at-historical-sites-in-japan.html","url_text":"\"Notre Dame Fire Heightens Vigilance at Historic Sites in Japan\""}]},{"reference":"\"В столице остается все меньше деревянных зданий\". Newstube.ru. Retrieved August 15, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.newstube.ru/media/v-stolice-ostaetsya-vse-men%27she-derevyannyx-zdanij","url_text":"\"В столице остается все меньше деревянных зданий\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_Tennis_Hall_of_Fame
Australian Tennis Hall of Fame
["1 Inductees","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]
Bronze busts honouring Australian tennis players The Australian Tennis Hall of Fame was established in 1993 by Tennis Australia under the leadership of then-president Geoff Pollard. Described by Tennis Australia as "one of the highest honours Australian tennis players can receive", inductees are recognised by the production of a bronze bust by local sculptor Barbara McLean, that is later displayed in Garden Square at Melbourne Park. The two inaugural inductees were Rod Laver and Margaret Court, recognised in a 1993 ceremony. Since then, a total of 39 individuals have been inducted into the Australian Tennis Hall of Fame, 10 of whom are women. One wheelchair player and one administrator are amongst the group. Eight of the inductions have been made posthumously. Thirty-one of the inductees are also members of the International Tennis Hall of Fame. Inductions are generally made annually, on Australia Day, 26 January, although nobody was added to the hall of fame in 1999 or 2005. On a number of occasions more than one induction has been made, but since 2011 a single induction has been made every year. Inductions take place at the Rod Laver Arena; they are celebrated at a Hall of Fame Ball, which takes place each year on the eve of the Australian Open men's singles final. Inductees Key † posthumous induction ‡ tennis administrator * also an inductee of the International Tennis Hall of Fame Australian Tennis Hall of Fame inductees Year Image Name Notes Ref(s) 1993 Rod Laver * One of two inaugural members of the Hall of Fame. Winner of eleven singles and nine doubles majors titles, including two Grand Slams (1962 and 1969). Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup from 1958 to 1962, and again in 1973, helping Australia to four tournament wins. 1993 Margaret Court * One of two inaugural members of the Hall of Fame. Winner of 24 singles and 40 doubles majors titles. Represented Australia in the Federation Cup from 1963 to 1965, and again from 1968 to 1970, also captaining the team on three occasions. 1994 Roy Emerson * Winner of 12 singles and 16 doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup from 1959 to 1967. 1994 Evonne Goolagong Cawley * Second female player to be inducted. Winner of seven singles and six doubles majors titles. Represented Australia in the Federation Cup in 1970, from 1972 to 1976 and again in 1982. Non-playing captain of the Federation Cup team from 2002 to 2004. 1994 Neale Fraser * Winner of three singles and sixteen doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup from 1955 to 1963. Captained the team from 1970 to 1993, including four titles. 1995 Lew Hoad †* Winner of four singles and nine doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup from 1952 to 1956, including four victories in the tournament. 1995 Ken Rosewall * Winner of eight singles and ten doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup from 1953 to 1956, in 1973 and in 1975, including four victories in the tournament. 1996 Frank Sedgman * Winner of five singles and seventeen doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup from 1949 to 1952, including three victories in the tournament. 1996 John Bromwich * Winner of two singles and seventeen doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup seven times between 1937 and 1950, including two victories in 1939 and 1950. 1996 Norman Brookes * † Winner of three singles and four doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup seven times between 1905 and 1920, including two victories in 1939 and 1950. 1996 Ashley Cooper * Winner of four singles and four doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup twice, in 1957 and 1958, winning both tournaments. 1996 Harry Hopman †* Winner of seven doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup five times from 1928 to 1939, captaining the team in 1938 and 1939. Also non-playing captain of the team from 1950 to 1969. The Hopman Cup is named after him. 1997 – Fred Stolle * Winner of two singles and fifteen doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup three times from 1964 to 1966, winning each time. 1997 Jack Crawford †* Winner of six singles and eleven doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup eight times from 1928 to 1937. 1997 Gerald Patterson †* Winner of three singles and six doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup six times from 1919 to 1928, and as a non-playing captain in 1946. 1998 John Newcombe * Winner of seven singles and nineteen doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup eight times from 1963 to 1976, and as a non-playing captain between 1994 and 2000. 1998 Tony Roche * Winner of one singles and fifteen doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup eight times from 1964 to 1978, and as a coach between 1994 and 2000. 1998 Lesley Turner Bowrey * The third female player to be inducted. Winner of two singles and eleven doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Federation Cup four times from 1963 to 1967, and as a non-playing captain between 1994 and 2000. 1998 Adrian Quist †* Winner of three singles and fourteen doubles majors titles, including ten consecutive Australian Open men's doubles titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup nine times from 1933 to 1948. 2000 Ken McGregor * Winner of one singles and eight doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup three times from 1950 to 1952. 2001 Mal Anderson * Winner of one singles and three doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup four times, in 1957, 1958, 1972 and 1973, winning twice. 2001 Nancye Wynne Bolton * The fourth female player to be inducted. Winner of six singles and fourteen doubles majors titles, all at the Australian Open. 2002 Mervyn Rose * Winner of two singles and five doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup six times between 1950 and 1957. 2002 Thelma Coyne Long * The fifth female player to be inducted. Winner of two singles and seventeen doubles majors titles. 2003 Pat Cash Winner of Wimbledon in 1987. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup from 1983 to 1990. 2004 – Brian Tobin * ‡ President of the International Tennis Federation from 1991 to 1999, President of Tennis Australia from 1977 to 1989 and Federation Cup captain between 1964 and 1967. 2006 Daphne Akhurst †* The sixth female player to be inducted. Winner of five singles and nine doubles majors titles, all at the Australian Open. 2007 – Mark Edmondson Winner of one singles and five doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup eight times between 1977 and 1985. 2008 Patrick Rafter * Winner of two singles and one doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup eight times between 1994 and 2001, captaining the team since 2011. 2009 – Wendy Turnbull The seventh female player to be inducted. Winner of four singles and five doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia at the Fed Cup between 1977 and 1988, captaining the team between 1985 and 1993. 2010 Todd Woodbridge * Winner of 22 doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup 14 times between 1991 and 2005. 2010 Mark Woodforde * Winner of 17 doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia in the Davis Cup ten times between 1988 and 2000. 2011 Owen Davidson * Winner of 12 doubles majors titles, including a mixed doubles Grand Slam in 1967. 2012 Ken Fletcher † Winner of 12 doubles majors titles, including a mixed doubles Grand Slam in 1963. 2013 – Judy Dalton The eighth female player to be inducted. Winner of eight doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia at the Federation Cup between 1965 and 1970. 2014 Kerry Reid The ninth female player to be inducted. Winner of one singles and two doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia at the Federation Cup between 1967 and 1979, winning in 1968. 2015 David Hall * First wheelchair player to be inducted. Winner of six Paralympic medals, nine-time winner of the Australian Open, eight-time winner of the US Open, seven-time winner of the British Open and eight-time winner of the Japan Open. 2016 Rex Hartwig Winner of four doubles majors titles. Also represented Australia at the Davis Cup between 1953 and 1955. 2017 – Beryl Penrose The tenth female player to be inducted. Winner of one singles and three doubles majors titles, all at the Australian Championships. 2018 – Jan Lehane Australian Open girls' singles champion 1958-59; women's singles finalist 1960-63; winner of the 1960-61 mixed doubles titles. 2019 Dianne Fromholtz Former world number 4 (1979), winner of 8 WTA Tour singles titles, finalist at 1977 Australian Open. Winner of 1977 Australian Open women's doubles title. 2020 – John Fitzgerald Winner of 30 doubles titles, including seven Grand Slam men's doubles titles; ranked number 1 in doubles July 1991. Winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Represented Australia in Davis Cup and was a member of the 1983 and 1986 championship teams. After retirement, captained Australia's Davis Cup team 2001-10, leading the team to the 2003 title. 2021 – Mary Carter Reitano Winner of the 1956, 1959 (singles), 1961 (women's doubles) Australian Championships titles. See also International Tennis Hall of Fame References ^ a b c McNamee, Paul (29 May 2014). Game Changer: My Tennis Life. Text Publishing Company. p. 214. ISBN 978-1922147387. ^ a b c d "Australian Tennis Hall of Fame". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ a b "Inductees". International Tennis Hall of Fame. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Rod Laver". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Margaret Court". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Roy Emerson". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Evonne Goolagong Cawley". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Neale Fraser". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Lew Hoad". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Ken Rosewall". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Frank Sedgman". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "John Bromwich". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Norman Brookes". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Ashley Cooper". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Harry Hopman". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Fred Stolle". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Jack Crawford". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Gerald Patterson". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "John Newcombe". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Tony Roche". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Lesley Bowrey". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Adrian Quist". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Ken McGregor". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Malcolm Anderson". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Nancye Wynne Bolton". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Mervyn Rose". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Thelma Long". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Pat Cash". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Brian Tobin". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Daphne Akhurst". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Mark Edmonson". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Pat Rafter". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Wendy Turnbull". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Todd Woodbirdge". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Mark Woodforde". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Owen Davidson". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Ken Fletcher". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Judy Dalton". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Kerry Reid". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Wheelchair legend honoured with hall of fame induction". Tennis Australia. 20 July 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Rex Hartwig". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Beryl Penrose". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017. ^ "Jan (Lahane) O'Neill". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021. ^ "Dianne (Fromholtz) Balestrat". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021. ^ "John Fitzgerald". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021. ^ "MARY CARTER REITANO JOINS THE AUSTRALIAN TENNIS HALL OF FAME". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021. External links Australian Tennis Hall of Fame official website
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[{"title":"International Tennis Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Tennis_Hall_of_Fame"}]
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Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennisfame.com/hall-of-famers/inductees/","url_text":"\"Inductees\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Tennis_Hall_of_Fame","url_text":"International Tennis Hall of Fame"}]},{"reference":"\"Rod Laver\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/rod-laver","url_text":"\"Rod Laver\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Margaret Court\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/margaret-smith-court","url_text":"\"Margaret Court\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Roy Emerson\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/roy-emerson","url_text":"\"Roy Emerson\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Evonne Goolagong Cawley\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/evonne-goolagong-cawley","url_text":"\"Evonne Goolagong Cawley\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Neale Fraser\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/neale-fraser","url_text":"\"Neale Fraser\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Lew Hoad\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/lew-hoad","url_text":"\"Lew Hoad\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Ken Rosewall\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ken-rosewall","url_text":"\"Ken Rosewall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Frank Sedgman\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/frank-sedgman","url_text":"\"Frank Sedgman\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"John Bromwich\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/john-bromwich","url_text":"\"John Bromwich\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Norman Brookes\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/norman-brookes","url_text":"\"Norman Brookes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Ashley Cooper\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ashley-cooper","url_text":"\"Ashley Cooper\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Harry Hopman\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/harry-hopman","url_text":"\"Harry Hopman\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Fred Stolle\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/fred-stolle","url_text":"\"Fred Stolle\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Jack Crawford\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/jack-crawford","url_text":"\"Jack Crawford\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Gerald Patterson\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/gerald-patterson","url_text":"\"Gerald Patterson\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"John Newcombe\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/john-newcombe","url_text":"\"John Newcombe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Tony Roche\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/tony-roche","url_text":"\"Tony Roche\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Lesley Bowrey\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/lesley-turner-bowrey","url_text":"\"Lesley Bowrey\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Adrian Quist\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/adrian-quist","url_text":"\"Adrian Quist\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Ken McGregor\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ken-mcgregor","url_text":"\"Ken McGregor\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Malcolm Anderson\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/malcolm-anderson","url_text":"\"Malcolm Anderson\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Nancye Wynne Bolton\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/nancye-wynne-bolton","url_text":"\"Nancye Wynne Bolton\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Mervyn Rose\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/meryvn-rose","url_text":"\"Mervyn Rose\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Thelma Long\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/thelma-coyne-long","url_text":"\"Thelma Long\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Pat Cash\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/pat-cash","url_text":"\"Pat Cash\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Brian Tobin\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/brian-tobin","url_text":"\"Brian Tobin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Daphne Akhurst\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/daphne-akhurst","url_text":"\"Daphne Akhurst\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Mark Edmonson\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/mark-edmonson","url_text":"\"Mark Edmonson\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Pat Rafter\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/pat-rafter","url_text":"\"Pat Rafter\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Wendy Turnbull\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/wendy-turnbull","url_text":"\"Wendy Turnbull\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Todd Woodbirdge\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/todd-woodbridge","url_text":"\"Todd Woodbirdge\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Mark Woodforde\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/mark-woodforde","url_text":"\"Mark Woodforde\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Owen Davidson\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/owen-davidson","url_text":"\"Owen Davidson\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Ken Fletcher\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ken-fletcher","url_text":"\"Ken Fletcher\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Judy Dalton\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/judy-tegart-dalton","url_text":"\"Judy Dalton\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Kerry Reid\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/kerry-melville-reid","url_text":"\"Kerry Reid\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Wheelchair legend honoured with hall of fame induction\". Tennis Australia. 20 July 2015. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/news/2015/07/20/wheelchair-legend-honoured-with-hall-of-fame-induction","url_text":"\"Wheelchair legend honoured with hall of fame induction\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Rex Hartwig\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/rex-hartwig","url_text":"\"Rex Hartwig\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Beryl Penrose\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 20 June 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/beryl-penrose-collier","url_text":"\"Beryl Penrose\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Jan (Lahane) O'Neill\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/jan-lehane-oneill","url_text":"\"Jan (Lahane) O'Neill\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"Dianne (Fromholtz) Balestrat\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/dianne-fromholtz-balestrat","url_text":"\"Dianne (Fromholtz) Balestrat\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"John Fitzgerald\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/john-fitzgerald","url_text":"\"John Fitzgerald\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]},{"reference":"\"MARY CARTER REITANO JOINS THE AUSTRALIAN TENNIS HALL OF FAME\". Tennis Australia. Retrieved 6 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tennis.com.au/news/2021/02/17/mary-carter-reitano-joins-the-australian-tennis-hall-of-fame","url_text":"\"MARY CARTER REITANO JOINS THE AUSTRALIAN TENNIS HALL OF FAME\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis_Australia","url_text":"Tennis Australia"}]}]
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Fraser\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/lew-hoad","external_links_name":"\"Lew Hoad\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ken-rosewall","external_links_name":"\"Ken Rosewall\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/frank-sedgman","external_links_name":"\"Frank Sedgman\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/john-bromwich","external_links_name":"\"John Bromwich\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/norman-brookes","external_links_name":"\"Norman Brookes\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ashley-cooper","external_links_name":"\"Ashley Cooper\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/harry-hopman","external_links_name":"\"Harry Hopman\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/fred-stolle","external_links_name":"\"Fred Stolle\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/jack-crawford","external_links_name":"\"Jack Crawford\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/gerald-patterson","external_links_name":"\"Gerald Patterson\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/john-newcombe","external_links_name":"\"John Newcombe\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/tony-roche","external_links_name":"\"Tony Roche\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/lesley-turner-bowrey","external_links_name":"\"Lesley Bowrey\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/adrian-quist","external_links_name":"\"Adrian Quist\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ken-mcgregor","external_links_name":"\"Ken McGregor\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/malcolm-anderson","external_links_name":"\"Malcolm Anderson\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/nancye-wynne-bolton","external_links_name":"\"Nancye Wynne Bolton\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/meryvn-rose","external_links_name":"\"Mervyn Rose\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/thelma-coyne-long","external_links_name":"\"Thelma Long\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/pat-cash","external_links_name":"\"Pat Cash\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/brian-tobin","external_links_name":"\"Brian Tobin\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/daphne-akhurst","external_links_name":"\"Daphne Akhurst\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/mark-edmonson","external_links_name":"\"Mark Edmonson\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/pat-rafter","external_links_name":"\"Pat Rafter\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/wendy-turnbull","external_links_name":"\"Wendy Turnbull\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/todd-woodbridge","external_links_name":"\"Todd Woodbirdge\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/mark-woodforde","external_links_name":"\"Mark Woodforde\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/owen-davidson","external_links_name":"\"Owen Davidson\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/ken-fletcher","external_links_name":"\"Ken Fletcher\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/judy-tegart-dalton","external_links_name":"\"Judy Dalton\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/kerry-melville-reid","external_links_name":"\"Kerry Reid\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/news/2015/07/20/wheelchair-legend-honoured-with-hall-of-fame-induction","external_links_name":"\"Wheelchair legend honoured with hall of fame induction\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/rex-hartwig","external_links_name":"\"Rex Hartwig\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/beryl-penrose-collier","external_links_name":"\"Beryl Penrose\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/jan-lehane-oneill","external_links_name":"\"Jan (Lahane) O'Neill\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/dianne-fromholtz-balestrat","external_links_name":"\"Dianne (Fromholtz) Balestrat\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/player-profiles/john-fitzgerald","external_links_name":"\"John Fitzgerald\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/news/2021/02/17/mary-carter-reitano-joins-the-australian-tennis-hall-of-fame","external_links_name":"\"MARY CARTER REITANO JOINS THE AUSTRALIAN TENNIS HALL OF FAME\""},{"Link":"https://www.tennis.com.au/news-and-events/players-and-rankings/australian-tennis-hall-of-fame","external_links_name":"Australian Tennis Hall of Fame official website"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Richard_Wells
C. Richard Wells
["1 Bibliography","2 References"]
C. Richard Wells is an American evangelical pastor, theologian, and college president. Wells was a member of the founding faculty of Beeson Divinity School, where he taught Ancient Greek, former President of Criswell College (1996-2003), Pastor of South Canyon Baptist Church in Rapid City, South Dakota, from 2004–2009, and Dean of Chapel at Union University in Jackson, Tennessee from 2009 through 2011. In 2011 Wells returned to Rapid City, South Dakota to restructure the Black Hills Bible Institute into John Witherspoon College and Institute for Christian Leadership, where he was President, until replaced by Ronald Lewis in 2019. Bibliography Forgotten Songs, co-edited with Ray Van Neste, (B&H Publishing Group, 2012, ISBN 143367839X) Inspired Preaching; Inspired Preaching: A Survey of Preaching Found in the New Testament, co-edited with A. Boyd Luter (B&H Publishing Group, 2002, ISBN 978-0-8054-2417-1) Perception and Faith: The Integration of Gestalt Psychology and Christian Theology in the Thought of C. S. Lewis, PhD dissertation, Baylor University, 1985 References ^ Day, J. Norflete. "Reminiscences of Beeson, 1988". www.beesondivinity.com. Beeson Divinity School. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ a b c d "Wells to oversee Union's chapel, campus ministries". Union University News. 5 August 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ a b "History". criswell.edu. Criswell College. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ Wingfield, Mark (1 January 2002). "Criswell remembered as larger-than-life mentor and pastor". Baptist Standard. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ a b "Union installs 3, welcomes 18 new faculty". Union University News. 29 August 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ admin. "Press Release: JWC Announces Election of New President, Dr.Ronald Lewis". John Witherspoon College. Retrieved 2019-03-15. ^ "New College To Open In Rapid City Next Fall". Keloland.com, South Dakota News and Weather. AP. 20 September 2011. Archived from the original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2015. ^ "Academic Policies Archived 2015-04-09 at the Wayback Machine" John Witherspoon College. Quote: "John Witherspoon will accept students from a Bible college accredited by The Association for Biblical Higher Education (ABHE), or from colleges accredited by the Transnational Association of Colleges and Schools (TRACS)" ^ "Christian college plans to open doors next fall". Rapid City Journal. September 19, 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2015. ^ "Christian college takes nontraditional approach". Rapid City Journal. March 21, 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2015. ^ Nelson, Caleb (30 March 2013). "Studying and singing the Word of God". World News. Retrieved 3 May 2015. Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National United States
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[]
null
[{"reference":"Day, J. Norflete. \"Reminiscences of Beeson, 1988\". www.beesondivinity.com. Beeson Divinity School. Retrieved 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.beesondivinity.com/fromthedean/posts/reminiscences-of-beeson-1988","url_text":"\"Reminiscences of Beeson, 1988\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wells to oversee Union's chapel, campus ministries\". Union University News. 5 August 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uu.edu/news/release.cfm?ID=1371","url_text":"\"Wells to oversee Union's chapel, campus ministries\""}]},{"reference":"\"History\". criswell.edu. Criswell College. Retrieved 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.criswell.edu/about/history","url_text":"\"History\""}]},{"reference":"Wingfield, Mark (1 January 2002). \"Criswell remembered as larger-than-life mentor and pastor\". Baptist Standard. Retrieved 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://assets.baptiststandard.com/archived/2002/1_14/pages/criswell_funeral.html","url_text":"\"Criswell remembered as larger-than-life mentor and pastor\""}]},{"reference":"\"Union installs 3, welcomes 18 new faculty\". Union University News. 29 August 2012. Retrieved 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.uu.edu/news/release.cfm?ID=2012","url_text":"\"Union installs 3, welcomes 18 new faculty\""}]},{"reference":"admin. \"Press Release: JWC Announces Election of New President, Dr.Ronald Lewis\". John Witherspoon College. Retrieved 2019-03-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://jwc.edu/recent-college-news/2488/","url_text":"\"Press Release: JWC Announces Election of New President, Dr.Ronald Lewis\""}]},{"reference":"\"New College To Open In Rapid City Next Fall\". Keloland.com, South Dakota News and Weather. AP. 20 September 2011. Archived from the original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150615195727/http://www.keloland.com/newsdetail.cfm/new-college-to-open-in-rapid-city-next-fall/?id=121048","url_text":"\"New College To Open In Rapid City Next Fall\""},{"url":"http://www.keloland.com/newsdetail.cfm/new-college-to-open-in-rapid-city-next-fall/?id=121048","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Christian college plans to open doors next fall\". Rapid City Journal. September 19, 2011. Retrieved 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://rapidcityjournal.com/news/christian-college-plans-to-open-doors-next-fall/article_00e1f7b8-e26c-11e0-80f6-001cc4c03286.html","url_text":"\"Christian college plans to open doors next fall\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_City_Journal","url_text":"Rapid City Journal"}]},{"reference":"\"Christian college takes nontraditional approach\". Rapid City Journal. March 21, 2012. Retrieved 2 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://rapidcityjournal.com/lifestyles/christian-college-takes-nontraditional-approach/article_757a3fda-72be-11e1-a560-0019bb2963f4.html","url_text":"\"Christian college takes nontraditional approach\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_City_Journal","url_text":"Rapid City Journal"}]},{"reference":"Nelson, Caleb (30 March 2013). \"Studying and singing the Word of God\". World News. Retrieved 3 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldmag.com/2013/03/weekend_reads_studying_and_singing_the_word_of_god","url_text":"\"Studying and singing the Word of God\""}]}]
[{"Link":"https://www.beesondivinity.com/fromthedean/posts/reminiscences-of-beeson-1988","external_links_name":"\"Reminiscences of Beeson, 1988\""},{"Link":"http://www.uu.edu/news/release.cfm?ID=1371","external_links_name":"\"Wells to oversee Union's chapel, campus ministries\""},{"Link":"http://www.criswell.edu/about/history","external_links_name":"\"History\""},{"Link":"http://assets.baptiststandard.com/archived/2002/1_14/pages/criswell_funeral.html","external_links_name":"\"Criswell remembered as larger-than-life mentor and pastor\""},{"Link":"http://www.uu.edu/news/release.cfm?ID=2012","external_links_name":"\"Union installs 3, welcomes 18 new faculty\""},{"Link":"https://jwc.edu/recent-college-news/2488/","external_links_name":"\"Press Release: JWC Announces Election of New President, Dr.Ronald Lewis\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150615195727/http://www.keloland.com/newsdetail.cfm/new-college-to-open-in-rapid-city-next-fall/?id=121048","external_links_name":"\"New College To Open In Rapid City Next Fall\""},{"Link":"http://www.keloland.com/newsdetail.cfm/new-college-to-open-in-rapid-city-next-fall/?id=121048","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.johnwitherspooncollege.org/page/academicpolicies.aspx","external_links_name":"Academic Policies"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150409102625/http://www.johnwitherspooncollege.org/page/academicpolicies.aspx","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://rapidcityjournal.com/news/christian-college-plans-to-open-doors-next-fall/article_00e1f7b8-e26c-11e0-80f6-001cc4c03286.html","external_links_name":"\"Christian college plans to open doors next fall\""},{"Link":"https://rapidcityjournal.com/lifestyles/christian-college-takes-nontraditional-approach/article_757a3fda-72be-11e1-a560-0019bb2963f4.html","external_links_name":"\"Christian college takes nontraditional approach\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldmag.com/2013/03/weekend_reads_studying_and_singing_the_word_of_god","external_links_name":"\"Studying and singing the Word of God\""},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/38756888","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJrChBCVkhjdJbmMKxPbBP","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2003106700","external_links_name":"United States"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindil_Beach_Sunset_Market
Mindil Beach
["1 History","2 Events","3 Mindil Beach Sunset Market","4 References","5 External links"]
Coordinates: 12°26′42.18″S 130°49′51.72″E / 12.4450500°S 130.8310333°E / -12.4450500; 130.8310333Beach near Darwin in the Northern Territory of Australia Mindil Beach Mindil Beach is a beach in the Northern Territory of Australia, located in the suburb of The Gardens, near Darwin's central business district. Mindil Beach holds the Mindil Beach Sunset Markets, which runs during the dry season (from May until October) of every year. These markets are popular with both the locals and tourists alike and can attract thousands of people.. History When George Goyder surveyed the town of Palmerston, as Darwin was originally known, the name "Mindil" was given and written on maps to the swamp which was behind the town blocks. Rapidly this name came to be applied to the beach in front of the swamp, eventually becoming known as Mindil Beach. Events The Darwin beer-can regatta is held at Mindil Beach annually. It has been running since 16 June 1974, when it was won by Kevin Jaques driving a tunnel hull "Pistol Knight" on behalf of the Darwin Power Boat Club. Mindil Beach Sunset Market Mindil Beach Markets The Mindil Beach Sunset Market is a seasonal market held at Mindil Beach. The market started in 1987 in Darwin Mall, but not long afterwards shopkeepers there complained to the council about loss of trade, and the market moved to Mindil Beach. As of August 2022 the Mindil market contains around 200 stalls, which are open on Thursday and Sunday nights throughout the dry season, that is, late April through to late October. There are about 60 food stalls, along with arts, crafts and various services on offer. Creative and performing artists from Darwin and regional NT show and perform their work. References ^ "Place Names Register Extract for "Mindil Beach"". NT Place Names Register. Northern Territory Government. Retrieved 29 April 2019. ^ a b "Mindil Beach Sunset Markets". Tourism NT. Travel NT. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 27 July 2008. ^ "National Museum of Australia - Audio on demand - A market for memories: understanding public history at the Mindil Beach site in Darwin". www.nma.gov.au. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2015. ^ "History". Darwin Lions Club. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2008. ^ "History". www.mindil.com.au. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2015. ^ "About Us". Mindil Beach Sunset Markets. Archived from the original on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2008. ^ "Become a Stallholder". Mindil Beach Sunset Markets. 30 November 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2022. ^ "About Us". Mindil Beach Sunset Markets. Retrieved 17 August 2022. ^ "Mindil Beach Sunset Market". NT, Australia. 8 August 2022. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022. External links Mindil Beach Sunset Market vteDarwin landmarksBuildings and structures Convention Centre Evolution on Gardiner Fannie Bay Gaol Outrigger Pandanas Parliament House Victoria Hotel Lyons Cottage Burnett House Precincts Casuarina Square Palmerston Shopping Centre Smith Street Parks and open spaces Bicentennial Park Charles Darwin National Park George Brown Darwin Botanic Gardens Cultural institutions Darwin Military Museum Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory Northern Centre for Contemporary Art Northern Territory Library Sport Casuarina Pool Darwin Bowls Club Darwin Football Stadium Darwin Game Fishing Club Darwin Golf Club Darwin Surf Life Saving Club Darwin Turf Club Darwin Wave Pool Gardens Oval Hidden Valley Raceway Marrara Oval Marrara Sporting Complex Nightcliff Pool Northline Speedway Parap Pool Richardson Park Territory Netball Stadium Territory Rugby League Stadium Winnellie Park Transportation Airport Darwinbus Darwin railway station Entertainment Brown's Mart Theatre Darwin Entertainment Centre Mindil Beach Casino & Resort Beaches and islands Bundilla Beach Casuarina Beach Lameroo Beach Mindil Beach Wagait Beach 12°26′42.18″S 130°49′51.72″E / 12.4450500°S 130.8310333°E / -12.4450500; 130.8310333 This Northern Territory geography article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mindil_markets_230616_gnangarra-107.JPG"},{"link_name":"Northern Territory of Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territory_of_Australia"},{"link_name":"The Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gardens,_Northern_Territory"},{"link_name":"Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territory"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NT-placenames-1"},{"link_name":"dry season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_season"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TravelNT-2"}],"text":"Beach near Darwin in the Northern Territory of AustraliaMindil BeachMindil Beach is a beach in the Northern Territory of Australia, located in the suburb of The Gardens, near Darwin's central business district.[1] Mindil Beach holds the Mindil Beach Sunset Markets, which runs during the dry season (from May until October) of every year.[2] These markets are popular with both the locals and tourists alike and can attract thousands of people..","title":"Mindil Beach"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Goyder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Goyder"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"When George Goyder surveyed the town of Palmerston, as Darwin was originally known, the name \"Mindil\" was given and written on maps to the swamp which was behind the town blocks. Rapidly this name came to be applied to the beach in front of the swamp, eventually becoming known as Mindil Beach.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Darwin beer-can regatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_beer-can_regatta"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The Darwin beer-can regatta is held at Mindil Beach annually. It has been running since 16 June 1974, when it was won by Kevin Jaques driving a tunnel hull \"Pistol Knight\" on behalf of the Darwin Power Boat Club.[4]","title":"Events"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mindil_markets_230616_gnangarra-106.JPG"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Darwin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TravelNT-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mindil_Beach&action=edit"},{"link_name":"dry season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_season"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-about-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Mindil Beach MarketsThe Mindil Beach Sunset Market is a seasonal market held at Mindil Beach. The market started in 1987 in Darwin Mall,[5] but not long afterwards shopkeepers there complained to the council about loss of trade, and the market moved to Mindil Beach.[2][6]As of August 2022[update] the Mindil market contains around 200 stalls, which are open on Thursday and Sunday nights throughout the dry season,[7] that is, late April through to late October.[8] There are about 60 food stalls, along with arts, crafts and various services on offer. Creative and performing artists from Darwin and regional NT show and perform their work.[9]","title":"Mindil Beach Sunset Market"}]
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null
[{"reference":"\"Place Names Register Extract for \"Mindil Beach\"\". NT Place Names Register. Northern Territory Government. Retrieved 29 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ntlis.nt.gov.au/placenames/view.jsp?id=15114","url_text":"\"Place Names Register Extract for \"Mindil Beach\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mindil Beach Sunset Markets\". Tourism NT. Travel NT. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 27 July 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20110717093741/http://www.travelnt.com/en/search/product-detail.aspx?product_id=9001524","url_text":"\"Mindil Beach Sunset Markets\""},{"url":"http://www.travelnt.com/en/search/product-detail.aspx?product_id=9001524","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"National Museum of Australia - Audio on demand - A market for memories: understanding public history at the Mindil Beach site in Darwin\". www.nma.gov.au. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150906095010/http://www.nma.gov.au/audio/transcripts/NMA_Dewar_20080527.html","url_text":"\"National Museum of Australia - Audio on demand - A market for memories: understanding public history at the Mindil Beach site in Darwin\""},{"url":"http://www.nma.gov.au/audio/transcripts/NMA_Dewar_20080527.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"History\". Darwin Lions Club. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080719023203/http://www.beercanregatta.org.au/history.html","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"http://www.beercanregatta.org.au/history.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"History\". www.mindil.com.au. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150527014924/http://www.mindil.com.au/history","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"http://www.mindil.com.au/history","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"About Us\". Mindil Beach Sunset Markets. Archived from the original on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080718231439/http://www.mindil.com.au/pages/About_us.htm","url_text":"\"About Us\""},{"url":"http://mindil.com.au/pages/About_Us.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Become a Stallholder\". Mindil Beach Sunset Markets. 30 November 2021. Retrieved 17 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://mindil.com.au/become-a-stallholder/","url_text":"\"Become a Stallholder\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Us\". Mindil Beach Sunset Markets. Retrieved 17 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://mindil.com.au/about/","url_text":"\"About Us\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mindil Beach Sunset Market\". NT, Australia. 8 August 2022. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 17 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220817012242/https://northernterritory.com/darwin-and-surrounds/events/mindil-beach-sunset-market","url_text":"\"Mindil Beach Sunset Market\""},{"url":"https://northernterritory.com/darwin-and-surrounds/events/mindil-beach-sunset-market","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wurm_glaciation
Würm glaciation
["1 Corresponding glaciations worldwide","2 Temporal classification","3 See also","4 References","5 Sources","6 External links"]
Last glacial period in the Alpine region This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. Last update: 2008 chart and 1972 dating when it should be 2013 iugs chart and 2012 walker paper (see Holocene talk page) (May 2016) Violet: The extent of the Alpine ice sheet in the Würm glaciation. Blue: The extent in earlier ice ages The Würm glaciation or Würm stage (German: Würm-Kaltzeit or Würm-Glazial, colloquially often also Würmeiszeit or Würmzeit; cf. ice age), usually referred to in the literature as the Würm (often spelled "Wurm"), was the last glacial period in the Alpine region. It is the youngest of the major glaciations of the region that extended beyond the Alps themselves. Like most of the other ice ages of the Pleistocene epoch, it is named after a river, in this case the Würm in Bavaria, a tributary of the Amper. The Würm ice age can be dated to about 115,000 to 11,700 years ago. Sources differ about the dates, depending on whether the long transition phases between the glacials and interglacials (warmer periods) are allocated to one or other of those periods. The average annual temperatures during the Würm ice age in the Alpine Foreland were below −3 °C (today +7 °C). That has been determined from changes in the vegetation (pollen analysis), as well as differences in the facies. Corresponding glaciations worldwide The Würm glaciation (in the north: the Weichselian) in comparison with the Riss (in the north:the Saale). The glacial advances were interrupted by warmer periods during which ancient European man, the Neanderthals, as successors of homo heidelbergensis, spread out from the mountain zones and over the permafrost boundary to the north and northeast. From about 40,000 BC modern Cro-Magnon man settled these regions. The Würm glaciation, shown in ice core data from the Antarctica and Greenland Moraines and gravel beds formed in the Würm glaciation near Leutkirch, Westallgäu, Germany, Zeil castle can be seen on the left The corresponding ice age in North and Central Europe is known as the Weichselian glaciation, after the German name for the Vistula river. Despite the global changes in climate that were responsible for the major glaciations cycles, the dating of the Alpine ice sheet advances does not correlate automatically with the farthest extent of the Scandinavian ice sheet. In North America the corresponding "last ice age" is called the Wisconsin glaciation. Temporal classification For the stratigraphic chronology, see Weichselian glaciation. In the Gelasian, i.e. at the beginning of the Quaternary period around 2.6 million years ago, an ice age began in the northern hemisphere which continues today. Characteristic of such ice ages is the glaciation of the polar caps. After the Gelasian followed the Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene with a succession of several warm and cold periods. The latter are often called "ice ages" or "glacials", the former term often being confused with the overarching ice age period. The warm periods are called "interglacials". Glaciers repeatedly advanced from the Alps to the northern molasse foreland and left moraines and meltwater deposits behind that are up to several hundred metres thick. Today, the Pleistocene epoch in the Alps is divided into several phases: the Biber, Danube, Günz, Haslach, Mindel, Riss and Würm glaciations. The greatest ice advance into the Alpine Foreland took place during the Riss glaciation, cf. the Saale glaciation in northern Europe. The most recent foreland glaciation, the Würm, did not have such an extensive and solid glacial front. Nevertheless, its terminal moraines, which indicate the perimeter of the ice sheet, extend as a single tongue well into the foreland. Whilst they were hemmed in by the high mountainsides of the Alps, once these rivers of ice entered the foreland they often combined to form huge glaciers. The moraines and gravel beds formed in the Würm glaciation are the best preserved, because since then there have been no more similar geological processes. Traces of the ice sheet have not been scoured out by later glaciers or overlaid by their sediments. This allows a more precise dating for the Würm glaciation than for earlier ice ages. The Würm glaciation was preceded by the Eemian, which began about 126,000 years ago and lasted 11,000 years. Then there was a significant slowdown, characterized by occasional fluctuations of several degrees in average temperatures. The various advances and retreats of glaciers associated with these temperature fluctuations, are called "stadials" (periods of relatively low temperatures) and "interstadials" (relatively higher temperatures). The Würm Glacial ended around 11,700 years ago with the beginning of the Holocene. The cold period was followed by another warming which continues today and during which the glaciers are retreating. However, even in the Holocene there have been variations in temperature and ice advances, the last one in the modern era being the so-called Little Ice Age. The Holocene is considered an "interglacial" of a larger ice age, since the poles and the high mountain areas are still glaciated. See also Glacial series Glaciology Lake Toba Toba catastrophe theory References ^ Whittow, John (1984). Dictionary of Physical Geography. London: Penguin, 1984, p. 586. ISBN 0-14-051094-X. ^ Rolf K. Meyer, Hermann Schmidt-Kaler: Auf den Spuren der Eiszeit südlich von München – östlicher Teil, Wanderungen in die Erdgeschichte, Vol. 8, ISBN 978-3-931516-09-3 ^ Rolf K. Meyer, Hermann Schmidt-Kaler: Auf den Spuren der Eiszeit südlich von München – östlicher Teil, Wanderungen in die Erdgeschichte, Vol. 8, ISBN 978-3-931516-09-3 ^ Sibrava, V., Bowen, D. Q, and Richmond, G. M.: Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, Quaternary Science Reviews. vol. 5, 1986, pp. 1–514 ^ Wighart von Koenigswald: Lebendige Eiszeit. Theiss-Verlag, Stuttgart 2002, p. 34, ISBN 3-8062-1734-3 ^ Ehlers, J., and Gibbard, P. L.: Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 2: Part II North America. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2004 ISBN 0-444-51462-7 Sources Roland Walter: Geologie von Mitteleuropa. Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, 1992, ISBN 3-510-65149-9 René Hantke: Eiszeitalter. Band 2: Letzte Warmzeiten, Würm-Eiszeit, Eisabbau und Nacheiszeit der Alpen-Nordseite vom Rhein- zum Rhone-System. Ott, Thun, 1980, ISBN 3-7225-6259-7 Hans Graul, Ingo Schäfer: Zur Gliederung der Würmeiszeit im Illergebiet. Straub, Munich, 1953. (Geologica Bavarica, 18). Wolfgang Frey, Rainer Lösch: Lehrbuch der Geobotanik, Pflanze und Vegetation in Raum und Zeit. Elsevier Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, ISBN 3-8274-1193-9 Dirk van Husen: Die Ostalpen in den Eiszeiten, Aus der Geologischen Geschichte Österreichs, Geologische Bundesanstalt Wien, ISBN 3-900312-58-3 Rolf K. Meyer, Hermann Schmidt-Kaler: Auf den Spuren der Eiszeit südlich von München – östlicher Teil, Wanderungen in die Erdgeschichte, Vol. 8, ISBN 978-3-931516-09-3 External links Karte: "Umwelt, Biologie und Geologie: lastiszeitliches Maximum". map.geo.admin.ch. swisstopo. Retrieved 2011-12-12. vteThe cold and warm periods of the Quaternary in the Alpine region Biber Danube Gunz Haslach Mindel Riss Würm Biber/Danube Danube/Gunz Gunz/Haslach Haslach/Mindel Mindel/Riss Last Interglacial Authority control databases: National Germany Israel United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Alpine_Glaciations.png"},{"link_name":"Alpine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language"},{"link_name":"ice age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age#Glacials_and_interglacials"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"last glacial period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_glacial_period"},{"link_name":"Alpine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"glaciations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciation"},{"link_name":"Pleistocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene"},{"link_name":"Würm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W%C3%BCrm"},{"link_name":"Bavaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bavaria"},{"link_name":"Amper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amper"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"glacials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial"},{"link_name":"interglacials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interglacial"},{"link_name":"average annual temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_annual_temperature"},{"link_name":"Alpine Foreland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_Foreland"},{"link_name":"pollen analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_analysis"},{"link_name":"facies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facies"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Violet: The extent of the Alpine ice sheet in the Würm glaciation. Blue: The extent in earlier ice agesThe Würm glaciation or Würm stage (German: Würm-Kaltzeit or Würm-Glazial, colloquially often also Würmeiszeit or Würmzeit; cf. ice age), usually referred to in the literature as the Würm[1] (often spelled \"Wurm\"), was the last glacial period in the Alpine region. It is the youngest of the major glaciations of the region that extended beyond the Alps themselves. Like most of the other ice ages of the Pleistocene epoch, it is named after a river, in this case the Würm in Bavaria, a tributary of the Amper.[2]The Würm ice age can be dated to about 115,000 to 11,700 years ago. Sources differ about the dates, depending on whether the long transition phases between the glacials and interglacials (warmer periods) are allocated to one or other of those periods. The average annual temperatures during the Würm ice age in the Alpine Foreland were below −3 °C (today +7 °C). That has been determined from changes in the vegetation (pollen analysis), as well as differences in the facies.[3]","title":"Würm glaciation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SaaleWeichsel_x.png"},{"link_name":"Neanderthals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal"},{"link_name":"homo heidelbergensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis"},{"link_name":"permafrost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrost"},{"link_name":"Cro-Magnon man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_early_modern_humans"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ice-core-isotope.png"},{"link_name":"ice core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_core"},{"link_name":"Antarctica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica"},{"link_name":"Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MoraenenSchlossZeil2a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Leutkirch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leutkirch"},{"link_name":"Westallgäu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westallg%C3%A4u"},{"link_name":"Weichselian glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weichselian_glaciation"},{"link_name":"Vistula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vistula"},{"link_name":"ice sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_sheet"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Wisconsin glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisconsin_glaciation"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Würm glaciation (in the north: the Weichselian) in comparison with the Riss (in the north:the Saale). The glacial advances were interrupted by warmer periods during which ancient European man, the Neanderthals, as successors of homo heidelbergensis, spread out from the mountain zones and over the permafrost boundary to the north and northeast. From about 40,000 BC modern Cro-Magnon man settled these regions.The Würm glaciation, shown in ice core data from the Antarctica and GreenlandMoraines and gravel beds formed in the Würm glaciation near Leutkirch, Westallgäu, Germany, Zeil castle can be seen on the leftThe corresponding ice age in North and Central Europe is known as the Weichselian glaciation, after the German name for the Vistula river. Despite the global changes in climate that were responsible for the major glaciations cycles, the dating of the Alpine ice sheet advances does not correlate automatically with the farthest extent of the Scandinavian ice sheet.[4][5] In North America the corresponding \"last ice age\" is called the Wisconsin glaciation.[6]","title":"Corresponding glaciations worldwide"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Weichselian glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weichselian_glaciation"},{"link_name":"Gelasian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelasian"},{"link_name":"Quaternary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary"},{"link_name":"ice age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age"},{"link_name":"polar caps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_cap"},{"link_name":"Glaciers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier"},{"link_name":"molasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molasse"},{"link_name":"moraines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moraine"},{"link_name":"Biber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biber_(geology)"},{"link_name":"Danube","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danube_(geology)"},{"link_name":"Günz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunz_(geology)"},{"link_name":"Haslach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haslach_glaciation"},{"link_name":"Mindel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mindel_glaciation"},{"link_name":"Riss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riss_glaciation"},{"link_name":"Alpine Foreland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_Foreland"},{"link_name":"cf.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cf."},{"link_name":"Saale glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saale_glaciation"},{"link_name":"terminal moraines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_moraine"},{"link_name":"Eemian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eemian"},{"link_name":"Holocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene"},{"link_name":"modern era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_era"},{"link_name":"Little Ice Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Ice_Age"}],"text":"For the stratigraphic chronology, see Weichselian glaciation.In the Gelasian, i.e. at the beginning of the Quaternary period around 2.6 million years ago, an ice age began in the northern hemisphere which continues today. Characteristic of such ice ages is the glaciation of the polar caps. After the Gelasian followed the Early, Middle and Late Pleistocene with a succession of several warm and cold periods. The latter are often called \"ice ages\" or \"glacials\", the former term often being confused with the overarching ice age period. The warm periods are called \"interglacials\".Glaciers repeatedly advanced from the Alps to the northern molasse foreland and left moraines and meltwater deposits behind that are up to several hundred metres thick. Today, the Pleistocene epoch in the Alps is divided into several phases: the Biber, Danube, Günz, Haslach, Mindel, Riss and Würm glaciations. The greatest ice advance into the Alpine Foreland took place during the Riss glaciation, cf. the Saale glaciation in northern Europe.The most recent foreland glaciation, the Würm, did not have such an extensive and solid glacial front. Nevertheless, its terminal moraines, which indicate the perimeter of the ice sheet, extend as a single tongue well into the foreland. Whilst they were hemmed in by the high mountainsides of the Alps, once these rivers of ice entered the foreland they often combined to form huge glaciers.The moraines and gravel beds formed in the Würm glaciation are the best preserved, because since then there have been no more similar geological processes. Traces of the ice sheet have not been scoured out by later glaciers or overlaid by their sediments. This allows a more precise dating for the Würm glaciation than for earlier ice ages.The Würm glaciation was preceded by the Eemian, which began about 126,000 years ago and lasted 11,000 years. Then there was a significant slowdown, characterized by occasional fluctuations of several degrees in average temperatures. The various advances and retreats of glaciers associated with these temperature fluctuations, are called \"stadials\" (periods of relatively low temperatures) and \"interstadials\" (relatively higher temperatures).The Würm Glacial ended around 11,700 years ago with the beginning of the Holocene. The cold period was followed by another warming which continues today and during which the glaciers are retreating. However, even in the Holocene there have been variations in temperature and ice advances, the last one in the modern era being the so-called Little Ice Age. The Holocene is considered an \"interglacial\" of a larger ice age, since the poles and the high mountain areas are still glaciated.","title":"Temporal classification"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-510-65149-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-510-65149-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-7225-6259-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7225-6259-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-8274-1193-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8274-1193-9"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3-900312-58-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-900312-58-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-931516-09-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-931516-09-3"}],"text":"Roland Walter: Geologie von Mitteleuropa. Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, 1992, ISBN 3-510-65149-9\nRené Hantke: Eiszeitalter. Band 2: Letzte Warmzeiten, Würm-Eiszeit, Eisabbau und Nacheiszeit der Alpen-Nordseite vom Rhein- zum Rhone-System. Ott, Thun, 1980, ISBN 3-7225-6259-7\nHans Graul, Ingo Schäfer: Zur Gliederung der Würmeiszeit im Illergebiet. Straub, Munich, 1953. (Geologica Bavarica, 18).\nWolfgang Frey, Rainer Lösch: Lehrbuch der Geobotanik, Pflanze und Vegetation in Raum und Zeit. Elsevier Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, ISBN 3-8274-1193-9\nDirk van Husen: Die Ostalpen in den Eiszeiten, Aus der Geologischen Geschichte Österreichs, Geologische Bundesanstalt Wien, ISBN 3-900312-58-3\nRolf K. Meyer, Hermann Schmidt-Kaler: Auf den Spuren der Eiszeit südlich von München – östlicher Teil, Wanderungen in die Erdgeschichte, Vol. 8, ISBN 978-3-931516-09-3","title":"Sources"}]
[{"image_text":"Violet: The extent of the Alpine ice sheet in the Würm glaciation. Blue: The extent in earlier ice ages","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Map_of_Alpine_Glaciations.png/400px-Map_of_Alpine_Glaciations.png"},{"image_text":"The Würm glaciation (in the north: the Weichselian) in comparison with the Riss (in the north:the Saale). The glacial advances were interrupted by warmer periods during which ancient European man, the Neanderthals, as successors of homo heidelbergensis, spread out from the mountain zones and over the permafrost boundary to the north and northeast. From about 40,000 BC modern Cro-Magnon man settled these regions.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/SaaleWeichsel_x.png/440px-SaaleWeichsel_x.png"},{"image_text":"The Würm glaciation, shown in ice core data from the Antarctica and Greenland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Ice-core-isotope.png/310px-Ice-core-isotope.png"},{"image_text":"Moraines and gravel beds formed in the Würm glaciation near Leutkirch, Westallgäu, Germany, Zeil castle can be seen on the left","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/MoraenenSchlossZeil2a.jpg/310px-MoraenenSchlossZeil2a.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Glacial series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_series"},{"title":"Glaciology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciology"},{"title":"Lake Toba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Toba"},{"title":"Toba catastrophe theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toba_catastrophe_theory"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona
Landskrona
["1 History","2 Geography","2.1 Townscape","2.2 Harbour","2.3 History of the Øresund traffic","2.4 Allotments","2.5 Copenhagen Airport influence","3 Demographics","4 Culture","5 Sports","6 Transport","7 Notable people","8 See also","9 Notes","10 References","11 External links"]
Coordinates: 55°52′14″N 12°49′52″E / 55.87056°N 12.83111°E / 55.87056; 12.83111Place in Scania, Sweden Place in Scania, SwedenLandskronaThe old water tower viewed across St. Olof's lake Coat of armsLandskronaShow map of ScaniaLandskronaShow map of SwedenLandskronaShow map of EuropeCoordinates: 55°52′14″N 12°49′52″E / 55.87056°N 12.83111°E / 55.87056; 12.83111CountrySwedenProvinceScaniaCountyScania CountyMunicipalityLandskrona MunicipalityCharter15th centuryArea • Total12.95 km2 (5.00 sq mi)Population (31 December 2020) • Total33,372 • Density2,572/km2 (6,660/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST) Landskrona is a town in Scania, Sweden. Located on the shores of the Öresund, it occupies a natural port, which has lent the town at first military and subsequent commercial significance. Ferries operate from Landskrona to the island of Ven, and for many years there was also a connection to Copenhagen. Landskrona is part of the Øresund region. It is the seat of Landskrona Municipality. Landskrona is also the name of a district in Landskrona Municipality which is slightly smaller than the urban area. History Landskrona Citadel The city of Landskrona is usually claimed to have been founded in 1413 by the King of Denmark, Eric of Pomerania, as a trading city intended to compete with Danish towns under the control of the Hanseatic League. There is, however, evidence found in the Danish National Archive, which mention the town by the name "Landzcrone" already in 1405. The site occupies one of a few natural harbours in Scania, which at that time was part of Denmark. At the time of foundation, the site held a fishing settlement named Sønder Sæby. The original name of the officially founded town was Landszcrone, which changed to Landskrone sometime before 1450. A Carmelite monastery was founded in 1410, English merchants were granted the privileges in a royal charter in 1412, and the town itself was chartered in 1413. The monastery was closed by King Christian III after the reformation, but survives in the name of the street "Karmelitergatan". Construction of Landskrona Citadel started in the 1540s under the orders of Christian III. The castle was completed in 1559, and consisted of a fortress with a surrounding wall and moat. A huge system of moats was constructed around the castle over the centuries; parts of four of the moats survive. Sweden's second, and oldest surviving, allotment area is located in the northern part of the citadel. The town supported the king Christian II in 1525, and opposed the Reformation in Denmark (1535); in both cases it found itself on the losing side. The reformist king Christian III of Denmark opted not to retaliate against the town, and instead founded a castle to protect the harbour. The castle, built where the monastery had been situated until the Reformation, was completed by 1559. After Scania was ceded to the Swedish Crown in 1658, the good harbour and strong fort motivated plans to make Landskrona a commercial center of the acquired territory, with extraordinary privileges for foreign trade. The castle was reinforced by bastions, and the area inside the moats extended to 400x400 meters. The castle was considered the strongest and most modern in Scandinavia, but was temporarily lost to the Danes after a comparably short siege lasting from July 8 to August 2, 1676. The commandant, Colonel Hieronymus Lindeberg, was consequently sentenced to death for high treason. During the Danish reconquest in 1676–1679, Landskrona Citadel constituted a mobilisation centre for formal enlistment of pro-Danish guerrilla fighters. In 1753 the Swedish military commander feared that the tower of Sancti Johannis Baptistae church could be a threat to the citadel and demanded the demolition of the church. Even though the cornerstone of the new Sofia Albertina Church was laid the following year, it was not inaugurated until 1788, and was finally completed in 1812. Unusually for a church that is not a diocesan seat, the new church was built with two towers, possibly in compensation for its much larger medieval predecessor. Landskrona's military importance declined after the 18th century. The continued Swedish–Danish wars led to Karlskrona replacing Landskrona as a naval base, as it is located at a safer distance from Denmark. Although the fortifications at Landskrona were expanded considerably between 1747 and 1788, they were condemned in 1822, whereafter the garrison was abolished in 1869. The last military regiment, Skånska Husarregimentet, K5 was renamed and moved from Landskrona to Uppsala in 1926. Today the walls and moats of the fortifications of Landskrona Citadel are a recreational area and the castle holds a museum. On the northern side, an allotment-garden area of cottages was founded in the final years of the 19th century, and is today the oldest of its kind in Sweden. The military's large exercise field became a public heath, today called "Exercisfältet" or "Exan". The town grew quickly after the industrial revolution and the subsequent urbanization. During the First World War, a large shipyard, Öresundsvarvet, was constructed. In the mid-1970s the shipyard employed more than 3,500 people, in a town with only 30,000 inhabitants. The shipyard was closed down in stages from the late 1970s, finally closing in 1983. Enoch Thulin's funeral, May 1919. The town honors its flight pioneer The line up for the 1933 Saxtorp TT-motorcycle race On 14 May 1919 the Swedish engineer and flight pioneer Enoch Thulin, who lived and worked in Landskrona, died when he crashed his own airplane at the Södra Fäladen fields. His funeral service was held in Sofia Albertina Church. Between 1930 and 1939 the Saxtorp TT-races were held just south of the town. The races attracted up to 160,000 attendees and are considered the largest sporting events by crowd size ever held in Sweden. Geography Townscape Street in the old part of the town near its centre. The town's centre and buildings along the entrance streets generally consist of buildings with between two and seven floors. As a fortified town, stone houses were preferred instead of wooden houses, so the city boasts few examples of traditional Danish and Scanian half-timbered houses. Apart from the Citadel and Sofia Albertina Church, other notable 19th-century or older buildings are "Rådhuset", the Town Hall, Landskrona museum , the old railway station building and the theatre. A traditional half-timbered building in Landskrona harbour, restored by Frans Ekelund. Much of the town's central parts, and buildings along the entrance roads are characterized by the work of the former town architects Fredrik Sundbärg 1901–1913 and Frans Ekelund 1913–1949. Sundberg created a number of monumental buildings such as the old water tower, the school Tuppaskolan, the power station, a hot bathhouse (demolished in the 1970s), and two large blocks of flats intended for the working class, Falken and Gripen . Ekelund, who was a believer in the Garden city movement, reserved areas for people to build customised homes, typically smaller houses with cellars and two floors. Ralph Erskine created the row house area called Esperanza (Spanish for hope) around 1970. The new water tower came into operation the same year. Around the Town Hall Square, all but one building was built before functionalist architecture became popular. Some older buildings were demolished in the mid-20th century. Falcks hörna, a block-corner building with a rather unusual appearance, was demolished in the middle of the night in 1971 amid protests. Old water tower in Landskrona, in the foreground is Sankt Olovs Sjö A now-defunct water tower in town was built in 1904 after drawings from the then city architect Fredrik Sundbärg and has a height of 65,9 meters. The Water Tower was taken out of use in 1975 and in 1992 parts of the building was converted into rental estate. Harbour Landskrona Harbour, the main basin. A part of the protecting artificial island Gråen can be seen to the right, the shipyard Öresundsvarvet in the background. Öresundsvarvet shipyard to the left, the former Supra AB to the right and Gråen (an artificial island that protects the harbour) in the background A natural deep harbour has existed here since before the history of the town. It's mentioned in the Danish historical work Saxo Grammaticus from around 1200 The port is based on a natural chute in the sandy sea floor, despite the lack of any nearby debouching river. Since the 18th century, the harbour has been protected by the artificial island Gråen. In the 1960s it had a total quay length of around 3 km As of 2017 its usable quay length has been greatly reduced, with a tally of approximately 1250 meters of remaining quay, and its activity has been low for decades. The former car ferries to Copenhagen-Tuborg departed from the Nyhamn port, in the northern end. At a common map, it looks like the harbour has two inlets. But the waters immediately south of the harbor are extremely shallow. The northernmost part of Lundåkrabukten, the bay between Landskrona and Barsebäck, is not just shallow, but also largely free of stronger currents. During cold winter periods, Sea ice can then be formed here, much faster than at most other places in Øresund. History of the Øresund traffic For many years, Landskrona was serviced by car ferries and other ships to and from Copenhagen. From 1951 to 1980 did the SL ferries operate the route between Port of Tuborg in northern Copenhagen and Landskrona. During a larger part of that period, also the Viking Bådene operated smaller passenger ships between the Inner Harbour of the Port of Copenhagen and Landskrona. They were owned in Denmark, but from around 1970 they were purchased by the Swedish Centrumlinjen but kept their name. The 1973 energy crisis eventually caused the end of this shipping line. Between 1980 and 1984 different kind of ships and shipping lines offered at least summer time traffic to Copenhagen. And From 1985 Scarlett Line was formed, and once again sailed to Port of Tuborg. From the spring of 1991 did Danish Vognmandsruten A/S merge with Scarlett Line, maintained the established name and began to sail every hour. The new shipping line mainly was intended to live on transport of lorries. In the autumn of 1993 Vognmandsruten A/S went bankrupt and this put an end to the car and lorry ferry traffic from Landskrona. However, hydrofoil speedboats Flygbåtarna AB, which previously only had served passenger traffic in the southern part of Øresund, between Malmö and Copenhagen, now began to operate also from both Landskrona as well as from Helsingborg. Not until March 2002, almost two years after the inauguration of the Øresund Bridge did Flygbåtarna AB threw in the towel. Allotments Landskrona is well known for having several allotment areas in and around the city centre. The first allotment area in Sweden was located in Malmö; however, it has long been gone since. The allotments located between the inner and outer moats of the Landskrona Citadel area make up the oldest allotment area in Sweden currently in use to date and are therefor of historic significance. There are currently around 1400 allotments in total located in Landskrona and its periphery, distributed over 6 allotment areas. Copenhagen Airport influence Aircraft approaching the nearby Copenhagen Airport to land on Runway 22L pass over the northern part of the town, where they make a sharp right turn towards the south to intercept the localiser around Barsebäck. Most landings at Copenhagen take place at Runway 22L. At the busiest times this can lead to consecutive aircraft passing over Landskrona with less than a minute's gap between them. Demographics From the late Middle Ages to the Industrial revolution, the town's population was fairly stable at around 2,000. Between 1860 and 1918 it grew to a little below 20,000. But from around 1919 until the mid-1970s, Landskrona just grew to some 30,000 inhabitants. Due to the closing of Öresundsvarvet shipyard (only a fraction of its close to 4000 employees work at the "new" renovation shipyard with the same name) and of other heavy industries, the population instead began to fall. Around 1985–1995 Landskrona's population were approximately some 25,000. Thanks to the general immigration (both from upper Sweden and from other countries) to western Scania and the Øresund coast, and due to the new railway station (opened in 2001), the town's population has again grown, and has once again exceeded 30,000 inhabitants, which equals the situation in the early 1970s. The town had 32,229 inhabitants in 2015. Landskrona was also relatively larger a century ago compared with today. After World War I the town was among the 15 largest in the country. But no longer holds that position. Between approx. 1880 and 1920 was the town transformed from a military town to a town with much heavy industry within many sectors. The Öresundsvarvet shipyard, which opened in 1917, became the largest employer (with close to 4000 employees in the early 1970s). But the industry was not limited to shipbuilding, and a sugar refinery, several textile industries, fertilizers and other chemical plants, as well as a spectrum of various manufacturing industries, grew up. But after the First World War, the town stopped growing as fast as many other Swedish towns did. And the very last military regiment moved to Hässleholm in 1924. Between the mid-1920s and mid-1970s the town grew from approx. 20,000 inhabitants to 30,000. And after the Swedish municipality reforms reached its end point, in 1974, the municipality counted around 38,000 inhabitants. Landskrona has traditionally been seen as a working-class city, with a strong focus on heavy industry. In the 21st century, development has instead tended towards a labour market with services in contemporary industrial production along with a general range of tertiary sector jobs, which has attracted more residents to the city. Population of Landskrona city 1960-2015 Year Population 1960 28 287 1965 29 067 1970 30 110 1975 29 486 1980 27 145 1990 26 595 1995 27 924 2000 27 393 2005 28 670 2010 30 503 2015 32 229 2020 33 372 Culture Landskrona Konsthall opened in 1963 in the park attached to Landskrona Citadell. In the surrounding parkland there are sculptures by twenty artists. Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd, was a Swedish painter and sculptor. He lived in Landskrona at the end of his life and died of pneumonia at Landskrona Hospital, on 3 May 2016, aged 81. He was a professor of painting at the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts in Stockholm from 1965 until 1969. In 1974, he was a guest professor at Minneapolis School of Art in Minneapolis, Minnesota. In 1986 he was awarded the Prince Eugen Medal for painting. Reuterswärd is known for his sculpture showing a revolver tied in a knot, called Non violence, which is exhibited outside the United Nations headquarters in New York City. British artist Ian Berry, who makes artwork from denim jeans, lived in Landskrona between 2010-2015 and made some of his artwork based on Landskrona and the Oresund Region. Sports Landskrona IP, home of the Landskrona BoIS football club The Landskrona BoIS football club was formed through a merger of two older clubs in 1915. "BoIS" was one of the twelve original football clubs in Sweden's premier football league, Allsvenskan. As of the 2022 season, Landskrona BoIS play in Sweden's second-tier league, Superettan. They are based at the Landskrona IP stadium. Between 1930 and 1939 the annual Saxtorp TT-races motorcycle events saw crowds of up to 160,000. Saxtorp is located some 10–15 km south-east of the town centre. Transport Landskrona new railway station, opened on 6 January 2001 By the sea side. Danish Capital Copenhagen seen from Landskrona The island of Ven can be reached through a regular ferry connection. The ships used for this transport usually depart 9 times a day. Extended service is also available during July and August. The town's first railway station opened in 1863 and was located a short walk from Rådhustorget, the City Hall Square. In the 1920s was Landskrona station the western terminal of three railway lines. To Eslöv, Kävlinge (from which some trains continued to Lund and Malmö) and to Billesholm. It's notable that during the 1860 to 1940 construction of the Swedish railway network, no railway was built to the nearby city of Helsingborg. The line to Billesholm was short-lived and closed before the 1960s. During the mid-1970s the Swedish National Railways, SJ, was considering closing all local train service in the south. But along with other towns and cities in the former Malmöhus län, Landskrona participated in forming a new local railway system, which got the very Scanian name Pågatåg. This new railway system, which opened in a minor scale in 1983, was the first of its kind in Sweden, outside the Stockholm area. In connection with the construction of the Øresund Bridge, another train system was introduced, called the Øresundståg. They are Inter-regional trains as well as international ones, and link Denmark and Sweden together via railways. For Landskrona this meant that there was a call for a new location for the station, in order to avoid both the terminal type station, and provide better routing for northbound traffic. After political discussions it was decided to build a new dual track high speed railway between Helsingborg and Lund, as a part of a planned West Coast Railway between Copenhagen and Gothenborg. As Landskrona is located between Helsingborg and Lund, Landskrona was included in the planning for the new railway. But, as the new railway just "touched" the town's eastern end, there was a need for a new station in that area. The new Landskrona Station, which opened in January 2001, allowed for a greater range of train operations compared to the old terminal station that accommodated southbound trains only. Today, all local Pågatågen trains and inter-regional Øresundståg trains stop at the new station, which gives the new station a weekday service frequency of 4-6 trains per hour in each direction. A trolleybus shuttle service, the "Station Shuttle", was introduced in September 2003, and links the new station with the city centre and the ferry terminal in the harbour. This service is the shortest trolleybus route currently operating in the world. The new services meant that, as of 2017, Copenhagen Airport can be reached in 50 minutes and central Copenhagen in 65 minutes. It's also possible to reach Copenhagen by northbound trains to Helsingborg and then by the HH ferry route make a 20-minute sea travel to Helsingør, and from there take another train to Copenhagen. Although the (initially) northbound route to central Copenhagen includes two changes, the Danish Capital is normally reached in less than 90 minutes. The New Water Tower Notable people King Erik VII of Pomerania Janet Ågren, Actress Olle Anderberg, Wrestler Andreas Augustsson, Swedish Footballer Ewa Aulin, Actress Ian Berry, British Artist lived in Landskrona 2010-2015 The Bristles Tycho Brahe, Danish Astronomer and Alchemist Rudolf Cederström, Naval Commander Richard Dahl, High Jumper Frans Ekelund, City Architect from 1913–49 Gabriella Fagundez, Swedish Swimmer Edvin Fältström, Wrestler Emil Fick, Fencer Emilush, rapper and reggae artist Allvar Gullstrand, Ophthalmology Charles X Gustav, King of Sweden 6 June 1654 – 13 February 1660 Marcus Johansson (ice hockey, born 1990) Martin Johansson (ice hockey, born 1987) Sonny Johansson, Legendary Footballer, representing Landskrona BoIS 1968-1984 and who scored 310 times for the club. Armand Krajnc, WBO middle weight champion. Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish Writer and Nobel prize for children's literature Oscar Ljung, actor Max Lundgren, Swedish Children's Writer Siw Malmkvist, Swedish Singer Helmer Mörner, Equestrian Gustaf Nilsson (wrestler) Rolf K. Nilsson Member of Rikstag Jonas Olsson, Footballer, Sweden and West Brom Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd, Artist Amanda Röntgen-Maier, Violinist and composer Torsten Schmidt (officer) Mattias Sjögren, Swedish Ice Hockey Player Jesper Svenbro, Swedish Poet Svenska Akademien (musikgrupp), reggae band Enoch Thulin, Swedish Aircraft Pioneer Torkild Strandberg, Swedish Politician See also Ven, Sweden Øresund region Notes ^ Today, there is still a very small settlement just north of the town, known as Säby (Sæby in Danish). This was probably Nørre Sæby ("nørre" means "northern") in the beginning of the 15th century, but since Sønder Sæby (southern Sæby) became the town, the need for distinguishing northern and southern Sæby disappeared. ^ Around 1960 a convent returned to the countryside 8–9 km north of the town centre, near the town of Rydebäck. The corresponding monastery is located in Norraby, east of the town. References ^ "Statistiska tätorter 2018; befolkning, landareal, befolkningstäthet". scb.se (in Swedish). SCB. Retrieved 4 July 2020. ^ Huremovic, Dolores, ed. (24 January 2023) . "Stadens historia" . landskrona.se (in Swedish). City of Landskrona. Retrieved 10 May 2024. ^ Special "newspaper", labeled "Landszcrone", given free to all households in Landskrona municipality in March 2013 as a part of the 600-year anniversary celebration, available at the Swedish National Archive. ^ a b "Landskrona Citadell en minihistoria | Landskrona Slott". Citadellet.com. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Kulturhistoria: Koloniområdet vid citadellet" . landskronakultur.se (in Swedish). Kultur i Landskrona. 18 August 2019 . Retrieved 10 May 2024. ^ "Landskrona Citadell en minihistoria | Landskrona Slott". Citadellet.com. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ Swedish encyklopedia "Lilla Uppslagsboken", 1958 Förlagshuset Norden AB, Malmö, volume 6 of 10, article "Landskrona" ^ "1027-1028 (Nordisk familjebok / Uggleupplagan. 15. Kromat - Ledvätska)". Runeberg.org. 2014-10-31. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "1926 miste Landskrona för alltid sin militära roll". HD. 25 November 2014. ^ Rickard Lööf (10 June 2013). "Sveriges äldsta koloni 100 år - Nyheter". SVT Nyheter. SVT.se. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ Swedish Protection of Nature Institution, Landskrona branch ^ "Viktiga händelser i Öresundsvarvets historia | Artikel". Varvshistoriska.com. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Enoch Thulin - AETA story. English version". ^ "Saxtorps storhetstid får utställning - Helsingborgs Dagblad". Hd.se. 2009-06-17. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Saxtorps Grand Prix". Archived from the original on 2014-12-13. ^ a b "Landskrona 1976". Landskronadirekt.com. Archived from the original on 2008-11-20. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Frans Ekelund, arkitekt - via". Idstories.se. 2015-03-31. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Landskrona stad - Arkitektur i Landskrona". Landskrona.se. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ Tomas Germundsson, "Landsbygdens egnahem: egnahemsrörelsen, småbruket och landskapet i sydsvenskt perspektiv" (Thesis approved at University of Lund, Geographical faculty. 1993 act 0346-6787) ; Later printed, Swedish ISBN 91-7966-244-7, on "Egnahemsrörelsen" in southern Sweden ^ Anna Lindkvist, "Jorden åt folket" ("The soil to the people"), 2007, Swedish ISBN 978-91-7264-387-1 ^ "Vattentornet i Landskrona rustas upp". Mynewsdesk (in Swedish). NSVA. 21 October 2015. ^ "Byggnaden som fick rivas på natten". HD. 25 February 2015. ^ "Landskrona". www.lansstyrelsen.se. Retrieved 13 July 2022. ^ "Vattentorn: Skåne – Skånska vattentornssällskapet". Retrieved 13 July 2022. ^ "Seminariekvarteret - Ett av Landskronahems trevliga område". Retrieved 13 July 2022. ^ a b "Hem". Landskrona Hamn. ^ "Landskrona | Sweden | Encyclopædia Britannica". Global.britannica.com. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ Swedish encyclopedia "Bonniers Lexikon" from the 1960s, article "Landskrona" (vol 8 of 15) ^ Swedish "Sjökort över Öresund, 1969", English "Chart of Øresund, 1969". (In fact any chart covering this area will reveal it) ^ "Kartor, vägbeskrivningar, flygfoton, sjökort & mycket mer på eniro.se". kartor.eniro.se. ^ "Oresundstid". Oresundstid.dk. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Passagerskibe : Dan Viking (1959)". Kwmosgaard.dk. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "færgemodeller / skibsmodeller: Havnegade i Kbh og færgerne". Bjarneabel.blogspot.se. 2009-01-18. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "M/S DAN VIKING (1959)". Faktaomfartyg.se. 1957-03-28. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Centrumlinjens historia". Faktaomfartyg.se. Archived from the original on 2014-11-29. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Flygbåtarna var ett sätt att leva - Sydsvenskan". Sydsvenskan.se. 2010-06-23. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Flygbåtarna lämnar Malmö-Köpenhamn | Nytt från Öresund". Nfo.nu. 2002-03-25. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Landskrona stad - Kolonier i Landskrona". landskrona.se. Landskrona Stad. Retrieved 30 May 2022. ^ PDF at http://www.pht-formation.fr/ops/SID%20STAR/EKCH%20-%20Copenhagen.pdf Please note - these maps are NOT scalable. Page 8, left column shows approaches to 22L. The "star" CH88 I has position North 55:48.1, East 12:56.5, the right turn is from 118 degrees to 219 degrees (one degree from the Runway's heading). This position is somewhere above Landskrona ^ "Area & Runway systems". Archived from the original on 2017-08-11. Retrieved 2017-02-21. ^ "Headline "Banesystem" 83 operations per hour". Archived from the original on 2017-08-06. Retrieved 2017-08-11. ^ SCB, support statement but from 1800 (by then the 10th largest town) PDF p.16 and p. 21 (compare position) at ^ Åke Jönsson "Historien om en stad", a folio format trilogy "The History of a Town" - part 2 ISBN 91-630-2099-8 (1994) and part 3 ISBN 91-630-2150-1 (1997) ^ "Näringsliv och arbetsmarknad i Landskrona". Region Skåne, Enheten för samhällsanalys. ^ "Landskrona stad - Enklare att få jobb med Arbetsmarknad Landskrona". landskrona.se. Landskrona Stad. ^ Eriksson, Marianne. "Localities 1960-2005" (PDF). scb.se. Statistics Sweden. Retrieved 26 May 2017. ^ Hedeklint, Karin. "Localities and urban areas 2015" (PDF). scb.se. Statistics Sweden. Retrieved 26 May 2017. ^ "Landskrona Konsthall - Art gallery in Landskrona | GuidebookSweden". GuidebookSweden. Retrieved 2018-06-29. ^ "Landskrona stad - Om konsthallen". www.landskrona.se. Retrieved 9 December 2020. ^ Chilton, Martin (2016-05-04). "Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd, sculptor of knotted revolver peace symbol, dies". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2018-06-29. ^ "Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd | MoMA". The Museum of Modern Art. ^ Stockholm, Associated Press in (May 4, 2016). "Knotted gun sculptor Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd dies at 81". the Guardian. ^ "About". IAN BERRY. Retrieved 2018-06-29. ^ "Denimu gör succé i London". HD (in Swedish). Retrieved 2018-06-29. ^ "Timetable & Prices". Ventrafiken.se. Archived from the original on 2015-04-29. Retrieved 2015-04-09. ^ "Igenbommad station med anor". HD. 21 January 2013. ^ "BILDEXTRA: Pågatågen 30 år". Sydsvenskan. 22 March 2013. ^ "Nu kommer trådbussarna till Landskrona" (in Swedish). Nytt från Öresund. 24 September 2018. Archived from the original on 24 October 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2018. ^ "Tidtabell : 2 September - 31 December 2014". Scandliners.se. Retrieved 2015-04-09. External links Media related to Landskrona at Wikimedia Commons Landskrona Municipality - Official site Landskrona Trolleybus - Pictures from the construction of the trolleybus line (in Swedish) Landskrona Posten - Local Newspaper vteLocalities in Landskrona Municipality, Skåne County, SwedenLocalities Annelöv Asmundtorp Glumslöv Häljarp Härslöv Kvärlöv Landskrona (seat) Rydebäck (part of) Saxtorpsskogen (part of) Tågarp (part of) vteMunicipalities and seats of Skåne CountyMunicipalities Ängelholm Åstorp Båstad Bjuv Bromölla Burlöv Eslöv Hässleholm Helsingborg Höganäs Höör Hörby Kävlinge Klippan Kristianstad Landskrona Lomma Lund Malmö Örkelljunga Osby Östra Göinge Perstorp Simrishamn Sjöbo Skurup Staffanstorp Svalöv Svedala Tomelilla Trelleborg Vellinge Ystad Municipal seats Ängelholm Arlöv Åstorp Båstad Bjuv Broby Bromölla Eslöv Hässleholm Helsingborg Höganäs Höör Hörby Kävlinge Klippan Kristianstad Landskrona Lomma Lund Malmö Örkelljunga Osby Perstorp Simrishamn Sjöbo Skurup Staffanstorp Svalöv Svedala Tomelilla Trelleborg Vellinge Ystad Counties of Sweden Sweden vte50 most populous urban areas of Sweden    1. Stockholm 1,617,407 (2020)  2. Gothenburg 607,882 (2020)  3. Malmö 325,069 (2020)  4. Uppsala 166,698 (2020)  5. Upplands Väsby 149,701 (2020)  6. Västerås 128,660 (2020)  7. Örebro 126,604 (2020)  8. Linköping 115,682 (2020)  9. Helsingborg 113,828 (2020)  10. Jönköping 100,579 (2020)  11. Norrköping 98,088 (2020)  12. Lund 94,393 (2020)  13. Umeå 91,916 (2020)  14. Gävle 79,004 (2020)  15. Södertälje 76,320 (2020)  16. Borås 74,042 (2020)  17. Halmstad 71,422 (2020)  18. Växjö 71,282 (2020)  19. Eskilstuna 69,948 (2020)  20. Karlstad 67,122 (2020)  21. Sundsvall 58,813 (2020)  22. Östersund 52,980 (2020)  23. Trollhättan 50,502 (2020)  24. Luleå 49,123 (2020)  25. North-east Gothenburg 47,211 (2020)  26. Tumba 46,014 (2020)  27. Lidingö 44,091 (2020)  28. Borlänge 44,898 (2020)  29. Kalmar 41,852 (2020)  30. Kristianstad 41,299 (2020)  31. Skövde 39,580 (2020)  32. Karlskrona 36,904 (2020)  33. Falun 39,492 (2020)  34. Skellefteå 36,388 (2020)  35. Varberg 36,327 (demographic balance, 2020)  36. Uddevalla 35,916 (2020)  37. Åkersberga 35,747 (2020)  38. Nyköping 38,780 (2020)  39. Landskrona 33,466 (2020)  40. Örnsköldsvik 33,348 (2020)  41. Vallentuna 33,336 (2020)  42. Motala 31,340 (2020)  43. Trelleborg 30,808 (2020)  44. Ängelholm 29,490 (2020)  45. Märsta 29,815 (2020)  46. Falkenberg 28,747 (2020)  47. Lerum 28,520 (2020)  48. Alingsås 27,433 (2020)  49. Karlskoga 27,360 (2020)  50. Kungälv 26,960 (2020)  as of 2020, according to Statistics SwedenAuthority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Geographic MusicBrainz area KML file (edit • help) w:sv:Wikipedia:KML/LandskronaKML is from Wikidata
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scania"},{"link_name":"Öresund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96resund"},{"link_name":"Ven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Øresund region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resund_region"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Municipality"},{"link_name":"district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registration_districts_in_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Municipality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Municipality"}],"text":"Place in Scania, SwedenPlace in Scania, SwedenLandskrona is a town in Scania, Sweden. Located on the shores of the Öresund, it occupies a natural port, which has lent the town at first military and subsequent commercial significance. Ferries operate from Landskrona to the island of Ven, and for many years there was also a connection to Copenhagen. Landskrona is part of the Øresund region.It is the seat of Landskrona Municipality. Landskrona is also the name of a district in Landskrona Municipality which is slightly smaller than the urban area.","title":"Landskrona"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Citadellet_Landskrona.JPG"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Citadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Citadel"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Eric of Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_of_Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Hanseatic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Scania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scania"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Carmelite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carmelites"},{"link_name":"Christian III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_III_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reformation"},{"link_name":"[note 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Citadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Citadel"},{"link_name":"Christian III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_III"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-citadellet.com-6"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Christian II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_II_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Reformation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformation"},{"link_name":"Christian III of Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_III_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Scania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scania"},{"link_name":"bastions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastion"},{"link_name":"moats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moat"},{"link_name":"Scandinavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Citadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Citadel"},{"link_name":"pro-Danish guerrilla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapphane"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-citadellet.com-6"},{"link_name":"Sancti Johannis Baptistae church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_John_the_Baptist%27s_Church,_Landskrona"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-9"},{"link_name":"Sofia Albertina Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia_Albertina_Church"},{"link_name":"Karlskrona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karlskrona"},{"link_name":"Uppsala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Citadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Citadel"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Öresundsvarvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96resundsvarvet"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-varvshistoriska.com-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enoch_Thulins_Funeral_Landskrona.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SaxtorpsTT_1933_line_up.jpg"},{"link_name":"Enoch Thulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_Thulin"},{"link_name":"Sofia Albertina Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia_Albertina_Church"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Saxtorp TT-races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxtorp_TT-races"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Landskrona CitadelThe city of Landskrona is usually claimed to have been founded in 1413 by the King of Denmark, Eric of Pomerania, as a trading city intended to compete with Danish towns under the control of the Hanseatic League.[2] There is, however, evidence found in the Danish National Archive, which mention the town by the name \"Landzcrone\" already in 1405.The site occupies one of a few natural harbours in Scania, which at that time was part of Denmark. At the time of foundation, the site held a fishing settlement named Sønder Sæby.[note 1] The original name of the officially founded town was Landszcrone, which changed to Landskrone sometime before 1450.[3]A Carmelite monastery was founded in 1410, English merchants were granted the privileges in a royal charter in 1412, and the town itself was chartered in 1413. The monastery was closed by King Christian III after the reformation, but survives in the name of the street \"Karmelitergatan\".[note 2]Construction of Landskrona Citadel started in the 1540s under the orders of Christian III. The castle was completed in 1559, and consisted of a fortress with a surrounding wall and moat.[4] A huge system of moats was constructed around the castle over the centuries; parts of four of the moats survive. Sweden's second, and oldest surviving, allotment area is located in the northern part of the citadel.[5]The town supported the king Christian II in 1525, and opposed the Reformation in Denmark (1535); in both cases it found itself on the losing side. The reformist king Christian III of Denmark opted not to retaliate against the town, and instead founded a castle to protect the harbour. The castle, built where the monastery had been situated until the Reformation, was completed by 1559.[6]After Scania was ceded to the Swedish Crown in 1658, the good harbour and strong fort motivated plans to make Landskrona a commercial center of the acquired territory, with extraordinary privileges for foreign trade. The castle was reinforced by bastions, and the area inside the moats extended to 400x400 meters. The castle was considered the strongest and most modern in Scandinavia, but was temporarily lost to the Danes after a comparably short siege lasting from July 8 to August 2, 1676. The commandant, Colonel Hieronymus Lindeberg, was consequently sentenced to death for high treason. During the Danish reconquest in 1676–1679, Landskrona Citadel constituted a mobilisation centre for formal enlistment of pro-Danish guerrilla fighters.[4]In 1753 the Swedish military commander feared that the tower of Sancti Johannis Baptistae church could be a threat to the citadel and demanded the demolition of the church.[7] Even though the cornerstone of the new Sofia Albertina Church was laid the following year, it was not inaugurated until 1788, and was finally completed in 1812. Unusually for a church that is not a diocesan seat, the new church was built with two towers, possibly in compensation for its much larger medieval predecessor.Landskrona's military importance declined after the 18th century. The continued Swedish–Danish wars led to Karlskrona replacing Landskrona as a naval base, as it is located at a safer distance from Denmark. Although the fortifications at Landskrona were expanded considerably between 1747 and 1788, they were condemned in 1822, whereafter the garrison was abolished in 1869. The last military regiment, Skånska Husarregimentet, K5 was renamed and moved from Landskrona to Uppsala in 1926.[8][9] Today the walls and moats of the fortifications of Landskrona Citadel are a recreational area and the castle holds a museum. On the northern side, an allotment-garden area of cottages was founded in the final years of the 19th century, and is today the oldest of its kind in Sweden.[10] The military's large exercise field became a public heath, today called \"Exercisfältet\" or \"Exan\".[11]The town grew quickly after the industrial revolution and the subsequent urbanization. During the First World War, a large shipyard, Öresundsvarvet, was constructed. In the mid-1970s the shipyard employed more than 3,500 people, in a town with only 30,000 inhabitants. The shipyard was closed down in stages from the late 1970s, finally closing in 1983.[12]Enoch Thulin's funeral, May 1919. The town honors its flight pioneerThe line up for the 1933 Saxtorp TT-motorcycle raceOn 14 May 1919 the Swedish engineer and flight pioneer Enoch Thulin, who lived and worked in Landskrona, died when he crashed his own airplane at the Södra Fäladen fields. His funeral service was held in Sofia Albertina Church.[13]Between 1930 and 1939 the Saxtorp TT-races were held just south of the town. The races attracted up to 160,000 attendees and are considered the largest sporting events by crowd size ever held in Sweden.[14][15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gamla_Landskrona.JPG"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Citadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Citadel"},{"link_name":"Sofia Albertina Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia_Albertina_Church"},{"link_name":"Landskrona museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Landskrona_museum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"sv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Landskrona_Harbour_building_restored_by_Frans_Ekelund.JPG"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-landskronadirekt.com-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-idstories.se-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-landskronadirekt.com-18"},{"link_name":"Garden city movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden_city_movement"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Ralph Erskine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Erskine_(architect)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"functionalist architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functionalism_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gamla_Vattentornet_Landskrona.JPG"},{"link_name":"water tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_tower"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"Townscape","text":"Street in the old part of the town near its centre.The town's centre and buildings along the entrance streets generally consist of buildings with between two and seven floors.[citation needed] As a fortified town, stone houses were preferred instead of wooden houses, so the city boasts few examples of traditional Danish and Scanian half-timbered houses.[citation needed] Apart from the Citadel and Sofia Albertina Church, other notable 19th-century or older buildings are \"Rådhuset\", the Town Hall, Landskrona museum [sv], the old railway station building and the theatre.A traditional half-timbered building in Landskrona harbour, restored by Frans Ekelund.Much of the town's central parts, and buildings along the entrance roads are characterized by the work of the former town architects Fredrik Sundbärg 1901–1913[16] and Frans Ekelund 1913–1949.[17][18]\nSundberg created a number of monumental buildings such as the old water tower, the school Tuppaskolan, the power station, a hot bathhouse (demolished in the 1970s), and two large blocks of flats intended for the working class, Falken and Gripen .[16]\nEkelund, who was a believer in the Garden city movement, reserved areas for people to build customised homes, typically smaller houses with cellars and two floors.[19][20]Ralph Erskine created the row house area called Esperanza (Spanish for hope) around 1970. The new water tower came into operation the same year.[21]Around the Town Hall Square, all but one building was built before functionalist architecture became popular. Some older buildings were demolished in the mid-20th century. Falcks hörna, a block-corner building with a rather unusual appearance, was demolished in the middle of the night in 1971 amid protests.[22]Old water tower in Landskrona, in the foreground is Sankt Olovs SjöA now-defunct water tower in town was built in 1904 after drawings from the then city architect Fredrik Sundbärg and has a height of 65,9 meters.[23][24] The Water Tower was taken out of use in 1975 and in 1992 parts of the building was converted into rental estate.[25]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Landskrona_Harbour.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gråen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A5en"},{"link_name":"Öresundsvarvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96resundsvarvet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Landskrona_Harbour%27s_Sothern_Port.jpg"},{"link_name":"Öresundsvarvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96resundsvarvet"},{"link_name":"Gråen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A5en"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-28"},{"link_name":"chute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chute_(gravity)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"debouching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debouch"},{"link_name":"Gråen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%A5en"},{"link_name":"km","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Km"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-28"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen-Tuborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuborg_Havn"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Lundåkrabukten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lund%C3%A5krabukten"},{"link_name":"Barsebäck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barseb%C3%A4ck"},{"link_name":"Sea ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_ice"}],"sub_title":"Harbour","text":"Landskrona Harbour, the main basin. A part of the protecting artificial island Gråen can be seen to the right, the shipyard Öresundsvarvet in the background.Öresundsvarvet shipyard to the left, the former Supra AB to the right and Gråen (an artificial island that protects the harbour) in the backgroundA natural deep harbour has existed here since before the history of the town. It's mentioned in the Danish historical work Saxo Grammaticus from around 1200[26] The port is based on a natural chute in the sandy sea floor,[27] despite the lack of any nearby debouching river. Since the 18th century, the harbour has been protected by the artificial island Gråen. In the 1960s it had a total quay length of around 3 km[28] As of 2017 its usable quay length has been greatly reduced, with a tally of approximately 1250 meters of remaining quay,[26] and its activity has been low for decades.The former car ferries to Copenhagen-Tuborg departed from the Nyhamn port, in the northern end. At a common map, it looks like the harbour has two inlets. But the waters immediately south of the harbor are extremely shallow.[29][30] The northernmost part of Lundåkrabukten, the bay between Landskrona and Barsebäck, is not just shallow, but also largely free of stronger currents. During cold winter periods, Sea ice can then be formed here, much faster than at most other places in Øresund.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SL ferries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SL_ferries"},{"link_name":"Port of Tuborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuborg_Havn"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Inner Harbour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_Harbour,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Port of Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"energy crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_crisis"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Scarlett Line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scarlett_Line&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Port of Tuborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuborg_Havn"},{"link_name":"Malmö","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm%C3%B6"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Øresund Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resund_Bridge"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"History of the Øresund traffic","text":"For many years, Landskrona was serviced by car ferries and other ships to and from Copenhagen. From 1951 to 1980 did the SL ferries operate the route between Port of Tuborg in northern Copenhagen and Landskrona. During a larger part of that period, also the Viking Bådene [31][32][33][34] operated smaller passenger ships between the Inner Harbour of the Port of Copenhagen and Landskrona. They were owned in Denmark, but from around 1970 they were purchased by the Swedish Centrumlinjen but kept their name. The 1973 energy crisis eventually caused the end of this shipping line.[35]Between 1980 and 1984 different kind of ships and shipping lines offered at least summer time traffic to Copenhagen. And From 1985 Scarlett Line was formed, and once again sailed to Port of Tuborg. From the spring of 1991 did Danish Vognmandsruten A/S merge with Scarlett Line, maintained the established name and began to sail every hour. \nThe new shipping line mainly was intended to live on transport of lorries. In the autumn of 1993 Vognmandsruten A/S went bankrupt and this put an end to the car and lorry ferry traffic from Landskrona.However, hydrofoil speedboats Flygbåtarna AB, which previously only had served passenger traffic in the southern part of Øresund, between Malmö and Copenhagen, now began to operate also from both Landskrona as well as from Helsingborg. Not until March 2002, almost two years after the inauguration of the Øresund Bridge did Flygbåtarna AB threw in the towel.[36][37]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"allotment areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allotment_(gardening)"},{"link_name":"Malmö","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm%C3%B6"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Citadel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Citadel"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"sub_title":"Allotments","text":"Landskrona is well known for having several allotment areas in and around the city centre. The first allotment area in Sweden was located in Malmö; however, it has long been gone since. The allotments located between the inner and outer moats of the Landskrona Citadel area make up the oldest allotment area in Sweden currently in use to date and are therefor of historic significance. There are currently around 1400 allotments in total located in Landskrona and its periphery, distributed over 6 allotment areas.[38]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Copenhagen Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_Airport"},{"link_name":"localiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localiser"},{"link_name":"Barsebäck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barseb%C3%A4ck"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Copenhagen Airport influence","text":"Aircraft approaching the nearby Copenhagen Airport to land on Runway 22L pass over the northern part of the town, where they make a sharp right turn towards the south to intercept the localiser around Barsebäck.[39] Most landings at Copenhagen take place at Runway 22L.[40] At the busiest times this can lead to consecutive aircraft passing over Landskrona with less than a minute's gap between them.[41]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Industrial revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution"},{"link_name":"Öresundsvarvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96resundsvarvet"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"Hässleholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A4ssleholm"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"tertiary sector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"text":"From the late Middle Ages to the Industrial revolution, the town's population was fairly stable at around 2,000. Between 1860 and 1918 it grew to a little below 20,000. But from around 1919 until the mid-1970s, Landskrona just grew to some 30,000 inhabitants. Due to the closing of Öresundsvarvet shipyard (only a fraction of its close to 4000 employees work at the \"new\" renovation shipyard with the same name) and of other heavy industries, the population instead began to fall. Around 1985–1995 Landskrona's population were approximately some 25,000. Thanks to the general immigration (both from upper Sweden and from other countries) to western Scania and the Øresund coast, and due to the new railway station (opened in 2001), the town's population has again grown, and has once again exceeded 30,000 inhabitants, which equals the situation in the early 1970s. The town had 32,229 inhabitants in 2015.Landskrona was also relatively larger a century ago compared with today. After World War I the town was among the 15 largest in the country. But no longer holds that position.[42]\nBetween approx. 1880 and 1920 was the town transformed from a military town to a town with much heavy industry within many sectors. The Öresundsvarvet shipyard, which opened in 1917, became the largest employer (with close to 4000 employees in the early 1970s). But the industry was not limited to shipbuilding, and a sugar refinery, several textile industries, fertilizers and other chemical plants, as well as a spectrum of various manufacturing industries, grew up. But after the First World War, the town stopped growing as fast as many other Swedish towns did. And the very last military regiment moved to Hässleholm in 1924. Between the mid-1920s and mid-1970s the town grew from approx. 20,000 inhabitants to 30,000. And after the Swedish municipality reforms reached its end point, in 1974, the municipality counted around 38,000 inhabitants.[43]Landskrona has traditionally been seen as a working-class city, with a strong focus on heavy industry. In the 21st century, development has instead tended towards a labour market with services in contemporary industrial production along with a general range of tertiary sector jobs, which has attracted more residents to the city.[44][45]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Fredrik_Reutersw%C3%A4rd"},{"link_name":"Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Fine_Arts"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis School of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis_School_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Minneapolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minneapolis"},{"link_name":"Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Prince Eugen Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Eugen_Medal"},{"link_name":"Non violence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Violence_(sculpture)"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Ian Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denimu"},{"link_name":"Oresund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resund"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"text":"Landskrona Konsthall opened in 1963 in the park attached to Landskrona Citadell.[48] In the surrounding parkland there are sculptures by twenty artists.[49]Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd, was a Swedish painter and sculptor. He lived in Landskrona at the end of his life and died of pneumonia at Landskrona Hospital, on 3 May 2016, aged 81. He was a professor of painting at the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts in Stockholm from 1965 until 1969. In 1974, he was a guest professor at Minneapolis School of Art in Minneapolis, Minnesota. In 1986 he was awarded the Prince Eugen Medal for painting. Reuterswärd is known for his sculpture showing a revolver tied in a knot, called Non violence, which is exhibited outside the United Nations headquarters in New York City.[50][51][52]British artist Ian Berry, who makes artwork from denim jeans, lived in Landskrona between 2010-2015 and made some of his artwork based on Landskrona and the Oresund Region.[53][54]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Landskrona_IP.JPG"},{"link_name":"Landskrona BoIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_BoIS"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"Allsvenskan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allsvenskan"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Landskrona&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Superettan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superettan"},{"link_name":"Landskrona IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_IP"},{"link_name":"Saxtorp TT-races","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxtorp_TT-races"}],"text":"Landskrona IP, home of the Landskrona BoIS football clubThe Landskrona BoIS football club was formed through a merger of two older clubs in 1915. \"BoIS\" was one of the twelve original football clubs in Sweden's premier football league, Allsvenskan. As of the 2022 season[update], Landskrona BoIS play in Sweden's second-tier league, Superettan. They are based at the Landskrona IP stadium.Between 1930 and 1939 the annual Saxtorp TT-races motorcycle events saw crowds of up to 160,000. Saxtorp is located some 10–15 km south-east of the town centre.","title":"Sports"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Landskrona_Station1.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Copenhagen_From_Landskrona.JPG"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Ven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven_(Sweden)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Eslöv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esl%C3%B6v"},{"link_name":"Kävlinge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4vlinge"},{"link_name":"Lund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lund"},{"link_name":"Malmö","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm%C3%B6"},{"link_name":"Billesholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billesholm"},{"link_name":"Helsingborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsingborg"},{"link_name":"Swedish National Railways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_State_Railways"},{"link_name":"Malmöhus län","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malm%C3%B6hus_l%C3%A4n"},{"link_name":"Pågatåg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A5gat%C3%A5g"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Øresund Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resund_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Øresundståg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resundst%C3%A5g"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"Helsingborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsingborg"},{"link_name":"Lund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lund"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Gothenborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothenborg"},{"link_name":"Landskrona Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_Station"},{"link_name":"Pågatågen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A5gat%C3%A5gen"},{"link_name":"Øresundståg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resundst%C3%A5g"},{"link_name":"trolleybus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolleybus"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_Airport"},{"link_name":"Helsingborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsingborg"},{"link_name":"HH ferry route","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HH_Ferry_route"},{"link_name":"Helsingør","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsing%C3%B8r"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nya_vattentornet,_Landskrona.jpg"}],"text":"Landskrona new railway station, opened on 6 January 2001By the sea side. Danish Capital Copenhagen seen from LandskronaThe island of Ven can be reached through a regular ferry connection. The ships used for this transport usually depart 9 times a day. Extended service is also available during July and August.[55]The town's first railway station opened in 1863 and was located a short walk from Rådhustorget, the City Hall Square.[56] In the 1920s was Landskrona station the western terminal of three railway lines. To Eslöv, Kävlinge (from which some trains continued to Lund and Malmö) and to Billesholm. It's notable that during the 1860 to 1940 construction of the Swedish railway network, no railway was built to the nearby city of Helsingborg. \nThe line to Billesholm was short-lived and closed before the 1960s. During the mid-1970s the Swedish National Railways, SJ, was considering closing all local train service in the south. But along with other towns and cities in the former Malmöhus län, Landskrona participated in forming a new local railway system, which got the very Scanian name Pågatåg. This new railway system, which opened in a minor scale in 1983, was the first of its kind in Sweden, outside the Stockholm area.[57] \nIn connection with the construction of the Øresund Bridge, another train system was introduced, called the Øresundståg. They are Inter-regional trains as well as international ones, and link Denmark and Sweden together via railways. For Landskrona this meant that there was a call for a new location for the station, in order to avoid both the terminal type station, and provide better routing for northbound traffic.\nAfter political discussions it was decided to build a new dual track high speed railway between Helsingborg and Lund, as a part of a planned West Coast Railway between Copenhagen and Gothenborg. As Landskrona is located between Helsingborg and Lund, Landskrona was included in the planning for the new railway. But, as the new railway just \"touched\" the town's eastern end, there was a need for a new station in that area. The new Landskrona Station, which opened in January 2001, allowed for a greater range of train operations compared to the old terminal station that accommodated southbound trains only. Today, all local Pågatågen trains and inter-regional Øresundståg trains stop at the new station, which gives the new station a weekday service frequency of 4-6 trains per hour in each direction.A trolleybus shuttle service, the \"Station Shuttle\", was introduced in September 2003,[58] and links the new station with the city centre and the ferry terminal in the harbour. This service is the shortest trolleybus route currently operating in the world.The new services meant that, as of 2017, Copenhagen Airport can be reached in 50 minutes and central Copenhagen in 65 minutes. It's also possible to reach Copenhagen by northbound trains to Helsingborg and then by the HH ferry route make a 20-minute sea travel to Helsingør, and from there take another train to Copenhagen. Although the (initially) northbound route to central Copenhagen includes two changes, the Danish Capital is normally reached in less than 90 minutes.[59]The New Water Tower","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"King Erik VII of Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_of_Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Janet Ågren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_%C3%85gren"},{"link_name":"Olle Anderberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olle_Anderberg"},{"link_name":"Andreas Augustsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Augustsson"},{"link_name":"Ewa Aulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewa_Aulin"},{"link_name":"Ian Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denimu"},{"link_name":"The Bristles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bristles"},{"link_name":"Tycho Brahe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe"},{"link_name":"Rudolf Cederström","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Cederstr%C3%B6m"},{"link_name":"Richard Dahl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dahl"},{"link_name":"Frans Ekelund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans_Ekelund"},{"link_name":"Gabriella Fagundez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriella_Fagundez"},{"link_name":"Edvin Fältström","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edvin_F%C3%A4ltstr%C3%B6m"},{"link_name":"Emil Fick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Fick"},{"link_name":"Emilush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emilush&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Allvar Gullstrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand"},{"link_name":"Ophthalmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ophthalmology"},{"link_name":"Charles X Gustav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_X_Gustav_of_Sweden"},{"link_name":"Marcus Johansson (ice hockey, born 1990)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Johansson_(ice_hockey,_born_1990)"},{"link_name":"Martin Johansson (ice hockey, born 1987)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Johansson_(ice_hockey,_born_1987)"},{"link_name":"Sonny Johansson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonny_Johansson"},{"link_name":"Landskrona BoIS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landskrona_BoIS"},{"link_name":"Armand Krajnc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_Krajnc"},{"link_name":"Selma Lagerlöf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selma_Lagerl%C3%B6f"},{"link_name":"Nobel prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize"},{"link_name":"children's literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children%27s_literature"},{"link_name":"Oscar Ljung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oscar_Ljung"},{"link_name":"Max Lundgren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Lundgren"},{"link_name":"Siw Malmkvist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siw_Malmkvist"},{"link_name":"Helmer Mörner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmer_M%C3%B6rner"},{"link_name":"Gustaf Nilsson (wrestler)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustaf_Nilsson_(wrestler)"},{"link_name":"Rolf K. Nilsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolf_K._Nilsson"},{"link_name":"Jonas Olsson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Olsson_(footballer,_born_1983)"},{"link_name":"West Brom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bromwich_Albion_F.C."},{"link_name":"Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Fredrik_Reutersw%C3%A4rd"},{"link_name":"Amanda Röntgen-Maier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanda_R%C3%B6ntgen-Maier"},{"link_name":"Torsten Schmidt (officer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsten_Schmidt_(officer)"},{"link_name":"Mattias Sjögren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattias_Sj%C3%B6gren"},{"link_name":"Jesper Svenbro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesper_Svenbro"},{"link_name":"Svenska Akademien (musikgrupp)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Svenska_Akademien_(musikgrupp)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Enoch Thulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enoch_Thulin"},{"link_name":"Torkild Strandberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torkild_Strandberg"}],"text":"King Erik VII of Pomerania\nJanet Ågren, Actress\nOlle Anderberg, Wrestler\nAndreas Augustsson, Swedish Footballer\nEwa Aulin, Actress\nIan Berry, British Artist lived in Landskrona 2010-2015\nThe Bristles\nTycho Brahe, Danish Astronomer and Alchemist\nRudolf Cederström, Naval Commander\nRichard Dahl, High Jumper\nFrans Ekelund, City Architect from 1913–49\nGabriella Fagundez, Swedish Swimmer\nEdvin Fältström, Wrestler\nEmil Fick, Fencer\nEmilush, rapper and reggae artist\nAllvar Gullstrand, Ophthalmology\nCharles X Gustav, King of Sweden 6 June 1654 – 13 February 1660\nMarcus Johansson (ice hockey, born 1990)\nMartin Johansson (ice hockey, born 1987)\nSonny Johansson, Legendary Footballer, representing Landskrona BoIS 1968-1984 and who scored 310 times for the club.\nArmand Krajnc, WBO middle weight champion.\nSelma Lagerlöf, Swedish Writer and Nobel prize for children's literature\nOscar Ljung, actor\nMax Lundgren, Swedish Children's Writer\nSiw Malmkvist, Swedish Singer\nHelmer Mörner, Equestrian\nGustaf Nilsson (wrestler)\nRolf K. Nilsson Member of Rikstag\nJonas Olsson, Footballer, Sweden and West Brom\nCarl Fredrik Reuterswärd, Artist\nAmanda Röntgen-Maier, Violinist and composer\nTorsten Schmidt (officer)\nMattias Sjögren, Swedish Ice Hockey Player\nJesper Svenbro, Swedish Poet\nSvenska Akademien (musikgrupp), reggae band\nEnoch Thulin, Swedish Aircraft Pioneer\nTorkild Strandberg, Swedish Politician","title":"Notable people"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"Rydebäck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rydeb%C3%A4ck"}],"text":"^ Today, there is still a very small settlement just north of the town, known as Säby (Sæby in Danish). This was probably Nørre Sæby (\"nørre\" means \"northern\") in the beginning of the 15th century, but since Sønder Sæby (southern Sæby) became the town, the need for distinguishing northern and southern Sæby disappeared.\n\n^ Around 1960 a convent returned to the countryside 8–9 km north of the town centre, near the town of Rydebäck. The corresponding monastery is located in Norraby, east of the town.","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"Landskrona Citadel","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Citadellet_Landskrona.JPG/220px-Citadellet_Landskrona.JPG"},{"image_text":"Enoch Thulin's funeral, May 1919. The town honors its flight pioneer","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Enoch_Thulins_Funeral_Landskrona.jpg/220px-Enoch_Thulins_Funeral_Landskrona.jpg"},{"image_text":"The line up for the 1933 Saxtorp TT-motorcycle race","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/SaxtorpsTT_1933_line_up.jpg/220px-SaxtorpsTT_1933_line_up.jpg"},{"image_text":"Street in the old part of the town near its centre.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Gamla_Landskrona.JPG/220px-Gamla_Landskrona.JPG"},{"image_text":"A traditional half-timbered building in Landskrona harbour, restored by Frans Ekelund.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Landskrona_Harbour_building_restored_by_Frans_Ekelund.JPG/220px-Landskrona_Harbour_building_restored_by_Frans_Ekelund.JPG"},{"image_text":"Old water tower in Landskrona, in the foreground is Sankt Olovs Sjö","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Gamla_Vattentornet_Landskrona.JPG/220px-Gamla_Vattentornet_Landskrona.JPG"},{"image_text":"Landskrona Harbour, the main basin. A part of the protecting artificial island Gråen can be seen to the right, the shipyard Öresundsvarvet in the background.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Landskrona_Harbour.jpg/220px-Landskrona_Harbour.jpg"},{"image_text":"Öresundsvarvet shipyard to the left, the former Supra AB to the right and Gråen (an artificial island that protects the harbour) in the background","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Landskrona_Harbour%27s_Sothern_Port.jpg/220px-Landskrona_Harbour%27s_Sothern_Port.jpg"},{"image_text":"Landskrona IP, home of the Landskrona BoIS football club","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Landskrona_IP.JPG/220px-Landskrona_IP.JPG"},{"image_text":"Landskrona new railway station, opened on 6 January 2001","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Landskrona_Station1.jpg/220px-Landskrona_Station1.jpg"},{"image_text":"By the sea side. Danish Capital Copenhagen seen from Landskrona","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Copenhagen_From_Landskrona.JPG/220px-Copenhagen_From_Landskrona.JPG"},{"image_text":"The New Water Tower","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Nya_vattentornet%2C_Landskrona.jpg/220px-Nya_vattentornet%2C_Landskrona.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Ven, Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven,_Sweden"},{"title":"Øresund region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98resund_region"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_accounts
Transaction account
["1 History","2 Features and access","3 Country specific differences","3.1 Transfer systems","3.2 In the European Union","4 Access","4.1 Branch access","4.2 Cheques","4.3 Automated teller machines","4.4 Mobile banking","4.5 Internet banking","4.6 Telephone banking","4.7 Mail banking","4.8 Stores and merchants providing debit card access","5 Cost","6 Interest","6.1 High-yield accounts","7 Lending","7.1 Overdraft","7.2 Consumer reporting","7.3 Offset mortgage","8 See also","9 Notes"]
Bank holding that clients can access on demand Part of a series on financial servicesBanking Types of banks Advising Banq Bulge bracket Central Commercial Community development Cooperative Credit union Custodian Depository Development Direct Export credit agency Investment Industrial Merchant Middle market Mutual savings Neobank Offshore Participation Payments Postal savings Private Public Retail Savings Savings and loan Universal Wholesale Bank holding company Lists of banks Accounts · Cards Accounts Christmas club Deposit Money-market Savings Time deposit (Bond) Transaction (checking / current) Cards ATM Credit Debit Prepaid Funds transfer Cheque Card Electronic Bill payment Mobile Wire RTGS NS ACH Instant payment Giro SWIFT Correspondent account CLS CIPS SPFS BRICS PAY Terms Asset allocation management Automated teller machine Bad debt Bank regulation Bank secrecy Asset growth Capital asset Cash Climate finance Corporate finance Disinvestment Diversification (finance) Eco-investing Economic bubble Economic expansion Enterprise value Enterprise risk management Environmental finance ESG Ethical banking Financial analysis analyst asset economics engineering forecast plan planner services Fractional-reserve banking Full-reserve banking Fundamental analysis Growth investing Hedge (finance) Impact investing Investment advisory Investment management Islamic banking Loan Mathematical finance Mobile banking Money creation Pension fund Private banking Sustainability Sustainable finance Speculation Statistical finance Strategic financial management Stress test (financial) Structured finance Structured product Toxic asset Related topics Asset pricing Bond (finance) Capital structure Corporate finance Cost of capital Equity (finance) Ethical banking Exchange traded fund Financial law market participants regulation risk system History of banking List of banks Market risk Personal finance Public finance Security (finance) Shares Sustainable development goals Systematic risk Systemic risk Time value of money Too big to fail Too connected to fail Watered stock Category Commons Portalvte A transaction account, also called a checking account, chequing account, current account, demand deposit account, or share draft account at credit unions, is a deposit account or bank account held at a bank or other financial institution. It is available to the account owner "on demand" and is available for frequent and immediate access by the account owner or to others as the account owner may direct. Access may be in a variety of ways, such as cash withdrawals, use of debit cards, cheques and electronic transfer. In economic terms, the funds held in a transaction account are regarded as liquid funds. In accounting terms, they are considered as cash. Transaction accounts are known by a variety of descriptions, including a current account (British English), chequing account or checking account when held by a bank, share draft account when held by a credit union in North America. In the Commonwealth of Nations, United Kingdom, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia, South Africa and a number of other countries they are commonly called current or, before the demise of cheques, cheque accounts. Because money is available on demand they are also sometimes known as demand accounts or demand deposit accounts. In the United States, NOW accounts operate as transaction accounts. Transaction accounts are operated by both businesses and personal users. Depending on the country and local demand economics earning from interest rates varies. Again depending on the country the financial institution that maintains the account may charge the account holder maintenance or transaction fees or offer the service free to the holder and charge only if the holder uses an add-on service such as an overdraft. History 1967 letter by the Midland Bank to a customer, informing on the introduction of electronic data processing and the introduction of account numbers for current accounts In Holland in the early 1500s, Amsterdam was a major trading and shipping city. People who had acquired large accumulations of cash began to deposit their money with cashiers to protect their wealth. These cashiers held the money for a fee. Competition drove cashiers to offer additional services, including paying out money to any person bearing a written order from a depositor to do so. They kept the note as proof of payment. This concept spread to other countries including England and its colonies in North America, where land owners in Boston in 1681 mortgaged their land to cashiers who provided an account against which they could write checks. In the 18th century in England, preprinted checks, serial numbers, and the word "cheque" appeared. By the late 18th century, the difficulty of clearing checks (sending them from one bank to another for collection) gave rise to the development of clearing houses. Features and access The cheque was the traditional mode of payment for a transactional account. All transaction accounts offer itemised lists of all financial transactions, either through a bank statement or a passbook. A transaction account allows the account holder to make or receive payments by: ATM cards (withdraw cash at any Automated Teller Machine) Debit card (cashless direct payment at a store or merchant) Cash (deposit and withdrawal of coins and banknotes at a branch) Cheque and money order (paper instruction to pay) Direct debit (pre-authorized debit) Standing order (automatic regular funds transfers) Electronic funds transfers (transfer funds electronically to another account) Online banking (transfer funds directly to another person via internet banking facility) Banks offering transactional accounts may allow an account to go into overdraft if that has been previously arranged. If an account has a negative balance, money is being borrowed from the bank and interest and overdraft fees as normally charged. Country specific differences In the United Kingdom and other countries with a UK banking heritage, transaction accounts are known as current accounts. These offer various flexible payment methods to allow customers to distribute money directly. One of the main differences between a UK current account and an American checking account is that they earn considerable interest, sometimes comparable to a savings account, and there is generally no charge for withdrawals at cashpoints (ATMs), other than charges by third party owners of such machines. Transfer systems Certain modes of payment are country-specific: Giro (funds transfer, direct deposit in European countries) In the United Kingdom, Faster Payments Service offers near immediate transfer, BACS offers giros that clear in a matter of days while CHAPS is done on the same day. Canada has an Interac e-Transfer service In India, NEFT and RTGS services are available to clear funds in a day. In the European Union The Regulation (EU) n. 655/2014 has introduced the European Account Preservation Order, a new procedure of asset freezing in order "to facilitate cross-border debt recovery in civil and commercial matters." Access An Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Branch access Main article: Branch banking Customers may need to attend a bank branch for a wide range of banking transactions including cash withdrawals and financial advice. There may be restrictions on cash withdrawals, even at a branch. For example, withdrawals of cash above a threshold figure may require notice. Many transactions that previously could only be performed at a branch can now be done in others ways, such as use of ATMs, online, mobile and telephone banking. Cheques Cheques were the traditional method of making withdrawals from a transaction account. Automated teller machines Automated teller machines (ATMs) enable customers of a financial institution to perform financial transactions without attending a branch. This enables, for example, cash to be withdrawn from an account outside normal branch trading hours. However, ATMs usually have quite low limits for cash withdrawals, and there may be daily limits to cash withdrawals other than at a branch. Mobile banking Main article: Mobile banking With the introduction of mobile banking; a customer may perform banking transactions and payments, view balances and statements, and use various other services using their mobile phone. In the UK this has become the leading way people manage their finances, as mobile banking has overtaken internet banking as the most popular way to bank. Internet banking Main article: Online banking Internet or online banking enables a customer to perform banking transactions and payments, to view balances and statements, and various other facilities. This can be convenient especially when a bank is not open and enables banking transactions to be effected from anywhere Internet access is available. Online banking avoids the time spent travelling to a branch and standing in queues there. However, there are usually limits on the value of funds that can be transferred electronically on any day, making it necessary to use a cheque to effect such transfers when those limits are being reached. Telephone banking Main article: Telephone banking Telephone banking provides access to banking transactions over the telephone. In many cases telephone banking opening times are considerably longer than branch times. Mail banking Main article: Mail banking A financial institution may allow its customers to deposit cheques into their account by mail. Mail banking can be used by customers of virtual banks (as they may not offer branches or ATMs that accept deposits) and by customers who live too far from a branch. Stores and merchants providing debit card access Main article: Debit card Most stores and merchants now have to accept debit card access for purchasing goods if they want to continue operating, especially now that some people only use electronic means of purchase. Cost Any cost or fees charged by the financial institution that maintains the account, whether as a single monthly maintenance charge or for each financial transaction, will depend on a variety of factors, including the country's regulations and overall interest rates for lending and saving, as well as the financial institution's size and number of channels of access offered. This is why a direct bank can afford to offer low-cost or free banking, as well as why in some countries, transaction fees do not exist but extremely high lending rates are the norm. This is the case in the United Kingdom, where they have had free banking since 1984 when the then Midland Bank, in a bid to grab market share, scrapped current account charges. It was so successful that all other banks had no choice but offer the same or continue losing customers. Free banking account holders are now charged only if they use an add-on service such as an overdraft. Financial transaction fees may be charged either per item or for a flat rate covering a certain number of transactions. Often, youths, students, senior citizens or high-valued customers do not pay fees for basic financial transactions. Some offer free transactions for maintaining a very high average balance in their account. Other service charges are applicable for overdraft, non-sufficient funds, the use of an external interbank network, etc. In countries where there are no service charges for transaction fees, there are, on the other hand, other recurring service charges such as a debit card annual fee. In the United States, there are checking account options that do not require monthly maintenance fees and this can keep costs down. While a majority of U.S. checking accounts do charge monthly maintenance fees, about one-third of accounts do not charge those fees. A survey of monthly checking account maintenance fees shows the average cost to be $13.47 per month or $161.64 per year. Interest Main article: Interest Unlike savings accounts, for which the primary reason for depositing money is to generate interest, the main function of a transactional account is transactional. Therefore, most providers pay little or no interest on credit balances. Formerly, in the United States, Regulation Q (12 CFR 217) and the Banking Acts of 1933 and 1935 (12 USC 371a) prohibited a member of the Federal Reserve system from paying interest on demand deposit accounts. Historically, this restriction was frequently circumvented by either creating an account type such as a Negotiable Order of Withdrawal account (NOW account), which is legally not a demand deposit account or by offering interest-paying chequing through a bank that is not a member of the Federal Reserve system. The Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, however, passed by Congress and signed into law by President Obama on July 21, 2010, repealed the statutes that prohibit interest-bearing demand deposit accounts, effectively repealing Regulation Q (Pub. L. 111-203, Section 627). The repeal took effect on July 21, 2011. Since that date, financial institutions have been permitted, but not required, to offer interest-bearing demand deposit accounts. In the United Kingdom, some online banks offer rates higher as many savings accounts, along with free banking (no charges for transactions) as institutions that offer centralised services (telephone, internet or postal based) tend to pay higher levels of interest. The same holds true for banks within the EURO currency zone. High-yield accounts High-yield accounts pay a higher interest rate than typical NOW accounts and frequently function as loss-leaders to drive relationship banking. Lending Accounts can lend money in two ways: overdraft and offset mortgage. Overdraft Main article: Overdraft An overdraft occurs when withdrawals from a bank account exceed the available balance. This gives the account a negative balance and in effect means the account provider is providing credit. If there is a prior agreement with the account provider for an overdraft facility, and the amount overdrawn is within this authorised overdraft, then interest is normally charged at the agreed rate. If the balance exceeds the agreed facility then fees may be charged and a higher interest rate might apply. In North America, overdraft protection is an optional feature of a chequing account. An account holder may either apply for a permanent one, or the financial institution may, at its discretion, provide a temporary overdraft on an ad hoc basis. In the UK, virtually all current accounts offer a pre-agreed overdraft facility the size of which is based upon affordability and credit history. This overdraft facility can be used at any time without consulting the bank and can be maintained indefinitely (subject to ad hoc reviews). Although an overdraft facility may be authorised, technically the money is repayable on demand by the bank. In reality this is a rare occurrence as the overdrafts are profitable for the bank and expensive for the customer. Consumer reporting In the United States, some consumer reporting agencies such as ChexSystems, Early Warning Services, and TeleCheck track how people manage their checking accounts. Banks use the agencies to screen checking account applicants. Those with low debit scores are denied checking accounts because a bank cannot afford an account to be overdrawn. Offset mortgage Main article: Offset mortgage An offset mortgage was a type of mortgage common in the United Kingdom used for the purchase of domestic property. The key principle is the reduction of interest charged by "offsetting" a credit balance against the mortgage debt. This can be achieved via one of two methods: either lenders provide a single account for all transactions (often referred to as a current account mortgage) or they make multiple accounts available, which let the borrower notionally split money according to purpose, whilst all accounts are offset each day against the mortgage debt. See also Banks portal Transaction related Collection item Demand draft Error account a necessity for auditing transaction accounts Transaction deposit Account type related Current account mortgage Negotiable Order of Withdrawal account Personal account Savings account Notes ^ U.S. and Canadian spelling, respectively; see further at Etymology and spelling. ^ a b "High interest current accounts". moneysupermarket.com. Money Supermarket. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ "Do other countries offer better banking than the UK?". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ a b "Free banking a dangerous myth, says Bank official". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ "Regulation (EU) No 655/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 establishing a European Account Preservation Order procedure to facilitate cross-border debt recovery in civil and commercial matters". EUR-Lex. ^ "Mobile phone apps become the UK's number one way to bank". bba.org.uk. BBA. 14 June 2015. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ Philip Aldrick (24 May 2012). "Free banking should end Bank official says". telegraph.co.uk. telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ James Titcomb (3 January 2015). "You may not know it, but you are paying for your bank". telegraph.co.uk. telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 12 November 2016. ^ "Cost of sloppy banking habits | MoneyRates.com". money-rates.com. Retrieved 2020-02-13. ^ Tugend, Alina (2006-06-24). "New York Times". Retrieved 2013-11-23. ^ Ellis, Blake (2012-08-16). "Bank Account History, cnn.com". Money.cnn.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23. ^ Ellis, Blake (2012-07-16). "CFPB Credit Reporting". Money.cnn.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23. Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"demand deposit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_deposit"},{"link_name":"credit unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_union"},{"link_name":"bank account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_account"},{"link_name":"bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank"},{"link_name":"debit cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debit_card"},{"link_name":"cheques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque"},{"link_name":"liquid funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidity"},{"link_name":"accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting"},{"link_name":"cash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cash_and_cash_equivalents"},{"link_name":"bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank"},{"link_name":"credit union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_union"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations_membership_criteria"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"Malaysia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"NOW accounts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negotiable_Order_of_Withdrawal_account"},{"link_name":"demand economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSMHighInterest-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC35482233-3"},{"link_name":"overdraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraft"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC18186363-4"}],"text":"A transaction account, also called a checking account, chequing account, current account, demand deposit account, or share draft account at credit unions, is a deposit account or bank account held at a bank or other financial institution. It is available to the account owner \"on demand\" and is available for frequent and immediate access by the account owner or to others as the account owner may direct. Access may be in a variety of ways, such as cash withdrawals, use of debit cards, cheques and electronic transfer. In economic terms, the funds held in a transaction account are regarded as liquid funds. In accounting terms, they are considered as cash.Transaction accounts are known by a variety of descriptions, including a current account (British English), chequing account or checking account when held by a bank, share draft account when held by a credit union in North America.[1] In the Commonwealth of Nations, United Kingdom, Hong Kong, India, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia, South Africa and a number of other countries they are commonly called current or, before the demise of cheques, cheque accounts. Because money is available on demand they are also sometimes known as demand accounts or demand deposit accounts. In the United States, NOW accounts operate as transaction accounts.Transaction accounts are operated by both businesses and personal users. Depending on the country and local demand economics earning from interest rates varies.[2] Again depending on the country[3] the financial institution that maintains the account may charge the account holder maintenance or transaction fees or offer the service free to the holder and charge only if the holder uses an add-on service such as an overdraft.[4]","title":"Transaction account"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1967_Midland_Bank_letter_on_electronic_data_processing.JPG"},{"link_name":"Midland Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Bank"},{"link_name":"Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston"},{"link_name":"cheque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque"},{"link_name":"clearing houses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankers%27_clearing_house"}],"text":"1967 letter by the Midland Bank to a customer, informing on the introduction of electronic data processing and the introduction of account numbers for current accountsIn Holland in the early 1500s, Amsterdam was a major trading and shipping city. People who had acquired large accumulations of cash began to deposit their money with cashiers to protect their wealth. These cashiers held the money for a fee. Competition drove cashiers to offer additional services, including paying out money to any person bearing a written order from a depositor to do so. They kept the note as proof of payment.This concept spread to other countries including England and its colonies in North America, where land owners in Boston in 1681 mortgaged their land to cashiers who provided an account against which they could write checks.In the 18th century in England, preprinted checks, serial numbers, and the word \"cheque\" appeared. By the late 18th century, the difficulty of clearing checks (sending them from one bank to another for collection) gave rise to the development of clearing houses.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CanadianCheque.svg"},{"link_name":"cheque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque"},{"link_name":"bank statement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_statement"},{"link_name":"passbook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passbook"},{"link_name":"ATM cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATM_card"},{"link_name":"Automated Teller Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_Teller_Machine"},{"link_name":"Debit card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debit_card"},{"link_name":"Cash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money"},{"link_name":"coins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coin"},{"link_name":"banknotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banknote"},{"link_name":"Cheque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque"},{"link_name":"money order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money_order"},{"link_name":"Direct debit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_debit"},{"link_name":"Standing order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_order_(banking)"},{"link_name":"Electronic funds transfers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_funds_transfer"},{"link_name":"Online banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_banking"},{"link_name":"overdraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraft"}],"text":"The cheque was the traditional mode of payment for a transactional account.All transaction accounts offer itemised lists of all financial transactions, either through a bank statement or a passbook. A transaction account allows the account holder to make or receive payments by:ATM cards (withdraw cash at any Automated Teller Machine)\nDebit card (cashless direct payment at a store or merchant)\nCash (deposit and withdrawal of coins and banknotes at a branch)\nCheque and money order (paper instruction to pay)\nDirect debit (pre-authorized debit)\nStanding order (automatic regular funds transfers)\nElectronic funds transfers (transfer funds electronically to another account)\nOnline banking (transfer funds directly to another person via internet banking facility)Banks offering transactional accounts may allow an account to go into overdraft if that has been previously arranged. If an account has a negative balance, money is being borrowed from the bank and interest and overdraft fees as normally charged.","title":"Features and access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"}],"text":"In the United Kingdom and other countries with a UK banking heritage, transaction accounts are known as current accounts. These offer various flexible payment methods to allow customers to distribute money directly. One of the main differences between a UK current account and an American checking account is that they earn considerable interest, sometimes comparable to a savings account, and there is generally no charge for withdrawals at cashpoints (ATMs), other than charges by third party owners of such machines.","title":"Country specific differences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Giro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giro_(banking)"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Faster Payments Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faster_Payments_Service"},{"link_name":"BACS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BACS"},{"link_name":"giros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giro_(banking)"},{"link_name":"CHAPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CHAPS"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Interac e-Transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interac_e-Transfer"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"NEFT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Electronic_Funds_Transfer"},{"link_name":"RTGS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_gross_settlement"}],"sub_title":"Transfer systems","text":"Certain modes of payment are country-specific:Giro (funds transfer, direct deposit in European countries)\nIn the United Kingdom, Faster Payments Service offers near immediate transfer, BACS offers giros that clear in a matter of days while CHAPS is done on the same day.\nCanada has an Interac e-Transfer service\nIn India, NEFT and RTGS services are available to clear funds in a day.","title":"Country specific differences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Regulation (EU)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_(European_Union)"},{"link_name":"asset freezing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset_freezing"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"In the European Union","text":"The Regulation (EU) n. 655/2014 has introduced the European Account Preservation Order, a new procedure of asset freezing in order \"to facilitate cross-border debt recovery in civil and commercial matters.\"[5]","title":"Country specific differences"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ATM_750x1300.jpg"},{"link_name":"Automated Teller Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_Teller_Machine"}],"text":"An Automated Teller Machine (ATM)","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"financial advice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_advice"}],"sub_title":"Branch access","text":"Customers may need to attend a bank branch for a wide range of banking transactions including cash withdrawals and financial advice. There may be restrictions on cash withdrawals, even at a branch. For example, withdrawals of cash above a threshold figure may require notice.Many transactions that previously could only be performed at a branch can now be done in others ways, such as use of ATMs, online, mobile and telephone banking.","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cheques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque"}],"sub_title":"Cheques","text":"Cheques were the traditional method of making withdrawals from a transaction account.","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Automated teller machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_teller_machine"},{"link_name":"financial institution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_institution"},{"link_name":"financial transactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_transaction"}],"sub_title":"Automated teller machines","text":"Automated teller machines (ATMs) enable customers of a financial institution to perform financial transactions without attending a branch. This enables, for example, cash to be withdrawn from an account outside normal branch trading hours. However, ATMs usually have quite low limits for cash withdrawals, and there may be daily limits to cash withdrawals other than at a branch.","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mobile phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBANumberOne-6"}],"sub_title":"Mobile banking","text":"With the introduction of mobile banking; a customer may perform banking transactions and payments, view balances and statements, and use various other services using their mobile phone. In the UK this has become the leading way people manage their finances, as mobile banking has overtaken internet banking as the most popular way to bank.[6]","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Internet banking","text":"Internet or online banking enables a customer to perform banking transactions and payments, to view balances and statements, and various other facilities. This can be convenient especially when a bank is not open and enables banking transactions to be effected from anywhere Internet access is available. Online banking avoids the time spent travelling to a branch and standing in queues there. However, there are usually limits on the value of funds that can be transferred electronically on any day, making it necessary to use a cheque to effect such transfers when those limits are being reached.","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"telephone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone"}],"sub_title":"Telephone banking","text":"Telephone banking provides access to banking transactions over the telephone. In many cases telephone banking opening times are considerably longer than branch times.","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cheques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque"},{"link_name":"account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposit_account"},{"link_name":"mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail"},{"link_name":"virtual banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_bank"}],"sub_title":"Mail banking","text":"A financial institution may allow its customers to deposit cheques into their account by mail. Mail banking can be used by customers of virtual banks (as they may not offer branches or ATMs that accept deposits) and by customers who live too far from a branch.","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Stores and merchants providing debit card access","text":"Most stores and merchants now have to accept debit card access for purchasing goods if they want to continue operating, especially now that some people only use electronic means of purchase.[citation needed]","title":"Access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"financial transaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_transaction"},{"link_name":"direct bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_bank"},{"link_name":"Midland Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_Bank"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telegraph001-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telegraph002-8"},{"link_name":"overdraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraft"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC18186363-4"},{"link_name":"flat rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flat_rate"},{"link_name":"youths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Youth"},{"link_name":"students","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student"},{"link_name":"senior citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senior_citizen"},{"link_name":"overdraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraft"},{"link_name":"non-sufficient funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-sufficient_funds"},{"link_name":"interbank network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interbank_network"},{"link_name":"debit card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debit_card"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"Any cost or fees charged by the financial institution that maintains the account, whether as a single monthly maintenance charge or for each financial transaction, will depend on a variety of factors, including the country's regulations and overall interest rates for lending and saving, as well as the financial institution's size and number of channels of access offered. This is why a direct bank can afford to offer low-cost or free banking, as well as why in some countries, transaction fees do not exist but extremely high lending rates are the norm. This is the case in the United Kingdom, where they have had free banking since 1984 when the then Midland Bank, in a bid to grab market share, scrapped current account charges.[7][8] It was so successful that all other banks had no choice but offer the same or continue losing customers. Free banking account holders are now charged only if they use an add-on service such as an overdraft.[4]Financial transaction fees may be charged either per item or for a flat rate covering a certain number of transactions. Often, youths, students, senior citizens or high-valued customers do not pay fees for basic financial transactions. Some offer free transactions for maintaining a very high average balance in their account. Other service charges are applicable for overdraft, non-sufficient funds, the use of an external interbank network, etc. In countries where there are no service charges for transaction fees, there are, on the other hand, other recurring service charges such as a debit card annual fee. In the United States, there are checking account options that do not require monthly maintenance fees and this can keep costs down. While a majority of U.S. checking accounts do charge monthly maintenance fees, about one-third of accounts do not charge those fees. A survey of monthly checking account maintenance fees shows the average cost to be $13.47 per month or $161.64 per year.[9]","title":"Cost"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Regulation Q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_Q"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Reserve"},{"link_name":"Negotiable Order of Withdrawal account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negotiable_Order_of_Withdrawal_account"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSMHighInterest-2"},{"link_name":"institutions that offer centralised services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_bank"}],"text":"Unlike savings accounts, for which the primary reason for depositing money is to generate interest, the main function of a transactional account is transactional. Therefore, most providers pay little or no interest on credit balances.Formerly, in the United States, Regulation Q (12 CFR 217) and the Banking Acts of 1933 and 1935 (12 USC 371a) prohibited a member of the Federal Reserve system from paying interest on demand deposit accounts. Historically, this restriction was frequently circumvented by either creating an account type such as a Negotiable Order of Withdrawal account (NOW account), which is legally not a demand deposit account or by offering interest-paying chequing through a bank that is not a member of the Federal Reserve system.\nThe Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, however, passed by Congress and signed into law by President Obama on July 21, 2010, repealed the statutes that prohibit interest-bearing demand deposit accounts, effectively repealing Regulation Q (Pub. L. 111-203, Section 627). The repeal took effect on July 21, 2011. Since that date, financial institutions have been permitted, but not required, to offer interest-bearing demand deposit accounts.In the United Kingdom, some online banks offer rates higher as many savings accounts, along with free banking[2] (no charges for transactions) as institutions that offer centralised services (telephone, internet or postal based) tend to pay higher levels of interest. The same holds true for banks within the EURO currency zone.","title":"Interest"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"High-yield accounts","text":"High-yield accounts pay a higher interest rate than typical NOW accounts and frequently function as loss-leaders to drive relationship banking.","title":"Interest"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Accounts can lend money in two ways: overdraft and offset mortgage.","title":"Lending"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"overdraft protection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraft_protection"},{"link_name":"overdraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraft"},{"link_name":"ad hoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc"}],"sub_title":"Overdraft","text":"An overdraft occurs when withdrawals from a bank account exceed the available balance. This gives the account a negative balance and in effect means the account provider is providing credit. If there is a prior agreement with the account provider for an overdraft facility, and the amount overdrawn is within this authorised overdraft, then interest is normally charged at the agreed rate. If the balance exceeds the agreed facility then fees may be charged and a higher interest rate might apply.In North America, overdraft protection is an optional feature of a chequing account. An account holder may either apply for a permanent one, or the financial institution may, at its discretion, provide a temporary overdraft on an ad hoc basis.In the UK, virtually all current accounts offer a pre-agreed overdraft facility the size of which is based upon affordability and credit history. This overdraft facility can be used at any time without consulting the bank and can be maintained indefinitely (subject to ad hoc reviews). Although an overdraft facility may be authorised, technically the money is repayable on demand by the bank. In reality this is a rare occurrence as the overdrafts are profitable for the bank and expensive for the customer.","title":"Lending"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ChexSystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChexSystems"},{"link_name":"TeleCheck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Data"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Consumer reporting","text":"In the United States, some consumer reporting agencies such as ChexSystems, Early Warning Services, and TeleCheck track how people manage their checking accounts. Banks use the agencies to screen checking account applicants. Those with low debit scores are denied checking accounts because a bank cannot afford an account to be overdrawn.[10][11][12]","title":"Lending"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Offset mortgage","text":"An offset mortgage was a type of mortgage common in the United Kingdom used for the purchase of domestic property. The key principle is the reduction of interest charged by \"offsetting\" a credit balance against the mortgage debt. This can be achieved via one of two methods: either lenders provide a single account for all transactions (often referred to as a current account mortgage) or they make multiple accounts available, which let the borrower notionally split money according to purpose, whilst all accounts are offset each day against the mortgage debt.","title":"Lending"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Etymology and spelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque#Spelling_and_etymology"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MSMHighInterest_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MSMHighInterest_2-1"},{"link_name":"\"High interest current accounts\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20161112212341/http://www.moneysupermarket.com/current-accounts/high-interest-bank-accounts/"},{"link_name":"the 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States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85000432"}],"text":"^ U.S. and Canadian spelling, respectively; see further at Etymology and spelling.\n\n^ a b \"High interest current accounts\". moneysupermarket.com. Money Supermarket. Archived from the original on 12 November 2016. Retrieved 12 November 2016.\n\n^ \"Do other countries offer better banking than the UK?\". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2016.\n\n^ a b \"Free banking a dangerous myth, says Bank official\". bbc.co.uk. BBC. 24 May 2012. Retrieved 12 November 2016.\n\n^ \"Regulation (EU) No 655/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 establishing a European Account Preservation Order procedure to facilitate cross-border debt recovery in civil and commercial matters\". EUR-Lex.\n\n^ \"Mobile phone apps become the UK's number one way to bank\". bba.org.uk. BBA. 14 June 2015. Retrieved 12 November 2016.\n\n^ Philip Aldrick (24 May 2012). \"Free banking should end Bank official says\". telegraph.co.uk. telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 12 November 2016.\n\n^ James Titcomb (3 January 2015). \"You may not know it, but you are paying for your bank\". telegraph.co.uk. telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 12 November 2016.\n\n^ \"Cost of sloppy banking habits | MoneyRates.com\". money-rates.com. Retrieved 2020-02-13.\n\n^ Tugend, Alina (2006-06-24). \"New York Times\". Retrieved 2013-11-23.\n\n^ Ellis, Blake (2012-08-16). \"Bank Account History, cnn.com\". Money.cnn.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23.\n\n^ Ellis, Blake (2012-07-16). \"CFPB Credit Reporting\". Money.cnn.com. Retrieved 2013-11-23.Authority control databases: National \nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States","title":"Notes"}]
[{"image_text":"1967 letter by the Midland Bank to a customer, informing on the introduction of electronic data processing and the introduction of account numbers for current accounts","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/1967_Midland_Bank_letter_on_electronic_data_processing.JPG/220px-1967_Midland_Bank_letter_on_electronic_data_processing.JPG"},{"image_text":"The cheque was the traditional mode of payment for a transactional account.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/CanadianCheque.svg/225px-CanadianCheque.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An Automated Teller Machine (ATM)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/ATM_750x1300.jpg/220px-ATM_750x1300.jpg"}]
[{"title":"Banks portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Banks"},{"title":"Collection item","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collection_item"},{"title":"Demand draft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand_draft"},{"title":"Error account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_account"},{"title":"Transaction deposit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction_deposit"},{"title":"Current account mortgage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offset_mortgage"},{"title":"Negotiable Order of Withdrawal account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negotiable_Order_of_Withdrawal_account"},{"title":"Personal account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_account"},{"title":"Savings account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savings_account"}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennie_Merullo
Lennie Merullo
["1 Chicago Cubs","2 Scout","3 Personal life","4 Death","5 Accolades","6 References","7 External links"]
American baseball player (1917-2015) Baseball player Lennie MerulloShortstopBorn: (1917-05-05)May 5, 1917East Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.Died: May 30, 2015(2015-05-30) (aged 98)Reading, Massachusetts, U.S.Batted: RightThrew: RightMLB debutSeptember 12, 1941, for the Chicago CubsLast MLB appearanceAugust 22, 1947, for the Chicago CubsMLB statisticsBatting average.240Hits497Home runs6Runs batted in152 Teams Chicago Cubs (1941–1947) Career highlights and awards Appeared in three games for Cubs in 1945 World Series Leonard Richard Merullo (May 5, 1917 – May 30, 2015) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) shortstop who played for the Chicago Cubs from 1941 to 1947, and scouted for MLB from 1950 to 2003. Chicago Cubs Merullo (left) with Johnny Pesky, 2008 A native of East Boston, Massachusetts, Merullo played shortstop for the Chicago Cubs for seven years in the major leagues in the 1940s. He appeared in three games during the 1945 World Series against two-time MVP Hal Newhouser, pitchers Virgil Trucks, Tommy Bridges, and slugger Hank Greenberg of the Detroit Tigers, who defeated the Cubs in seven games in the Series, the last one the Cubs played in until 2016. With the death of Andy Pafko on October 8, 2013, Merullo was the last surviving member of the 1945 team, as well as being the oldest living former member of the Cubs. Merullo's major league career began in 1941, and in 1942-45 he won the shortstop job, with Stan Hack playing third base and Merullo's roommate, Phil Cavarretta, at first. In 1946, Billy Jurges, Bobby Sturgeon and Merullo shared the shortstop position until Merullo regained the position in 1947. During this period, Merullo was known to have the quickest throwing arm in baseball. Merullo's time with the Cubs caused him, in later years, to be a frequent subject of Chicago columnist Mike Royko's annual Cub Quiz. Scout After retiring from professional baseball, Merullo was chief scout for the Cubs from 1950–72, signing, among others, relief pitcher Moe Drabowsky. He left the Cubs in 1973 to join the then-fledgling Major League Baseball Scouting Bureau, where he served until his retirement at the age of 85 in 2003. Personal life Merullo had four sons, the eldest is nicknamed "Boots" because Merullo famously made four errors in a single inning, on September 13, 1942, having been informed by the club's owner, Philip Wrigley, that his wife had just delivered. The following day the Chicago newspapers suggested his newborn baby should be called "Boots" in honor of the occasion. Boots went on to play in the Pittsburgh Pirates' minor league system for three seasons and Merullo's grandson Matt had a six-year career playing for major league teams, mainly the Chicago White Sox. Matt Merullo was a scout for the Arizona Diamondbacks and is now manager of the Aberdeen IronBirds. Death On May 30, 2015 in the early morning, Merullo had died, due to complications following a stroke a few weeks prior, aged 98, as announced by the Chicago Cubs. The team did not reveal details pertaining to his death. Accolades In 2000, Merullo was named a member of the inaugural class of the Cape Cod Baseball League Hall of Fame, having led the Barnstable Townies to the old Cape League title in 1935. He was awarded Scout of the Year in 1990, and the prestigious Judge Emil Fuchs Award for long and meritorious service to baseball in 2006. References ^ "Lennie Merullo Stats". ^ "A Punch Line For Lennie Merullo". philly-archives. ^ Krider, Dave (April 30, 2010). "Another Merullo could be on path to Major Leagues". MaxPreps. Retrieved June 8, 2014. ^ Ashway, Denton (May 27, 2014). "Merullo the last link to Cubs World Series days". Gainesville Times. Retrieved June 8, 2014. ^ "Leonard Merullo Minor League Statistics & History - Baseball-Reference.com". Baseball-Reference.com. ^ "Oldest living Cubs player Lennie Merullo dies at 98". ESPN.com. Associated Press. May 30, 2015. Retrieved May 31, 2015. ^ "Oldest Living Ex-Cubs Player Lennie Merullo Dies At 98". npr.org. Associated Press. 31 May 2015. ^ "Hall of Fame Ceremony 20 January 2001". capecodbaseball.org. Retrieved September 1, 2019. External links Career statistics and player information from Baseball Reference, or Baseball Reference (Minors) Lennie Merullo at Find a Grave
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Major League Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball"},{"link_name":"shortstop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shortstop"},{"link_name":"Chicago Cubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Cubs"}],"text":"Baseball playerLeonard Richard Merullo (May 5, 1917 – May 30, 2015) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) shortstop who played for the Chicago Cubs from 1941 to 1947, and scouted for MLB from 1950 to 2003.","title":"Lennie Merullo"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lennie_Merullo_and_Johnny_Pesky.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johnny Pesky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Pesky"},{"link_name":"East Boston, Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Boston,_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Chicago Cubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Cubs"},{"link_name":"1945 World Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1945_World_Series"},{"link_name":"Hal Newhouser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hal_Newhouser"},{"link_name":"Virgil Trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil_Trucks"},{"link_name":"Tommy Bridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Bridges"},{"link_name":"Hank Greenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank_Greenberg"},{"link_name":"Detroit Tigers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_Tigers"},{"link_name":"2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_World_Series"},{"link_name":"Andy Pafko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Pafko"},{"link_name":"Stan Hack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Hack"},{"link_name":"Phil Cavarretta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phil_Cavarretta"},{"link_name":"Billy Jurges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Jurges"},{"link_name":"Bobby Sturgeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Sturgeon"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Mike Royko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Royko"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Merullo (left) with Johnny Pesky, 2008A native of East Boston, Massachusetts, Merullo played shortstop for the Chicago Cubs for seven years in the major leagues in the 1940s. He appeared in three games during the 1945 World Series against two-time MVP Hal Newhouser, pitchers Virgil Trucks, Tommy Bridges, and slugger Hank Greenberg of the Detroit Tigers, who defeated the Cubs in seven games in the Series, the last one the Cubs played in until 2016. With the death of Andy Pafko on October 8, 2013, Merullo was the last surviving member of the 1945 team, as well as being the oldest living former member of the Cubs. Merullo's major league career began in 1941, and in 1942-45 he won the shortstop job, with Stan Hack playing third base and Merullo's roommate, Phil Cavarretta, at first. In 1946, Billy Jurges, Bobby Sturgeon and Merullo shared the shortstop position until Merullo regained the position in 1947. During this period, Merullo was known to have the quickest throwing arm in baseball.[citation needed] Merullo's time with the Cubs caused him, in later years, to be a frequent subject of Chicago columnist Mike Royko's annual Cub Quiz.[2]","title":"Chicago Cubs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"relief pitcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relief_pitcher"},{"link_name":"Moe Drabowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moe_Drabowsky"},{"link_name":"Major League Baseball Scouting Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball_Scouting_Bureau"}],"text":"After retiring from professional baseball, Merullo was chief scout for the Cubs from 1950–72, signing, among others, relief pitcher Moe Drabowsky. He left the Cubs in 1973 to join the then-fledgling Major League Baseball Scouting Bureau, where he served until his retirement at the age of 85 in 2003.","title":"Scout"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.retrosheet.org/boxesetc/1942/B09132BSN1942.htm"},{"link_name":"Philip Wrigley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Wrigley"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh Pirates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh_Pirates"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Matt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Merullo"},{"link_name":"Chicago White Sox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox"},{"link_name":"Arizona Diamondbacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arizona_Diamondbacks"},{"link_name":"Aberdeen IronBirds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeen_IronBirds"}],"text":"Merullo had four sons, the eldest is nicknamed \"Boots\" because Merullo famously made four errors in a single inning, on September 13, 1942,[1] having been informed by the club's owner, Philip Wrigley, that his wife had just delivered. The following day the Chicago newspapers suggested his newborn baby should be called \"Boots\" in honor of the occasion.[3][4]Boots went on to play in the Pittsburgh Pirates' minor league system for three seasons[5] and Merullo's grandson Matt had a six-year career playing for major league teams, mainly the Chicago White Sox. Matt Merullo was a scout for the Arizona Diamondbacks and is now manager of the Aberdeen IronBirds.","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"On May 30, 2015 in the early morning, Merullo had died, due to complications following a stroke a few weeks prior, aged 98, as announced by the Chicago Cubs.[6] The team did not reveal details pertaining to his death.[7]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cape Cod Baseball League Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Cod_Baseball_League#Hall_of_Fame_and_Museum"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Barnstable Townies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyannis_Harbor_Hawks"},{"link_name":"Judge Emil Fuchs Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Fuchs_(baseball)#Legacy"}],"text":"In 2000, Merullo was named a member of the inaugural class of the Cape Cod Baseball League Hall of Fame,[8] having led the Barnstable Townies to the old Cape League title in 1935. He was awarded Scout of the Year in 1990, and the prestigious Judge Emil Fuchs Award for long and meritorious service to baseball in 2006.","title":"Accolades"}]
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null
[{"reference":"\"Lennie Merullo Stats\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/m/merulle01.shtml","url_text":"\"Lennie Merullo Stats\""}]},{"reference":"\"A Punch Line For Lennie Merullo\". philly-archives.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.philly.com/1989-09-27/news/26102775_1_cubs-laugh-major-league-shortstop","url_text":"\"A Punch Line For Lennie Merullo\""}]},{"reference":"Krider, Dave (April 30, 2010). \"Another Merullo could be on path to Major Leagues\". MaxPreps. Retrieved June 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.maxpreps.com/news/DY6THlSWEd-lugAcxJTdpg/another-merullo-could-be-on-path-to-major-leagues.htm","url_text":"\"Another Merullo could be on path to Major Leagues\""}]},{"reference":"Ashway, Denton (May 27, 2014). \"Merullo the last link to Cubs World Series days\". Gainesville Times. Retrieved June 8, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gainesvilletimes.com/m/section/116/article/100074/","url_text":"\"Merullo the last link to Cubs World Series days\""}]},{"reference":"\"Leonard Merullo Minor League Statistics & History - Baseball-Reference.com\". Baseball-Reference.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/minors/player.cgi?id=merull001leo","url_text":"\"Leonard Merullo Minor League Statistics & History - Baseball-Reference.com\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oldest living Cubs player Lennie Merullo dies at 98\". ESPN.com. Associated Press. May 30, 2015. Retrieved May 31, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/wire?section=mlb&id=12983510","url_text":"\"Oldest living Cubs player Lennie Merullo dies at 98\""}]},{"reference":"\"Oldest Living Ex-Cubs Player Lennie Merullo Dies At 98\". npr.org. Associated Press. 31 May 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/2015/05/31/411100430/oldest-living-ex-cubs-player-lennie-merullo-dies-at-98","url_text":"\"Oldest Living Ex-Cubs Player Lennie Merullo Dies At 98\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hall of Fame Ceremony 20 January 2001\". capecodbaseball.org. Retrieved September 1, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://capecodbaseball.org/news/hofnews/?article_id=247","url_text":"\"Hall of Fame Ceremony 20 January 2001\""}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khvajeh_Mohammad_Safavi
Khvajeh Mohammad Safavi
["1 References","2 Sources"]
Khvajeh Mohammad Safavi was a son of Shaykh Junayd, leader of the Safavid order (1447–1460), born by a Circassian concubine. He was an older (half)-brother of Shaykh Haydar, the successor of Shaykh Junayd as leader of the Safavid order, and therefore an uncle of the founder of the Safavid dynasty, Ismail I (r. 1501–1524). He had another brother named Khvajeh Jamshid, who was killed in southern Dagestan during one of Shaykh Haydar's campaigns. Khvajeh Mohammad's only surviving sister, Shah-Pasha Khatun, was married to Mohammad Beg Talish, a military chief from Khalkhal who would later become guardian (laleh) to Ismail I and play a pivotal role in his ascension to power in the early 16th century. References ^ a b c d Ghereghlou 2016. ^ Nashat & Beck 2003, p. 145. Sources Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). "ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Nashat, Guity; Beck, Lois, eds. (2003). Women in Iran from the Rise of Islam to 1800. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252071218. This Iran-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte
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[]
null
[{"reference":"Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). \"ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI\". Encyclopaedia Iranica.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/haydar-safavi","url_text":"Encyclopaedia Iranica"}]},{"reference":"Nashat, Guity; Beck, Lois, eds. (2003). Women in Iran from the Rise of Islam to 1800. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252071218.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0252071218","url_text":"978-0252071218"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imogen_Cooper
Imogen Cooper
["1 Biography","2 Discography","3 Honours and awards","4 References","5 External links"]
English pianist This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Dame Imogen Cooper, DBE (born 28 August 1949) is an English pianist. Biography Cooper was born in North London, daughter of the musicologist Martin du Pré Cooper and artist Mary Stewart. She grew up surrounded by music through her parents and her older siblings: Felicity, Josephine and Dominic Cooper. Realising that Imogen had an exceptional musical talent her parents sent her at the age of 12 to Paris to study for six years at the Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique (CNSM) with Jacques Février, Yvonne Lefébure and Germaine Mounier. This was considered a provocative move by the music establishment, and there was a lengthy correspondence in The Times between Thomas Armstrong, Principal of the Royal Academy of Music in London, and Martin Cooper, arguing the pros and cons of taking a gifted child out of conventional education to specialise so early, and in a foreign country. In 1967 at the age of 17, the CNSM awarded her a Premier Prix de Piano, a major distinction. Cooper was mentored in her late teens by Arthur Rubinstein and Clifford Curzon, and subsequently studied in Vienna with Alfred Brendel, Paul Badura-Skoda and Jörg Demus, particularly in her early twenties by Brendel, an experience that has resonated with her throughout her performing life. Apart from spending her teenage years in Paris, London has been Cooper's principal residence. She is particularly known for her interpretations of Schubert and Schumann, but she has also been involved in modern music, giving the premières of works such as Traced Overhead by Thomas Adès. As well as performing as soloist she participates in chamber music and lieder, and has had a long-standing partnership with baritone Wolfgang Holzmair. She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2007 New Year Honours and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2021 Birthday Honours for services to music. She was awarded the Queen's Medal for Music in 2019. Discography Robert and Clara Schumann Lieder: with Wolfgang Holzmair (Philips /462-610-2, 2002) Eichendorff Lieder: with Wolfgang Holzmair (Philips/464-991-2, 2002) Mozart: Piano concertos 23 and 9 (Avie/AV2100, 2006) Wolf Songs (Wigmore Hall Live/WHLIVE0029, 2009) Mozart: Piano concertos 22 and 18 (Avie/AV2200, 2010) Schubert: Song Cycles with Wolfgang Holzmair (Decca Box set/CD0289 478 42729, 2012) Schumann: Davidsbündlertänze, etc. (Chandos/CHAN10874, 2015) Imogen Cooper's Chopin (Chandos/CHAN10902, 2016) Liszt and Wagner (Chandos/CHAN10938. 2017) Beethoven: Diabelli Variations (Chandos/CHAN20085, 2018) Iberia y Francia (Chandos/CHAN20119, 2019) Le Temps Perdu (Chandos/CHAN20235, 2021) Honours and awards 1969: The London Mozart Players' Mozart Memorial Prize 1997: Hon. Member of the Royal Academy of Music 1999: Hon. Doctor of Music at Exeter University 2007: New Year Honours, CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) for services to music 2008: Royal Philharmonic Society Music Award 2008: Mentor on the RPS Philip Langridge mentoring scheme 2012–13: Humanitas – Visiting Professor in Classical Music and Music Education at the University of Oxford. 2019: The Queen's Medal for Music 2021: Appointed to chair the Leeds International Piano Competition jury 2021: Birthday Honours, DBE (Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire) for services to music References ^ "Honours for Stewart and Glennie". BBC News. 30 December 2006. Retrieved 15 May 2008., para. 12. ^ "No. 63377". The London Gazette (Supplement). 12 June 2021. p. B8. ^ "The Queen's Medal for Music 2019". Classical Music. 28 August 2020. ^ "Previous honorary graduates | Honorary graduates | University of Exeter". www.exeter.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 October 2023. ^ "Instrumentalist: Past Winners". royalphilharmonicsociety.org.uk. Royal Philharmonic Society. Archived from the original on 23 December 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2020. ^ "Queen's Birthday Honours: 2021 - GOV.UK". gov.uk. Retrieved 26 October 2023. Moss, Stephen (15 May 2008). "The slow burner". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 May 2008. Tommasini, Anthony (11 May 2006). "Imogen Cooper at Zankel Hall: Virtuosity Without Razzle-Dazzle". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 May 2008. External links Imogen Cooper (Official website) Askonas Holt (Manager's website) vteRecipients of the Queen's Medal for Music Sir Charles Mackerras (2005) Bryn Terfel (2006) Judith Weir (2007) Kathryn Tickell (2008) Sir Colin Davis (2009) Dame Emma Kirkby (2010} Nicholas Daniel (2011) National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain (2012) Sir Thomas Allen (2013) Simon Halsey (2014) Oliver Knussen (2015) Nicola Benedetti (2016) Thea Musgrave (2017) Gary Crosby (2018) Imogen Cooper (2019) Thomas Trotter (2020) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Israel Finland United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Artists MusicBrainz
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She grew up surrounded by music through her parents and her older siblings: Felicity, Josephine and Dominic Cooper. Realising that Imogen had an exceptional musical talent her parents sent her at the age of 12 to Paris to study for six years at the Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique (CNSM) with Jacques Février, Yvonne Lefébure and Germaine Mounier. This was considered a provocative move by the music establishment, and there was a lengthy correspondence in The Times between Thomas Armstrong, Principal of the Royal Academy of Music in London, and Martin Cooper, arguing the pros and cons of taking a gifted child out of conventional education to specialise so early, and in a foreign country.In 1967 at the age of 17, the CNSM awarded her a Premier Prix de Piano, a major distinction. Cooper was mentored in her late teens by Arthur Rubinstein and Clifford Curzon, and subsequently studied in Vienna with Alfred Brendel, Paul Badura-Skoda and Jörg Demus, particularly in her early twenties by Brendel, an experience that has resonated with her throughout her performing life. Apart from spending her teenage years in Paris, London has been Cooper's principal residence.She is particularly known for her interpretations of Schubert and Schumann, but she has also been involved in modern music, giving the premières of works such as Traced Overhead by Thomas Adès. As well as performing as soloist she participates in chamber music and lieder, and has had a long-standing partnership with baritone Wolfgang Holzmair.She was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2007 New Year Honours[1] and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2021 Birthday Honours for services to music.[2] She was awarded the Queen's Medal for Music in 2019.[3]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Robert and Clara Schumann Lieder: with Wolfgang Holzmair (Philips /462-610-2, 2002)\nEichendorff Lieder: with Wolfgang Holzmair (Philips/464-991-2, 2002)\nMozart: Piano concertos 23 and 9 (Avie/AV2100, 2006)\nWolf Songs (Wigmore Hall Live/WHLIVE0029, 2009)\nMozart: Piano concertos 22 and 18 (Avie/AV2200, 2010)\nSchubert: Song Cycles with Wolfgang Holzmair (Decca Box set/CD0289 478 42729, 2012)\nSchumann: Davidsbündlertänze, etc. (Chandos/CHAN10874, 2015)\nImogen Cooper's Chopin (Chandos/CHAN10902, 2016)\nLiszt and Wagner (Chandos/CHAN10938. 2017)\nBeethoven: Diabelli Variations (Chandos/CHAN20085, 2018)\nIberia y Francia (Chandos/CHAN20119, 2019)\nLe Temps Perdu (Chandos/CHAN20235, 2021)","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Royal Philharmonic Society Music Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Philharmonic_Society_Music_Awards"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"1969: The London Mozart Players' Mozart Memorial Prize\n1997: Hon. Member of the Royal Academy of Music\n1999: Hon. Doctor of Music at Exeter University[4]\n2007: New Year Honours, CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) for services to music\n2008: Royal Philharmonic Society Music Award[5]\n2008: Mentor on the RPS Philip Langridge mentoring scheme\n2012–13: Humanitas – Visiting Professor in Classical Music and Music Education at the University of Oxford.\n2019: The Queen's Medal for Music\n2021: Appointed to chair the Leeds International Piano Competition jury\n2021: Birthday Honours, DBE (Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire) for services to music[6]","title":"Honours and awards"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"\"Honours for Stewart and Glennie\". BBC News. 30 December 2006. Retrieved 15 May 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/6217081.stm","url_text":"\"Honours for Stewart and Glennie\""}]},{"reference":"\"No. 63377\". The London Gazette (Supplement). 12 June 2021. p. B8.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/63377/supplement/B8","url_text":"\"No. 63377\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette","url_text":"The London Gazette"}]},{"reference":"\"The Queen's Medal for Music 2019\". Classical Music. 28 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.classical-music.com/news/pianist-imogen-cooper-wins-the-queens-medal-for-music-2019/","url_text":"\"The Queen's Medal for Music 2019\""}]},{"reference":"\"Previous honorary graduates | Honorary graduates | University of Exeter\". www.exeter.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.exeter.ac.uk/about/honorarygraduates/previous/#a4","url_text":"\"Previous honorary graduates | Honorary graduates | University of Exeter\""}]},{"reference":"\"Instrumentalist: Past Winners\". royalphilharmonicsociety.org.uk. Royal Philharmonic Society. Archived from the original on 23 December 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211223003454/https://royalphilharmonicsociety.org.uk/awards/rps_music_awards/latest-winners/past-winners/instrumentalist","url_text":"\"Instrumentalist: Past Winners\""},{"url":"https://royalphilharmonicsociety.org.uk/awards/rps_music_awards/latest-winners/past-winners/instrumentalist","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Queen's Birthday Honours: 2021 - GOV.UK\". gov.uk. Retrieved 26 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/60cc8fb3e90e0743934f6b91/BD21_Honours_List_Transparency_List_-_FINAL_-_BD21_Transparency_List.csv/preview","url_text":"\"Queen's Birthday Honours: 2021 - GOV.UK\""}]},{"reference":"Moss, Stephen (15 May 2008). \"The slow burner\". The Guardian. Retrieved 15 May 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://music.guardian.co.uk/classical/story/0,,2280014,00.html","url_text":"\"The slow burner\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"Tommasini, Anthony (11 May 2006). \"Imogen Cooper at Zankel Hall: Virtuosity Without Razzle-Dazzle\". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 May 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Tommasini","url_text":"Tommasini, Anthony"},{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/11/arts/music/11coop.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&oref=slogin&adxnnlx=1210842026-ZOgdKTh5c3vgX05nCL91EA","url_text":"\"Imogen Cooper at Zankel Hall: Virtuosity Without Razzle-Dazzle\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafayette_Stakes
Lafayette Stakes
["1 Records","2 Winners","3 References"]
Horse race Lafayette StakesNon-graded Stakes raceLocationKeeneland Race CourseLexington, Kentucky, United StatesInaugurated1937Race typeThoroughbred - Flat racingWebsitewww.keeneland.comRace informationDistance7 furlongsSurfacedirtTrackleft-handedQualificationThree-year-oldsWeightAssignedPurse$400,000 The Lafayette Stakes is an American Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Keeneland Race Course in Lexington, Kentucky. Open to three-year-old horses, it is contested on the dirt track over a distance of seven furlongs. There is a Lafayette Stakes horse race for three year olds run at six furlongs at in on Evangeline Downs dirt Race Track. A Listed race from 1983 through 1989, it was elevated to a Grade III event in 1990 then modified to a non-graded status for 2006. Since inception, the Lafayette Stakes has been raced at a variety of distances: 40 feet less than 4 furlongs : 1937–1942, 1946–1953 4+1⁄2 furlongs : 1943–1944, 1965–1981 4 furlongs, 152 feet : 1954–1964 6 furlongs : 1982–1985, 2005–2006 7 furlongs : 1986–2004, 2007 to present The Lafayette Stakes was run in two divisions in 1951, 1952, 1958, 1959, 1960, and 1968. Due to wartime restrictions, the race was hosted by Churchill Downs in 1943 and 1944. There was no race run in 1945. Two horses set new Keeneland course records in winning this race: Mals Boy in 1950 and Loom in 1964. Records Speed record: (at current distance of 7 furlongs) 1:21.05 - Carnack's Choice (2007) on Polytrack 1:21.20 - Cherokee Run (1993) (on dirt) Most wins by a jockey 4 - Pat Day (1988, 1992, 1993, 2002) Most wins by a trainer 4 - Anthony L. Basile (1967, 1971, 1979, 1983) Most wins by an owner 5 - Bwamazon Farm (1967, 1971, 1977, 1979, 1983) Winners Year Winner Jockey Trainer Owner Time 2023 Corona Bolt Florent Geroux Brad H. Cox Stonestreet Stables 1:23.21 2022 Old Homestead Thomas L. Pompell Brett A. Brinkman Marablue Farm & Pegasus Stud 1:22.98 2021 Race not held 2020 Sleepy Eyes Todd Joel Rosario Miguel Angel Silva Thumbs Up Racing 1:21.77 2016 - 2019 Race not held 2015 Falling Sky Julien Leparoux Martin D. Wolfson Newtown Anner Stud & Joseph Bulger 1:22.53 2009 - 2014 Race not held 2008 Keep Laughing John R. Velazquez Kiaran McLaughlin Vision Racing LLC 1:22.26 2007 Carnack's Choice Julien Leparoux Gregory D. Foley Sassafras Racing I, LLC 1:21.05 2006 Likely Julien Leparoux Patrick Biancone Maurice Miller III & Thomas F. Van Meter II 1:09.32 2005 More Smoke Clinton Potts John C. Zimmerman Thomas McClay & Harry Nye 1:09.88 2004 Bwana Charlie Shane Sellers Steven M. Asmussen Heiligbrodt Racing Stable 1:24.73 2003 Posse Corey Lanerie Steven M. Asmussen Heiligbrodt Racing Stable 1:23.14 2002 Cashel Castle Pat Day Chris M. Block Sandbar Farms (William Kilgore) 1:24.47 2001 Griffinite José A. Santos Jennifer Pedersen Paraneck Stable 1:22.61 2000 Caller One Robbie Davis James K. Chapman Theresa McArthur & Carolyn M. Chapman 1:21.73 1999 Yes It's True Jerry Bailey D. Wayne Lukas Padua Stables 1:22.15 1998 Dontletthebigonego Willie Martinez Richard Suttle Paraneck Stable 1:23.00 1997 Trafalger Jerry Bailey D. Wayne Lukas Beverly Lewis & Robert Lewis 1:21.60 1996 Wire Me Collect Kristi Chapman Kim Chapman Arthur I. Appleton 1:21.80 1995 Mr. Greeley Julie Krone Nick Zito William J. Condren & Joseph M. Cornacchia 1:21.40 1994 Exclusive Praline José A. Santos Steve Towne Frank C. Calabrese 1:23.80 1993 Cherokee Run Pat Day Frank A. Alexander Jill Robinson 1:21.20 1992 American Chance Pat Day Niall O'Callaghan John D. Gunther 1:22.00 1991 To Freedom Chris Antley John Tammaro Jr. Herman Heinlein & Prestonwood Farm 1:22.80 1990 Housebuster Craig Perret Warren A. Croll Jr. Robert P. Levy 1:22.80 1989 Belek Shane Romero Louie J. Roussel III Louie J. Roussel III 1:23.00 1988 Forty Niner Pat Day Woody Stephens Claiborne Farm 1:22.00 1987 Trick Card Donald Miller Jr. Del W. Carroll II William S. Farish & E. J. Hudson Jr. 1:23.80 1986 Numero Uno Pass Craig Perret James J. Crupi Joel Sharenow 1:23.60 1985 Proudest Hour Randy Romero Joseph M. Bollero Patrick J. Flavin et al. 1:10.80 1984 Delta Trace Keith Allen Harold Jordan Jr. Harold Jordan 1:10.40 1983 Freezing Rain Don Brumfield Anthony L. Basile Bwamazon Farm 1:11.20 1982 Jungle Blade Jack Neagle Richard P. Hazelton M/M Robert Bensinger 1:10.20 1981 Grey Bucket John Oldham Magnus A. Fairley Akuma Stable 0:53.20 1980 Firm Boss Michael Morgan James E. Morgan George Steinbrenner 0:53.00 1979 Raised Socially Michael Morgan Anthony L. Basile Bwamazon Farm 0:52.20 1978 Spy Charger Gary Mahon John Vass M/M John Vass 0:53.20 1977 Fiddle Faddle † William Gavidia William R. O'Neill Bwamazon Farm 0:52.80 1976 United Holme William Gavidia Robert E. Holthus Robert E. Holthus 0:52.00 1975 Inca Roca Terry Warner Albert T. "Tom" Skinner Charles Raymond Jarrell 0:52.80 1974 Paris Dust Craig Perret Smiley Adams Golden Chance Farm 0:51.00 1973 Mr. A.Z. Bobby Ussery Thomas Heard Jr. Ben Cohen 0:52.60 1972 Cari County Phil Rubbicco H. W. Shadowens T. Alie & J. E. Grissom 0:52.00 1971 Busted Mickey Solomone Anthony L. Basile Bwamazon Farm 0:51.60 1970 Seen A lot Mike Manganello Thomas Stevens Sr. Mrs. William H. May 0:53.00 1969 Spotted Line David Whited Dewey Smith T. Alie & J. E. Grissom 0:51.80 1968 Santiago Road Kenny Knapp Harry Trotsek Hasty House Farm 0:52.00 1968 Traffic Mark Mike McDowell Ronnie Warren M/M Robert F. Roberts 0:52.60 1967 T.V. Commercial Kenny Knapp Anthony L. Basile Bwamazon Farm 0:52.00 1966 Quick Swoon Earlie Fires S. Bryant Ott E. Gay Drake 0:51.40 1965 He Jr. Jack Fieselman Dick Posey Everett Lowrance 0:52.00 1964 Loom Jimmy Nichols Burton B. Williams Hugh A. Grant 0:48.00 1963 Amastar Jimmy Nichols Norman A. McMaster Grace Creek Farm 0:48.20 1962 Dontstopnow Melvin Duhon L. G. Culver M/M J. D. Askew 0:48.60 1961 Crimson Satan Willie Carstens Gordon R. Potter Crimson King Farm 0:49.00 1960 Bright Silver John L. Rotz John J. Greely Jr. C. V. Whitney 0:49.60 1960 Sal's Beau Braulio Baeza Frank A. Kurinec Harold M. Florsheim 0:48.80 1959 Vital Force Johnny Sellers Wilma Kennedy Tinkham Veale II et al. 0:49.00 1959 Chuckabuck William Hartack Chester F. Bowles Chester F. Bowles 0:49.80 1958 Grand Wizard Vidal Guajardo Monte Preston E. H. Lane 0:50.80 1958 Bagdad John Heckmann Moody Jolley Claiborne Farm 0:50.60 1957 Bumpy Road William Hartack Edwin P. Anspach Mrs. Irving Gushen 0:48.40 1956 Round stable Steve Brooks Moody Jolley Claiborne Farm 0:49.60 1955 First Lap Job Dean Jessop Milt Resseguet R. A. Lewis 0:50.00 1954 Royal Note Henry E. Moreno Frank Gilpin Wilton Stable 0:49.40 1953 Everett Jr. Al Popara Dick Posey Everett Lowrance 0:45.40 1952-1 Happy Carrier Gerald Porch Robert A. Mattingly William H. Veeneman 0:46.00 1952-2 Aerolite Douglas Dodson Dee Brooks Hal Price Headley 0:45.80 1951 Recover Douglas Dodson Dee Brooks Hal Price Headley 0:46.60 1951 Crownlet Robert L. Baird Duval A. Headley Duval A. Headley 0:46.60 1950 Mals Boy Job Dean Jessop Robert V. McGarvey Mrs. Emil Denemark 0:45.40 1949 Black Sambo Robert L. Baird William J. Resseguet Jr. Mrs. Samuel Rosen 0:47.40 1948 Irish Sun Andy LoTurco Warren G. Douglass William H. Veeneman 0:46.20 1947 Phar Mon Andy LoTurco Warren G. Douglass William H. Veeneman 0:46.20 1946 Colonel O'F William Bailey William R. Crump Claude C. Tanner 0:46.40 1945 Race not held 1944 Poco Mas George Seabo W. M. McClain Bluebird Stock Farm 0:53.80 1943 Ogham Johnny Longden Burton B. Williams Mrs. Helen Miller 0:54.80 1942 Menex Eddie Arcaro Allen R. Hultz Louis Lee Haggin II 0:46.60 1941 Black Raider Arthur Craig Roy Waldron Milky Way Farm Stable 0:46.40 1940 Misty Isle Ken McCombs Daniel E. Stewart Joseph E. Widener 0:47.00 1939 Roman Warren Yarberry Daniel E. Stewart Joseph E. Widener 0:47.60 1938 Oddessa Beulah Melvin Calvert C. Hyde Smith Oddessa Farms 0:46.00 1937 Chic Maud Irving Anderson Frank J. Kearns Calumet Farm 0:47.20 Run in two divisions in 1952. * † In 1977, Forever Casting won the race but was disqualified from first and set back to last. References The 2008 Lafayette Stakes at Thoroughbred Times
[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thoroughbred horse race","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoroughbred_horse_race"},{"link_name":"Keeneland Race Course","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keeneland"},{"link_name":"Lexington, Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"furlongs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furlong"},{"link_name":"Grade III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graded_stakes_race"},{"link_name":"wartime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Churchill Downs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Churchill_Downs"}],"text":"The Lafayette Stakes is an American Thoroughbred horse race run annually at Keeneland Race Course in Lexington, Kentucky. Open to three-year-old horses, it is contested on the dirt track over a distance of seven furlongs. There is a Lafayette Stakes horse race for three year olds run at six furlongs at in on Evangeline Downs dirt Race Track.A Listed race from 1983 through 1989, it was elevated to a Grade III event in 1990 then modified to a non-graded status for 2006.Since inception, the Lafayette Stakes has been raced at a variety of distances:40 feet less than 4 furlongs : 1937–1942, 1946–1953\n4+1⁄2 furlongs : 1943–1944, 1965–1981\n4 furlongs, 152 feet : 1954–1964\n6 furlongs : 1982–1985, 2005–2006\n7 furlongs : 1986–2004, 2007 to presentThe Lafayette Stakes was run in two divisions in 1951, 1952, 1958, 1959, 1960, and 1968.Due to wartime restrictions, the race was hosted by Churchill Downs in 1943 and 1944. There was no race run in 1945.Two horses set new Keeneland course records in winning this race: Mals Boy in 1950 and Loom in 1964.","title":"Lafayette Stakes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cherokee Run","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee_Run"},{"link_name":"jockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jockey"},{"link_name":"Pat Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat_Day"},{"link_name":"trainer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_trainer"},{"link_name":"Anthony L. Basile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthony_L._Basile&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bwamazon Farm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bwamazon_Farm&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Speed record: (at current distance of 7 furlongs)1:21.05 - Carnack's Choice (2007) on Polytrack\n1:21.20 - Cherokee Run (1993) (on dirt)Most wins by a jockey4 - Pat Day (1988, 1992, 1993, 2002)Most wins by a trainer4 - Anthony L. Basile (1967, 1971, 1979, 1983)Most wins by an owner5 - Bwamazon Farm (1967, 1971, 1977, 1979, 1983)","title":"Records"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Run in two divisions in 1952.* † In 1977, Forever Casting won the race but was disqualified from first and set back to last.","title":"Winners"}]
[]
null
[]
[{"Link":"http://www.keeneland.com/","external_links_name":"www.keeneland.com"},{"Link":"http://www.thoroughbredtimes.com/racing-news/2008/April/06/Keep-Laughing-fends-off-challenge-to-win-Lafayette.aspx","external_links_name":"The 2008 Lafayette Stakes at Thoroughbred Times"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howels
William Howels
["1 Life","2 Works","3 Notes","4 External links"]
William Howels, 1831 engraving William Howels (also Howells; 1778–1832) was a Welsh priest of the Church of England, known as an evangelical preacher. Life The eldest of 12 children of Samuel Howells, he was born in September 1778 at Llwynhelyg, a farmhouse near Cowbridge in Glamorgan. After some years' study under the Rev. John Walton of Cowbridge, and Dr. Williams, the master of Cowbridge school, he went in April 1800 to Wadham College, Oxford. He left the university in 1803 without a degree. An elegy by Howels on his tutor Walton in 1797, published in the Gloucester Journal, was noticed by Robert Raikes, who offered him journalistic work. At Oxford he was under Baptist influence; but he was ordained by Richard Watson, bishop of Llandaff, in June 1804, to the curacy of Llangan in Glamorgan. Both he and his vicar drew adverse comment by preaching at Methodist chapels. In 1812 Howels became curate in the united London parishes of St Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe and St Anne, Blackfriars, to William Goode, who died in 1816. In 1817 he moved on as the lessee of the episcopal chapel in Long Acre, where he gathered together an audience. His strongly evangelical sermons were popular, and his self-denying life, though with eccentricities, baffled critics. Howels died on 18 November 1832, and was buried in a vault under Holy Trinity Church, Cloudesley Square, Islington. In the church itself a tablet was placed to his memory. His views were taken at the time to be Calvinistic Methodist, and he strongly opposed those of the Irvingites. Works Collections of sermons and prayers by Howels appeared after his death: Remains of the Rev. William Howels, edited by William Prior Moore, Dublin, 1833; new ed., London, 1852. Twelve Sermons, London, 1835. Sermons, with a Memoir by Charles Bowdler, London, , 2 vols. Twenty Sermons, London, 1835. Fifty-two Sermons from Notes, by H. H. White, London, 1836. Prayers before and after the Sermon, London. Choice Sentences, edited by the Rev. W. Bruce, London, 1850. Notes ^ a b c d e Lee, Sidney, ed. (1891). "Howells, William" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. ^ a b Lock, Julian. "Howels, William". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/13984. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Howels, William; Moore, William Prior (1833). Remains of ... W. H. ... Being a collection of extracts from his sermons, taken down when preached, by W. P. Moore. Retrieved 24 August 2018. External links Attribution  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Lee, Sidney, ed. (1891). "Howells, William". Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. Authority control databases International FAST VIAF WorldCat National United States
[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_The_Revd._William_Howels_(4670914).jpg"},{"link_name":"Church of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_England"},{"link_name":"evangelical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical"}],"text":"William Howels, 1831 engravingWilliam Howels (also Howells; 1778–1832) was a Welsh priest of the Church of England, known as an evangelical preacher.","title":"William Howels"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cowbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowbridge"},{"link_name":"Glamorgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glamorgan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Robert Raikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Raikes"},{"link_name":"Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptist"},{"link_name":"Richard Watson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Watson_(bishop)"},{"link_name":"bishop of Llandaff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop_of_Llandaff"},{"link_name":"Llangan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llangan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"St Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe"},{"link_name":"St Anne, Blackfriars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Anne,_Blackfriars"},{"link_name":"William Goode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Goode,_the_elder"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-2"},{"link_name":"Long Acre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_Acre"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Cloudesley Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloudesley_Square"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Calvinistic Methodist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvinistic_Methodist"},{"link_name":"Irvingites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvingites"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-2"}],"text":"The eldest of 12 children of Samuel Howells, he was born in September 1778 at Llwynhelyg, a farmhouse near Cowbridge in Glamorgan. After some years' study under the Rev. John Walton of Cowbridge, and Dr. Williams, the master of Cowbridge school, he went in April 1800 to Wadham College, Oxford. He left the university in 1803 without a degree.[1]An elegy by Howels on his tutor Walton in 1797, published in the Gloucester Journal, was noticed by Robert Raikes, who offered him journalistic work. At Oxford he was under Baptist influence; but he was ordained by Richard Watson, bishop of Llandaff, in June 1804, to the curacy of Llangan in Glamorgan. Both he and his vicar drew adverse comment by preaching at Methodist chapels.[1]In 1812 Howels became curate in the united London parishes of St Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe and St Anne, Blackfriars, to William Goode, who died in 1816.[2] In 1817 he moved on as the lessee of the episcopal chapel in Long Acre, where he gathered together an audience. His strongly evangelical sermons were popular, and his self-denying life, though with eccentricities, baffled critics.[1]Howels died on 18 November 1832, and was buried in a vault under Holy Trinity Church, Cloudesley Square, Islington. In the church itself a tablet was placed to his memory.[1] His views were taken at the time to be Calvinistic Methodist, and he strongly opposed those of the Irvingites.[2]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Collections of sermons and prayers by Howels appeared after his death:[1]Remains of the Rev. William Howels, edited by William Prior Moore, Dublin, 1833; new ed., London, 1852.[3]\nTwelve Sermons, London, 1835.\nSermons, with a Memoir by Charles Bowdler, London, , 2 vols.\nTwenty Sermons, London, 1835.\nFifty-two Sermons from Notes, by H. H. White, London, 1836.\nPrayers before and after the Sermon, London.\nChoice Sentences, edited by the Rev. W. Bruce, London, 1850.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DNB_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DNB_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DNB_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DNB_1-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-DNB_1-4"},{"link_name":"Lee, Sidney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Lee"},{"link_name":"\"Howells, William\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Howells,_William"},{"link_name":"Dictionary of National Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-ODNB_2-1"},{"link_name":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/ref:odnb/13984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F13984"},{"link_name":"UK public library membership","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Remains of ... W. H. ... Being a collection of extracts from his sermons, taken down when preached, by W. P. Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ZpthAAAAcAAJ"}],"text":"^ a b c d e Lee, Sidney, ed. (1891). \"Howells, William\" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 28. London: Smith, Elder & Co. \n\n^ a b Lock, Julian. \"Howels, William\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/13984. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)\n\n^ Howels, William; Moore, William Prior (1833). Remains of ... W. H. ... Being a collection of extracts from his sermons, taken down when preached, by W. P. Moore. Retrieved 24 August 2018.","title":"Notes"}]
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null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Envy
....Envy
["1 Episodes","2 Seasons","2.1 Season 1","3 References","4 External links"]
British TV series or programme ....EnvyGenreDocumentaryCreated byTwofour BroadcastPresented byVariousCountry of originUnited KingdomOriginal languageEnglishNo. of seasons1No. of episodes3 (to date) (list of episodes)ProductionRunning time60 minutesOriginal releaseNetworkVirgin 1Release1 October (2007-10-01) –20 December 2007 (2007-12-20) ....Envy is a series of documentaries created for Virgin 1 designed to highlight growing British obsessions. Episodes This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2012) Seasons Season 1 The first season's episodes began airing on 1 October 2007. The original airdates (United Kingdom) are listed here for each episode. No.TitleOriginal air dateProd.code01"The Great British: Penis Envy"1 October 2007 (2007-10-01)101 The Great British: Penis Envy explored the results of a specially commissioned national research project entitled, "The Great British Penis Survey", as well as conducting an experiment called "The Enlargement Experiment" that was designed to discover whether or not going to extreme lengths ever works. 02"Boob Envy"13 December 2007 (2007-12-13)102 Presented by Thaila Zucchi, Boob Envy explores whether having a big bosom makes a woman happy or is seen as a pain in the back. The show also coverde the male opinion, and speaks to biologists in an attempt to uncover why breasts come in so many shapes and sizes. The show followed a group of woman who believe that their breast size is inadequate and after being given the opportunity to meet with a cosmetic surgeon for an initial breast enhancement consultation whether they will go through with the operation. As well as a chance to see exactly what the surgery entails as the show follows one teenager as she undergoes the procedure. 03"Money Envy"20 December 2007 (2007-12-20)103 Presented by Stephen K Amos, Money Envy explores why Britain has become a nation motivated by bank balances and consumer goods, and looks at the world of the super rich to attempt to uncover whether being rich makes people as happy as people believe it will. References ^ "Virgin 1 to air 'cockumentary'". Digital Spy. Archived from the original on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 22 November 2007. ^ "Virgin 1 Has Boob Envy". Digital Spy. Archived from the original on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2011. ^ "Money Envy". Throng. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2011. External links Virgin 1 Website
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[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viviane_Slon
Viviane Slon
["1 Early life and education","2 Research and career","3 References"]
Paleogeneticist Viviane SlonAlma materTel Aviv University Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyKnown forPaleogenetics DennyAwardsNature's 10 (2018)Scientific careerFieldsAncient DNAHuman evolutionPaleoanthropologyInstitutionsMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyDoctoral advisorSvante Pääbo Viviane Slon is a paleogeneticist at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. She identified that a teenage girl born 90,000 years ago had both Neanderthal and Denisovan parents. She was selected as one of Nature's 10 in 2018. Early life and education Slon completed her doctoral studies at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. She won the 2017 Dan David Prize. She worked at the Sackler Faculty of Medicine at Tel Aviv University on the earliest human fossils outside Africa. She studied the Qafzeh 9 Skull, looking at developmental malocclusions. Research and career Denisova Cave in 2008 In 2018 Slon was appointed a postdoctoral researcher working on neanderthals at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. She develops techniques to remove hominin DNA from sediments. Her doctoral supervisor Svante Pääbo decoded the Denisovan gene. Slon visited the Denisova Cave during a symposium, where over one thousand bones are excavated a year. As her first project, Slon reported the DNA from the tooth of the fourth Denisova individual ever found on earth. She also co-led a team that found Denisovan DNA in excavated dirt as an alternative to finding rare hominin bones. In 2018, Slon and her colleagues published the genome of Denny, a hybrid hominin. DNA was extracted from a hominin bone found in a Middle Pleistocene layer. Using genetic analysis and radiocarbon dating, the hominin was identified as a girl born more than 50,000 years ago to a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father. The work was covered in BBC News, National Geographic, EurekAlert!, The Atlantic and Archaeology magazine. Slon was selected as one of Nature's 10 in 2018. References ^ a b Viviane Slon publications indexed by Google Scholar ^ Viviane Slon publications from Europe PubMed Central ^ a b c Gibney, Elizabeth; Callaway, Ewen; Cyranoski, David; Gaind, Nisha; Tollefson, Jeff; Courtland, Rachel; Law, Yao-Hua; Maher, Brendan; Else, Holly; Castelvecchi, Davide (2018). "Ten people who mattered this year". Nature. 564 (7736): 325–335. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07683-5. PMID 30563976. ^ Fleur, Nicholas St (2017-07-07). "In a Lost Baby Tooth, Scientists Find Ancient Denisovan DNA". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ Scholarship for outstanding young researchers., Dan David Prize. "SLON Viviane". www.dandavidprize.org. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ Weinstein-Evron, Mina; Zaidner, Yossi; Tsatskin, Alexander; Yeshurun, Reuven; Weissbrod, Lior; Groman-Yaroslavski, Iris; Peled, Natan; Wu, Xinzhi; Cui, Yaming (2018-01-26). "The earliest modern humans outside Africa". Science. 359 (6374): 456–459. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..456H. doi:10.1126/science.aap8369. hdl:10072/372670. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 29371468. ^ Slon, Viviane; Hershkovitz, Israel; May, Hila (2014). "The value of cadaver CT scans in gross anatomy laboratory". Anatomical Sciences Education. 7 (1): 80–82. doi:10.1002/ase.1400. ISSN 1935-9780. PMID 24022918. S2CID 3196533. ^ Hershkovitz, Israel; Vardimon, Alexander Dan; Shpack, Nir; May, Hila; Abbas, Janan; Slon, Viviane; Sarig, Rachel (2013-11-20). "Malocclusion in Early Anatomically Modern Human: A Reflection on the Etiology of Modern Dental Misalignment". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e80771. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...880771S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080771. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3835570. PMID 24278319. ^ "Dept. of Genetics | Staff". www.eva.mpg.de. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "DNA from Ancient Hominins Discovered in Cave Sediments". Everything Dinosaur Blog. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ Corness, Liz. "DNA of extinct humans found in caves". Science Solutions Recruitment. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ Montanari, Shaena. "Scientists Sequence Ancient Neandertal DNA From Cave Dirt". Forbes. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ a b c d "Viviane Slon among Nature's annual Top Ten". www.mpg.de. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Entire genome of extinct human decoded from fossil". www.mpg.de. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ Pääbo, Svante; Meyer, Matthias; Prüfer, Kay; Kelso, Janet; Derevianko, Anatoly P.; Shunkov, Michael V.; Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Sawyer, Susanna; Benazzi, Stefano (2017-07-01). "A fourth Denisovan individual". Science Advances. 3 (7): e1700186. Bibcode:2017SciA....3E0186S. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1700186. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 5501502. PMID 28695206. ^ Choi, Charles Q. (10 July 2017). "200,000-Year-Old 'Baby Tooth' Reveals Clues About Mysterious Human Lineage". Live Science. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ Pääbo, Svante; Prüfer, Kay; Meyer, Matthias; Kelso, Janet; Derevianko, Anatoly P.; Shunkov, Michael V.; Kozlikin, Maxim B.; Higham, Tom; Douka, Katerina (September 2018). "The genome of the offspring of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father". Nature. 561 (7721): 113–116. Bibcode:2018Natur.561..113S. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0455-x. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 6130845. PMID 30135579. ^ Brown, Samantha; Higham, Thomas; Slon, Viviane; Pääbo, Svante; Meyer, Matthias; Douka, Katerina; Brock, Fiona; Comeskey, Daniel; Procopio, Noemi (2016-03-29). "Identification of a new hominin bone from Denisova Cave, Siberia using collagen fingerprinting and mitochondrial DNA analysis". Scientific Reports. 6: 23559. Bibcode:2016NatSR...623559B. doi:10.1038/srep23559. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4810434. PMID 27020421. ^ Meyer, Matthias; Pääbo, Svante; Burbano, Hernán A.; Kelso, Janet; Prüfer, Kay; Schmidt, Anna; Nickel, Birgit; Nagel, Sarah; Essel, Elena (2017-04-27). "Neandertal and Denisovan DNA from Pleistocene sediments". Science. 356 (6338): 605–608. Bibcode:2017Sci...356..605S. doi:10.1126/science.aam9695. hdl:1887/74733. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 28450384. ^ "Daughter of Neanderthal mom, exotic foreign dad revealed by ancient DNA | Canada Times of News". Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "'Denisova 11' Had Neanderthal Mother and Denisovan Father | Genetics, Paleoanthropology | Sci-News.com". Breaking Science News | Sci-News.com. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Ancient Girl's Parents Were Two Different Human Species". Science & Innovation. 2018-08-22. Archived from the original on August 22, 2018. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Neandertal mother, Denisovan father!". EurekAlert!. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ Zhang, Sarah (2018-08-22). "Scientists Stunned by a Neanderthal Hybrid Discovered in a Siberian Cave". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Caveman Genetics - Archaeology Magazine". www.archaeology.org. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Ancient remains show early human interbreeding". NBC News. Retrieved 2018-12-21. ^ "Prehistoric love child was a breed apart". Metro Newspaper UK. Retrieved 2018-12-21. Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel Academics Google Scholar ORCID
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She was selected as one of Nature's 10 in 2018.[3]","title":"Viviane Slon"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Dan David Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dan_David_Prize"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sackler Faculty of Medicine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sackler_Faculty_of_Medicine"},{"link_name":"Tel Aviv University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Qafzeh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qafzeh_cave"},{"link_name":"malocclusions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malocclusion"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Slon completed her doctoral studies at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.[4] She won the 2017 Dan David Prize.[5] She worked at the Sackler Faculty of Medicine at Tel Aviv University on the earliest human fossils outside Africa.[6][7] She studied the Qafzeh 9 Skull, looking at developmental malocclusions.[8]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8C_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0._01.jpg"},{"link_name":"postdoctoral researcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdoctoral_researcher"},{"link_name":"neanderthals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal"},{"link_name":"Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Planck_Institute_for_Evolutionary_Anthropology"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Svante Pääbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo"},{"link_name":"Denisovan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisovan"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Denisova Cave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisova_Cave"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"Denisova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisovan"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-n10-3"},{"link_name":"Denny, a hybrid hominin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denny_(hybrid_hominin)"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"hominin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hominini"},{"link_name":"Middle Pleistocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Pleistocene"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Neanderthal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal"},{"link_name":"Denisovan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisovan"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-13"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"BBC News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News"},{"link_name":"National Geographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic"},{"link_name":"EurekAlert!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EurekAlert!"},{"link_name":"The Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"Archaeology magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Nature's 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature%27s_10"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-n10-3"}],"text":"Denisova Cave in 2008In 2018 Slon was appointed a postdoctoral researcher working on neanderthals at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.[9] She develops techniques to remove hominin DNA from sediments.[10][11][12] Her doctoral supervisor Svante Pääbo decoded the Denisovan gene.[13][14] Slon visited the Denisova Cave during a symposium, where over one thousand bones are excavated a year.[13]As her first project, Slon reported the DNA from the tooth of the fourth Denisova individual ever found on earth.[15][16] She also co-led a team that found Denisovan DNA in excavated dirt as an alternative to finding rare hominin bones.[3]In 2018, Slon and her colleagues published the genome of Denny, a hybrid hominin.[17] DNA was extracted from a hominin bone found in a Middle Pleistocene layer.[13][18][19] Using genetic analysis and radiocarbon dating, the hominin was identified as a girl born more than 50,000 years ago to a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father.[13][20][21] The work was covered in BBC News, National Geographic, EurekAlert!, The Atlantic and Archaeology magazine.[22][23][24][25][26][27]Slon was selected as one of Nature's 10 in 2018.[3]","title":"Research and career"}]
[{"image_text":"Denisova Cave in 2008","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8C_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0._01.jpg/220px-%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%8C_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%80_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0._01.jpg"}]
null
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Anatomical Sciences Education. 7 (1): 80–82. doi:10.1002/ase.1400. ISSN 1935-9780. PMID 24022918. S2CID 3196533.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fase.1400","url_text":"10.1002/ase.1400"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1935-9780","url_text":"1935-9780"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24022918","url_text":"24022918"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3196533","url_text":"3196533"}]},{"reference":"Hershkovitz, Israel; Vardimon, Alexander Dan; Shpack, Nir; May, Hila; Abbas, Janan; Slon, Viviane; Sarig, Rachel (2013-11-20). \"Malocclusion in Early Anatomically Modern Human: A Reflection on the Etiology of Modern Dental Misalignment\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Frakes
Robert Frakes
["1 Education and career","2 Personal life","3 Books","4 References"]
American classics scholar Robert Martin Frakes (born 1962) is an American classics scholar. He is the dean of the School of Arts & Humanities at California State University, Bakersfield, where he is also a professor of history. His research concerns "political, legal, and religious history in the later Roman Empire". Education and career Frakes grew up in Santa Barbara, California, where he became interested in classics through the mentorship of Vernon P. Ziolkowski. He is a 1984 graduate of Stanford University. After earning a master's degree and teaching certifications in Latin and Social Science through the Stanford Teacher Education Program, he completed a Ph.D. in history at the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1991. His dissertation was Audience and meaning in the "Res gestae" of Ammianus Marcellinus, supervised by Harold A. Drake. From 1991 until 2017, Frakes was a faculty member in history at Clarion University of Pennsylvania. During this time, he was also a Humboldt Research Fellow, visiting the Leopold Wenger Institute for Ancient Legal History and Papyrus Research at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. At Clarion, he became chair of the Department of Social Sciences. In 2017, he moved to California State University, Bakersfield as dean of the School of Arts & Humanities and professor of history. Personal life Frakes is married to Susan Frakes, a bookbinder. He is the son of historian George E. Frakes and teacher and librarian Catherine Rose Kay Davies Frakes. Like Frakes, both of his parents were educated at Stanford University. Books Frakes is the author or editor of several books on ancient history, as well as a college writing textbook. They include: Contra Potentium Iniurias: The Defensor Civitatis and Late Roman Justice (Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und Antiken Rechtsgeschichte 90, C. H. Beck, 2001) Writing for College History: A Short Handbook (Cengage, 2004) Religious Identity in Late Antiquity (edited with Elizabeth DePalma Digeser, Edgar Kent, 2006) The Rhetoric of Power in Late Antiquity: Religion and Politics in Byzantium, Europe and the Early Islamic World (edited with Elizabeth DePalma Digeser and Justin Stephens, Tauris Academic Studies, 2010) Compiling the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum in Late Antiquity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011) References ^ Birth year from VIAF authority control record, retrieved 2019-10-20 ^ a b Robert M. Frakes, Stanford University Department of Classics, retrieved 2019-10-19 ^ a b c CSUB Appoints Deans of Arts and Humanities; Natural Sciences, Mathematics, and Engineering, California State University, Bakersfield, May 2, 2017, retrieved 2019-10-19 ^ "Audience and meaning in the "Res gestae" of Ammianus Marcellinus", WorldCat catalog, OCLC 638665421 ^ "Digeser, Frakes Edit Late Antiquity Book" (PDF), Historía: Newsletter of the UCSB History Associates, 21 (3): 3, January 2007 ^ Frakes, Robert M. (2011-08-25), About the author, Compiling the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum in Late Antiquity, ISBN 9780199589401, retrieved 2019-10-19 – via Google Books ^ a b Prest, M. J. (August 27, 2017), "Appointments, Resignations, Deaths", The Chronicle of Higher Education ^ Kimble, Lisa (November 24, 2018), "The Wonderful World of Bookbinding: Local woman gives life to old books", Bakersfield Life, The Bakersfield Californian ^ The Red Brick Gallery announces new exhibit: 'Book Bindings, Poetry, Paintings & Woodworking, Clarion University of Pennsylvania, May 29, 2018 ^ "Frakes, Catherine Rose Kay Davies", Obituaries, Santa Barbara News-Press, December 18, 2016 ^ Farkas, Rachel (March 1, 2012), "History professor publishes sixth book", Clarion Call, vol. 98, no. 17, p. 1 ^ Reviews of Contra potentium iniurias: The Defensor civitatis and Late Roman Justice: Lenski, Noel (February 2003), The American Historical Review, 108 (1): 234–235, doi:10.1086/533146, JSTOR 10.1086/533146{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Sirks, A. J. B. (August 2003), Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Romanistische Abteilung, 120 (1): 235–238, doi:10.7767/zrgra.2003.120.1.235, S2CID 180614727{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Chauvot, Alain (2004), L'Antiquité Classique, 73: 549–551, JSTOR 41666749{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Delmaire, Roland (January–March 2004), Latomus, 63 (1): 216–217, JSTOR 41540432{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Noethlichs, K. L. (2006), Gnomon, 78 (3): 273–275, JSTOR 27693819{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) ^ Review of Writing for College History: "Phi Psi authors" (PDF), The Shield, 126, Phi Kappa Psi: 67, Spring 2005 ^ Reviews of Religious Identity in Late Antiquity: Grig, Lucy (2007), "Review", Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2007.05.19 Lössl, Josef (April 2008), The Classical Review, New Series, 58 (1): 244–246, doi:10.1017/S0009840X07002715, JSTOR 20482435, S2CID 162372225{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) ^ Reviews of The Rhetoric of Power in Late Antiquity: Stroumsa, Guy G. (March 2012), The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 63 (2): 362–363, doi:10.1017/s0022046911002892{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Azar, Michael G. (June 2012), Church History, 81 (2): 420–421, doi:10.1017/S0009640712000728, JSTOR 23253827{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Marsham, Andrew (October 2012), "Festschrift for H. A. Drake", The Classical Review, New Series, 62 (2): 575–577, doi:10.1017/S0009840X12001114, JSTOR 23270989, S2CID 231891967 ^ Reviews of Compiling the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum in Late Antiquity: Lambrecht, Ulrich (June 2010), Zeitschrift für Antikes Christentum, 14 (1): 157–158{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Flower, Richard (2012), "Review", Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2012.09.21 Schreiber, Arye (November 2012), Cambridge Law Journal, 71 (3): 731–734, doi:10.1017/S0008197312000967, JSTOR 41819944, S2CID 145060472{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Chauvot, Alain (2013), L'Antiquité Classique, 82: 613–616, JSTOR 90004591{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Sirks, A. J. B. (2013), Tijdschrift voor Rechtsgeschiedenis, 81 (1–2): 284–291, doi:10.1163/15718190-1303b0015{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Robinson, O. F. (March 2013), The Classical Review, 63 (1): 134–136, doi:10.1017/s0009840x12002715, S2CID 163078397{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Lunn-Rockliffe, Sophie (April 2013), Early Medieval Europe, 21 (2): 225–227, doi:10.1111/emed.12016_3{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Manthe, Ulrich (August 2013), Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Romanistische Abteilung, 130 (1): 614–623, doi:10.7767/zrgra.2013.130.1.614, S2CID 164025092{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Tort-Martorrell, Carmen, "Review", Roman Legal Tradition, 10: 51–57 Authority control databases ISNI VIAF
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He is the dean of the School of Arts & Humanities at California State University, Bakersfield, where he is also a professor of history.[2] His research concerns \"political, legal, and religious history in the later Roman Empire\".[3]","title":"Robert Frakes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santa Barbara, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Barbara,_California"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"University of California, Santa Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stan-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-diss-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dfelab-5"},{"link_name":"Clarion University of Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarion_University_of_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Humboldt Research Fellow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Leopold Wenger Institute for Ancient Legal History and Papyrus Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Wenger_Institute_for_Ancient_Legal_History_and_Papyrus_Research"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abio-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deans-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chron-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-deans-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chron-7"}],"text":"Frakes grew up in Santa Barbara, California, where he became interested in classics through the mentorship of Vernon P. Ziolkowski.\nHe is a 1984 graduate of Stanford University. After earning a master's degree and teaching certifications in Latin and Social Science through the Stanford Teacher Education Program, he completed a Ph.D. in history at the University of California, Santa Barbara in 1991.[2] His dissertation was Audience and meaning in the \"Res gestae\" of Ammianus Marcellinus,[4] supervised by Harold A. Drake.[5]From 1991 until 2017, Frakes was a faculty member in history at Clarion University of Pennsylvania. During this time, he was also a Humboldt Research Fellow, visiting the Leopold Wenger Institute for Ancient Legal History and Papyrus Research at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.[6] At Clarion, he became chair of the Department of Social Sciences.[3][7]In 2017, he moved to California State University, Bakersfield as dean of the School of Arts & Humanities and professor of history.[3][7]","title":"Education and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bookbinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookbinding"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-susan-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-susan2-9"},{"link_name":"George E. Frakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_E._Frakes"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kay-10"}],"text":"Frakes is married to Susan Frakes, a bookbinder.[8][9]\nHe is the son of historian George E. Frakes and teacher and librarian Catherine Rose Kay Davies Frakes. Like Frakes, both of his parents were educated at Stanford University.[10]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-farkas-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cpi-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wch-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ri-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rp-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clm-16"}],"text":"Frakes is the author or editor of several books on ancient history, as well as a college writing textbook.[11] They include:Contra Potentium Iniurias: The Defensor Civitatis and Late Roman Justice (Münchener Beiträge zur Papyrusforschung und Antiken Rechtsgeschichte 90, C. H. Beck, 2001)[12]\nWriting for College History: A Short Handbook (Cengage, 2004)[13]\nReligious Identity in Late Antiquity (edited with Elizabeth DePalma Digeser, Edgar Kent, 2006)[14]\nThe Rhetoric of Power in Late Antiquity: Religion and Politics in Byzantium, Europe and the Early Islamic World (edited with Elizabeth DePalma Digeser and Justin Stephens, Tauris Academic Studies, 2010)[15]\nCompiling the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum in Late Antiquity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011)[16]","title":"Books"}]
[]
null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Heffron
Edward Heffron
["1 Early life","2 Military service","3 Later years","4 Death and legacy","5 References","6 External links"]
American veteran of World War II Edward HeffronPrivate Edward Heffron in World War IINickname(s)"Babe"Born(1923-05-16)16 May 1923South Philadelphia, PennsylvaniaDied1 December 2013(2013-12-01) (aged 90)Stratford, New JerseyAllegianceUnited StatesService/branchUnited States ArmyYears of service1942–1945RankPrivate First ClassUnitE Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne DivisionBattles/warsWorld War II Operation Overlord Operation Market Garden Battle of the Bulge AwardsBronze Star MedalPurple HeartRelationsJoseph (father)Anne (mother)Other workAuthor Edward James "Babe" Heffron (16 May 1923 – 1 December 2013) was a private with E Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, in the 101st Airborne Division of the United States Army during World War II. Heffron was portrayed in the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers by Robin Laing. In 2007, Heffron wrote Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story with fellow veteran William "Wild Bill" Guarnere and journalist Robyn Post. Early life Edward James Heffron: 8  was born in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1923,: 87  the third of five children to Joseph (a prison guard) and Anne. The family was Irish Catholic and attended Mass every Sunday; Heffron and his siblings attended Sacred Heart Catholic School.: 8–9  He attended South Philadelphia High School, but had to drop out to earn money during the Great Depression.: 11–12  Heffron went to work at New York Shipbuilding in Camden, New Jersey, sandblasting cruisers in preparation for converting them to light aircraft carriers. Because of his job, he had a 2B exemption from military service, but he did not use it, since he wanted to go with his friend, Anthony Cianfrani, into the airborne.: 13–14  As a teenager, he had developed an intermittent medical condition where his hands and fingers would curl under and lock up, causing severe pain (possibly, the onset of Dupuytren's contracture), but this was never mentioned to anyone as he wanted to continue playing football in school. Either the exemption or the medical condition would have allowed him to remain stateside, but he refused to stay home when his brothers (Joseph, James, and John), friends, and neighbors were all doing their duty.: 10–11, 14  Heffron enlisted on 7 November 1942 in his hometown. Military service As a replacement member of E Company, Heffron fought and proved himself in several major battles, including Operation Overlord in France, Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands, and the Battle of the Bulge in Bastogne, Belgium. During the latter, he served as a machine gunner and was awarded the Bronze Star. He helped to liberate the Kaufering concentration camp in Landsberg, Germany, and to seize Hitler's Eagle's Nest (Kehlsteinhaus). While at jump school, Heffron made a pact with his two best friends, John T. "Johnny" Julian and J. D. Henderson, that if anything happened to one of them, the others would gather up that person's personal belongings and return them to that person's family, while also making sure that they contacted the family and carried out any other individual requests. Henderson was wounded in Veghel, and made it back to the U.S.: 51, 57, 124  Julian and Heffron served together in Easy Company. On 1 January 1945, Heffron was in his foxhole manning his machine gun when he heard Sergeant Johnny Martin cry out that Julian had been hit. He left his position and attempted to get to Julian, but enemy fire prevented any approach. Every time he tried to make a move for Julian, the Germans opened fire, driving Heffron and his fellow soldiers back. Later, the squad that Julian was in repelled the Germans and brought back his body, but Heffron could not bring himself to look at his friend's corpse.: 180–181  It would be 12 years after the war before Heffron could bring himself to call Julian's mother, honoring the pact he and his friends had made at jump school.: 237–238  In early May 1945, after E Company's penultimate operation, the capture of the Eagle's Nest, Heffron was standing guard duty at a crossroads near Berchtesgaden when German General Theodor Tolsdorff, commander of the LXXXII Corps, came down the road leading 31 vehicles (much of it loaded with the general's personal property). The general told Heffron that he wished to surrender, but only to an officer, not to an enlisted man. The officer who ultimately accepted the surrender was Lt. Carwood Lipton.: 267–268  Later years After the war, Heffron went to work for Publicker Industries, which operated a whiskey distillery at 3223 South Delaware Avenue in Philadelphia. His brothers worked at Publicker's Snyder Avenue plant, also in South Philadelphia. In 1966, after he had been employed by Publicker for 20 years, the company moved its Philadelphia operations to Linfield, Pennsylvania. Heffron did not move with the company, and spent the next 27 years working on the Philadelphia waterfront, checking cargo and clerking.: 223  Heffron and Guarnere remained lifelong friends after returning home. Guarnere was best man at Heffron's wedding in 1954, then godfather to Heffron's daughter Patricia. In the Band of Brothers miniseries, Heffron was played by Scottish actor Robin Laing. Heffron appears as himself at the end of episode ten, speaking about the company, and also makes a brief cameo appearance in the fourth episode, as an unidentified man sitting at a table in Eindhoven and waving a small flag as Sgt. Floyd Talbert kisses a Dutch woman.: 267  Heffron and Guarnere wrote Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story with journalist Robyn Post in 2007, outlining the activities of E Company from 1942 to 1945. In 2013, Heffron, who never graduated from high school, was named an honorary graduate of West Point High School in West Point, Virginia. Heffron maintained he always hated New Year's Day, with its reminder of Julian's death; he also felt a similar dislike concerning Christmas Day, with its reminder of his experiences in Bastogne. Toward the end of his life, Heffron expressed concern that he was dying so close to Christmas because he did not want to spoil the holiday for his friends and family. Death and legacy Heffron died on 1 December 2013 at Kennedy Hospital in Stratford, New Jersey; he was survived by his wife Dolores and daughter Patricia. On 17 September 2015, the 71st anniversary of Operation Market Garden, a statue of Heffron's likeness was unveiled in his old neighborhood in South Philadelphia. Located near 2nd and Reed streets, the 5-foot-7-inch (1.70 m) statue includes a plaque detailing Heffron's military career, as well as a bronze heart that contains a portion of his and his wife's ashes. Biography portal References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Guarnere, William; Heffron, Edward; Post, Robyn (2007). Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story. New York: Berkley Caliber. ISBN 978-0-425-21970-6. Retrieved 8 October 2017. ^ "United States World War II Army Enlistment Records, 1938-1946," database, FamilySearch (https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:KMNQ-8S5 : 5 December 2014), Edward J Heffron, enlisted 7 Nov 1942, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States; citing "Electronic Army Serial Number Merged File, ca. 1938-1946," database, The National Archives: Access to Archival Databases (AAD) (https://aad.archives.gov : National Archives and Records Administration, 2002); NARA NAID 126323, National Archives at College Park, Maryland. ^ Alexander, Larry (2005). Biggest Brother: The Life of Major Dick Winters, The Man Who Led the Band of Brothers. NAL Caliber. ISBN 0-451-21510-9. ^ a b Ambrose, Stephen E. (1992). Band of Brothers: Easy Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle's Nest. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7434-6411-6. ^ "Duty Bound". People. 15 October 2001. ^ "Wild Bill Guarnere and Babe Heffron: A Remembrance". Philadelphia. 14 March 2014. ^ Famed WWII veteran and honorary graduate of West Point High School, Babe Heffron, dies ^ 'Babe' Heffron, 90, hero of 'Band of Brothers' ^ "'Band of Brothers' WWII Vet "Babe" Heffron Dies at 90". 2 December 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2013. ^ "Edward Heffron, of WWII's 'Band of Brothers,' dies". Military Times. 3 December 2013. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014. ^ Farnsworth, Taylor. "Babe Heffron memorial statue unveiled in Pennsport | Passyunk Post". Retrieved 11 May 2017. ^ "Homage to a humble hero, a son of South Philly". Philly.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2017. External links Wikiquote has quotations related to Edward Heffron. Edward Heffron at Find a Grave Edward Heffron at IMDb Photos of Babe Heffron & the Band of Brothers during the 2008 USO tour to the Middle East Archived 14 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine Men of Easy Company website "Veterans' Day". Philadelphia. 1 June 2001. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014. vteBand of Brothers Book Miniseries Units E Company, 506th Infantry Regiment 506th Infantry Regiment 101st Airborne Division Battles Invasion of Normandy Operation Market Garden Battle of the Bulge Invasion of Germany Personnel Albert Blithe Robert B. Brewer Lynn Compton Walter Gordon William Guarnere Edward Heffron Frederick Heyliger Carwood Lipton George Luz Donald Malarkey Salve H. Matheson Lewis Nixon Darrell Powers Edward Shames Robert Sink Herbert Sobel Ronald Speirs Edward Tipper Richard Winters David Kenyon Webster Robert Wynn Related We Who Are Alive and Remain Stephen Ambrose Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National United States Czech Republic Netherlands
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In 2007, Heffron wrote Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story with fellow veteran William \"Wild Bill\" Guarnere and journalist Robyn Post.","title":"Edward Heffron"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"South Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"South Philadelphia High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Philadelphia_High_School"},{"link_name":"Great Depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Depression"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"New York Shipbuilding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Shipbuilding"},{"link_name":"Camden, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camden,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"cruisers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruiser"},{"link_name":"light aircraft carriers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence-class_aircraft_carrier#Ships_in_class"},{"link_name":"airborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airborne_forces"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"Dupuytren's contracture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dupuytren%27s_contracture"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NARA-2"}],"text":"Edward James Heffron[1]: 8  was born in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1923,[1]: 87  the third of five children to Joseph (a prison guard) and Anne. The family was Irish Catholic and attended Mass every Sunday; Heffron and his siblings attended Sacred Heart Catholic School.[1]: 8–9  He attended South Philadelphia High School, but had to drop out to earn money during the Great Depression.[1]: 11–12Heffron went to work at New York Shipbuilding in Camden, New Jersey, sandblasting cruisers in preparation for converting them to light aircraft carriers. Because of his job, he had a 2B exemption from military service, but he did not use it, since he wanted to go with his friend, Anthony Cianfrani, into the airborne.[1]: 13–14  As a teenager, he had developed an intermittent medical condition where his hands and fingers would curl under and lock up, causing severe pain (possibly, the onset of Dupuytren's contracture), but this was never mentioned to anyone as he wanted to continue playing football in school. Either the exemption or the medical condition would have allowed him to remain stateside, but he refused to stay home when his brothers (Joseph, James, and John), friends, and neighbors were all doing their duty.[1]: 10–11, 14  Heffron enlisted on 7 November 1942 in his hometown.[2]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operation Overlord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Overlord"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Operation Market Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Market_Garden"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Battle of the Bulge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Bulge"},{"link_name":"Bastogne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bastogne"},{"link_name":"Belgium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium"},{"link_name":"Bronze Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal"},{"link_name":"Kaufering concentration camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaufering_concentration_camp"},{"link_name":"Landsberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landsberg_am_Lech"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Hitler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitler"},{"link_name":"Eagle's Nest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kehlsteinhaus"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alexander-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ambrose-4"},{"link_name":"jump school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_Airborne_School"},{"link_name":"Veghel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veghel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"Berchtesgaden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berchtesgaden"},{"link_name":"Theodor Tolsdorff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Tolsdorff"},{"link_name":"Carwood Lipton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carwood_Lipton"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ambrose-4"}],"text":"As a replacement member of E Company, Heffron fought and proved himself in several major battles, including Operation Overlord in France, Operation Market Garden in the Netherlands, and the Battle of the Bulge in Bastogne, Belgium. During the latter, he served as a machine gunner and was awarded the Bronze Star. He helped to liberate the Kaufering concentration camp in Landsberg, Germany, and to seize Hitler's Eagle's Nest (Kehlsteinhaus).[3][4]While at jump school, Heffron made a pact with his two best friends, John T. \"Johnny\" Julian and J. D. Henderson, that if anything happened to one of them, the others would gather up that person's personal belongings and return them to that person's family, while also making sure that they contacted the family and carried out any other individual requests. Henderson was wounded in Veghel, and made it back to the U.S.[1]: 51, 57, 124  Julian and Heffron served together in Easy Company.On 1 January 1945, Heffron was in his foxhole manning his machine gun when he heard Sergeant Johnny Martin cry out that Julian had been hit. He left his position and attempted to get to Julian, but enemy fire prevented any approach. Every time he tried to make a move for Julian, the Germans opened fire, driving Heffron and his fellow soldiers back. Later, the squad that Julian was in repelled the Germans and brought back his body, but Heffron could not bring himself to look at his friend's corpse.[1]: 180–181  It would be 12 years after the war before Heffron could bring himself to call Julian's mother, honoring the pact he and his friends had made at jump school.[1]: 237–238In early May 1945, after E Company's penultimate operation, the capture of the Eagle's Nest, Heffron was standing guard duty at a crossroads near Berchtesgaden when German General Theodor Tolsdorff, commander of the LXXXII Corps, came down the road leading 31 vehicles (much of it loaded with the general's personal property). The general told Heffron that he wished to surrender, but only to an officer, not to an enlisted man. The officer who ultimately accepted the surrender was Lt. Carwood Lipton.[4]: 267–268","title":"Military service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linfield, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linfield,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Band of Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_of_Brothers_(TV_miniseries)"},{"link_name":"Robin Laing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Laing"},{"link_name":"cameo appearance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo_appearance"},{"link_name":"Eindhoven","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eindhoven"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brothers-1"},{"link_name":"West Point High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point_High_School_(Virginia)"},{"link_name":"West Point, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Point,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"After the war, Heffron went to work for Publicker Industries, which operated a whiskey distillery at 3223 South Delaware Avenue in Philadelphia. His brothers worked at Publicker's Snyder Avenue plant, also in South Philadelphia. In 1966, after he had been employed by Publicker for 20 years, the company moved its Philadelphia operations to Linfield, Pennsylvania. Heffron did not move with the company, and spent the next 27 years working on the Philadelphia waterfront, checking cargo and clerking.[1]: 223Heffron and Guarnere remained lifelong friends after returning home. Guarnere was best man at Heffron's wedding in 1954,[5] then godfather to Heffron's daughter Patricia.[6]In the Band of Brothers miniseries, Heffron was played by Scottish actor Robin Laing. Heffron appears as himself at the end of episode ten, speaking about the company, and also makes a brief cameo appearance in the fourth episode, as an unidentified man sitting at a table in Eindhoven and waving a small flag as Sgt. Floyd Talbert kisses a Dutch woman.[1]: 267Heffron and Guarnere wrote Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story with journalist Robyn Post in 2007, outlining the activities of E Company from 1942 to 1945.[1]In 2013, Heffron, who never graduated from high school, was named an honorary graduate of West Point High School in West Point, Virginia.[7]Heffron maintained he always hated New Year's Day, with its reminder of Julian's death; he also felt a similar dislike concerning Christmas Day, with its reminder of his experiences in Bastogne. Toward the end of his life, Heffron expressed concern that he was dying so close to Christmas because he did not want to spoil the holiday for his friends and family.[citation needed]","title":"Later years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stratford, New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratford,_New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Biography portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biography"}],"text":"Heffron died on 1 December 2013 at Kennedy Hospital in Stratford, New Jersey;[8][9] he was survived by his wife Dolores and daughter Patricia.[10]On 17 September 2015, the 71st anniversary of Operation Market Garden, a statue of Heffron's likeness was unveiled in his old neighborhood in South Philadelphia. Located near 2nd and Reed streets, the 5-foot-7-inch (1.70 m) statue[11] includes a plaque detailing Heffron's military career, as well as a bronze heart that contains a portion of his and his wife's ashes.[12]Biography portal","title":"Death and legacy"}]
[]
null
[{"reference":"Guarnere, William; Heffron, Edward; Post, Robyn (2007). Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story. New York: Berkley Caliber. ISBN 978-0-425-21970-6. Retrieved 8 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=D1SEQMTAdYsC","url_text":"Brothers in Battle, Best of Friends: Two WWII Paratroopers from the Original Band of Brothers Tell Their Story"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-425-21970-6","url_text":"978-0-425-21970-6"}]},{"reference":"Alexander, Larry (2005). Biggest Brother: The Life of Major Dick Winters, The Man Who Led the Band of Brothers. NAL Caliber. ISBN 0-451-21510-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/biggestbrother00larr","url_text":"Biggest Brother: The Life of Major Dick Winters, The Man Who Led the Band of Brothers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-451-21510-9","url_text":"0-451-21510-9"}]},{"reference":"Ambrose, Stephen E. (1992). Band of Brothers: Easy Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle's Nest. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7434-6411-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8Q41xjSUeZsC","url_text":"Band of Brothers: Easy Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle's Nest"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7434-6411-6","url_text":"978-0-7434-6411-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Duty Bound\". People. 15 October 2001.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20135453,00.html","url_text":"\"Duty Bound\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_(magazine)","url_text":"People"}]},{"reference":"\"Wild Bill Guarnere and Babe Heffron: A Remembrance\". Philadelphia. 14 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.phillymag.com/news/2014/03/14/band-of-brothers-vets-wild-bill-guarnere-babe-heffron-remembrance/","url_text":"\"Wild Bill Guarnere and Babe Heffron: A Remembrance\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_(magazine)","url_text":"Philadelphia"}]},{"reference":"\"'Band of Brothers' WWII Vet \"Babe\" Heffron Dies at 90\". 2 December 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nbcphiladelphia.com/news/local/Band-of-Brothers-WWII-Vet-Babe-Heffron-Dies-90--234111301.html","url_text":"\"'Band of Brothers' WWII Vet \"Babe\" Heffron Dies at 90\""}]},{"reference":"\"Edward Heffron, of WWII's 'Band of Brothers,' dies\". Military Times. 3 December 2013. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014. Retrieved 27 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140427154003/http://www.militarytimes.com/article/20131203/NEWS/312030015/Edward-Heffron-WWII-s-Band-Brothers-dies","url_text":"\"Edward Heffron, of WWII's 'Band of Brothers,' dies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gannett_Government_Media","url_text":"Military Times"},{"url":"http://www.militarytimes.com/article/20131203/NEWS/312030015/Edward-Heffron-WWII-s-Band-Brothers-dies","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Farnsworth, Taylor. \"Babe Heffron memorial statue unveiled in Pennsport | Passyunk Post\". Retrieved 11 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.passyunkpost.com/2015/09/21/babe-heffron-memorial-statue-unveiled-in-pennsport/","url_text":"\"Babe Heffron memorial statue unveiled in Pennsport | Passyunk Post\""}]},{"reference":"\"Homage to a humble hero, a son of South Philly\". Philly.com. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 11 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171009092503/http://www.philly.com/philly/sports/20150918_Homage_to_a_humble_hero__a_son_of_South_Philly.html?photo_2","url_text":"\"Homage to a humble hero, a son of South Philly\""},{"url":"http://www.philly.com/philly/sports/20150918_Homage_to_a_humble_hero__a_son_of_South_Philly.html?photo_2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Veterans' Day\". Philadelphia. 1 June 2001. Archived from the original on 27 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140427125228/http://www.phillymag.com/articles/veterans-day-guarnere-heffron-band-of-brothers/","url_text":"\"Veterans' Day\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia_(magazine)","url_text":"Philadelphia"},{"url":"http://www.phillymag.com/articles/veterans-day-guarnere-heffron-band-of-brothers/","url_text":"the original"}]}]
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_Type_255_Kompressor
BMW Type 255
["1 Supercharger","2 Records","3 Today","4 Further reading","5 References","6 External links"]
Type of motorcycle BMW Type 255 KompressorManufacturerBMW MotorradAlso calledType 255 RS 500Production1935–1939PredecessorBMW WR 750ClassStreet racingEngine492 cc DOHC supercharged boxer twin with aluminium cylinders; magnesium engine block and supercharger casingFuel: gasoline-oil mixBore / stroke66×72 mmTop speedc. 220 km/h (140 mph)Power60 hp (45 kW)Transmission4-speed, shaft driveFrame typeTubular steel twin cradleSuspensionFront: Oil-filled telescopic forksRear: Rigid (1935–1936) Plunger (after 1936)Weight138 kg (304 lb) (wet) Georg Meier riding the 1939 BMW Type 255 Kompressor at the 1989 Isle of Man TT Race Supercharger-engine-gearbox unit construction assembly BMW Type 255 Kompressor (also known as the 500 Kompressor, RS 255, RS255 and Type 255 RS 500) was a supercharged boxer twin race motorcycle from the 1930s. A BMW 255 Kompressor was ridden to victory by Georg Meier in the 1939 Isle of Man TT and the first win by a non-British competitor in the premier 500cc Senior TT class. A similar BMW 255 Kompressor machine was auctioned in 2013 for US$480,000, the second-highest price ever paid at auction for a motorcycle. Supercharger A Zoller sliding vane supercharger is bolted to the front of the DOHC engine, driven directly by the crankshaft, and is lubricated by castor oil added to the fuel. It provided c. 15 psi (100 kPa). Records The machine set a number of race records, including the first lap over 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) at a major event, when Georg Meier won the Belgian motorcycle Grand Prix in 1939, and Ernst Jakob Henne's capture of the motorcycle land-speed record in 1936 on a model with a streamlined fairing. Today An example is on display at the BMW Museum in Munich. Further reading 1939 BMW "Kompressor" Tourist Trophy 1–2 Victory June, 2009 BMW press release via WebBikeWorld Extensive model information at Bonhams (prior to January, 2013 auction) Blake Z. Rong (January 22, 2013), In Las Vegas, a gamble on BMW's Kompressor and McQueen's Husky: Bonhams Motorcycle Auction provides plenty of surprises, Autoweek References ^ a b c d e f g Falloon, Ian (2003), The BMW Story: Production and Racing Motorcycles From 1923 to the Present Day, Haynes, pp. 24–26, ISBN 185960854X ^ a b c d e BMW News: A TT blast from the past, BMW Motorrad, April 5, 2013, archived from the original on September 10, 2014, retrieved September 10, 2014 ^ The Nazi TT – Hitler's 1939 Propaganda Victory in the Isle of Man page 73-80 by Roger Willis Motobusiness (2009) Quine & Cubbon Ltd ISBN 978-0-9562457-0-0 ^ "BMW brings together past and present on the Isle of Man", New Zealand Herald, August 22, 2014 ^ "Bikes sold at auction:1939 BMW RS 255 Kompressor", Hindustan Times, April 4, 2014, archived from the original on September 10, 2014 ^ d'Orléans, Paul (May 18, 2014), "Top 20 most expensive motorcycles at auction", The Vintagent ^ Williams, Greg (September–October 2012), "The BMW RS 255 Kompressor: Making History Going Fast", Motorcycle Classics ^ d'Orléans, Paul (December 28, 2008), "New BMW Museum, Munich", The Vintagent External links Media related to BMW RS500 at Wikimedia Commons vteMotorcycles with forced inductionProduction motorcycles Honda CX 500 Turbo / 650 Turbo Yamaha XJ650 Turbo Suzuki XN 85 Turbo Kawasaki GPZ750 Turbo Peugeot JetForce 125 Compressor scooter Kawasaki Ninja H2 Prototypesand record-settersBefore 1950 BMW WR 750 BMW Type 255 RS 500 NSU Delphin III After 1950Gasoline Patrik Furstenhoff's turbo Hayabusa Bill Warner's turbo Hayabusa Suzuki Recursion Turbo-diesel Neander Motors Track T-800CDI Streamliners Ack Attack BUB Seven Streamliner Triumph Rocket Lambky Liner Lightning Bolt Related: Forced induction in motorcycles Nitrous Supercharger Turbocharger Volumetric efficiency
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null
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chili_crisp
Chili crisp
["1 History","2 Description and ingredients","3 Flavor profile","4 Uses","5 Production","6 Variations","7 See also","8 References"]
Spicy condiment made of chili peppers and garlic Chili crispPlace of originChinaMain ingredientschili pepper, soybean oil  Media: Chili crisp Chili crisp, chile crisp or chili crunch (Chinese: 香辣脆; pinyin: Xiāng là cuì) is a type of hot sauce, originating from Chinese cuisine, made with fried chili pepper and other aromatics infused in oil, sometimes with other ingredients. Multiple regional, homemade, and restaurant-original versions exist across China. The best-known commercial brand is Lao Gan Ma, which is based on the chili crisps of Guizhou province. The chili crisp is closely related to Chinese chili oil, and sometimes the two terms are used interchangeably, the difference being that the crisp contains edible chunks of food in the chili oil. History Infused-oil hot sauce condiments have been made and used in China for centuries and multiple regional variations have developed over time. In southern China it is more common to simmer the ingredients in the oil, while in the north it is more common to pour hot oil over the ingredients. Households and restaurants developed their own versions, and in China "almost every restaurant makes their own", according to chef and restaurateur Lucas Sin. In 1997, Chinese restaurateur Tao Huabi began the first commercial production of chili crisp in Guizhou under the Lao Gan Ma brand, which quickly became popular and eventually became a Chinese pantry staple. Although it was consumed by Chinese Americans, it was not widely known in the United States until the late 2010s and became particularly popular in the US during the coronavirus pandemic. The New York Times called it "a quarantine cooking need". The condiment has a fan base often described as "cult-like", referring to intense popularity. Description and ingredients Chili crisp is an oil-based condiment that contains crunchy bits of chili pepper, usually along with other spices such as garlic, onions, scallions, or other aromatics. It is related to chili oil and to chili sauce, and sometimes the terms are used interchangeably to refer to it. Chili crisp's proportions are such that the condiment contains much more crunchy bits than oil, which creates the texture of the condiment. It is typically not pourable like chili oils and chili sauces but instead is spooned over or stirred into dishes, and unlike chili oils and chili sauces it is not typically used in cooking but instead is added to foods before serving. Some recipes for chili oil call for making a chili crisp–like product, then straining out the solids. Sichuan pepper is a common traditional ingredient. Rapeseed oil or soybean oil are common bases. Vinegar, which is commonly used in hot sauces, is not an ingredient. Flavor profile Chili crisp is savory, salty, spicy, and oily. Today described chili crisp as "a flavor bomb, incredibly nuanced, usually spicy, full of umami". The Los Angeles Times described the flavor as "the salty, crackly pleasure of potato chips with a just-right amount of tingling chile heat". New York magazine described it as "balanced the way sriracha is, only with more crunch and oomph". Chili crisps containing Sichuan pepper provoke an "intense heat and numbing sensation" typically associated with mala. Besides the actual flavors, much of the appeal is often attributed to the texture. Uses Chili crisp on vanilla ice cream It has been described as being good with "anything" and "everything", including desserts. Sam Sifton described it as "magical" and "a condiment to improve all it touches". Lucky Peach listed it among their pantry staples, saying: Do you need this? Not quite. Do you want this? Most definitely  a signifier to other food nerds that you crossed the sriracha river into the land of freaky-deaky hot sauces that will never be trendy. Chili crisp is typically used as a condiment rather than as a cooking ingredient. It is used to top many different dishes, such as avocado toast, tacos, eggs, fish, vegetables, salads, fruit, grains, peanut brittle, or vanilla ice cream. It is spooned onto or stirred into soups and broths. It is tossed into noodles or used to top them. It is used as a dip or spread. Jing Gao, who makes an artisan chili crisp, called topping ice cream with the condiment an example of hei an liao li, a term used on the Chinese internet for bizarre food combinations that translates to "dark cuisine". Production Various techniques are used, including simmering the ingredients in oil and pouring hot oil over the ingredients. To enhance the crispiness, moist ingredients such as onions are simmered in the oil separately first to eliminate their liquids. Variations Variations of chili crisp appear in various parts of the world, but are most commonly found in Taiwan, Japan, and Mexico, often with local ingredients such as árbol chiles and sesame seeds. Numerous brands in the United States and Canada have become prominent in recent years including Fly by Jing, Super Magic Taste, Momofuku, and Zing Pantry, among others. Lao Gan Ma remains the largest chili crisp company, with annual sales reaching $835.6 Million USD in 2020. See also List of condiments References ^ Tomky, Naomi (16 November 2019). "老干妈有对手了，这款辣酱走红美国" . 手机财富中文网 (Fortune China). Retrieved 21 December 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Rao, Vidya (3 June 2021). "What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything – even dessert". Today. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b c d e f g h i Ko, Genevieve (15 May 2020). "Obsessed with chili crisp? Here's how to make it extra crunchy". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021. ^ Schroeder, Lisa Golden (14 July 2021). "Spicy chili crisp is the condiment you don't want to be without". Star Tribune. Archived from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b Park, James (3 March 2021). "The Ultimate Guide to Chile Crisps". Eater. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Laperruque, Emma (3 May 2019). "Why Chili Crisp Is the Condiment I Put on Literally Everything". Food52. Archived from the original on 10 June 2019. Retrieved 7 February 2021. ^ a b Walsh, Karla (6 July 2021). "Chili Crisp Is the Chinese Condiment We're Adding to Noodles, Desserts, and SO Much More". Better Homes & Gardens. Archived from the original on 8 July 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b c d e Erway, Cathy (4 May 2020). "Chile Oil Is So Hot Right Now". Eater. Archived from the original on 5 May 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b Sifton, Sam (13 April 2020). "Your Quarantine Cooking Needs Condiments". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b c Erway, Cathy (14 November 2018). "The Cult of Spicy Chile Crisp Is Real". Taste. Archived from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b Hopkins, Tiffany (10 July 2019). "The 5 Best Crunchy Chile Sauces You Can Buy Online". Epicurious. Retrieved 7 February 2021. ^ Leimkuhler, Mia (10 January 2018). "I Panic If I Don't Have at Least 5 Jars of This Spicy Chili Crisp". The Strategist. Archived from the original on 11 January 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b c López-Alt, J. Kenji (30 June 2020). "Chile Crisp Is Even Good With Ice Cream". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 7 February 2021. ^ a b El-Waylly, Sohla (6 May 2020). "Homemade Spicy Chili Crisp Recipe". Serious Eats. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ Meehan, Peter (2015). Lucky peach presents 101 easy Asian recipes (First ed.). New York: Clarkson Potter. ISBN 978-0-8041-8779-4. OCLC 907931361. ^ López-Alt, J. Kenji (30 June 2020). "Sichuan Chile Oil Recipe". NYT Cooking. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021. ^ Stein, Scott (10 March 2021). "How spicy chili crisp can change your life: A pandemic story". CNET. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ a b Falkowitz, Max (1 November 2018). "People in Sichuan Are Lining Up for Spicy Chile Oil Soft Serve, and It's Actually Great". Food & Wine. Archived from the original on 2 April 2020. Retrieved 27 November 2021. ^ Hinchliffe, Emma; Crowley, Kinsey (21 March 2023). "The founder of Fly by Jing just raised $12 million. She wants to build a 'fundamentally strong business'". Fortune. Retrieved 12 June 2023. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chili crisp.
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Multiple regional, homemade, and restaurant-original versions exist across China. The best-known commercial brand is Lao Gan Ma, which is based on the chili crisps of Guizhou province. The chili crisp is closely related to Chinese chili oil, and sometimes the two terms are used interchangeably, the difference being that the crisp contains edible chunks of food in the chili oil.","title":"Chili crisp"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Lucas Sin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas_Sin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Tao Huabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_Huabi"},{"link_name":"Guizhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guizhou"},{"link_name":"Lao Gan Ma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao_Gan_Ma"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-5"},{"link_name":"Chinese Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Americans"},{"link_name":"coronavirus pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_food_industry"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-10"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:10-7"}],"text":"Infused-oil hot sauce condiments have been made and used in China for centuries and multiple regional variations have developed over time. In southern China it is more common to simmer the ingredients in the oil, while in the north it is more common to pour hot oil over the ingredients.[2] Households[3] and restaurants developed their own versions, and in China \"almost every restaurant makes their own\", according to chef and restaurateur Lucas Sin.[2]In 1997, Chinese restaurateur Tao Huabi began the first commercial production of chili crisp in Guizhou under the Lao Gan Ma brand, which quickly became popular[2][3] and eventually became a Chinese pantry staple.[4][5] Although it was consumed by Chinese Americans, it was not widely known in the United States until the late 2010s and became particularly popular in the US during the coronavirus pandemic.[2][6][7][8] The New York Times called it \"a quarantine cooking need\".[9] The condiment has a fan base often described as \"cult-like\", referring to intense popularity.[10][7]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chili oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chili_oil"},{"link_name":"chili sauce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile_sauce"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-8"},{"link_name":"Sichuan pepper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sichuan_pepper"},{"link_name":"Rapeseed oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapeseed_oil"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-8"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"}],"text":"Chili crisp is an oil-based condiment that contains crunchy bits of chili pepper, usually along with other spices such as garlic, onions, scallions, or other aromatics. It is related to chili oil and to chili sauce, and sometimes the terms are used interchangeably to refer to it.[2] Chili crisp's proportions are such that the condiment contains much more crunchy bits than oil, which creates the texture of the condiment.[2][11] It is typically not pourable like chili oils and chili sauces but instead is spooned over or stirred into dishes, and unlike chili oils and chili sauces it is not typically used in cooking but instead is added to foods before serving.[2] Some recipes for chili oil call for making a chili crisp–like product, then straining out the solids.[8]Sichuan pepper is a common traditional ingredient. Rapeseed oil or soybean oil are common bases. Vinegar, which is commonly used in hot sauces, is not an ingredient.[8][2]","title":"Description and ingredients"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"Today","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Today_(American_TV_program)"},{"link_name":"umami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umami"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"mala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mala_(seasoning)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-14"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"}],"text":"Chili crisp is savory, salty, spicy, and oily.[3][6] Today described chili crisp as \"a flavor bomb, incredibly nuanced, usually spicy, full of umami\".[2] The Los Angeles Times described the flavor as \"the salty, crackly pleasure of potato chips with a just-right amount of tingling chile heat\".[3] New York magazine described it as \"balanced the way sriracha is, only with more crunch and oomph\".[12] Chili crisps containing Sichuan pepper provoke an \"intense heat and numbing sensation\" typically associated with mala.[2][13][14]Besides the actual flavors, much of the appeal is often attributed to the texture.[2][6]","title":"Flavor profile"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vanilla_ice_cream_with_chili_crisp.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:8-14"},{"link_name":"Sam Sifton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Sifton"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-9"},{"link_name":"Lucky Peach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucky_Peach"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"food nerds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foodie"},{"link_name":"sriracha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sriracha"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-8"},{"link_name":"avocado toast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avocado_toast"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"tacos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taco"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-16"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"peanut brittle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanut_brittle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-10"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-13"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-18"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-6"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"Jing Gao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jing_Gao_(entrepreneur)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"dark cuisine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_cuisine"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:7-18"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:9-10"}],"text":"Chili crisp on vanilla ice creamIt has been described as being good with \"anything\" and \"everything\", including desserts.[2][6][3][14] Sam Sifton described it as \"magical\" and \"a condiment to improve all it touches\".[9] Lucky Peach listed it among their pantry staples, saying:[15]Do you need this? Not quite. Do you want this? Most definitely [...] a signifier to other food nerds that you crossed the sriracha river into the land of freaky-deaky hot sauces that will never be trendy.Chili crisp is typically used as a condiment rather than as a cooking ingredient.[2][8] It is used to top many different dishes, such as avocado toast,[2][6] tacos,[2] eggs,[6][3] fish,[3] vegetables,[3][6] salads,[16] fruit,[6] grains,[17] peanut brittle,[10] or vanilla ice cream.[2][6][13][18] It is spooned onto or stirred into soups and broths.[2][6] It is tossed into noodles or used to top them.[2][6] It is used as a dip or spread.[2]Jing Gao, who makes an artisan chili crisp, called topping ice cream with the condiment an example of hei an liao li, a term used on the Chinese internet for bizarre food combinations that translates to \"dark cuisine\".[18][13][10]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-8"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"}],"text":"Various techniques are used, including simmering the ingredients in oil and pouring hot oil over the ingredients.[2][8] To enhance the crispiness, moist ingredients such as onions are simmered in the oil separately first to eliminate their liquids.[3]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"árbol chiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chile_de_%C3%A1rbol"},{"link_name":"sesame seeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seeds"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-11"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:12-5"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"$835.6 Million USD in 2020","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao_Gan_Ma#Recipe_dispute"}],"text":"Variations of chili crisp appear in various parts of the world, but are most commonly found in Taiwan, Japan, and Mexico, often with local ingredients such as árbol chiles and sesame seeds.[11][5] Numerous brands in the United States and Canada have become prominent in recent years including Fly by Jing,[19] Super Magic Taste, Momofuku, and Zing Pantry, among others. Lao Gan Ma remains the largest chili crisp company, with annual sales reaching $835.6 Million USD in 2020.","title":"Variations"}]
[{"image_text":"Chili crisp on vanilla ice cream","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Vanilla_ice_cream_with_chili_crisp.jpg/220px-Vanilla_ice_cream_with_chili_crisp.jpg"}]
[{"title":"List of condiments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_condiments"}]
[{"reference":"Tomky, Naomi (16 November 2019). \"老干妈有对手了，这款辣酱走红美国\" [Lao Gan Ma Has a Rival, This Hot Sauce Goes Viral in the US]. 手机财富中文网 (Fortune China). Retrieved 21 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://app.fortunechina.com/mobile/article/351775.htm","url_text":"\"老干妈有对手了，这款辣酱走红美国\""}]},{"reference":"Rao, Vidya (3 June 2021). \"What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything – even dessert\". Today. Archived from the original on 3 June 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671","url_text":"\"What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything – even dessert\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Today_(American_TV_program)","url_text":"Today"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210603170426/https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Ko, Genevieve (15 May 2020). \"Obsessed with chili crisp? Here's how to make it extra crunchy\". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 16 May 2020. Retrieved 7 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/food/story/2020-05-15/obsessed-with-chili-crisp-heres-how-to-make-it-extra-crunchy","url_text":"\"Obsessed with chili crisp? Here's how to make it extra crunchy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200516060801/https://www.latimes.com/food/story/2020-05-15/obsessed-with-chili-crisp-heres-how-to-make-it-extra-crunchy","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schroeder, Lisa Golden (14 July 2021). \"Spicy chili crisp is the condiment you don't want to be without\". Star Tribune. Archived from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.startribune.com/spicy-chili-crisp-is-the-condiment-you-don-t-want-to-be-without/600077905/","url_text":"\"Spicy chili crisp is the condiment you don't want to be without\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Tribune","url_text":"Star Tribune"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210714141045/https://www.startribune.com/spicy-chili-crisp-is-the-condiment-you-don-t-want-to-be-without/600077905/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Park, James (3 March 2021). \"The Ultimate Guide to Chile Crisps\". Eater. Archived from the original on 3 March 2021. 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Retrieved 7 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://food52.com/blog/24111-best-chili-crisp-lao-gan-ma","url_text":"\"Why Chili Crisp Is the Condiment I Put on Literally Everything\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food52","url_text":"Food52"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190610132009/https://food52.com/blog/24111-best-chili-crisp-lao-gan-ma","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Karla (6 July 2021). \"Chili Crisp Is the Chinese Condiment We're Adding to Noodles, Desserts, and SO Much More\". Better Homes & Gardens. Archived from the original on 8 July 2021. 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Lucky peach presents 101 easy Asian recipes (First ed.). New York: Clarkson Potter. ISBN 978-0-8041-8779-4. OCLC 907931361.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907931361","url_text":"Lucky peach presents 101 easy Asian recipes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Publishing_Group","url_text":"Clarkson Potter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8041-8779-4","url_text":"978-0-8041-8779-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907931361","url_text":"907931361"}]},{"reference":"López-Alt, J. Kenji (30 June 2020). \"Sichuan Chile Oil Recipe\". NYT Cooking. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. 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Retrieved 27 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.foodandwine.com/desserts/frozen-desserts/ice-cream/chile-oil-soft-serve-ice-cream","url_text":"\"People in Sichuan Are Lining Up for Spicy Chile Oil Soft Serve, and It's Actually Great\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_%26_Wine","url_text":"Food & Wine"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200402143722/https://www.foodandwine.com/desserts/frozen-desserts/ice-cream/chile-oil-soft-serve-ice-cream","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hinchliffe, Emma; Crowley, Kinsey (21 March 2023). \"The founder of Fly by Jing just raised $12 million. She wants to build a 'fundamentally strong business'\". Fortune. Retrieved 12 June 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://fortune.com/2023/03/21/fly-by-jing-founder-investors-sichuan-chili-crisp/","url_text":"\"The founder of Fly by Jing just raised $12 million. She wants to build a 'fundamentally strong business'\""}]}]
[{"Link":"https://app.fortunechina.com/mobile/article/351775.htm","external_links_name":"\"老干妈有对手了，这款辣酱走红美国\""},{"Link":"https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671","external_links_name":"\"What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything – even dessert\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210603170426/https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.latimes.com/food/story/2020-05-15/obsessed-with-chili-crisp-heres-how-to-make-it-extra-crunchy","external_links_name":"\"Obsessed with chili crisp? 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_355
List of former Texas state highways
["1 SH 1","2 SH 2","3 SH 13","4 SH 28","5 SH 38","6 SH 52","7 SH 58","8 SH 69","9 SH 74","10 SH 76","11 SH 88","12 SH 106","13 SH 109","14 SH 113","15 SH 116","16 SH 117","17 SH 120","18 SH 122","19 SH 126","20 SH 129","21 SH 133","22 SH 134","23 SH 139","24 SH 143","25 SH 145","26 SH 157","27 SH 162","28 SH 167","29 SH 169","30 SH 177","31 SH 181","32 SH 187","33 SH 189","34 SH 192","35 SH 196","36 SH 197","37 SH 200","38 SH 209","39 SH 212","40 SH 215","41 SH 216","42 SH 219","43 SH 221","44 SH 226","45 SH 227","46 SH 228","47 SH 229","48 SH 230","49 SH 231","50 SH 232","51 SH 233","52 SH 235","53 SH 241","54 SH 244","55 SH 245","56 SH 246","57 SH 247","58 SH 248","59 SH 250","60 SH 252","61 SH 253","62 SH 257","63 SH 259","64 SH 260","65 SH 262","66 SH 263","67 SH 264","68 SH 265","69 SH 266","70 SH 267","71 SH 268","72 SH 269","73 SH 270","74 SH 271","75 SH 272","76 SH 277","77 SH 278","78 SH 280","79 SH 281","80 SH 282","81 SH 284","82 SH 287","83 SH 291","84 SH 292","85 SH 293","86 SH 295","87 SH 296","88 SH 297","89 SH 298","90 SH 299","91 SH 301","92 SH 303","93 SH 306","94 SH 307","95 SH 311","96 SH 313","97 SH 314","98 SH 318","99 SH 319","100 SH 324","101 SH 325","102 SH 328","103 SH 330","104 SH 331","105 SH 333","106 SH 335","107 SH 340","108 SH 341","109 SH 343","110 SH 344","111 SH 346","112 SH 348","113 SH 353","114 SH 355","115 SH 362","116 SH 363","117 SH 824","118 References"]
Below is a list and summary of some of the deleted state highways (i.e., those with no current routing) as outlined by the Texas Department of Transportation designation files, indicated by having zero current mileage. SH 1 Main article: Texas State Highway 1 State Highway 1 ran from El Paso through Dallas to Texarkana. It was the first highway designated in 1917. In 1926, the United States Highway System was designated, with US 80 colocated from El Paso to Dallas and US 67 from Dallas to Texarkana. On September 26, 1939, the dual designations were removed, leaving SH 1 only on a small stretch west of Dallas. This section was redesignated as Loop 260 on August 20, 1952. Since that time, the number "may only be assigned by the Executive Director of the Texas Department of Transportation or the Transportation Commission." SH 2 Main article: Texas State Highway 2 State Highway 2 was designated in 1917, running from Wichita Falls southeast to Fort Worth. The route then split in two at Waco, with one branch travelling southwest through Austin and San Antonio before ending at Laredo, while the eastern branch traveled southeast through Houston, ending at Galveston. The eastern branch was transferred to SH 6 on August 21, 1923, to avoid having two separate highways with the same number. The western route was assigned the US 81 routing in 1926. The co-designation with US 81 was dropped completely on September 26, 1939. SH 13 Main article: Texas State Highway 13 State Highway 13 was designated in 1917, running through the Texas Panhandle along the Ozark Trail. It generally referenced the routing due west from Amarillo to the New Mexico state line. In 1926, US 66 was co-located along the route. The co-designation was dropped completely on September 26, 1939. SH 28 State Highway 28 was designated on September 13, 1917, on a route that ran across the southern Texas Panhandle from Farwell to Mineral Wells. On January 20, 1919, a branch, SH 28A, was designated from Crowell through Vernon to the Oklahoma border. By August 21, 1922, a branch to Sagerton was added. On August 21, 1923, the section from Crowell to Sagerton was renumbered as SH 51 and the branch to Jacksboro was renumbered as SH 24, with the section of the branch from Jacksboro to Mineral Wells already part of SH 25. SH 28 was instead rerouted over SH 28A through Vernon to the Oklahoma border. US 70 was co-located along the entire route, except for the small branch northeast of Vernon. This branch was assigned to US 183 in 1939. On August 4, 1932, SH 28 Loop was designated through Lockney. On August 1, 1936, a SH 28 Spur was added on top of the SH 28 Loop. On November 16, 1937, another SH 28 Spur was designated in Olton. All co-designations with US Routes were removed completely on September 26, 1939. SH 28 Spur and SH 28 Loop became Spur 9 (Olton) and Loop 75 (Lockney). SH 38 State Highway 38 has been designated three times. The first route was to be designated on May 20, 1918, from Greenville north and east through Honey Grove to the Oklahoma border, but that was deferred. The route was finally designated on June 17, 1918, from Greenville to SH 5 at an unknown point north of Wolfe City. On August 20, 1918, the route was extended to the Red River and was decided to cross SH 5 at Honey Grove. On February 18, 1919, the route extended south to Terrell. On April 20, 1919, the route extended southwest to Ennis. On August 21, 1923, the sections south of Kaufman and north of Greenville were cancelled. On December 17, 1923, this route was cancelled, as it became the northern extension of SH 34. The route was re-designated as a spur from SH 43 to Beckville. On October 20, 1924, this route became part of rerouted SH 8. The route was re-designated on January 22, 1930, on a route from Sugar Land southeast to Alvin. On June 25, 1930, it extended southeast to Galveston over part of SH 58. SH 38 Spur was designated on April 25, 1933, to Sugarland. On September 26, 1939, this routing became the southern extension of SH 6 when it was rerouted around the western side of Houston. SH 38 Spur was renumbered Spur 58. SH 38A was designated on February 27, 1919, from Ladonia to Paris. On August 21, 1923, this route was cancelled. SH 52 State Highway 52 was designated on August 21, 1923, from Hedley through Wellington to the Oklahoma border as a renumbering of a section of SH 13. The March 19, 1930, log only showed the section from Wellington to Oklahoma, but erroneously omitted the section from Wellington to Hedley. On November 30, 1932, the section of SH 52 from Wellington to Hedley was put back on the state highway log. The section west of Wellington was renumbered again as SH 203 on March 13, 1934, and this numbering replaced the rest of SH 52 on September 26, 1945. SH 58 Main article: Texas State Highway 58 State Highway 58 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, over a route from Ganado through Bay City, Columbia, and Angleton to a point on the mainland just east of Galveston, replacing SH 19A. On March 19, 1928, the western portion of the route was rerouted to the Army Camp near Palacios from Bay City. The eastern portion was rerouted through Alvin between Angleton and Galveston. on February 20, 1929, the section from Ganado to Midfield was restored as a state highway, with no number, and this was eliminated on March 19, 1930. On June 25, 1930, the route was truncated to end at Alvin as the route from Alvin to Galveston was transferred to SH 38. By 1935, the route designation was canceled, and the highway was added to SH 35 as an extension. The second designation was in 2009 on a connecting route in Midland. The route in Midland was designated on May 28, 2009. Construction of the new roadway between Cotton Flat Rd. and Carter Ave. began in May 2010. It was completed by June 30, 2011, but it was cancelled that day. This route became Business State Highway 158-B in 2011 when it was rerouted. SH 69 State Highway 69 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, from Cameron to Hearne as a renumbering of SH 36A. By 1933, it received a co-designation with US Route 190. The state designation was removed on September 26, 1939. The second designation was on August 4, 1971, near Eastland as a renumbering of a section of SH 6 when it was rerouted further west. On August 28, 1991, SH 69 extended east to I-20, replacing part of US 80 which was decommissioned west of Dallas. The route was renumbered SH 112 on September 14, 1992, due to numerous thefts of the highway signs. SH 74 State Highway 74 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, on a route from Brady through Lampasas to Georgetown as a renumbering of SH 36B. On January 21, 1924, the road was rerouted directly from San Saba to Lometa, with the section of the old route from San Saba to Goldthwaite canceled and the remainder of the old route designated as SH 74A. On June 5, 1933, the section from near the Burnet/Williamson county line to Georgetown was redesignated as SH 195. SH 74 was extended south to SH 29 at Liberty Hill instead. In 1935, US 190 was co-located with the highway from Brady to Lampasas.On July 15, 1935, the section from SH 195 to Liberty Hill was canceled. This section was restored on April 28, 1937 (and is on the March 1, 1936, map). The co-designation was removed on September 26, 1939, leaving the section from Lampasas to Liberty Hill. This section was replaced by US 183 on May 23, 1951, when its route was adjusted through Texas. The second designation was on June 27, 1995, as a route across the southern portion of Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. This route, also known as the East-West Connector, has not been constructed, but remains designated. A public meeting took place on July 30, 2015. SH 74A was designated on January 21, 1924, from Lometa to Goldthwaite to replace part of SH 74, which was rerouted to bypass Goldthwaite. On February 21, 1938, SH 74A Business was designated in Goldthwaite. On September 26, 1939, the route was renumbered SH 284 (now US 183), and SH 74A Business was renumbered as Loop 15. SH 76 State Highway 76 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, from Nacogdoches northeast to the Louisiana border as a renumbering of a portion of SH 22. On October 26, 1932, this route had become the eastern extension of SH 7. That same day, SH 76 was instead proposed on a route from Eagle Pass northeast to Batesville. The route was proposed to be extended further northeast to near Moore on December 22, 1936. On May 19, 1942, the section east of La Pryor was cancelled. On October 25, 1947, It extended to the Mexico border. On September 26, 1950, the section from Eagle Pass to Mexico was transferred to US 277. On October 30, 1964, SH 76 extended northeast to Moore, replacing FM 394 on that route. On August 5, 1966, the route was transferred to SH 57 (now US 57). SH 88 State Highway 88 was designated on August 21, 1923, as a route across the Texas Panhandle from Clarendon north to the Oklahoma border near Spearman, as a renumbering of SH 33B. On March 28, 1927, the section from Spearman to Pampa was cancelled. On January 18, 1935, SH 88 extended south to Turkey. On July 15, 1935, this extension was cancelled. On April 19, 1938, SH 88 was extended back to Turkey. On May 24, 1938, the route became the northern extension of then-SH 18 (now SH 70). SH 106 State Highway 106 was designated on May 4, 1925, as a route from Crockett to Corrigan in East Texas. On September 7, 1927, the route was extended southeast to reach Woodville, and was completed by 1936. On September 26, 1939, the route was transferred to US 287, with the Texas Highway designation removed. SH 109 State Highway 109 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on July 27, 1925, on a new route from Smithville south to Yoakum. On August 10, 1925, it extended to Westhoff. On June 20, 1927, the south end was shortened to Hochheim. On August 1, 1930, the north end was truncated to Flatonia. On September 15, 1930, it was extended back to Smithville. On April 6, 1932, this route had become the southern extension of SH 95. The route was instead proposed that same day (numbered one day after designation) as a connector route between Bronte and Ballinger, but was not completed until 1940. The route became the new eastern extension of SH 158 on August 16, 1948, due to adjustment to US 277. SH 113 State Highway 113 was designated on August 24, 1925, as a route from Victoria south across Aransas Bay to Rockport. On February 22, 1928, the section southwest of Austwell was cancelled in exchange for extending SH 59 over most of this portion. On January 22, 1940, SH 113 was truncated to Tivoli. On October 22, 1940, SH 113 was extended back to Austwell. The route became the eastern extension of SH 239 on November 25, 1975. SH 116 State Highway 116 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on April 12, 1926, on a new route from Dallas due north through Celina to Gunter. On February 24, 1930, SH 116 was extended north to US 82/SH 5. On October 24, 1932, it was rerouted to go northeast from Gunter. On September 19, 1933, it was rerouted to go north from Gunter to near Sherman. On March 26, 1934, it was rerouted to go north directly from Gunter. On April 10, 1934, this route became the northern extension of SH 14. The route was again designated on March 31, 1955, on an existing route from Lubbock west through Levelland to the New Mexico state line as a renumbering of SH 290, to match the numbering of New Mexico State Road 116 (NM 116), which was renumbered from NM 92 that same day "for the convenience of the traveling public". This route became the western extension of SH 114 on December 14, 1977, and NM 116 was renumbered NM 114. SH 117 State Highway 117 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on July 13, 1926, from Spearman via Plemons to the Canadian River. On July 26, 1926, it extended to the 6666 Ranch, with the intention of extending it to Panhandle. On March 28, 1927, it extended to Claude, with the portion south of Panhandle replacing the duplicate SH 102, which already existed elsewhere. On February 21, 1928, it extended to Perryton. On March 19, 1930, SH 117 extended to the Oklahoma border, replacing part of SH 136 (which was concurrent with SH 117 from Stinnett to Perryton). The route was renumbered as SH 15 on October 26, 1954, to coordinate with OK 15, which the highway became after crossing the Oklahoma border. The second route was designated on February 23, 1983, on a route from Pleasanton east to Karnes City. The route was never constructed, and was cancelled on October 31, 1996. SH 120 State Highway 120 was designated on February 14, 1927, as a connector route between Aspermont and Newcastle as a renumbering of the duplicate Texas State Highway 107. In March 1929, the road was not yet taken over east of Newcastle, but that was taken over shortly after that. On June 25, 1929, the west end was truncated to Rule. The extension west to Aspermont was restored on December 1, 1930, but removed again on October 20, 1931. On July 2, 1932, the extension west to Aspermont was added back. On November 30, 1932, the route was completed as a graded earth road, with an extension south to Brad. On July 15, 1935, the route was truncated, so that its east end was in Graham. On November 14, 1935, a section from Brad to Strawn was added, but this did not happen until 1938/1939, when SH 89 between Strawn and Weatherford was surfaced. On June 16, 1936, the section from Graham to Brad was restored, connecting the sections. The route was transferred to SH 24, which was rerouted west, and SH 16 (originally planned to be SH 81), which was extended north, on September 26, 1939. SH 122 State Highway 122 has been designated twice. The first route designated on August 16, 1926, from Cresson to Cleburne, with a possible extension to Grandview. (numbered as SH 122 on June 21, 1927, from Cresson to Cleburne only; number possibly reserved earlier). On March 18, 1930, SH 122 extended to Weatherford. On July 15, 1935, the north end was truncated back to Cresson. On October 23, 1935, SH 122 extended back to Weatherford. That route was replaced by SH 171 on September 26, 1939. On March 29, 1988, the second route was designated on the Fort Bend Parkway—stretching from Beltway 8 to the Grand Parkway (SH 99). Environmental and feasibility studies were conducted during the next 10 years. On February 27, 2003, the State Highway 122 designation was removed from the section north of State Highway 6, as this section was under construction, but not using state funding. On February 26, 2015, SH 122 was removed from the state highway system, as most of the route south of SH 6 had been built not using state funding. SH 126 State Highway 126 was designated on November 15, 1927, as a connector route between Knox City and Munday. On March 19, 1930, the route was removed from the state highway list, but was still designated. On August 27, 1935, the route, which was not on the state highway list, was upgraded to a state highway, and renumbered to SH 222. SH 129 State Highway 129 was designated on January 16, 1928, as a connector route between Brownwood and Rising Star. It was co-located with US 283 in 1934. The co-designation was removed on July 23, 1934, and the route was transferred to SH 23 when it was rerouted further east. SH 133 State Highway 133 was designated on April 25, 1928, between Moss Hill and Beaumont. The route was still not built by 1933, and was removed as a state highway on July 12, 1933, and reassigned as an eastward extension of SH 105. This section of SH 105 was cancelled on July 15, 1935, as the road was not built. This road was restored as part of SH 105 again on February 11, 1937. SH 134 State Highway 134 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on May 25, 1928 as a new highway from Lubbock west to the New Mexico border. This route became the western extension of SH 24 on March 19, 1930. The route was instead designated as the connector route to the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site outside Houston that same day (originally designated on March 19, 1928, as SH 4-21-36). SH 134 was not connected to any other state highway until SH 225 was designated on December 21, 1935. SH 134 was returned to local jurisdiction on December 14, 2006. SH 139 State Highway 139 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on April 23, 1929, from Corsicana to Palestine. On March 19, 1930, this became part of SH 22 (now US 287) when it was extended. SH 139 was instead proposed that same day as a connector route between Chilton and Marlin (previously unnumbered; originally designated on August 9, 1926). On September 7, 1943, the route was extended east to the town of Marquez. The route became the western extension of SH 7 on July 15, 1948. SH 143 State Highway 143 was proposed on November 26, 1929, as a spur from SH 5 to Channing. On November 30, 1932, SH 143 extended south to Dimmitt, and SH 5 was rerouted through Channing. On February 9, 1933, SH 143 extended south to Meadow. On July 16, 1934, the entire route was transferred to SH 51 (now US 385). SH 145 State Highway 145 has been designated twice. The first SH 145 was designated on March 19, 1930, from Three Rivers to Alice, replacing a split of SH 9 so that SH 9 had only one route south of Three Rivers. On June 24, 1931, the entire route became part of SH 66. On July 15, 1932, a new SH 145 was proposed as a spur from SH 24 south to the town of Princeton. The route was redesignated as Spur 73 on September 26, 1939. The route became part of FM 75 on April 15, 1943, but this section was given to the city of Princeton on February 28, 2019. SH 157 State Highway 157 was designated on March 19, 1930, as a more direct route between Breckenridge and Throckmorton. It was a renumbering of SH 67A. The route became the northern extension of SH 6 on September 6, 1945. SH 162 State Highway 162 was designated on March 19, 1930, as a spur from SH 12 (now US 59) south to the Fannin Battleground State Historic Site as a renumbering of part of SH 12, which was rerouted to bypass the Fannin Battleground State Historic Site. The route was redesignated as Spur 91 (now PR 27) on May 9, 1940. SH 167 KML file (edit • help) Template:Attached KML/Texas State Highway 167KML is not from Wikidata State Highway 167 was designated on October 21, 1931, as a spur from US 77 to the Monument Hill State Historic Site. The route was redesignated as Spur 92 on May 9, 1940. The SH 167 designation was assigned on December 13, 2012, as a temporary state highway from SH 267, to US 67/US 377. At 230 feet, it was the shortest main state highway in Texas. The route was eliminated in 2013, when the US 67 relief route was completed. SH 169 State Highway 169 was designated on August 3, 1932, from Decatur to Gainesville. This became part of SH 89 on November 30, 1932. It was later reused as a proposed freeway in Austin from Loop 1 to I-35 on October 27, 1989, with local support as exhibited by the passage of a referendum election; and the City of Austin's support of a west/east facility in this corridor. The route was formerly Spur 69 and part of RM 2222, and was returned to the previous designations on July 19, 1990, as the agreement was not met. SH 177 State Highway 177 was designated on September 22, 1932, as a spur between La Ward and SH 58 east of Blessing. In late 1933, the section west of Blessing was cancelled, as SH 111 was rerouted on a road just to the north. On January 9, 1934, SH 177 was cancelled. On April 10, 1934, SH 58, along with SH 57, became part of SH 35. On August 27, 1935, the portion of SH 177 from SH 35 to Blessing was restored. The route was redesignated as Spur 93 (later FM 1727, now FM 616) on May 9, 1940. SH 181 State Highway 181 was designated on November 30, 1932, as a spur from Gary City east to US 59. This road was SH 8A before March 19, 1930, and this highway was erroneously omitted from the March 19, 1930 state highway log. The route became the eastern extension of FM 999 on June 29, 1950. SH 187 State Highway 187 was proposed on November 30, 1932, as a connector between Cisco and SH 67 to the northeast. The route became a portion of US 183 when it was rerouted on May 28, 1952. SH 189 State Highway 189 was proposed on November 30, 1932, as a connector between Catarina and Artesia Wells. The route was never completed, and was removed on July 15, 1935. The route later became a portion of FM 133. SH 192 State Highway 192 was designated on November 30, 1932, as a connector between Pecos and Fort Stockton. The route became a portion of SH 27 on June 20, 1933, when it was rerouted northwest from Fort Stockton. SH 196 State Highway 196 was designated on June 20, 1933, as a connector between US 80 in far western Reeves County and Fort Stockton. The route was formerly a portion of SH 27 before it was rerouted northwest from Fort Stockton, replacing SH 192. The route was codesignated with US 290, and the codesignation was removed on September 26, 1939. SH 197 State Highway 197 was designated on August 16, 1933, as a more direct route between Waxahachie and downtown Dallas. The designation was cancelled on November 24, 1941, because US 77 was rerouted along this route. The old route was renumbered to SH 342. SH 200 State Highway 200 has been designated twice. The first designation was on November 22, 1933, as a route from Gonzales eastward through Hallettsville to Eagle Lake. On July 15, 1935, SH 200 was cancelled. On October 20, 1936, SH 200 was restored. On September 16, 1937, the section from Hallettsville to Eagle Lake was renumbered as SH 253, and SH 200 was instead rerouted southeast to Wharton. On September 26, 1939, SH 200 extended southwest to SH 80 in Nixon, replacing SH 112. In 1940, the section from Gonzales to Hallettsville was minimally maintained, and the section east of Hallettsville remained unbuilt. On May 29, 1941, the path east of Hallettsville was rerouted back to Eagle Lake, replacing SH 253 (the route to Wharton was never built). This entire route was cancelled on March 28, 1952: the section from Gonzales to Eagle Lake was transferred to US 90A and the section from SH 80 to Gonzales became an extension of SH 97. The second route was designated on February 24, 1988, from Ingleside south to the Corpus Christi Homeport. The route remains unbuilt. SH 209 State Highway 209 was designated on July 16, 1934, as a connector between Pampa and Borger in the Texas Panhandle. The route became the western extension of SH 152 on June 21, 1938. SH 212 State Highway 212 was designated on July 31, 1934, as a connector between Cayuga and Fairfield. On September 11, 1934, it extended to Athens. On July 15, 1935, this route was cancelled, and the northern half of this route was transferred to FM 59 in 1942. The rest is now FM 488. SH 215 State Highway 215 was designated on January 18, 1935 as a connector between Carthage and Mount Enterprise. On July 15, 1935, this route was cancelled. This route was restored on December 22, 1936. On April 28, 1937, this route was cancelled because a feeder road upgrading the existing road between the endpoints was under planning. The feeder road was redesignated as SH 315 on April 1, 1939. SH 216 State Highway 216 was designated on January 18, 1935 as a connector between Midland and SH 51 (designation accidentally said SH 137) in Andrews County. On February 26, 1935, it was adjusted to end in Ector County. On July 15, 1935, this route was cancelled. On September 4, 1935, this route was submitted as a lateral road project for possible restoration. The section from SH 51 east to the county line was restored on September 22, 1936. On November 24, 1936, an extension to Kermit was proposed. On February 11, 1937, this route was cancelled, and became an extension of SH 158. SH 219 State Highway 219 was designated on June 11, 1935 as a connector between US 190 in Huntsville and the gravesite of Sam Houston on the north side of Huntsville. The route was redesignated as Spur 94 on May 9, 1940. SH 221 State Highway 221 was designated on August 27, 1935, as a loop connector for SH 36, giving access to Heidenheimer, replacing State Highway 36A. The route was removed on January 6, 1939, as a more direct route for SH 36 from Temple to Rogers through Heidenheimer (rather than Little River) was completed. The former SH 221 is now mostly FM 93 and FM 436 from "Old 95" (which was actually part of SH 95 in the 1930s) north of Little River to Reed's Lake Road east of Little River. SH 226 State Highway 226 was designated on February 18, 1936, as a connector from then-SH 112 (now SH 97) to the location of the monument on the Guadalupe River commemorating the firing of the first shot in the Texas-Mexican Revolution. The route was redesignated as Spur 95 on May 9, 1940. SH 227 State Highway 227 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on March 17, 1936, as a route from Marathon south into the Big Bend National Park, with a spur to Terlingua. On October 30, 1939, the spur to Terlingua became part of SH 118. The remoteness of the route made construction improvement difficult and slow. On February 20, 1946, the section of SH 227 in Big Bend National Park was cancelled, as Big Bend State Park became a National Park. The route became the southern extension to SH 51 on October 24, 1956, for preparation of a proposed U.S. Route. The U.S. Route was accepted as US 385 on August 28, 1958, cancelling SH 51. The second route was designated on September 26, 1986, as the former routing of SH 288 from FM 521 south Angleton south to SH 332 and SH 288 in Clute. On February 23, 1989, SH 227 extended south to SH 36 over old SH 288. On August 15, 1989, the section from SH 36 northward 4 miles was transferred back to SH 288. This route was redesignated as Business SH 288-B on October 25, 1990. SH 228 State Highway 228 was designated on April 20, 1936, as a route from Houston to Port Arthur. On September 26, 1939, this route was cancelled and transferred to SH 73. SH 229 State Highway 229 was designated on May 19, 1936, as a route from SH 90 to Washington-on-the-Brazos. On September 26, 1939, this route was transferred to PR 12. SH 230 State Highway 230 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on May 19, 1936, as a route from near Bryan (now in College Station city limits) southwest to Somerville. On January 24, 1939, SH 230 was extended east from old SH 6 to new SH 6. This route was transferred to FM 50 and FM 60 (now FM 50) on May 20, 1942. The second route was designated on June 21, 1990, as a bypass route around the western and southern side of Midlothian. The routing was proposed as the main routing of US 287 on May 29, 2003. The old route was to become a business route. The SH 230 designation was never rescinded. SH 231 State Highway 231 was designated on June 16, 1936, as a connector route between Southmayd and Dorchester. The designation was cancelled on March 6, 1941. The section from SH 289 to Dorchester was restored as FM 902 on November 23, 1948. SH 232 State Highway 232 was designated on August 1, 1936, as a connecting route between Blanco and SH 80 south of Wimberley. Construction of the portions of the route in Blanco and Hays Counties were completed by 1940, but improved routing through Comal County was slow to complete. On April 29, 1942, the route was transferred to RM 32. SH 233 State Highway 233 was designated on August 1, 1936, as a connecting route between SH 1/US 80 in Kent and SH 166 near Fort Davis. On September 26, 1939, this route was cancelled, and this route became an extension of SH 118. SH 235 State Highway 235 was designated on September 22, 1936, as a connecting route from Vidor northeast to the Deweyville bridge crossing the Sabine River and continuing into Louisiana. The route was renumbered SH 12 on August 27, 1959, to correspond to the connecting Louisiana Highway 12. SH 241 State Highway 241 was designated on November 24, 1936, as a route southward from Jourdanton, ending at Freer, with the possible extension further south to Hebbronville. On December 22, 1937, the highway was extended south to Rio Grande City, but this was reverted by April 1, 1938. On September 26, 1939, the route became the southern extension of SH 173 (now SH 16). SH 244 State Highway 244 was designated on February 25, 1937, as a connecting route between US 290 and Prairie View College. The route was redesignated as Spur 96 (now FM 1098) on May 9, 1940. SH 245 State Highway 245 was designated on April 19, 1937, as a connecting route between SH 77 and Marietta. The route was redesignated as Spur 97 (now FM 250) on May 9, 1940. SH 246 State Highway 246 was designated on June 23, 1937, as a connecting route between US 75 and US 77 (now SH 342) south of Dallas. The route was removed from the state highway system on August 22, 1951, because it was replaced by Loop 12, though signage was not removed until January 1, 1952. It is now East Illinois Avenue from Lancaster Road to IH 45 in Dallas. SH 247 State Highway 247 was designated on June 23, 1937, as a connecting route between SH 154 and SH 24. On August 4, 1937, this became part of SH 154, and it was reassigned to the old route of SH 154 from Ladonia to Cooper. Part of the route was built west from Cooper by 1940. The completed portion of the route was redesignated as FM 64 on June 23, 1942. SH 248 State Highway 248 was designated on June 22, 1937, as a connecting route between SH 81 (now SH 16) at Kerrville and the local state mental hospital. The route was transferred to Spur 98 (now Loop 98) on May 9, 1940. SH 250 State Highway 250 was designated on June 22, 1937, as a connecting route between Mission and Edinburg. The route became the western extension of SH 107 on September 26, 1939. SH 252 State Highway 252 was designated on August 3, 1937, as a connecting route from Munday north to US 82. This route became the northern extension of SH 222 (now FM 267) on September 26, 1939. SH 253 State Highway 253 was designated on September 16, 1937, as a connecting route between Hallettsville and Eagle Lake as a renumbering of part of SH 200, which was rerouted southeast to Wharton. It became part of then-SH 200 (now US 90A) on May 29, 1941, as the rerouting of SH 200 to Wharton was cancelled as it was never built. SH 257 State Highway 257 was designated on November 5, 1937, as a route from Laredo northeast to George West. On September 26, 1939, SH 257 was to extend to Refugio. The route became an expansion and redirection of SH 202 on October 30, 1939, before signage on SH 202 was changed. SH 259 State Highway 259 was designated on April 19, 1938, as a route across western Rusk County north to the Gregg/Rusk County Line. It extended to Kilgore on September 20, 1938. It was extended to Gladewater on July 25, 1939. The route was transferred to SH 42 in 1962, to avoid confusion with US 259, which also ran through Kilgore. SH 260 State Highway 260 was designated on February 21, 1938, from Commerce to Naples. The route was cancelled when it was built. On September 26, 1939, this became the western extension of SH 77, and this section was cancelled on January 14, 1941. It became FM 71 in 1942. SH 262 State Highway 262 was designated on April 19, 1938, as a route from Big Spring west to Andrews. On August 1, 1938, it was rerouted to go south to Stanton. On December 21, 1938, the west end was shortened to 8 miles east of Andrews. The route was cancelled when the counties got ROW deeds on April 25, 1939. It became RM 87 (now SH 176) in 1942. SH 263 State Highway 263 was designated on April 19, 1938, from Bonham to Randolph. The route was cancelled on March 21, 1939. The route was restored on September 6, 1943, as FM 82 (now SH 121). SH 264 State Highway 264 was designated on May 24, 1938, as a connector route from SH 27 near Fredericksburg to the American Legion Cemetery. This route was redesignated as Spur 100 on May 9, 1940. SH 265 State Highway 265 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on May 24, 1938, as a connector route from Normangee to the Normangee State Park. This route cancelled on March 26, 1942, in exchange for creation of FM 3. The route was again designated on July 29, 1987, as a proposed freeway, called the "GAP Freeway" or the "West Bay Freeway", from Beltway 8 on the south side of Houston southward through Alvin to Jamaica Beach on Galveston Island. This route was never built, and was cancelled on July 28, 1994. SH 266 State Highway 266 was designated on May 24, 1938, from Nacogdoches to Ratcliff. This became part of SH 7 on September 26, 1939. SH 267 State Highway 267 was designated on May 24, 1938, as a route in rural Real County from SH 41 8 miles west of the Real/Kerr County Line to US 83 north of Leakey. This route was cancelled on August 20, 1940. The route was later redesignated as RM 336 in 1945. The SH 267 designation was assigned in 2012 as a proposed relief route around Dublin in Erath County previously considered as a rerouting of on March 29, 2012. The numbering was transferred back to US 67 in 2013. SH 268 State Highway 268 was designated on May 24, 1938, as a route from San Angelo east to Paint Rock. The route was cancelled on August 31, 1939, when the counties got ROW deeds. It became RM 380 in 1945. SH 269 State Highway 269 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Troup to Wright City. The route was redesignated as FM 15 on March 26, 1942. SH 270 State Highway 270 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Tyler north to the Tyler State Park near Sandflat. The route was redesignated as FM 14 on March 26, 1942. SH 271 State Highway 271 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Rankin to Sheffield. The route was redesignated as SH 137 on September 26, 1939, when it was extended south. SH 272 State Highway 272 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Neches north to Todd City. This route was cancelled upon the completion of the WPA project (which happened some time after September 26, 1939). The route was restored as FM 19 on April 29, 1942. SH 277 State Highway 277 was designated on September 20, 1938, as a connector route along the very southern edge of Kilgore. This route was redesignated to Spur 101 (now SH 42) on May 9, 1940. SH 278 State Highway 278 was designated in 1938 as a route from Floydada West through Littlefield to SH 214 south of Muleshoe, near Enochs. On August 27, 1940, the section from US 87 west to the Hale/Lamb County Line was cancelled. On October 22, 1940, the sections from SH 214 to the Lamb/Bailey County Line and from the Hale/Lamb County Line to Littlefield were cancelled. On November 22, 1940, the remainder of the route was cancelled. The route was resurrected as FM 54 starting on May 20, 1942. SH 280 State Highway 280 was designated on October 25, 1938, from Plainview southeast through Petersburg, then southwest through Slaton to Tahoka. This became part of SH 194 on September 26, 1939, but this section ended up never being built. SH 281 State Highway 281 was proposed to be designated on September 26, 1939, from Jacksboro southeast into Fort Worth, replacing a portion of SH 34 (it would go from Oklahoma to Dumas if US 287 was not accepted). The road was actually designated as SH 319 (because it crossed US 281), and became a portion of SH 199 two months later. SH 282 State Highway 282 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from Spearman north to the Oklahoma State line as a renumbering of part of SH 18, continuing to Guymon, Oklahoma. This route was transferred completely to SH 15 and SH 207 on September 1, 1965. The route was again designated on September 28, 1993, as a route from US 77 on the south side of Kingsville east to the entrance to Kingsville Naval Air Station via Caesar Avenue. This route was completed in 1996, and was cancelled per agreement at that time and ownership returned to the city of Kingsville. SH 284 State Highway 284 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from Goldthwaite southeast to Lometa as a renumbering of SH 74A. This route became a portion of US 183 when it was extended south on May 23, 1951. SH 287 State Highway 287 was proposed to be designated on September 26, 1939 to replace the section of SH 9 from US 87 in San Antonio to US 281. The road was actually designated as an extension of SH 16. SH 291 State Highway 291 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from SH 171 to US 81 near Itasca and a renumbering of one part of SH 2A. On October 31, 1958, the extension of FM 67 from Covington to US 81 & FM 712 was designated 4 miles north of SH 291, and FM 712 was cancelled and combined with FM 67. FM 712 was reassigned to a road in Falls County on December 19, 1959. When construction was completed, SH 291 would be cancelled. On November 2, 1962, SH 291 was redesignated as FM 2719, due to the completion of the FM 67 extension. SH 292 State Highway 292 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from US 67 north to Keene as a renumbering of SH 68 Spur. This route was redesignated as State Spur 102 on May 9, 1940. SH 293 State Highway 293 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a route from Ratliff via Lufkin to near Milam. This route was found to be a duplicate of the eastern extension of SH 103, and was thus renumbered to reflect this on October 30, 1939. SH 295 State Highway 295 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a more direct route from Victoria north to Hallettsville, replacing part of SH 44. This route became the main routing for US 77 on September 23, 1953, with the previous routing of US 77 from Victoria through Goliad to Hallettsville becoming Alt. US 77. SH 296 State Highway 296 was a proposed replacement of the disconnected section of SH 45 from Jasper to the Louisiana border that was never implemented, as SH 63 (which was to be cancelled in the renumbering due to US 287 Alternate replacing the remainder) was instead rerouted over this road. SH 297 State Highway 297 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on September 25, 1939, as a route from Schulenburg south via Shiner to Yoakum as a renumbering of part of SH 95. This route became the southward extension of SH 95 on November 20, 1939. The route was designated a second time on January 30, 1989, as a new route from Mendoza, just south of Austin, southwestward to Seguin, roughly parallel to I-35. It was to be part of the improved traffic flow around the city of Austin. This route was renumbered as a southward extension of SH 130 on December 8, 1993. SH 298 State Highway 298 was a proposed designation from SH 87 to the Sabine River that was never implemented, as it was designated as Spur 69 instead. On October 27, 1945, it was redesignated as part of SH 235 (now SH 12). SH 299 State Highway 299 was designated on January 23, 1939, as a linking route between US 59 and US 69 on the far south side of Lufkin. This route was cancelled and replaced by FM 58 on May 19, 1942. SH 301 State Highway 301 was designated on January 23, 1939, as a linking route between Ranger and Desdemona. This route was cancelled when it was built. SH 303 State Highway 303 was designated on December 1, 1938, as a route from Lamesa to the Martin County Line. The number was not assigned until January 23, 1939. On October 22, 1940, it extended south to Stanton. This route became the southern extension of SH 137 on August 23, 1943. SH 306 State Highway 306 was designated on December 21, 1938, as a route between Italy and Ennis. The number was not assigned until January 23, 1939. This route became the western extension of SH 34 on September 26, 1939. SH 307 State Highway 307 was designated on January 24, 1939, as a transit route along the southern edge of Texas A&M University. The route ran along what is now George Bush Drive from Wellborn Road to Texas Avenue (SH 6-B). This route, along with the part of SH 308 south of FM 60, was cancelled on January 31, 1961. This was redesignated as FM 2347 on January 31, 1967. SH 311 State Highway 311 was designated on February 20, 1939, as a route between Luling and Red Rock. This route was renamed FM 86 on August 24, 1943. SH 313 State Highway 313 was designated on March 21, 1939, as a route from Huntsville northwest to the Huntsville/Midway Road. This route was cancelled on February 4, 1941. SH 314 State Highway 314 was designated on April 1, 1939, as a connector route between Bailey and Commerce via Wolfe City. The section from Wolfe City to Commerce was cancelled on March 27, 1940. The remainder of the highway was cancelled on December 3, 1940. This route was partially restored on June 25, 1945, as FM 512 from Commerce to Aberfoyle. On September 9, 1947, another part of SH 314 was restored as FM 816 from Wolfe City to FM 272 in Hickory Creek. On October 25, 1949, another part of SH 314 was restored as FM 1551 from Bailey south to the Fannin/Hunt County Line. On November 30, 1949, FM 816 extended north from Hickory Creek to FM 1551 at the Fannin/Hunt county line, and FM 1551 became part of FM 816, restoring more of SH 314. That same day, FM 512 extended to Wolfe City, restoring the remainder of SH 314. As a result, SH 314 was entirely restored. SH 314 was bypassed by FM 2320, designated on August 24, 1955, from Commerce to Wolfe City. On November 21, 1956, FM 2320 extended west to Bailey. On October 31, 1958, FM 2320 became part of FM 1281, and FM 1281 became part of SH 11 on December 17, 1970. SH 318 State Highway 318 was designated on September 1, 1939, as a route between Seagraves and Denver City. This route was cancelled on December 18, 1939. The route was restored as a portion of SH 328 in 1940. SH 319 State Highway 319 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a route from Jacksboro southeast into Fort Worth, replacing a portion of SH 34. Note that this was to be SH 281 in the initial renumbering plans. This route became the eastern extension of SH 199 on October 30, 1939. The present-day routing of SH 199 was the original routing of SH 319. SH 324 State Highway 324 was designated on October 30, 1939, as a route between Henderson and Carlisle (now Price). This route was replaced by FM 13 on March 26, 1942. SH 325 State Highway 325 was designated on December 7, 1939, as a route between Itasca and Files Valley. This route was cancelled on February 20, 1940. This route was replaced by FM 66 on June 23, 1942. SH 328 State Highway 328 was designated on February 13, 1940, as a route between Seagraves and O'Donnell. The route was extended west to Denver City on May 20, 1940. On October 24, 1941, the section of the route from the Gaines/Dawson County Line to O'Donnell was cancelled. On January 9, 1945, the route extended east to SH 137. On September 26, 1945, SH 328 extended west to the Texas/New Mexico state line. This route was renumbered SH 83 on March 31, 1955 "for the convenience of the traveling public", as is now corresponded to New Mexico Route 83 to which it connected at the state line. SH 330 State Highway 330 was designated on May 9, 1940, as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway southeast of Sargent. This route was transferred to FM 457 on December 17, 1952. SH 331 State Highway 331 was designated on July 20, 1940, as a connector route from Corpus Christi to Corpus Christi Naval Air Station. The route was never built and was cancelled on October 1, 1940. SH 333 State Highway 333 was designated on September 25, 1939, initially as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway at Freeport. This route was cancelled, along with SH 334, on August 27, 1959, due to the completion of FM 1495. SH 335 State Highway 335 was designated on September 25, 1939, as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway between Brazoria and Freeport. This route was cancelled on November 25, 1975, as the location of SH 335 had not been established on the ground, no right of way had been purchased, and no action had been taken to place this number in active use. This bridge was never built. If a future bridge was proposed, it would be designated as an extension of FM 2918. SH 340 State Highway 340 was designated on August 1, 1941, as a connecting route from US 96 north of Kirbyville east to near Bleakwood. This route became the western extension of FM 363 on September 26, 1945. SH 341 State Highway 341 was designated on September 15, 1941, as a connecting route in Texas City. This route became the eastern extension of FM 519 on November 29, 1990. SH 343 State Highway 343 was designated on November 24, 1941, from near Columbus to Rosenberg as a replacement of US 90 when it was rerouted on a more northern routing. This route was replaced by US 90A on June 23, 1942. SH 344 State Highway 344 was designated on May 5, 1940, initially as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway at Matagorda. This route was replaced by FM 2031 on December 17, 1952. SH 346 State Highway 346 was designated on April 29, 1942, as a connecting route from Jourdanton to Poteet as a replacement for a proposed road from Jourdanton to San Antonio, which was designated on May 21, 1940. The route was extended north to San Antonio on August 22, 1945. On October 30, 1964, the section from I-35 to Loop 353 was given to the city of San Antonio. This route became part of the southern extension of SH 16 on August 31, 1965. SH 348 State Highway 348 was designated on June 10, 1943, as a connector route between Texas City and La Marque. This route became the eastern extension of FM 1765 on November 29, 1990. SH 353 State Highway 353 was designated on December 3, 1940, as a route between Cleburne and Meridian. When this was complete, all of SH 353 except for the Brazos River bridge would be cancelled. On June 11, 1945, FM 167 was designated from Cleburne to the Hill County Line, and from Morgan to Meridian. On August 23, 1945, FM 167 extended from Morgan to the Hill County Line, and SH 353 was cancelled. The route was reassigned back to SH 353 on September 27, 1946. On June 29, 1950, the Brazos River was completed on SH 353, and when adequate facilities for highway travel were built on SH 353, SH 353 was to become part of SH 174, and the old route of SH 174 from Cleburne to Iredell was to be cancelled. This route became the majority of SH 174 on August 20, 1952 as adequate facilities for highway travel were built on SH 353. SH 355 State Highway 355 was designated on February 21, 1946, along a former portion of FM 118 as a connector route between US 67 and then-SH 24 east of Greenville. This route became the southern extension of FM 118 on July 1, 1947. SH 362 State Highway 362 has been designated twice. The route was first designated on September 19, 1956, as a route from Port Arthur to Sabine Pass. This route was the construction of the main levee south of the city. This route was renamed FM 1900 on December 13, 1956. The entire designation was returned to the city on October 30, 1958, when it was completed. This road was restored on January 29, 1975, at SH 82, which extended to the Louisiana border. The second route was designated on November 27, 1985, as a route from US 90A to US 59 in Fort Bend County. This route was redesignated as SH 312 on June 17, 1987, to avoid confusion with nearby FM 362. SH 363 State Highway 363 was designated on February 24, 1988, from SH 200 at Ingleside to SH 361. On October 13, 1988, SH 363 was extended to SH 35 at Aransas Pass, replacing SH 365. This route was never constructed, but the designation has not been cancelled. SH 824 State Highway 824 was designated on June 4, 1964, as a new connector route between Jacksboro and Vineyard, replacing portions of FM 1156 and portions of RM 2475 that was being constructed. This was being constructed as an alternate routing of SH 24 south of Lake Bridgeport. On October 1, 1968, this route was transferred to the main route of then-SH 24 (now US 380), while the old routing of SH 24 was transferred to FM 1810. This section of SH 24 became part of US 380 on August 4, 1971. References ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 1". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Texas State Highway Department (September 13, 1917). "Minutes of the 4th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Texas State Highway Department (January 20, 1919). "Minutes of the 20th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Texas State Highway Department (August 21, 1922). "Minutes of the 61st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Texas State Highway Department (September 18, 1922). "Minutes of the 62nd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c d e f g Texas State Highway Department (August 21, 1923). "Minutes of the 73rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (August 2, 1932). "Minutes of the 157th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c Texas State Highway Department (July 31, 1936). "Minutes of the 220th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673908.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676772.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676762.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676790.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676796.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676882.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673790.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673827.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676789.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b c d e f g Texas State Highway Department (November 28, 1932). "Minutes of the 160th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Texas State Highway Department (March 12, 1934). "Minutes of the 179th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 52". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Official Highway Map of Texas (Map) (1926 ed.). 1 inch=30 mi. Texas State Highway Commission. Retrieved September 25, 2010. ^ Texas State Highway Department (March 19, 1928). "Minutes of the 119th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Official Highway Map of Texas (Map) (1928 ed.). 1 1⁄8 inches=20 mi. Texas State Highway Commission. January 3, 1929. Retrieved September 25, 2010. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (February 18, 1929). "Minutes of the 131st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Texas State Highway Department (June 23, 1930). "Minutes of the 146th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Official Map of the Highway System of Texas (Map) (June 15, 1933 ed.). 7⁄8 inch=30 mi. Cartography by R. M. Stene. Texas State Highway Commission. § O24-Q26. Retrieved September 25, 2010. ^ Official Map of the Highway System of Texas (Map). 1 inch=29 mi. Cartography by R. M. Stene. Texas State Highway Commission. Retrieved September 25, 2010. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 58". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 58". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. Retrieved September 25, 2010. ^ "Project ID 362401001". Texas Department of Transportation, Odessa District. Archived from the original on August 20, 2010. Retrieved September 25, 2010. ^ "Minute Order 112740" (PDF). TxDOT. June 30, 2011. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 69". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Texas State Highway Department (January 21, 1924). "Minutes of the 76th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Texas State Highway Department (May 22, 1933). "Minutes of the 165th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c d e f g h i Texas State Highway Department (July 18, 1935). "Minutes of the 206th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (April 28, 1937). "Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 74". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003678212.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "Public Meeting - East-West Connector from SH 360 to International Drive". ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (February 21, 1938). "Minutes of the 250th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c Texas State Highway Department (October 24, 1932). "Minutes of the 159th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (December 21, 1936). "Minutes of the 224th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 76". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676879.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (March 28, 1927). "Minutes of the 105th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c Texas State Highway Department (January 18, 1935). "Minutes of the 196th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c d Texas State Highway Department (April 18, 1938). "Minutes of the 252nd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c d e f Texas State Highway Department (May 23, 1938). "Minutes of the 253rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676905.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676981.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676911.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676914.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673797.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673812.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 109". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676913.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676988.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 113". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676934.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673791.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673835.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Texas State Highway Department (March 26, 1934). "Minutes of the 180th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673847.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 116". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676943.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 117". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003677845.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Texas State Highway Department (February 14, 1927). "Minutes of the 103rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673816.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673877.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (June 15, 1936). "Minutes of the 219th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676945.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Texas State Highway Department (March 14, 1927). "Minutes of the 104th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676978.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673792.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673876.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676984.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b c d Texas State Highway Department (August 27, 1935). "Minutes of the 207th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676986.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b c Texas State Highway Department (July 16, 1934). "Minutes of the 187th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676991.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673831.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676953.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 134". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676944.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 139". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673788.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673825.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673817.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway Spur No. 73". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 157". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 162". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 167". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. Retrieved September 12, 2013. ^ "Agenda - Texas Transportation Commission" (PDF). Texas Department of Transportation. December 13, 2012. p. 6. Retrieved June 20, 2015. ^ "Texas Transportation Commission Minute Order" (PDF). Texas Department of Transportation. December 13, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2015. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 169". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway Spur No. 69". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Texas State Highway Department (September 19, 1932). "Minutes of the 158th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673843.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 177". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 181". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 187". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 133". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (June 19, 1933). "Minutes of the 166th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673834.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 197". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 342". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673840.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673892.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (September 16, 1937). "Minutes of the 236th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 200". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ "Minute Order 87040" (PDF). TxDOT. February 24, 1988. ^ a b c d e Texas State Highway Department (June 20, 1938). "Minutes of the 254th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673854.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673864.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (September 21, 1936). "Minutes of the 221st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (November 23, 1936). "Minutes of the 223rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673890.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673870.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 219". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676255.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "1940 General Highway Map, Bell County, Texas". ^ a b c d e Texas Highway Map (Map). Texas State Highway Department. 1937. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673879.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 226". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673880.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 227". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673881.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (May 18, 1936). "Minutes of the 218th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ a b c d Texas State Highway Department (January 23, 1939). "Minutes of the 264th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 230". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Business U.S. Highway No. 287-Q". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 231". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 902". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 232". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 235". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ a b c d e f g Texas Highway Map (Map). Texas State Highway Department (Texas Department of Transportation). 1938. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673912.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673893.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 244". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673896.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 245". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ a b c d Texas State Highway Department (June 21, 1937). "Minutes of the 233rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676425.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 246". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (July 31, 1937). "Minutes of the 235th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 247". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 64". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 248". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 253". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673907.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 257". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ a b c Texas State Highway Department (September 19, 1938). "Minutes of the 258th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676264.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 259". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ "SH 262 modified" (PDF). ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (December 21, 1938). "Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676260.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (March 21, 1939). "Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 264". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 265". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ "State Highway No. 267". Archived from the original on June 28, 2011. ^ a b Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 267". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 14, 2012. ^ a b Texas State Highway Department (August 31, 1939). "Minutes of the 273rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 269". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 15". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 270". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 14". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "TX No. 272". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 19". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 277". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 278". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 54". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676251.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 282". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 284". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 291". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 2719". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 292". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway Spur No. 102". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 293". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 295". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 297". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 299". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 301". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676253.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 303". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 307". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676257.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 311". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 313". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676259.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 314". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 512". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 816". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 1551". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 2320". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 1281". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 11". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 318". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676271.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 319". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 324". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 13". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 325". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "Farm to Market Road No. 66". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 328". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 330". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 331". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 333". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 334". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 335". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 340". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 341". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 343". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 344". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Texas State Highway Department (May 20, 1940). "Minutes of the 287th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 346". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 348". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 353". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 355". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 362". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 363". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. ^ "Minute Order 87041" (PDF). TxDOT. February 24, 1988. ^ Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 824". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). "State Highway No. 24". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.
[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of former Texas state highways"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_1.svg"},{"link_name":"El Paso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Paso,_TX"},{"link_name":"Dallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas"},{"link_name":"Texarkana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texarkana,_TX"},{"link_name":"United States Highway System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Highway_System"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"State Highway 1 ran from El Paso through Dallas to Texarkana. It was the first highway designated in 1917. In 1926, the United States Highway System was designated, with US 80 colocated from El Paso to Dallas and US 67 from Dallas to Texarkana. On September 26, 1939, the dual designations were removed, leaving SH 1 only on a small stretch west of Dallas. This section was redesignated as Loop 260 on August 20, 1952. Since that time, the number \"may only be assigned by the Executive Director of the Texas Department of Transportation or the Transportation Commission.\"[1]","title":"SH 1"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Texas_2.svg"},{"link_name":"Wichita Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wichita_Falls,_TX"},{"link_name":"Fort Worth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Worth"},{"link_name":"Waco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waco"},{"link_name":"Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_TX"},{"link_name":"San Antonio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio"},{"link_name":"Laredo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laredo,_TX"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"Galveston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galveston"}],"text":"State Highway 2 was designated in 1917, running from Wichita Falls southeast to Fort Worth. The route then split in two at Waco, with one branch travelling southwest through Austin and San Antonio before ending at Laredo, while the eastern branch traveled southeast through Houston, ending at Galveston. The eastern branch was transferred to SH 6 on August 21, 1923, to avoid having two separate highways with the same number. The western route was assigned the US 81 routing in 1926. The co-designation with US 81 was dropped completely on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 2"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Texas_13.svg"},{"link_name":"Ozark Trail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozark_Trail_(auto_trail)"},{"link_name":"Amarillo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarillo,_Texas"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"}],"text":"State Highway 13 was designated in 1917, running through the Texas Panhandle along the Ozark Trail. It generally referenced the routing due west from Amarillo to the New Mexico state line. In 1926, US 66 was co-located along the route. The co-designation was dropped completely on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 13"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_28_1935.svg"},{"link_name":"Mineral Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_Wells,_TX"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Crowell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowell,_TX"},{"link_name":"Vernon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernon,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Sagerton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagerton,_TX"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"SH 51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_51"},{"link_name":"SH 24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_24"},{"link_name":"SH 25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_25"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73rd_meeting_minutes-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Texas_28.svg"},{"link_name":"Lockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockney,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157th_meeting_minutes-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220th_meeting_minutes-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Spur 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Spur_9"},{"link_name":"Loop 75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Loop_75"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"State Highway 28 was designated on September 13, 1917, on a route that ran across the southern Texas Panhandle from Farwell to Mineral Wells.[2] On January 20, 1919, a branch, SH 28A, was designated from Crowell through Vernon to the Oklahoma border.[3] By August 21, 1922, a branch to Sagerton was added.[4][5] On August 21, 1923, the section from Crowell to Sagerton was renumbered as SH 51 and the branch to Jacksboro was renumbered as SH 24, with the section of the branch from Jacksboro to Mineral Wells already part of SH 25.[6] SH 28 was instead rerouted over SH 28A through Vernon to the Oklahoma border. US 70 was co-located along the entire route, except for the small branch northeast of Vernon. This branch was assigned to US 183 in 1939.On August 4, 1932, SH 28 Loop was designated through Lockney.[7] On August 1, 1936, a SH 28 Spur was added on top of the SH 28 Loop.[8] On November 16, 1937, another SH 28 Spur was designated in Olton.[9] All co-designations with US Routes were removed completely on September 26, 1939. SH 28 Spur and SH 28 Loop became Spur 9 (Olton) and Loop 75 (Lockney).\n[10]","title":"SH 28"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_38_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Greenville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenville,_TX"},{"link_name":"Honey Grove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_Grove,_TX"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"SH 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_5"},{"link_name":"Terrell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrell,_TX"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennis,_TX"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Kaufman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaufman,_TX"},{"link_name":"Beckville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beckville,_TX"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"SH 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_8"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Texas_38.svg"},{"link_name":"Sugar Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_Land,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Alvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Spur 58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Spur_58"},{"link_name":"Ladonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladonia,_TX"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris,_TX"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"State Highway 38 has been designated three times. The first route was to be designated on May 20, 1918, from Greenville north and east through Honey Grove to the Oklahoma border, but that was deferred.[11] The route was finally designated on June 17, 1918, from Greenville to SH 5 at an unknown point north of Wolfe City. On August 20, 1918, the route was extended to the Red River and was decided to cross SH 5 at Honey Grove. On February 18, 1919, the route extended south to Terrell.[12] On April 20, 1919, the route extended southwest to Ennis.[13] On August 21, 1923, the sections south of Kaufman and north of Greenville were cancelled. On December 17, 1923, this route was cancelled, as it became the northern extension of SH 34. The route was re-designated as a spur from SH 43 to Beckville.[14] On October 20, 1924, this route became part of rerouted SH 8.The route was re-designated on January 22, 1930, on a route from Sugar Land southeast to Alvin.[15] On June 25, 1930, it extended southeast to Galveston over part of SH 58. SH 38 Spur was designated on April 25, 1933, to Sugarland.[16] On September 26, 1939, this routing became the southern extension of SH 6 when it was rerouted around the western side of Houston. SH 38 Spur was renumbered Spur 58.SH 38A was designated on February 27, 1919, from Ladonia to Paris.[17] On August 21, 1923, this route was cancelled.","title":"SH 38"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_52.svg"},{"link_name":"Hedley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedley,_TX"},{"link_name":"Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington,_TX"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73rd_meeting_minutes-6"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160th_meeting_minutes-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179th_meeting_minutes-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"State Highway 52 was designated on August 21, 1923, from Hedley through Wellington to the Oklahoma border as a renumbering of a section of SH 13.[6] The March 19, 1930, log only showed the section from Wellington to Oklahoma, but erroneously omitted the section from Wellington to Hedley. On November 30, 1932, the section of SH 52 from Wellington to Hedley was put back on the state highway log.[18] The section west of Wellington was renumbered again as SH 203 on March 13, 1934,[19] and this numbering replaced the rest of SH 52 on September 26, 1945.[20]","title":"SH 52"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_58_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Ganado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganado,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Bay City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_City,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Angleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angleton,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Galveston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galveston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"SH 19A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_19"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73rd_meeting_minutes-6"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Map_1926-21"},{"link_name":"Palacios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacios,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Alvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Map_1928-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119th_meeting_minutes-24"},{"link_name":"SH 38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_38"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Map_1933-26"},{"link_name":"SH 35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_35"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Map_1935-27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_58.svg"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SH_58-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Project_Tracker-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-June_30_meeting_minutes-31"}],"text":"State Highway 58 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, over a route from Ganado through Bay City, Columbia, and Angleton to a point on the mainland just east of Galveston, replacing SH 19A.[6][21] On March 19, 1928, the western portion of the route was rerouted to the Army Camp near Palacios from Bay City.[22] The eastern portion was rerouted through Alvin between Angleton and Galveston.[23] on February 20, 1929, the section from Ganado to Midfield was restored as a state highway, with no number, and this was eliminated on March 19, 1930.[24] On June 25, 1930, the route was truncated to end at Alvin as the route from Alvin to Galveston was transferred to SH 38.[25][26] By 1935, the route designation was canceled, and the highway was added to SH 35 as an extension.[27]The second designation was in 2009 on a connecting route in Midland.[28] The route in Midland was designated on May 28, 2009.[29] Construction of the new roadway between Cotton Flat Rd. and Carter Ave. began in May 2010.[30] It was completed by June 30, 2011, but it was cancelled that day.[31] This route became Business State Highway 158-B in 2011 when it was rerouted.","title":"SH 58"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_69.svg"},{"link_name":"Cameron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron,_TX"},{"link_name":"Hearne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearne,_TX"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73rd_meeting_minutes-6"},{"link_name":"Eastland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastland,_TX"},{"link_name":"US 80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_80_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"Dallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"text":"State Highway 69 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, from Cameron to Hearne as a renumbering of SH 36A.[6] By 1933, it received a co-designation with US Route 190. The state designation was removed on September 26, 1939. The second designation was on August 4, 1971, near Eastland as a renumbering of a section of SH 6 when it was rerouted further west. On August 28, 1991, SH 69 extended east to I-20, replacing part of US 80 which was decommissioned west of Dallas. The route was renumbered SH 112 on September 14, 1992, due to numerous thefts of the highway signs.[32]","title":"SH 69"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_74.svg"},{"link_name":"Brady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brady,_TX"},{"link_name":"Lampasas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lampasas,_TX"},{"link_name":"Georgetown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown,_TX"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73rd_meeting_minutes-6"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231st_meeting_minutes-36"},{"link_name":"US 183","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_183"},{"link_name":"Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas/Fort_Worth_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Lometa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lometa,_TX"},{"link_name":"Goldthwaite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldthwaite,_TX"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-250th_meeting_minutes-40"},{"link_name":"Loop 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Loop_15"}],"text":"State Highway 74 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, on a route from Brady through Lampasas to Georgetown as a renumbering of SH 36B.[6] On January 21, 1924, the road was rerouted directly from San Saba to Lometa, with the section of the old route from San Saba to Goldthwaite canceled and the remainder of the old route designated as SH 74A.[33] On June 5, 1933, the section from near the Burnet/Williamson county line to Georgetown was redesignated as SH 195. SH 74 was extended south to SH 29 at Liberty Hill instead.[34] In 1935, US 190 was co-located with the highway from Brady to Lampasas.On July 15, 1935, the section from SH 195 to Liberty Hill was canceled.[35] This section was restored on April 28, 1937 (and is on the March 1, 1936, map).[36] The co-designation was removed on September 26, 1939, leaving the section from Lampasas to Liberty Hill. This section was replaced by US 183 on May 23, 1951, when its route was adjusted through Texas. The second designation was on June 27, 1995, as a route across the southern portion of Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport. This route, also known as the East-West Connector, has not been constructed, but remains designated.[37][38] A public meeting took place on July 30, 2015.[39]SH 74A was designated on January 21, 1924, from Lometa to Goldthwaite to replace part of SH 74, which was rerouted to bypass Goldthwaite. On February 21, 1938, SH 74A Business was designated in Goldthwaite.[40] On September 26, 1939, the route was renumbered SH 284 (now US 183), and SH 74A Business was renumbered as Loop 15.","title":"SH 74"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_76_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Nacogdoches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacogdoches,_TX"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73rd_meeting_minutes-6"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159th_meeting_minutes-41"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_76.svg"},{"link_name":"Eagle Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Pass,_TX"},{"link_name":"Batesville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batesville,_TX"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159th_meeting_minutes-41"},{"link_name":"Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore,_TX"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224th_meeting_minutes-42"},{"link_name":"La Pryor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Pryor,_TX"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"US 277","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_277_in_Texas"},{"link_name":"FM 394","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_394"},{"link_name":"SH 57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_57"},{"link_name":"US 57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_57"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"text":"State Highway 76 has been designated twice. It was first designated on August 21, 1923, from Nacogdoches northeast to the Louisiana border as a renumbering of a portion of SH 22.[6] On October 26, 1932, this route had become the eastern extension of SH 7.[41]That same day, SH 76 was instead proposed on a route from Eagle Pass northeast to Batesville.[41] The route was proposed to be extended further northeast to near Moore on December 22, 1936.[42] On May 19, 1942, the section east of La Pryor was cancelled. On October 25, 1947, It extended to the Mexico border. On September 26, 1950, the section from Eagle Pass to Mexico was transferred to US 277. On October 30, 1964, SH 76 extended northeast to Moore, replacing FM 394 on that route. On August 5, 1966, the route was transferred to SH 57 (now US 57).[43]","title":"SH 76"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_88_1935.svg"},{"link_name":"Clarendon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarendon,_TX"},{"link_name":"Spearman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman,_TX"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73rd_meeting_minutes-6"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105th_meeting_minutes-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196th_meeting_minutes-46"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-252nd_meeting_minutes-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-253rd_meeting_minutes-48"}],"text":"State Highway 88 was designated on August 21, 1923, as a route across the Texas Panhandle from Clarendon north to the Oklahoma border near Spearman, as a renumbering of SH 33B.[6][44] On March 28, 1927, the section from Spearman to Pampa was cancelled.[45] On January 18, 1935, SH 88 extended south to Turkey.[46] On July 15, 1935, this extension was cancelled.[35] On April 19, 1938, SH 88 was extended back to Turkey.[47] On May 24, 1938, the route became the northern extension of then-SH 18 (now SH 70).[48]","title":"SH 88"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_106.svg"},{"link_name":"Crockett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crockett,_TX"},{"link_name":"Corrigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrigan,_TX"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Woodville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodville,_TX"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"US 287","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_287"}],"text":"State Highway 106 was designated on May 4, 1925, as a route from Crockett to Corrigan in East Texas.[49] On September 7, 1927, the route was extended southeast to reach Woodville, and was completed by 1936.[50] On September 26, 1939, the route was transferred to US 287, with the Texas Highway designation removed.","title":"SH 106"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_109_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Smithville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithville,_TX"},{"link_name":"Yoakum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoakum,_TX"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Westhoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westhoff,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Hochheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hochheim,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Flatonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatonia,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_109.svg"},{"link_name":"Bronte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronte,_TX"},{"link_name":"Ballinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballinger,_TX"},{"link_name":"US 277","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_277"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"text":"State Highway 109 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on July 27, 1925, on a new route from Smithville south to Yoakum.[51] On August 10, 1925, it extended to Westhoff.[52] On June 20, 1927, the south end was shortened to Hochheim. On August 1, 1930, the north end was truncated to Flatonia. On September 15, 1930, it was extended back to Smithville.[53] On April 6, 1932, this route had become the southern extension of SH 95.[54]The route was instead proposed that same day (numbered one day after designation) as a connector route between Bronte and Ballinger, but was not completed until 1940. The route became the new eastern extension of SH 158 on August 16, 1948, due to adjustment to US 277.[55]","title":"SH 109"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_113.svg"},{"link_name":"Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria,_TX"},{"link_name":"Rockport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockport,_TX"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Austwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austwell,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 59","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_59"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"}],"text":"State Highway 113 was designated on August 24, 1925, as a route from Victoria south across Aransas Bay to Rockport.[56] On February 22, 1928, the section southwest of Austwell was cancelled in exchange for extending SH 59 over most of this portion.[57] On January 22, 1940, SH 113 was truncated to Tivoli. On October 22, 1940, SH 113 was extended back to Austwell. The route became the eastern extension of SH 239 on November 25, 1975.[58]","title":"SH 113"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_116_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Dallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Celina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celina,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Gunter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunter,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"US 82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_82_in_Texas"},{"link_name":"SH 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_5"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159th_meeting_minutes-41"},{"link_name":"Sherman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"SH 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_14"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_116.svg"},{"link_name":"Lubbock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubbock,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Levelland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelland,_Texas"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"SH 290","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_290#Cochran,_Hockley,_and_Lubbock_counties"},{"link_name":"New Mexico State Road 116","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_116"},{"link_name":"NM 92","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_92"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"SH 114","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_114"},{"link_name":"NM 114","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_State_Road_114"}],"text":"State Highway 116 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on April 12, 1926, on a new route from Dallas due north through Celina to Gunter.[59] On February 24, 1930, SH 116 was extended north to US 82/SH 5.[60] On October 24, 1932, it was rerouted to go northeast from Gunter.[41] On September 19, 1933, it was rerouted to go north from Gunter to near Sherman.[61] On March 26, 1934, it was rerouted to go north directly from Gunter.[62] On April 10, 1934, this route became the northern extension of SH 14.[63]The route was again designated on March 31, 1955, on an existing route from Lubbock west through Levelland to the New Mexico state line as a renumbering of SH 290, to match the numbering of New Mexico State Road 116 (NM 116), which was renumbered from NM 92 that same day \"for the convenience of the traveling public\".[64] This route became the western extension of SH 114 on December 14, 1977, and NM 116 was renumbered NM 114.","title":"SH 116"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_117.svg"},{"link_name":"Spearman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman,_TX"},{"link_name":"Panhandle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panhandle,_TX"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Claude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 102","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_102"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105th_meeting_minutes-45"},{"link_name":"Perryton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perryton,_TX"},{"link_name":"Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"SH 136","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_136"},{"link_name":"Pleasanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasanton,_TX"},{"link_name":"Karnes City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnes_City,_TX"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"}],"text":"State Highway 117 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on July 13, 1926, from Spearman via Plemons to the Canadian River. On July 26, 1926, it extended to the 6666 Ranch, with the intention of extending it to Panhandle.[65] On March 28, 1927, it extended to Claude, with the portion south of Panhandle replacing the duplicate SH 102, which already existed elsewhere.[45] On February 21, 1928, it extended to Perryton. On March 19, 1930, SH 117 extended to the Oklahoma border, replacing part of SH 136 (which was concurrent with SH 117 from Stinnett to Perryton). The route was renumbered as SH 15 on October 26, 1954, to coordinate with OK 15, which the highway became after crossing the Oklahoma border. The second route was designated on February 23, 1983, on a route from Pleasanton east to Karnes City. The route was never constructed, and was cancelled on October 31, 1996.[66][67]","title":"SH 117"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_120.svg"},{"link_name":"Aspermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspermont,_TX"},{"link_name":"Newcastle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Texas State Highway 107","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_107"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Aspermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspermont,_TX"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Aspermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspermont,_TX"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Brad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brad,_TX&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"Strawn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawn,_TX"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219th_meeting_minutes-72"}],"text":"State Highway 120 was designated on February 14, 1927, as a connector route between Aspermont and Newcastle as a renumbering of the duplicate Texas State Highway 107.[68] In March 1929, the road was not yet taken over east of Newcastle, but that was taken over shortly after that. On June 25, 1929, the west end was truncated to Rule. The extension west to Aspermont was restored on December 1, 1930, but removed again on October 20, 1931.[69] On July 2, 1932, the extension west to Aspermont was added back.[70] On November 30, 1932, the route was completed as a graded earth road, with an extension south to Brad. On July 15, 1935, the route was truncated, so that its east end was in Graham.[35] On November 14, 1935, a section from Brad to Strawn was added, but this did not happen until 1938/1939, when SH 89 between Strawn and Weatherford was surfaced.[71] On June 16, 1936, the section from Graham to Brad was restored, connecting the sections.[72] The route was transferred to SH 24, which was rerouted west, and SH 16 (originally planned to be SH 81), which was extended north, on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 120"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_122.svg"},{"link_name":"Cresson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cresson,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Cleburne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleburne,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Grandview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandview,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"Weatherford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weatherford,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"SH 171","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_171"},{"link_name":"Fort Bend Parkway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bend_Parkway"},{"link_name":"Beltway 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Beltway_8"},{"link_name":"SH 99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_99_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"State Highway 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_6_(Texas)"}],"text":"State Highway 122 has been designated twice. The first route designated on August 16, 1926, from Cresson to Cleburne, with a possible extension to Grandview. (numbered as SH 122 on June 21, 1927, from Cresson to Cleburne only; number possibly reserved earlier).[73][74][75] On March 18, 1930, SH 122 extended to Weatherford.[76] On July 15, 1935, the north end was truncated back to Cresson.[35] On October 23, 1935, SH 122 extended back to Weatherford.[77] That route was replaced by SH 171 on September 26, 1939. On March 29, 1988, the second route was designated on the Fort Bend Parkway—stretching from Beltway 8 to the Grand Parkway (SH 99). Environmental and feasibility studies were conducted during the next 10 years. On February 27, 2003, the State Highway 122 designation was removed from the section north of State Highway 6, as this section was under construction, but not using state funding. On February 26, 2015, SH 122 was removed from the state highway system, as most of the route south of SH 6 had been built not using state funding.","title":"SH 122"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_126.svg"},{"link_name":"Knox City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knox_City,_TX"},{"link_name":"Munday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munday,_TX"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207th_meeting_minutes-79"}],"text":"State Highway 126 was designated on November 15, 1927, as a connector route between Knox City and Munday.[78] On March 19, 1930, the route was removed from the state highway list, but was still designated. On August 27, 1935, the route, which was not on the state highway list, was upgraded to a state highway, and renumbered to SH 222.[79]","title":"SH 126"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_129_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Brownwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownwood,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Rising Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rising_Star,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"US 283","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_283"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187th_meeting_minutes-81"}],"text":"State Highway 129 was designated on January 16, 1928, as a connector route between Brownwood and Rising Star.[80] It was co-located with US 283 in 1934. The co-designation was removed on July 23, 1934, and the route was transferred to SH 23 when it was rerouted further east.[81]","title":"SH 129"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_133_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Moss Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss_Hill,_TX"},{"link_name":"Beaumont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaumont,_TX"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"text":"State Highway 133 was designated on April 25, 1928, between Moss Hill and Beaumont.[82] The route was still not built by 1933, and was removed as a state highway on July 12, 1933, and reassigned as an eastward extension of SH 105.[83] This section of SH 105 was cancelled on July 15, 1935, as the road was not built. This road was restored as part of SH 105 again on February 11, 1937.","title":"SH 133"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_134_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"Lubbock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubbock,_TX"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_134.svg"},{"link_name":"San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Jacinto_Battleground_State_Historic_Site"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119th_meeting_minutes-24"},{"link_name":"SH 225","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_225"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"}],"text":"State Highway 134 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on May 25, 1928[84] as a new highway from Lubbock west to the New Mexico border. This route became the western extension of SH 24 on March 19, 1930.The route was instead designated as the connector route to the San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site outside Houston that same day (originally designated on March 19, 1928, as SH 4-21-36).[24] SH 134 was not connected to any other state highway until SH 225 was designated on December 21, 1935. SH 134 was returned to local jurisdiction on December 14, 2006.[85]","title":"SH 134"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_139_1917.svg"},{"link_name":"Corsicana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsicana,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Palestine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine,_Texas"},{"link_name":"SH 22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_22"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_139.svg"},{"link_name":"Chilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilton,_TX"},{"link_name":"Marlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlin,_TX"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Marquez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marquez,_TX"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"}],"text":"State Highway 139 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on April 23, 1929, from Corsicana to Palestine. On March 19, 1930, this became part of SH 22 (now US 287) when it was extended.SH 139 was instead proposed that same day as a connector route between Chilton and Marlin (previously unnumbered; originally designated on August 9, 1926).[86] On September 7, 1943, the route was extended east to the town of Marquez. The route became the western extension of SH 7 on July 15, 1948.[87]","title":"SH 139"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_143.svg"},{"link_name":"Channing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channing,_TX"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Dimmitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimmitt,_TX"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160th_meeting_minutes-18"},{"link_name":"Meadow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meadow,_TX"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187th_meeting_minutes-81"}],"text":"State Highway 143 was proposed on November 26, 1929, as a spur from SH 5 to Channing.[88] On November 30, 1932, SH 143 extended south to Dimmitt, and SH 5 was rerouted through Channing.[18] On February 9, 1933, SH 143 extended south to Meadow.[89] On July 16, 1934, the entire route was transferred to SH 51 (now US 385).[81]","title":"SH 143"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_145.svg"},{"link_name":"Three Rivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Rivers,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Alice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice,_Texas"},{"link_name":"SH 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_9"},{"link_name":"SH 66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_66"},{"link_name":"Princeton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton,_TX"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"}],"text":"State Highway 145 has been designated twice. The first SH 145 was designated on March 19, 1930, from Three Rivers to Alice, replacing a split of SH 9 so that SH 9 had only one route south of Three Rivers. On June 24, 1931, the entire route became part of SH 66. On July 15, 1932, a new SH 145 was proposed as a spur from SH 24 south to the town of Princeton.[90] The route was redesignated as Spur 73 on September 26, 1939.[91] The route became part of FM 75 on April 15, 1943, but this section was given to the city of Princeton on February 28, 2019.","title":"SH 145"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_157.svg"},{"link_name":"Breckenridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breckenridge,_TX"},{"link_name":"Throckmorton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throckmorton,_TX"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"text":"State Highway 157 was designated on March 19, 1930, as a more direct route between Breckenridge and Throckmorton. It was a renumbering of SH 67A. The route became the northern extension of SH 6 on September 6, 1945.[92]","title":"SH 157"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_162.svg"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"}],"text":"State Highway 162 was designated on March 19, 1930, as a spur from SH 12 (now US 59) south to the Fannin Battleground State Historic Site as a renumbering of part of SH 12, which was rerouted to bypass the Fannin Battleground State Historic Site. The route was redesignated as Spur 91 (now PR 27) on May 9, 1940.[93]","title":"SH 162"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"KML file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Attached_KML/Texas_State_Highway_167&action=raw"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Attached_KML/Texas_State_Highway_167&action=edit"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Attached_KML"},{"link_name":"Template:Attached KML/Texas State Highway 167","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Attached_KML/Texas_State_Highway_167"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_167.svg"},{"link_name":"Monument Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monument_Hill_and_Kreische_Brewery_State_Historic_Sites"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TxDOT-95"},{"link_name":"SH 267","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_267"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TxDOT-95"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-minutes1-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-minutes2-97"}],"text":"KML file (edit • help)Template:Attached KML/Texas State Highway 167KML is not from WikidataState Highway 167 was designated on October 21, 1931, as a spur from US 77 to the Monument Hill State Historic Site.[94] The route was redesignated as Spur 92 on May 9, 1940.[95]The SH 167 designation was assigned on December 13, 2012, as a temporary state highway from SH 267, to US 67/US 377. At 230 feet, it was the shortest main state highway in Texas. The route was eliminated in 2013, when the US 67 relief route was completed.\n[95][96][97]","title":"SH 167"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_169.svg"},{"link_name":"Decatur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decatur,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Gainesville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gainesville,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157th_meeting_minutes-7"},{"link_name":"SH 89","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_89"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160th_meeting_minutes-18"},{"link_name":"Spur 69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Spur_69"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"}],"text":"State Highway 169 was designated on August 3, 1932, from Decatur to Gainesville.[7] This became part of SH 89 on November 30, 1932.[18] It was later reused as a proposed freeway in Austin from Loop 1 to I-35 on October 27, 1989, with local support as exhibited by the passage of a referendum election; and the City of Austin's support of a west/east facility in this corridor. The route was formerly Spur 69 and part of RM 2222, and was returned to the previous designations on July 19, 1990, as the agreement was not met.[98][99]","title":"SH 169"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_177.svg"},{"link_name":"La Ward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Ward,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_58"},{"link_name":"Blessing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blessing,_TX"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158th_meeting_minutes-100"},{"link_name":"SH 111","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_111"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"SH 57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_57"},{"link_name":"SH 35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_35"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207th_meeting_minutes-79"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"}],"text":"State Highway 177 was designated on September 22, 1932, as a spur between La Ward and SH 58 east of Blessing.[100] In late 1933, the section west of Blessing was cancelled, as SH 111 was rerouted on a road just to the north. On January 9, 1934, SH 177 was cancelled.[101] On April 10, 1934, SH 58, along with SH 57, became part of SH 35. On August 27, 1935, the portion of SH 177 from SH 35 to Blessing was restored.[79] The route was redesignated as Spur 93 (later FM 1727, now FM 616) on May 9, 1940.[102]","title":"SH 177"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_181.svg"},{"link_name":"Gary City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_City,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160th_meeting_minutes-18"},{"link_name":"SH 8A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_8"},{"link_name":"FM 999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_999"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"text":"State Highway 181 was designated on November 30, 1932, as a spur from Gary City east to US 59.[18] This road was SH 8A before March 19, 1930, and this highway was erroneously omitted from the March 19, 1930 state highway log. The route became the eastern extension of FM 999 on June 29, 1950.[103]","title":"SH 181"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_187.svg"},{"link_name":"Cisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_67"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160th_meeting_minutes-18"},{"link_name":"US 183","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_183"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"}],"text":"State Highway 187 was proposed on November 30, 1932, as a connector between Cisco and SH 67 to the northeast.[18] The route became a portion of US 183 when it was rerouted on May 28, 1952.[104]","title":"SH 187"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_189.svg"},{"link_name":"Catarina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catarina,_TX"},{"link_name":"Artesia Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artesia_Wells,_TX"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160th_meeting_minutes-18"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"FM 133","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_133"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"}],"text":"State Highway 189 was proposed on November 30, 1932, as a connector between Catarina and Artesia Wells.[18] The route was never completed, and was removed on July 15, 1935.[35] The route later became a portion of FM 133.[105]","title":"SH 189"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Texas_192.svg"},{"link_name":"Pecos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pecos,_TX"},{"link_name":"Fort Stockton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Stockton,_TX"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160th_meeting_minutes-18"},{"link_name":"SH 27","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_27"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166th_meeting_minutes-106"}],"text":"State Highway 192 was designated on November 30, 1932, as a connector between Pecos and Fort Stockton.[18] The route became a portion of SH 27 on June 20, 1933, when it was rerouted northwest from Fort Stockton.[106]","title":"SH 192"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_196.svg"},{"link_name":"US 80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_80"},{"link_name":"Fort Stockton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Stockton,_TX"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166th_meeting_minutes-106"},{"link_name":"US 290","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_290"}],"text":"State Highway 196 was designated on June 20, 1933, as a connector between US 80 in far western Reeves County and Fort Stockton. The route was formerly a portion of SH 27 before it was rerouted northwest from Fort Stockton, replacing SH 192.[106] The route was codesignated with US 290, and the codesignation was removed on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 196"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_197.svg"},{"link_name":"Waxahachie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waxahachie,_TX"},{"link_name":"Dallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"SH 342","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_342"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"}],"text":"State Highway 197 was designated on August 16, 1933, as a more direct route between Waxahachie and downtown Dallas.[107] The designation was cancelled on November 24, 1941, because US 77 was rerouted along this route. The old route was renumbered to SH 342.[108]","title":"SH 197"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_200.svg"},{"link_name":"Gonzales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzales,_TX"},{"link_name":"Hallettsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallettsville,_TX"},{"link_name":"Eagle Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Lake,_TX"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"SH 253","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_253"},{"link_name":"Wharton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wharton,_TX"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236th_meeting_minutes-111"},{"link_name":"Nixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nixon,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 112","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_112"},{"link_name":"Eagle Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Lake,_TX"},{"link_name":"US 90A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_90_Alternate_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"SH 97","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_97"},{"link_name":"Ingleside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingleside,_TX"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"text":"State Highway 200 has been designated twice. The first designation was on November 22, 1933, as a route from Gonzales eastward through Hallettsville to Eagle Lake.[109] On July 15, 1935, SH 200 was cancelled.[35] On October 20, 1936, SH 200 was restored.[110] On September 16, 1937, the section from Hallettsville to Eagle Lake was renumbered as SH 253, and SH 200 was instead rerouted southeast to Wharton.[111] On September 26, 1939, SH 200 extended southwest to SH 80 in Nixon, replacing SH 112. In 1940, the section from Gonzales to Hallettsville was minimally maintained, and the section east of Hallettsville remained unbuilt. On May 29, 1941, the path east of Hallettsville was rerouted back to Eagle Lake, replacing SH 253 (the route to Wharton was never built). This entire route was cancelled on March 28, 1952: the section from Gonzales to Eagle Lake was transferred to US 90A and the section from SH 80 to Gonzales became an extension of SH 97. The second route was designated on February 24, 1988, from Ingleside south to the Corpus Christi Homeport. The route remains unbuilt.[112][113]","title":"SH 200"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_209.svg"},{"link_name":"Pampa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pampa,_TX"},{"link_name":"Borger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borger,_TX"},{"link_name":"Texas Panhandle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Panhandle"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187th_meeting_minutes-81"},{"link_name":"SH 152","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_152"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254th_meeting_minutes-114"}],"text":"State Highway 209 was designated on July 16, 1934, as a connector between Pampa and Borger in the Texas Panhandle.[81] The route became the western extension of SH 152 on June 21, 1938.[114]","title":"SH 209"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_212.svg"},{"link_name":"Cayuga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cayuga,_TX&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Fairfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfield,_TX"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 59","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_59"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"FM 488","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_488"}],"text":"State Highway 212 was designated on July 31, 1934, as a connector between Cayuga and Fairfield.[115] On September 11, 1934, it extended to Athens. On July 15, 1935, this route was cancelled, and the northern half of this route was transferred to FM 59 in 1942.[35] The rest is now FM 488.","title":"SH 212"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_215.svg"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196th_meeting_minutes-46"},{"link_name":"Carthage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage,_TX"},{"link_name":"Mount Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Enterprise,_TX"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-224th_meeting_minutes-42"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-231st_meeting_minutes-36"},{"link_name":"SH 315","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_315"}],"text":"State Highway 215 was designated on January 18, 1935[46] as a connector between Carthage and Mount Enterprise. On July 15, 1935, this route was cancelled.[35] This route was restored on December 22, 1936.[42] On April 28, 1937, this route was cancelled because a feeder road upgrading the existing road between the endpoints was under planning.[36] The feeder road was redesignated as SH 315 on April 1, 1939.","title":"SH 215"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_216.svg"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196th_meeting_minutes-46"},{"link_name":"Midland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_51"},{"link_name":"SH 137","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_137"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206th_meeting_minutes-35"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207th_meeting_minutes-79"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221st_meeting_minutes-117"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223rd_meeting_minutes-118"},{"link_name":"SH 158","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_158"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"}],"text":"State Highway 216 was designated on January 18, 1935[46] as a connector between Midland and SH 51 (designation accidentally said SH 137) in Andrews County. On February 26, 1935, it was adjusted to end in Ector County.[116] On July 15, 1935, this route was cancelled.[35] On September 4, 1935, this route was submitted as a lateral road project for possible restoration.[79] The section from SH 51 east to the county line was restored on September 22, 1936.[117] On November 24, 1936, an extension to Kermit was proposed.[118] On February 11, 1937, this route was cancelled, and became an extension of SH 158.[119]","title":"SH 216"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_219.svg"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"US 190","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_190"},{"link_name":"Huntsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_TX"},{"link_name":"Sam Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Houston"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"}],"text":"State Highway 219 was designated on June 11, 1935[120] as a connector between US 190 in Huntsville and the gravesite of Sam Houston on the north side of Huntsville. The route was redesignated as Spur 94 on May 9, 1940.[121]","title":"SH 219"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_221.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_36"},{"link_name":"Heidenheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidenheimer,_TX"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207th_meeting_minutes-79"},{"link_name":"Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple,_TX"},{"link_name":"Rogers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogers,_TX"},{"link_name":"Little River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_River,_TX"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"FM 93","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_93"},{"link_name":"FM 436","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_436"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"}],"text":"State Highway 221 was designated on August 27, 1935, as a loop connector for SH 36, giving access to Heidenheimer, replacing State Highway 36A.[79] The route was removed on January 6, 1939, as a more direct route for SH 36 from Temple to Rogers through Heidenheimer (rather than Little River) was completed.[122] The former SH 221 is now mostly FM 93 and FM 436 from \"Old 95\" (which was actually part of SH 95 in the 1930s) north of Little River to Reed's Lake Road east of Little River.[123]","title":"SH 221"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_226.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 112","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_112"},{"link_name":"Guadalupe River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalupe_River_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Texas_Highway_Map-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"Spur 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Spur_95"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"}],"text":"State Highway 226 was designated on February 18, 1936, as a connector from then-SH 112 (now SH 97) to the location of the monument on the Guadalupe River commemorating the firing of the first shot in the Texas-Mexican Revolution.[124][125] The route was redesignated as Spur 95 on May 9, 1940.[126]","title":"SH 226"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_227.svg"},{"link_name":"Marathon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon,_TX"},{"link_name":"Big Bend National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bend_National_Park"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Texas_Highway_Map-124"},{"link_name":"SH 51","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_51"},{"link_name":"US 385","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_385"},{"link_name":"SH 288","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_288"},{"link_name":"FM 521","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_521"},{"link_name":"Angleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angleton,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 332","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_332"},{"link_name":"Clute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clute,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_36"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"}],"text":"State Highway 227 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on March 17, 1936, as a route from Marathon south into the Big Bend National Park, with a spur to Terlingua.[127][124] On October 30, 1939, the spur to Terlingua became part of SH 118. The remoteness of the route made construction improvement difficult and slow. On February 20, 1946, the section of SH 227 in Big Bend National Park was cancelled, as Big Bend State Park became a National Park. The route became the southern extension to SH 51 on October 24, 1956, for preparation of a proposed U.S. Route. The U.S. Route was accepted as US 385 on August 28, 1958, cancelling SH 51. The second route was designated on September 26, 1986, as the former routing of SH 288 from FM 521 south Angleton south to SH 332 and SH 288 in Clute. On February 23, 1989, SH 227 extended south to SH 36 over old SH 288. On August 15, 1989, the section from SH 36 northward 4 miles was transferred back to SH 288. This route was redesignated as Business SH 288-B on October 25, 1990.[128]","title":"SH 227"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_228.svg"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_TX"},{"link_name":"Port Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Arthur,_TX"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"SH 73","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_73"}],"text":"State Highway 228 was designated on April 20, 1936, as a route from Houston to Port Arthur.[129] On September 26, 1939, this route was cancelled and transferred to SH 73.","title":"SH 228"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_229.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_90"},{"link_name":"Washington-on-the-Brazos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington-on-the-Brazos,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218th_meeting_minutes-130"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Texas_Highway_Map-124"},{"link_name":"PR 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Park_Road_12"}],"text":"State Highway 229 was designated on May 19, 1936, as a route from SH 90 to Washington-on-the-Brazos.[130][124] On September 26, 1939, this route was transferred to PR 12.","title":"SH 229"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_230.svg"},{"link_name":"Bryan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan,_TX"},{"link_name":"College Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_Station,_TX"},{"link_name":"Somerville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somerville,_TX"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218th_meeting_minutes-130"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Texas_Highway_Map-124"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264th_meeting_minutes-131"},{"link_name":"Midlothian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midlothian,_TX"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"}],"text":"State Highway 230 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on May 19, 1936, as a route from near Bryan (now in College Station city limits) southwest to Somerville.[130][124] On January 24, 1939, SH 230 was extended east from old SH 6 to new SH 6.[131] This route was transferred to FM 50 and FM 60 (now FM 50) on May 20, 1942. The second route was designated on June 21, 1990, as a bypass route around the western and southern side of Midlothian. The routing was proposed as the main routing of US 287 on May 29, 2003. The old route was to become a business route. The SH 230 designation was never rescinded.[132][133]","title":"SH 230"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_231.svg"},{"link_name":"Southmayd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southmayd,_TX"},{"link_name":"Dorchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorchester,_TX"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219th_meeting_minutes-72"},{"link_name":"SH 289","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_289"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"}],"text":"State Highway 231 was designated on June 16, 1936, as a connector route between Southmayd and Dorchester.[72] The designation was cancelled on March 6, 1941. The section from SH 289 to Dorchester was restored as FM 902 on November 23, 1948.[134][135]","title":"SH 231"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_232.svg"},{"link_name":"Blanco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanco,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_80"},{"link_name":"Wimberley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wimberley,_TX"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220th_meeting_minutes-8"},{"link_name":"RM 32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranch_to_Market_Road_32"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"}],"text":"State Highway 232 was designated on August 1, 1936, as a connecting route between Blanco and SH 80 south of Wimberley.[8] Construction of the portions of the route in Blanco and Hays Counties were completed by 1940, but improved routing through Comal County was slow to complete. On April 29, 1942, the route was transferred to RM 32.[136]","title":"SH 232"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_233.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_1"},{"link_name":"US 80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_80"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 166","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_166"},{"link_name":"Fort Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Davis,_TX"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-220th_meeting_minutes-8"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Texas_Highway_Map-124"},{"link_name":"SH 118","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_118"}],"text":"State Highway 233 was designated on August 1, 1936, as a connecting route between SH 1/US 80 in Kent and SH 166 near Fort Davis.[8][124] On September 26, 1939, this route was cancelled, and this route became an extension of SH 118.","title":"SH 233"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_235.svg"},{"link_name":"Vidor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidor,_TX"},{"link_name":"Deweyville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deweyville,_TX"},{"link_name":"Sabine River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabine_River_(Texas%E2%80%93Louisiana)"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-221st_meeting_minutes-117"},{"link_name":"SH 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_12"},{"link_name":"Louisiana Highway 12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Highway_12"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"}],"text":"State Highway 235 was designated on September 22, 1936, as a connecting route from Vidor northeast to the Deweyville bridge crossing the Sabine River and continuing into Louisiana.[117] The route was renumbered SH 12 on August 27, 1959, to correspond to the connecting Louisiana Highway 12.[137]","title":"SH 235"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_241.svg"},{"link_name":"Jourdanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jourdanton,_TX"},{"link_name":"Freer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freer,_TX"},{"link_name":"Hebbronville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebbronville,_TX"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-223rd_meeting_minutes-118"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-138"},{"link_name":"Rio Grande City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Grande_City,_TX"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"SH 173","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_173"},{"link_name":"SH 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_16"}],"text":"State Highway 241 was designated on November 24, 1936, as a route southward from Jourdanton, ending at Freer, with the possible extension further south to Hebbronville.[118][138] On December 22, 1937, the highway was extended south to Rio Grande City, but this was reverted by April 1, 1938.[139] On September 26, 1939, the route became the southern extension of SH 173 (now SH 16).","title":"SH 241"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_244.svg"},{"link_name":"US 290","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_290"},{"link_name":"Prairie View College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prairie_View_A_%26_M_College"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-138"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"}],"text":"State Highway 244 was designated on February 25, 1937, as a connecting route between US 290 and Prairie View College.[140][138] The route was redesignated as Spur 96 (now FM 1098) on May 9, 1940.[141]","title":"SH 244"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_245.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_77"},{"link_name":"Marietta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marietta,_TX"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-138"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"}],"text":"State Highway 245 was designated on April 19, 1937, as a connecting route between SH 77 and Marietta.[142][138] The route was redesignated as Spur 97 (now FM 250) on May 9, 1940.[143]","title":"SH 245"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_246.svg"},{"link_name":"US 75","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_75"},{"link_name":"US 77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_77"},{"link_name":"Dallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallas"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233rd_meeting_minutes-144"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-138"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"}],"text":"State Highway 246 was designated on June 23, 1937, as a connecting route between US 75 and US 77 (now SH 342) south of Dallas.[144][138] The route was removed from the state highway system on August 22, 1951, because it was replaced by Loop 12, though signage was not removed until January 1, 1952.[145] It is now East Illinois Avenue from Lancaster Road to IH 45 in Dallas.[146]","title":"SH 246"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_247.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 154","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_154"},{"link_name":"SH 24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_24"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233rd_meeting_minutes-144"},{"link_name":"SH 154","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_154"},{"link_name":"Ladonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladonia,_TX"},{"link_name":"Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooper,_TX"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-237th_meeting_minutes-147"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-138"},{"link_name":"FM 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_64"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"}],"text":"State Highway 247 was designated on June 23, 1937, as a connecting route between SH 154 and SH 24.[144] On August 4, 1937, this became part of SH 154, and it was reassigned to the old route of SH 154 from Ladonia to Cooper.[147][138] Part of the route was built west from Cooper by 1940. The completed portion of the route was redesignated as FM 64 on June 23, 1942.[148][149]","title":"SH 247"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_248.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 81","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_81"},{"link_name":"Kerrville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerrville,_TX"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233rd_meeting_minutes-144"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-138"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"}],"text":"State Highway 248 was designated on June 22, 1937, as a connecting route between SH 81 (now SH 16) at Kerrville and the local state mental hospital.[144][138] The route was transferred to Spur 98 (now Loop 98) on May 9, 1940.[150]","title":"SH 248"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_250.svg"},{"link_name":"Mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission,_TX"},{"link_name":"Edinburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburg,_TX"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-233rd_meeting_minutes-144"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-138"},{"link_name":"SH 107","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_107"}],"text":"State Highway 250 was designated on June 22, 1937, as a connecting route between Mission and Edinburg.[144][138] The route became the western extension of SH 107 on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 250"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_252.svg"},{"link_name":"Munday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munday,_TX"},{"link_name":"US 82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_82"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-237th_meeting_minutes-147"},{"link_name":"SH 222","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_222"},{"link_name":"FM 267","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_267"}],"text":"State Highway 252 was designated on August 3, 1937, as a connecting route from Munday north to US 82.[147] This route became the northern extension of SH 222 (now FM 267) on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 252"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_253.svg"},{"link_name":"Hallettsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallettsville,_TX"},{"link_name":"Eagle Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eagle_Lake,_TX"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-236th_meeting_minutes-111"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"}],"text":"State Highway 253 was designated on September 16, 1937, as a connecting route between Hallettsville and Eagle Lake as a renumbering of part of SH 200, which was rerouted southeast to Wharton.[111] It became part of then-SH 200 (now US 90A) on May 29, 1941, as the rerouting of SH 200 to Wharton was cancelled as it was never built.[151]","title":"SH 253"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_257.svg"},{"link_name":"Laredo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laredo,_TX"},{"link_name":"George West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_West,_TX"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"Refugio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugio,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 202","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_202"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"}],"text":"State Highway 257 was designated on November 5, 1937, as a route from Laredo northeast to George West.[152] On September 26, 1939, SH 257 was to extend to Refugio. The route became an expansion and redirection of SH 202 on October 30, 1939, before signage on SH 202 was changed.[153]","title":"SH 257"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_259.svg"},{"link_name":"Rusk County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusk_County,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-252nd_meeting_minutes-47"},{"link_name":"Kilgore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilgore,_TX"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-258th_meeting_minutes-154"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"SH 42","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_42"},{"link_name":"US 259","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_259"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"}],"text":"State Highway 259 was designated on April 19, 1938, as a route across western Rusk County north to the Gregg/Rusk County Line.[47] It extended to Kilgore on September 20, 1938.[154] It was extended to Gladewater on July 25, 1939.[155] The route was transferred to SH 42 in 1962, to avoid confusion with US 259, which also ran through Kilgore.[156]","title":"SH 259"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_260.svg"},{"link_name":"Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-250th_meeting_minutes-40"},{"link_name":"FM 71","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_71"}],"text":"State Highway 260 was designated on February 21, 1938, from Commerce to Naples.[40] The route was cancelled when it was built. On September 26, 1939, this became the western extension of SH 77, and this section was cancelled on January 14, 1941. It became FM 71 in 1942.","title":"SH 260"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_262.svg"},{"link_name":"Big Spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Spring,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrews,_TX"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-252nd_meeting_minutes-47"},{"link_name":"Stanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanton,_TX"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262nd_meeting_minutes-158"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"SH 176","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_176"}],"text":"State Highway 262 was designated on April 19, 1938, as a route from Big Spring west to Andrews.[47] On August 1, 1938, it was rerouted to go south to Stanton.[157] On December 21, 1938, the west end was shortened to 8 miles east of Andrews.[158] The route was cancelled when the counties got ROW deeds on April 25, 1939.[159] It became RM 87 (now SH 176) in 1942.","title":"SH 262"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_263.svg"},{"link_name":"Bonham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonham,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Randolph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randolph,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-252nd_meeting_minutes-47"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-266th_meeting_minutes-160"},{"link_name":"FM 82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_82"},{"link_name":"SH 121","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_121"}],"text":"State Highway 263 was designated on April 19, 1938, from Bonham to Randolph.[47] The route was cancelled on March 21, 1939.[160] The route was restored on September 6, 1943, as FM 82 (now SH 121).","title":"SH 263"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_264.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 27","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_27"},{"link_name":"Fredericksburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredericksburg,_TX"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-253rd_meeting_minutes-48"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"}],"text":"State Highway 264 was designated on May 24, 1938, as a connector route from SH 27 near Fredericksburg to the American Legion Cemetery.[48] This route was redesignated as Spur 100 on May 9, 1940.[161]","title":"SH 264"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_265.svg"},{"link_name":"Normangee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normangee,_TX"},{"link_name":"Normangee State Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normangee_State_Park"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-253rd_meeting_minutes-48"},{"link_name":"FM 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_3"},{"link_name":"Beltway 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Beltway_8"},{"link_name":"Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston"},{"link_name":"Alvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin,_TX"},{"link_name":"Jamaica Beach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica_Beach,_TX"},{"link_name":"Galveston Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galveston_Island"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"}],"text":"State Highway 265 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on May 24, 1938, as a connector route from Normangee to the Normangee State Park.[48] This route cancelled on March 26, 1942, in exchange for creation of FM 3. The route was again designated on July 29, 1987, as a proposed freeway, called the \"GAP Freeway\" or the \"West Bay Freeway\", from Beltway 8 on the south side of Houston southward through Alvin to Jamaica Beach on Galveston Island. This route was never built, and was cancelled on July 28, 1994.[162]","title":"SH 265"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_266.svg"},{"link_name":"Nacogdoches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacogdoches,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Ratcliff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratcliff,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-253rd_meeting_minutes-48"},{"link_name":"SH 7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_7"}],"text":"State Highway 266 was designated on May 24, 1938, from Nacogdoches to Ratcliff.[48] This became part of SH 7 on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 266"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_267.svg"},{"link_name":"Real County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_County,_Texas"},{"link_name":"SH 41","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_41"},{"link_name":"US 83","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_83_in_Texas"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-253rd_meeting_minutes-48"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"RM 336","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranch_to_Market_Road_336"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SH_267-164"},{"link_name":"Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dublin,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Erath County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erath_County,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SH_267-164"}],"text":"State Highway 267 was designated on May 24, 1938, as a route in rural Real County from SH 41 8 miles west of the Real/Kerr County Line to US 83 north of Leakey.[48] This route was cancelled on August 20, 1940.[163] The route was later redesignated as RM 336 in 1945.[164] The SH 267 designation was assigned in 2012 as a proposed relief route around Dublin in Erath County previously considered as a rerouting of on March 29, 2012. The numbering was transferred back to US 67 in 2013.[164]","title":"SH 267"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_268.svg"},{"link_name":"San Angelo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Angelo,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Paint Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paint_Rock,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-253rd_meeting_minutes-48"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-273rd_meeting_minutes-165"},{"link_name":"RM 380","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranch_to_Market_Road_380"}],"text":"State Highway 268 was designated on May 24, 1938, as a route from San Angelo east to Paint Rock.[48] The route was cancelled on August 31, 1939, when the counties got ROW deeds.[165] It became RM 380 in 1945.","title":"SH 268"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_269.svg"},{"link_name":"Troup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troup,_TX"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254th_meeting_minutes-114"},{"link_name":"FM 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_15"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"}],"text":"State Highway 269 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Troup to Wright City.[114] The route was redesignated as FM 15 on March 26, 1942.[166][167]","title":"SH 269"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_270.svg"},{"link_name":"Tyler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyler,_TX"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254th_meeting_minutes-114"},{"link_name":"FM 14","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_14"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"}],"text":"State Highway 270 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Tyler north to the Tyler State Park near Sandflat.[114] The route was redesignated as FM 14 on March 26, 1942.[168]","title":"SH 270"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_271.svg"},{"link_name":"Rankin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rankin,_TX"},{"link_name":"Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield,_TX"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254th_meeting_minutes-114"},{"link_name":"SH 137","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_137"}],"text":"State Highway 271 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Rankin to Sheffield.[114] The route was redesignated as SH 137 on September 26, 1939, when it was extended south.","title":"SH 271"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_272.svg"},{"link_name":"Neches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neches,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-254th_meeting_minutes-114"},{"link_name":"WPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration"},{"link_name":"FM 19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_19"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"}],"text":"State Highway 272 was designated on June 21, 1938, as a connector route from Neches north to Todd City.[114] This route was cancelled upon the completion of the WPA project (which happened some time after September 26, 1939). The route was restored as FM 19 on April 29, 1942.[169]","title":"SH 272"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_277.svg"},{"link_name":"Kilgore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilgore,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-258th_meeting_minutes-154"},{"link_name":"SH 42","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_42"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"}],"text":"State Highway 277 was designated on September 20, 1938, as a connector route along the very southern edge of Kilgore.[154] This route was redesignated to Spur 101 (now SH 42) on May 9, 1940.[170]","title":"SH 277"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_278.svg"},{"link_name":"Floydada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floydada,_TX"},{"link_name":"Littlefield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littlefield,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 214","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_214_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"Muleshoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muleshoe,_TX"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-258th_meeting_minutes-154"},{"link_name":"FM 54","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_54"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"}],"text":"State Highway 278 was designated in 1938 as a route from Floydada West through Littlefield to SH 214 south of Muleshoe, near Enochs.[154] On August 27, 1940, the section from US 87 west to the Hale/Lamb County Line was cancelled. On October 22, 1940, the sections from SH 214 to the Lamb/Bailey County Line and from the Hale/Lamb County Line to Littlefield were cancelled. On November 22, 1940, the remainder of the route was cancelled. The route was resurrected as FM 54 starting on May 20, 1942.[171]","title":"SH 278"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_280.svg"},{"link_name":"Plainview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plainview,_TX"},{"link_name":"Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petersburg,_TX"},{"link_name":"Slaton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slaton,_TX"},{"link_name":"Tahoka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahoka,_TX"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"SH 194","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_194"}],"text":"State Highway 280 was designated on October 25, 1938, from Plainview southeast through Petersburg, then southwest through Slaton to Tahoka.[172] This became part of SH 194 on September 26, 1939, but this section ended up never being built.","title":"SH 280"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_281.svg"},{"link_name":"Jacksboro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksboro,_TX"},{"link_name":"Fort Worth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Worth"},{"link_name":"SH 319","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_319"}],"text":"State Highway 281 was proposed to be designated on September 26, 1939, from Jacksboro southeast into Fort Worth, replacing a portion of SH 34 (it would go from Oklahoma to Dumas if US 287 was not accepted). The road was actually designated as SH 319 (because it crossed US 281), and became a portion of SH 199 two months later.","title":"SH 281"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_282.svg"},{"link_name":"Spearman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_18"},{"link_name":"Guymon, Oklahoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guymon,_Oklahoma"},{"link_name":"SH 15","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_15_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"SH 207","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_207_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"US 77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_77"},{"link_name":"Kingsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingsville,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Kingsville Naval Air Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Air_Station_Kingsville"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"}],"text":"State Highway 282 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from Spearman north to the Oklahoma State line as a renumbering of part of SH 18, continuing to Guymon, Oklahoma. This route was transferred completely to SH 15 and SH 207 on September 1, 1965. The route was again designated on September 28, 1993, as a route from US 77 on the south side of Kingsville east to the entrance to Kingsville Naval Air Station via Caesar Avenue. This route was completed in 1996, and was cancelled per agreement at that time and ownership returned to the city of Kingsville.[173]","title":"SH 282"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_284.svg"},{"link_name":"Goldthwaite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldthwaite,_TX"},{"link_name":"Lometa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lometa,_TX"},{"link_name":"US 183","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_183"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"}],"text":"State Highway 284 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from Goldthwaite southeast to Lometa as a renumbering of SH 74A. This route became a portion of US 183 when it was extended south on May 23, 1951.[174]","title":"SH 284"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_287.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_9"},{"link_name":"San Antonio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_16"}],"text":"State Highway 287 was proposed to be designated on September 26, 1939 to replace the section of SH 9 from US 87 in San Antonio to US 281. The road was actually designated as an extension of SH 16.","title":"SH 287"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_291.svg"},{"link_name":"SH 171","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_171_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"US 81","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_81"},{"link_name":"Itasca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itasca,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 2A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_2"},{"link_name":"FM 67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_67"},{"link_name":"FM 712","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_712"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"}],"text":"State Highway 291 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from SH 171 to US 81 near Itasca and a renumbering of one part of SH 2A. On October 31, 1958, the extension of FM 67 from Covington to US 81 & FM 712 was designated 4 miles north of SH 291, and FM 712 was cancelled and combined with FM 67. FM 712 was reassigned to a road in Falls County on December 19, 1959. When construction was completed, SH 291 would be cancelled. On November 2, 1962, SH 291 was redesignated as FM 2719, due to the completion of the FM 67 extension.[175]","title":"SH 291"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_292.svg"},{"link_name":"US 67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_67"},{"link_name":"Keene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keene,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 68 Spur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_68"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"}],"text":"State Highway 292 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a connector route from US 67 north to Keene as a renumbering of SH 68 Spur. This route was redesignated as State Spur 102 on May 9, 1940.[176]","title":"SH 292"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_293.svg"},{"link_name":"Ratliff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ratliff,_TX&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Lufkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufkin,_TX"},{"link_name":"Milam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milam,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 103","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_103_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"}],"text":"State Highway 293 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a route from Ratliff via Lufkin to near Milam. This route was found to be a duplicate of the eastern extension of SH 103, and was thus renumbered to reflect this on October 30, 1939.[177]","title":"SH 293"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_295.svg"},{"link_name":"Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria,_TX"},{"link_name":"Hallettsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallettsville,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 44","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_44"},{"link_name":"US 77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_77"},{"link_name":"Goliad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goliad,_TX"},{"link_name":"Alt. US 77","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_77_Alternate_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"}],"text":"State Highway 295 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a more direct route from Victoria north to Hallettsville, replacing part of SH 44. This route became the main routing for US 77 on September 23, 1953, with the previous routing of US 77 from Victoria through Goliad to Hallettsville becoming Alt. US 77.[178]","title":"SH 295"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_296.svg"}],"text":"State Highway 296 was a proposed replacement of the disconnected section of SH 45 from Jasper to the Louisiana border that was never implemented, as SH 63 (which was to be cancelled in the renumbering due to US 287 Alternate replacing the remainder) was instead rerouted over this road.","title":"SH 296"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_297.svg"},{"link_name":"Schulenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schulenburg,_TX"},{"link_name":"Shiner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiner,_TX"},{"link_name":"Yoakum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoakum,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_95_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"SH 95","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_95_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"Mendoza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendoza,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Austin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austin,_TX"},{"link_name":"Seguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seguin,_TX"},{"link_name":"I-35","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_35"},{"link_name":"SH 130","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_130_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"}],"text":"State Highway 297 has been designated twice. The first route was designated on September 25, 1939, as a route from Schulenburg south via Shiner to Yoakum as a renumbering of part of SH 95. This route became the southward extension of SH 95 on November 20, 1939. The route was designated a second time on January 30, 1989, as a new route from Mendoza, just south of Austin, southwestward to Seguin, roughly parallel to I-35. It was to be part of the improved traffic flow around the city of Austin. This route was renumbered as a southward extension of SH 130 on December 8, 1993.[179]","title":"SH 297"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_298.svg"}],"text":"State Highway 298 was a proposed designation from SH 87 to the Sabine River that was never implemented, as it was designated as Spur 69 instead. On October 27, 1945, it was redesignated as part of SH 235 (now SH 12).","title":"SH 298"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_299.svg"},{"link_name":"US 59","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_59"},{"link_name":"US 69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_69"},{"link_name":"Lufkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lufkin,_TX"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264th_meeting_minutes-131"},{"link_name":"FM 58","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_58"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"}],"text":"State Highway 299 was designated on January 23, 1939, as a linking route between US 59 and US 69 on the far south side of Lufkin.[131] This route was cancelled and replaced by FM 58 on May 19, 1942.[180]","title":"SH 299"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_301.svg"},{"link_name":"Ranger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranger,_TX"},{"link_name":"Desdemona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Desdemona,_TX&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264th_meeting_minutes-131"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"}],"text":"State Highway 301 was designated on January 23, 1939, as a linking route between Ranger and Desdemona.[131] This route was cancelled when it was built.[181]","title":"SH 301"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_303.svg"},{"link_name":"Lamesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamesa,_TX"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"Stanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanton,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 137","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_137_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"}],"text":"State Highway 303 was designated on December 1, 1938, as a route from Lamesa to the Martin County Line.[182] The number was not assigned until January 23, 1939. On October 22, 1940, it extended south to Stanton. This route became the southern extension of SH 137 on August 23, 1943.[183]","title":"SH 303"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_306.svg"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy,_TX"},{"link_name":"Ennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ennis,_TX"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-262nd_meeting_minutes-158"},{"link_name":"SH 34","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_34_(Texas)"}],"text":"State Highway 306 was designated on December 21, 1938, as a route between Italy and Ennis.[158] The number was not assigned until January 23, 1939. This route became the western extension of SH 34 on September 26, 1939.","title":"SH 306"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_307.svg"},{"link_name":"Texas A&M University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_A%26M_University"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-264th_meeting_minutes-131"},{"link_name":"SH 6-B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_State_Highway_6_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"SH 308","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_308"},{"link_name":"FM 60","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_60"},{"link_name":"FM 2347","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_2347"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"}],"text":"State Highway 307 was designated on January 24, 1939, as a transit route along the southern edge of Texas A&M University.[131] The route ran along what is now George Bush Drive from Wellborn Road to Texas Avenue (SH 6-B). This route, along with the part of SH 308 south of FM 60, was cancelled on January 31, 1961. This was redesignated as FM 2347 on January 31, 1967.[184]","title":"SH 307"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_311.svg"},{"link_name":"Luling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luling,_TX"},{"link_name":"Red Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_Rock,_TX&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"FM 86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_86"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"}],"text":"State Highway 311 was designated on February 20, 1939, as a route between Luling and Red Rock.[185] This route was renamed FM 86 on August 24, 1943.[186]","title":"SH 311"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_313.svg"},{"link_name":"Huntsville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_TX"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-266th_meeting_minutes-160"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"}],"text":"State Highway 313 was designated on March 21, 1939, as a route from Huntsville northwest to the Huntsville/Midway Road.[160] This route was cancelled on February 4, 1941.[187]","title":"SH 313"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_314.svg"},{"link_name":"Bailey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailey,_TX"},{"link_name":"Commerce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commerce,_TX"},{"link_name":"Wolfe City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfe_City,_TX"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"FM 512","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_512"},{"link_name":"Aberfoyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberfoyle,_Texas"},{"link_name":"FM 816","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_816"},{"link_name":"FM 272","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_272"},{"link_name":"FM 1551","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_1551"},{"link_name":"FM 2320","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_2320"},{"link_name":"FM 1281","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_1281"},{"link_name":"SH 11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_11"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-193"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-194"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"}],"text":"State Highway 314 was designated on April 1, 1939, as a connector route between Bailey and Commerce via Wolfe City.[188] The section from Wolfe City to Commerce was cancelled on March 27, 1940. The remainder of the highway was cancelled on December 3, 1940.[189] This route was partially restored on June 25, 1945, as FM 512 from Commerce to Aberfoyle. On September 9, 1947, another part of SH 314 was restored as FM 816 from Wolfe City to FM 272 in Hickory Creek. On October 25, 1949, another part of SH 314 was restored as FM 1551 from Bailey south to the Fannin/Hunt County Line. On November 30, 1949, FM 816 extended north from Hickory Creek to FM 1551 at the Fannin/Hunt county line, and FM 1551 became part of FM 816, restoring more of SH 314. That same day, FM 512 extended to Wolfe City, restoring the remainder of SH 314. As a result, SH 314 was entirely restored. SH 314 was bypassed by FM 2320, designated on August 24, 1955, from Commerce to Wolfe City. On November 21, 1956, FM 2320 extended west to Bailey. On October 31, 1958, FM 2320 became part of FM 1281, and FM 1281 became part of SH 11 on December 17, 1970.[190][191][192][193][194][195]","title":"SH 314"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_318.svg"},{"link_name":"Seagraves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagraves,_TX"},{"link_name":"Denver City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver_City,_TX"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-273rd_meeting_minutes-165"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"}],"text":"State Highway 318 was designated on September 1, 1939, as a route between Seagraves and Denver City.[165] This route was cancelled on December 18, 1939.[196][197] The route was restored as a portion of SH 328 in 1940.","title":"SH 318"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_319.svg"},{"link_name":"Jacksboro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksboro,_TX"},{"link_name":"Fort Worth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Worth"},{"link_name":"SH 199","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_199_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"}],"text":"State Highway 319 was designated on September 26, 1939, as a route from Jacksboro southeast into Fort Worth, replacing a portion of SH 34. Note that this was to be SH 281 in the initial renumbering plans. This route became the eastern extension of SH 199 on October 30, 1939.[198] The present-day routing of SH 199 was the original routing of SH 319.","title":"SH 319"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_324.svg"},{"link_name":"Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henderson,_TX"},{"link_name":"Carlisle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlisle,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price,_Texas"},{"link_name":"FM 13","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_13"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-199"}],"text":"State Highway 324 was designated on October 30, 1939, as a route between Henderson and Carlisle (now Price). This route was replaced by FM 13 on March 26, 1942.[199]","title":"SH 324"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_325.svg"},{"link_name":"Itasca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Itasca,_Texas"},{"link_name":"Files Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Files_Valley,_Texas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"FM 66","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_66"},{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-200"}],"text":"State Highway 325 was designated on December 7, 1939, as a route between Itasca and Files Valley. This route was cancelled on February 20, 1940. This route was replaced by FM 66 on June 23, 1942.[200]","title":"SH 325"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_328.svg"},{"link_name":"Seagraves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagraves,_TX"},{"link_name":"O'Donnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Donnell,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 83","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_83_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[201]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-201"}],"text":"State Highway 328 was designated on February 13, 1940, as a route between Seagraves and O'Donnell. The route was extended west to Denver City on May 20, 1940. On October 24, 1941, the section of the route from the Gaines/Dawson County Line to O'Donnell was cancelled. On January 9, 1945, the route extended east to SH 137. On September 26, 1945, SH 328 extended west to the Texas/New Mexico state line. This route was renumbered SH 83 on March 31, 1955[201] \"for the convenience of the traveling public\", as is now corresponded to New Mexico Route 83 to which it connected at the state line.","title":"SH 328"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_330.svg"},{"link_name":"Intracoastal Waterway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracoastal_Waterway"},{"link_name":"Sargent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sargent,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 457","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_457"},{"link_name":"[202]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-202"}],"text":"State Highway 330 was designated on May 9, 1940, as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway southeast of Sargent. This route was transferred to FM 457 on December 17, 1952.[202]","title":"SH 330"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_331.svg"},{"link_name":"Corpus Christi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Christi,_TX"},{"link_name":"Corpus Christi Naval Air Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_Christi_Naval_Air_Station"},{"link_name":"[203]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-203"}],"text":"State Highway 331 was designated on July 20, 1940, as a connector route from Corpus Christi to Corpus Christi Naval Air Station. The route was never built and was cancelled on October 1, 1940.[203]","title":"SH 331"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_333.svg"},{"link_name":"Intracoastal Waterway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracoastal_Waterway"},{"link_name":"Freeport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeport,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 334","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_334"},{"link_name":"FM 1495","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_1495"},{"link_name":"[204]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-204"},{"link_name":"[205]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-205"}],"text":"State Highway 333 was designated on September 25, 1939, initially as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway at Freeport. This route was cancelled, along with SH 334, on August 27, 1959, due to the completion of FM 1495.[204][205]","title":"SH 333"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_335.svg"},{"link_name":"Intracoastal Waterway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracoastal_Waterway"},{"link_name":"Brazoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazoria,_TX"},{"link_name":"Freeport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeport,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 2918","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_2918"},{"link_name":"[206]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-206"}],"text":"State Highway 335 was designated on September 25, 1939, as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway between Brazoria and Freeport. This route was cancelled on November 25, 1975, as the location of SH 335 had not been established on the ground, no right of way had been purchased, and no action had been taken to place this number in active use. This bridge was never built. If a future bridge was proposed, it would be designated as an extension of FM 2918.[206]","title":"SH 335"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_340.svg"},{"link_name":"US 96","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_96"},{"link_name":"Kirbyville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirbyville,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 363","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_363"},{"link_name":"[207]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-207"}],"text":"State Highway 340 was designated on August 1, 1941, as a connecting route from US 96 north of Kirbyville east to near Bleakwood. This route became the western extension of FM 363 on September 26, 1945.[207]","title":"SH 340"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_341.svg"},{"link_name":"Texas City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_City,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 519","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_519"},{"link_name":"[208]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-208"}],"text":"State Highway 341 was designated on September 15, 1941, as a connecting route in Texas City. This route became the eastern extension of FM 519 on November 29, 1990.[208]","title":"SH 341"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_343.svg"},{"link_name":"US 90","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_90"},{"link_name":"US 90A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_90_Alternate"},{"link_name":"[209]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-209"}],"text":"State Highway 343 was designated on November 24, 1941, from near Columbus to Rosenberg as a replacement of US 90 when it was rerouted on a more northern routing. This route was replaced by US 90A on June 23, 1942.[209]","title":"SH 343"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_344.svg"},{"link_name":"Intracoastal Waterway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracoastal_Waterway"},{"link_name":"Matagorda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matagorda,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 2031","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_2031"},{"link_name":"[210]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-210"}],"text":"State Highway 344 was designated on May 5, 1940, initially as a bridge route across the Intracoastal Waterway at Matagorda. This route was replaced by FM 2031 on December 17, 1952.[210]","title":"SH 344"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_346.svg"},{"link_name":"Jourdanton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jourdanton,_TX"},{"link_name":"Poteet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poteet,_TX"},{"link_name":"[211]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-211"},{"link_name":"San Antonio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio"},{"link_name":"SH 16","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_16_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[212]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-212"}],"text":"State Highway 346 was designated on April 29, 1942, as a connecting route from Jourdanton to Poteet as a replacement for a proposed road from Jourdanton to San Antonio, which was designated on May 21, 1940.[211] The route was extended north to San Antonio on August 22, 1945. On October 30, 1964, the section from I-35 to Loop 353 was given to the city of San Antonio. This route became part of the southern extension of SH 16 on August 31, 1965.[212]","title":"SH 346"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_348.svg"},{"link_name":"Texas City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_City,_TX"},{"link_name":"La Marque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Marque,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 1765","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_1765"},{"link_name":"[213]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-213"}],"text":"State Highway 348 was designated on June 10, 1943, as a connector route between Texas City and La Marque. This route became the eastern extension of FM 1765 on November 29, 1990.[213]","title":"SH 348"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_353.svg"},{"link_name":"Cleburne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleburne,_TX"},{"link_name":"Meridian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 167","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Farm_to_Market_Roads_in_Texas_(100%E2%80%93199)#FM_167_(1945)"},{"link_name":"SH 174","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_174_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"[214]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-214"}],"text":"State Highway 353 was designated on December 3, 1940, as a route between Cleburne and Meridian. When this was complete, all of SH 353 except for the Brazos River bridge would be cancelled. On June 11, 1945, FM 167 was designated from Cleburne to the Hill County Line, and from Morgan to Meridian. On August 23, 1945, FM 167 extended from Morgan to the Hill County Line, and SH 353 was cancelled. The route was reassigned back to SH 353 on September 27, 1946. On June 29, 1950, the Brazos River was completed on SH 353, and when adequate facilities for highway travel were built on SH 353, SH 353 was to become part of SH 174, and the old route of SH 174 from Cleburne to Iredell was to be cancelled. This route became the majority of SH 174 on August 20, 1952[214] as adequate facilities for highway travel were built on SH 353.","title":"SH 353"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_355.svg"},{"link_name":"US 67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_67"},{"link_name":"Greenville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenville,_TX"},{"link_name":"FM 118","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_118"},{"link_name":"[215]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-215"}],"text":"State Highway 355 was designated on February 21, 1946, along a former portion of FM 118 as a connector route between US 67 and then-SH 24 east of Greenville. This route became the southern extension of FM 118 on July 1, 1947.[215]","title":"SH 355"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_362.svg"},{"link_name":"Port Arthur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Arthur,_TX"},{"link_name":"[216]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-216"},{"link_name":"SH 82","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_82"},{"link_name":"SH 312","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_312"},{"link_name":"FM 362","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farm_to_Market_Road_362"}],"text":"State Highway 362 has been designated twice. The route was first designated on September 19, 1956, as a route from Port Arthur to Sabine Pass. This route was the construction of the main levee south of the city. This route was renamed FM 1900 on December 13, 1956.[216] The entire designation was returned to the city on October 30, 1958, when it was completed. This road was restored on January 29, 1975, at SH 82, which extended to the Louisiana border. The second route was designated on November 27, 1985, as a route from US 90A to US 59 in Fort Bend County. This route was redesignated as SH 312 on June 17, 1987, to avoid confusion with nearby FM 362.","title":"SH 362"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_363.svg"},{"link_name":"Ingleside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingleside,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 361","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Highway_361_(Texas)"},{"link_name":"Aransas Pass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aransas_Pass,_TX"},{"link_name":"SH 365","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_365"},{"link_name":"[217]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TXDOT|SH|363-217"},{"link_name":"[218]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-218"}],"text":"State Highway 363 was designated on February 24, 1988, from SH 200 at Ingleside to SH 361. On October 13, 1988, SH 363 was extended to SH 35 at Aransas Pass, replacing SH 365. This route was never constructed, but the designation has not been cancelled.[217][218]","title":"SH 363"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Texas_824.svg"},{"link_name":"Jacksboro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksboro,_TX"},{"link_name":"Vineyard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vineyard,_TX&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SH 24","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_24"},{"link_name":"US 380","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_380"},{"link_name":"[219]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-219"}],"text":"State Highway 824 was designated on June 4, 1964, as a new connector route between Jacksboro and Vineyard, replacing portions of FM 1156 and portions of RM 2475 that was being constructed. This was being constructed as an alternate routing of SH 24 south of Lake Bridgeport. On October 1, 1968, this route was transferred to the main route of then-SH 24 (now US 380), while the old routing of SH 24 was transferred to FM 1810. This section of SH 24 became part of US 380 on August 4, 1971.[219]","title":"SH 824"}]
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null
[{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 1\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0001.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (September 13, 1917). \"Minutes of the 4th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676731.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 4th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (January 20, 1919). \"Minutes of the 20th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676785.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 20th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (August 21, 1922). \"Minutes of the 61st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676866.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 61st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (September 18, 1922). \"Minutes of the 62nd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676867.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 62nd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (August 21, 1923). \"Minutes of the 73rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676878.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 73rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (August 2, 1932). \"Minutes of the 157th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673820.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 157th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (July 31, 1936). \"Minutes of the 220th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673886.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 220th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673908.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673908.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673908.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676772.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676772.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676772.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676762.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676762.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676762.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676790.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676790.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676790.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676796.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676796.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676796.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676882.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676882.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676882.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673790.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673790.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673790.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673827.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673827.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673827.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676789.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676789.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676789.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (November 28, 1932). \"Minutes of the 160th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673821.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 160th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (March 12, 1934). \"Minutes of the 179th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673845.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 179th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 52\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0052.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 52\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Official Highway Map of Texas (Map) (1926 ed.). 1 inch=30 mi. Texas State Highway Commission. Retrieved September 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/cgi-bin/aris/maps/maplookup.php?mapnum=6185","url_text":"Official Highway Map of Texas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Commission","url_text":"Texas State Highway Commission"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (March 19, 1928). \"Minutes of the 119th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676989.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 119th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Official Highway Map of Texas (Map) (1928 ed.). 1 1⁄8 inches=20 mi. Texas State Highway Commission. January 3, 1929. Retrieved September 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/cgi-bin/aris/maps/maplookup.php?mapnum=7990","url_text":"Official Highway Map of Texas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Commission","url_text":"Texas State Highway Commission"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (February 18, 1929). \"Minutes of the 131st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673780.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 131st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (June 23, 1930). \"Minutes of the 146th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673795.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 146th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Official Map of the Highway System of Texas (Map) (June 15, 1933 ed.). 7⁄8 inch=30 mi. Cartography by R. M. Stene. Texas State Highway Commission. § O24-Q26. Retrieved September 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/cgi-bin/aris/maps/maplookup.php?mapnum=6188","url_text":"Official Map of the Highway System of Texas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Commission","url_text":"Texas State Highway Commission"}]},{"reference":"Official Map of the Highway System of Texas (Map). 1 inch=29 mi. Cartography by R. M. Stene. Texas State Highway Commission. Retrieved September 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth193704/m1/1/zoom/?q=1935","url_text":"Official Map of the Highway System of Texas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_State_Highway_Commission","url_text":"Texas State Highway Commission"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 58\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0058.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 58\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 58\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. Retrieved September 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0058.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 58\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"\"Project ID 362401001\". Texas Department of Transportation, Odessa District. Archived from the original on August 20, 2010. Retrieved September 25, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100820044202/http://apps.dot.state.tx.us/apps/project_tracker/projectdetails.htm?projid=362401001&dist=Odessa","url_text":"\"Project ID 362401001\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"},{"url":"http://apps.dot.state.tx.us/apps/project_tracker/projectdetails.htm?projid=362401001&dist=Odessa","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Minute Order 112740\" (PDF). TxDOT. June 30, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.txdot.gov/about_us/commission/2011_meetings/documents/minute_orders/jun30/15b4.pdf","url_text":"\"Minute Order 112740\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 69\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0069.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 69\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (January 21, 1924). \"Minutes of the 76th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676883.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 76th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (May 22, 1933). \"Minutes of the 165th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673828.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 165th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (July 18, 1935). \"Minutes of the 206th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673871.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 206th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (April 28, 1937). \"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673897.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 74\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0074.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 74\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003678212.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003678212.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003678212.pdf"}]},{"reference":"\"Public Meeting - East-West Connector from SH 360 to International Drive\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.txdot.gov/inside-txdot/get-involved/about/hearings-meetings/fort-worth/073015.html","url_text":"\"Public Meeting - East-West Connector from SH 360 to International Drive\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (February 21, 1938). \"Minutes of the 250th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676241.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 250th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (October 24, 1932). \"Minutes of the 159th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673818.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 159th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (December 21, 1936). \"Minutes of the 224th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673889.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 224th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 76\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0076.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 76\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676879.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676879.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676879.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (March 28, 1927). \"Minutes of the 105th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676971.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 105th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (January 18, 1935). \"Minutes of the 196th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673862.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 196th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (April 18, 1938). \"Minutes of the 252nd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676243.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 252nd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (May 23, 1938). \"Minutes of the 253rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676244.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 253rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676905.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676905.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676905.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676981.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676981.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676981.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676911.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676911.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676911.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676914.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676914.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676914.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673797.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673797.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673797.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673812.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673812.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673812.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 109\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0109.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 109\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676913.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676913.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676913.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676988.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676988.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676988.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 113\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0113.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 113\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676934.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676934.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676934.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673791.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673791.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673791.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673835.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673835.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673835.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (March 26, 1934). \"Minutes of the 180th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673846.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 180th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673847.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673847.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673847.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 116\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0116.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 116\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676943.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676943.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676943.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 117\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0117.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 117\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003677845.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003677845.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003677845.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (February 14, 1927). \"Minutes of the 103rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676967.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 103rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673816.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673816.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673816.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673877.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673877.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673877.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (June 15, 1936). \"Minutes of the 219th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673885.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 219th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676945.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676945.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676945.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (March 14, 1927). \"Minutes of the 104th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676970.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 104th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676978.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676978.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676978.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673792.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673792.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673792.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673876.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673876.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673876.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676984.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676984.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676984.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (August 27, 1935). \"Minutes of the 207th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673873.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 207th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676986.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676986.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676986.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (July 16, 1934). \"Minutes of the 187th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673853.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 187th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676991.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676991.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676991.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673831.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673831.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673831.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676953.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676953.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676953.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 134\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0134.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 134\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676944.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676944.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676944.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 139\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0139.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 139\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673788.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673788.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673788.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673825.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673825.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673825.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673817.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673817.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673817.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway Spur No. 73\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SS/SS0073.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway Spur No. 73\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 157\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0157.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 157\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 162\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0162.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 162\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673807.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 167\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. Retrieved September 12, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0167.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 167\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"\"Agenda - Texas Transportation Commission\" (PDF). Texas Department of Transportation. December 13, 2012. p. 6. Retrieved June 20, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://ftp.dot.state.tx.us/pub/txdot-info/adm/2012/documents/agendas/dec13.pdf","url_text":"\"Agenda - Texas Transportation Commission\""}]},{"reference":"\"Texas Transportation Commission Minute Order\" (PDF). Texas Department of Transportation. December 13, 2012. Retrieved June 20, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://ftp.dot.state.tx.us/pub/txdot-info/adm/2012/documents/minute_orders/dec13/14c.pdf","url_text":"\"Texas Transportation Commission Minute Order\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 169\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0169.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 169\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway Spur No. 69\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SS/SS0069.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway Spur No. 69\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (September 19, 1932). \"Minutes of the 158th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673819.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 158th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673843.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673843.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673843.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 177\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0177.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 177\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 181\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0181.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 181\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 187\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0187.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 187\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 133\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0133.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 133\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (June 19, 1933). \"Minutes of the 166th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673830.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 166th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673834.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673834.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673834.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 197\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0197.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 197\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 342\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0342.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 342\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673840.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673840.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673840.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673892.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673892.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673892.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (September 16, 1937). \"Minutes of the 236th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673902.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 236th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 200\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0200.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 200\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"\"Minute Order 87040\" (PDF). TxDOT. February 24, 1988.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/scanw5__.pdf","url_text":"\"Minute Order 87040\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (June 20, 1938). \"Minutes of the 254th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676245.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 254th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673854.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673854.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673854.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673864.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673864.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673864.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (September 21, 1936). \"Minutes of the 221st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673887.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 221st Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (November 23, 1936). \"Minutes of the 223rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673888.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 223rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673890.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673890.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673890.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673870.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673870.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673870.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 219\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0219.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 219\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676255.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676255.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676255.pdf"}]},{"reference":"\"1940 General Highway Map, Bell County, Texas\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tsl.texas.gov/apps/arc/maps/storage/texas_media/imgs/map04794.jpg","url_text":"\"1940 General Highway Map, Bell County, Texas\""}]},{"reference":"Texas Highway Map (Map). Texas State Highway Department. 1937.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas State Highway Department"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673879.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673879.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673879.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 226\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0226.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 226\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673880.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673880.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673880.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 227\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0227.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 227\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673881.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673881.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673881.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (May 18, 1936). \"Minutes of the 218th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673884.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 218th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (January 23, 1939). \"Minutes of the 264th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676256.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 264th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 230\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0230.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 230\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Business U.S. Highway No. 287-Q\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/BU/BU0287Q.htm","url_text":"\"Business U.S. Highway No. 287-Q\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 231\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0231.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 231\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 902\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM0500/FM0902.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 902\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 232\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0232.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 232\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 235\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0235.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 235\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas Highway Map (Map). Texas State Highway Department (Texas Department of Transportation). 1938.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673912.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673912.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673912.pdf"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673893.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673893.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673893.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 244\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0244.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 244\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673896.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673896.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673896.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 245\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0245.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 245\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (June 21, 1937). \"Minutes of the 233rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673899.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 233rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676425.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676425.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676425.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 246\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0246.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 246\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (July 31, 1937). \"Minutes of the 235th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673901.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 235th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 247\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0247.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 247\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 64\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0064.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 64\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 248\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0248.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 248\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 253\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0253.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 253\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673907.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673907.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673907.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 257\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0257.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 257\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (September 19, 1938). \"Minutes of the 258th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676250.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 258th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676264.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676264.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676264.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 259\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0259.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 259\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"\"SH 262 modified\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676248.pdf","url_text":"\"SH 262 modified\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (December 21, 1938). \"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676254.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676260.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676260.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676260.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (March 21, 1939). \"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676258.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 264\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0264.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 264\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 265\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0265.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 265\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"\"State Highway No. 267\". Archived from the original on June 28, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/sh/sh0267.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 267\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184837/http://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/sh/sh0267.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 267\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation. Retrieved May 14, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0267.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 267\""}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (August 31, 1939). \"Minutes of the 273rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676265.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 273rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 269\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0269.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 269\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 15\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0015.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 15\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 270\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0270.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 270\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 14\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0014.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 14\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"TX No. 272\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/TX/TX0272.htm","url_text":"\"TX No. 272\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 19\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0019.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 19\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 277\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0277.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 277\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 278\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0278.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 278\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 54\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0054.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 54\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676251.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676251.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676251.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 282\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0282.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 282\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 284\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0284.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 284\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 291\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0291.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 291\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 2719\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM2500/FM2719.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 2719\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 292\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0292.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 292\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway Spur No. 102\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SS/SS0102.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway Spur No. 102\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 293\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0293.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 293\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 295\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0295.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 295\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 297\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0297.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 297\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 299\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0299.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 299\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 301\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0301.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 301\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676253.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676253.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676253.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 303\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0303.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 303\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 307\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0307.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 307\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676257.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676257.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676257.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 311\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0311.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 311\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 313\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0313.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 313\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676259.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676259.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676259.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 314\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0314.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 314\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 512\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM0500/FM0512.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 512\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 816\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM0500/FM0816.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 816\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 1551\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM1500/FM1551.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 1551\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 2320\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM2000/FM2320.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 2320\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 1281\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM1000/FM1281.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 1281\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 11\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0011.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 11\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 318\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0318.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 318\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676271.pdf.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676271.pdf","url_text":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676271.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 319\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0319.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 319\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 324\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0324.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 324\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 13\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0013.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 13\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 325\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0325.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 325\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"Farm to Market Road No. 66\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0066.htm","url_text":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 66\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 328\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0328.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 328\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 330\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0330.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 330\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 331\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0331.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 331\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 333\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0333.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 333\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 334\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0334.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 334\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 335\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0335.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 335\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 340\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0340.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 340\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 341\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0341.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 341\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 343\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0343.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 343\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 344\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0344.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 344\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Texas State Highway Department (May 20, 1940). \"Minutes of the 287th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\" (PDF). Austin: Texas State Highway Department.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676279.pdf","url_text":"\"Minutes of the 287th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 346\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0346.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 346\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 348\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0348.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 348\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 353\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0353.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 353\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 355\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0355.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 355\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 362\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0362.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 362\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 363\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0363.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 363\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"\"Minute Order 87041\" (PDF). TxDOT. February 24, 1988.","urls":[{"url":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/scanw6__.pdf","url_text":"\"Minute Order 87041\""}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 824\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0824.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 824\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]},{"reference":"Transportation Planning and Programming Division (n.d.). \"State Highway No. 24\". Highway Designation Files. Texas Department of Transportation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0024.htm","url_text":"\"State Highway No. 24\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Transportation","url_text":"Texas Department of Transportation"}]}]
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Department\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676425.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676425.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0246.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 246\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673901.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes of the 235th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0247.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 247\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0064.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 64\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0248.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 248\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0253.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 253\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673907.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003673907.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0257.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 257\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676250.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes of the 258th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676264.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676264.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0259.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 259\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676248.pdf","external_links_name":"\"SH 262 modified\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676254.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676260.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676260.pdf"},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676258.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes of the Special Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0264.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 264\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0265.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 265\""},{"Link":"http://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/sh/sh0267.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 267\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110628184837/http://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/sh/sh0267.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0267.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 267\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676265.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes of the 273rd Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0269.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 269\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0015.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 15\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0270.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 270\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0014.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 14\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/TX/TX0272.htm","external_links_name":"\"TX No. 272\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0019.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 19\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0277.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 277\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0278.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 278\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0054.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 54\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676251.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676251.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0282.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 282\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0284.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 284\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0291.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 291\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM2500/FM2719.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 2719\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0292.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 292\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SS/SS0102.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway Spur No. 102\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0293.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 293\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0295.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 295\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0297.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 297\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0299.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 299\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0301.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 301\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676253.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676253.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0303.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 303\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0307.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 307\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676257.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676257.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0311.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 311\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0313.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 313\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676259.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676259.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0314.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 314\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM0500/FM0512.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 512\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM0500/FM0816.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 816\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM1500/FM1551.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 1551\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM2000/FM2320.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 2320\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM1000/FM1281.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 1281\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0011.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 11\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0318.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 318\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676271.pdf","external_links_name":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676271.pdf"},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0319.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 319\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0324.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 324\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0013.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 13\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0325.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 325\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/FM/FM0066.htm","external_links_name":"\"Farm to Market Road No. 66\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0328.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 328\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0330.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 330\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0331.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 331\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0333.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 333\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0334.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 334\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0335.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 335\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0340.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 340\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0341.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 341\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0343.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 343\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0344.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 344\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/003676279.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minutes of the 287th Meeting of the Texas State Highway Department\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0346.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 346\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0348.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 348\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0353.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 353\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0355.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 355\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0362.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 362\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0363.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 363\""},{"Link":"https://publicdocs.txdot.gov/minord/MinuteOrderDocLib/scanw6__.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Minute Order 87041\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0824.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 824\""},{"Link":"https://www.dot.state.tx.us/tpp/hwy/SH/SH0024.htm","external_links_name":"\"State Highway No. 24\""}]